9 Note All
9 Note All
9 Note All
SCHOOL
BIOLOGY HANDOUT
GRADE 9
UNIT 1..........................................................................................................................................3
BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY............................................................................................3
1.1... RENOWNED ETHIOPIAN BIOLOGISTS..................................................................3
1.2BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN ETHIOPIA.....................................................................4
UNIT 2..........................................................................................................................................5
CELL BIOLOGY........................................................................................................................5
2.1. THE MICROSCOPE......................................................................................................5
2.2. THE CELL.....................................................................................................................6
2.3. THE CELL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT......................................................................9
UNIT 3........................................................................................................................................12
HUMAN BIOLOGY AND HEALTHY..................................................................................12
3.1. FOOD AND NUTRITION...........................................................................................12
3.2DIGESTIVE SYSTEM....................................................................................................18
3.3. RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS.......................................................................................22
3.4. CELLULAR RESPIRATION......................................................................................24
3.5. CIRICULATORY SYSTEM.......................................................................................26
UNIT 4........................................................................................................................................32
MICRO-ORGANISM AND DISEASE...................................................................................32
4.1. MICRO-ORGANISM..................................................................................................32
4.2. DISEASES...................................................................................................................36
UNIT 5........................................................................................................................................43
CLASSIFICATION..................................................................................................................43
5.1. PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION........................................................................43
5.2. THE FIVE KINGDOM................................................................................................44
UNIT 6........................................................................................................................................52
ENVIRONMENT......................................................................................................................52
6.1. ECOSYSTEMS............................................................................................................52
6.2. FOOD RELATIONSHIP.............................................................................................52
6.3. RECYCLING IN NATURE.........................................................................................55
6.4. ADAPTATIONS..........................................................................................................56
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Unit 1
BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY
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13) Professor Ensermu Kelbessa
Is one of the leading systematic botanists who has discovered and named many new
plant
Some of the institutions that play an important part in biological research in Ethiopia;
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UNIT 2
CELL BIOLOGY
Is an instrument that helps to observe very small organisms, cell and their cell components
Two major ability of microscope
Magnification
Increase the size of an object
The best light microscope magnify up to 2000 times
An electron microscope magnify up to 2 000 000 times
Resolution
The ability to distinguish between two separate points
The measure of how much detail the microscope can show is called resolving power
The greater the resolving power of the microscope, the more detail it can show
The resolving power and the wave length are inversely proportional
The higher the wave length the smaller resolving power
The electron microscope has higher resoling power then light microscope
Type of microscope
1) Light microscope
Use a beam of light to form an image
Relatively less magnification and resolution power
Due to its low-resolution power light microscope is not used to see cellular organelle
such as ribosome, mitochondria, chloroplast, endoplasmic reticulum
Used to study cell, tissues or individual organism
Used to study living material directly through light microscope
Mounting and staining is the basic techniques using the light microscope
Mounting is a technique of preparing an object or specimen to be seen under microscope
Staining is a method of adding pigment chemicals to slid tissue to make cells or their parts
easier to see.
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Advantage of light microscope
It helps to study living things
It is relatively cheap
Easy to move from place to place
Do depend on electric source
Disadvantage of light microscope
It has limited magnification and resolution power
2) The Electron microscope
Use a beam of electron
It has highest magnification and resolution power
Its maximum magnification power is 2,000,000
Resolving power of an electron microscope is 1000 times greater than the resolving
power of light microscope
Advantage of electron microscope
It has high magnification and resolution power
Used to see three-dimensional structure of specimen e.g. scanning electron microscope
Transmission electron microscope used to show the detail structure of microscope
Disadvantage electron of microscope
o Do not use to study living things
o It very expensive
o Depend on electric source
o It is not easy to move from place to place
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Type of cell
Prokaryotic cell
Eukaryotic cell
Prokaryotic cells
Smaller cells
Smaller ribosomes
Lack distinct nuclei and membrane bounded organelle
Nuclear material not enclosed by membrane
No membrane bounded cellular organelle
Do not have chromosome because DNA do not have protein histone
Have cell wall but chemically different from eukaryotic cell
E.g. bacteria and blue green algae
Eukaryotic cell
Larger cells
Larger ribosomes
Have true nucleus bounded by membrane
Have many membranes bounded organelle
Have chromosome, DNA has protein histone
Found in all organism except bacteria and blue green algae
Eukaryotic cell structure and function
Almost all eukaryotic cell has three Major parts
Nucleus
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
1) The nucleus
Control all activities of cell
Contains instruction for making a new cell Known as chromosome or genetic material
2) Cell membrane
Forms a barrier between the cell and outside the cell
Semi/ partially/selectively/ permeable membrane
Control the movement of substance in and out of the cell
Substance that crosses the cell membrane are carbon dioxide, oxygen, water
Made up of protein and lipid bilayer, it is called lipo-protein layer
3) The Cytoplasm
Internal structure of the cell outside the nucleus
A liquid gel in which in most of the chemical reaction for life take place
The cell contains Specialized organelle to perform specific task
4) Cytoplasmic organelles
Are membrane bounded Structure in a cell
Examples the nucleus other organelles are found in the cytoplasm
Specialized to perform specific task because they have specific enzymes
Some of very important organelles are listed below;
I. Mitochondria
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The power house of the cell
They carry out the reactions of respiration
Energy is released from then food we eat for cellular activities
II. Endoplasmic reticulum(ER)
Three dimensional system of tubules
It links the nucleus with the cell membrane
Two forms of endoplasmic reticulum
Rough ER
Have ribosome on its membrane surface
Involved in protein transport synthesized by ribosome
Smooth E.R
Has no ribosome on its surface
Concerned with lipid synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism and detoxification
III. Ribosome
Found on the endoplasmic reticulum and freely in the cytoplasm
Responsible for protein synthesis
Permanent Vacuole
It is fluid portion and central components of plant cell
Filled with a fluid called cell sap
help to maintains the turgidity to plant cell
Chloroplast
Found in all green part of plant cell
Contain the green pigment called chlorophyll
It is the site of photosynthesis
What are the organelles found only in Animal cells?
Cell specialization in human
Undifferentiated cells /unspecialized cells/; cells that have not yet assumed their final
characteristics.
Embryonic stem cell; Undifferentiated cells in the early embryo that have a potential to
form almost other type of cell
Specialized cells /differentiated cell/; adapted to carry out a particular bodily function
Some of specialized cell in humans are;
1) Epithelial cells; specialized to perform
Protection
Diffusion of material
Secretion
Ciliated epithelial in respiratory used to move microbe away from your lung
Ciliated epithelial in female reproductive help to move substance toward the uterus
2) Reproductive cells (the egg and sperm)
Egg
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Contain half the number chromosomes found in normal body cells
Egg cell have large nucleus contain genetic information from the women
Have a protective coat to make sure only one sperm fertilized the egg
Sperm
Contain half the number chromosomes found in normal body cells
Sperm have long tails they can swim towards the egg
The middle portion of the sperm contain mitochondria which provide energy for the
tail to walk (move or swim)
They have special as known as acrosome; which store digestive enzymes used for
breaking down the outer layer of the egg.
Have large nucleus contain genetic information
4) Muscle cells
Exchange of between the cell and its environment takes place in the following major
ways
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Active transport
1. Diffusion
Is the net movement of particle from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration
A passive movement of substance and depend on concentration gradient
Is the random movement of gas or substance
Diffusion occurs along or toward concentration gradient
Can be
Simple diffusion – the above definition can apply for it
Facilitated diffusion – the same process as simple diffusion, it differs in that
particles must be helped to diffuse across the membrane by channel protein
(charged particles) and carrier proteins (large molecules)
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Rate of diffusion
Rate of diffusion can be affected by factors like;
Temperature
as the temperature rises, the rate of diffusion also increase
Concentration gradient; the difference in concentration between two area
The bigger the difference in concentration the faster the rate of diffusion
Thickness of the membrane- all plasma membranes are the same thickness
A shorter distance results in faster diffusion
Surface area of the membrane- clearly if there are more membrane where diffusion can
take
place, diffusion will happen faster
2. Osmosis
Is the movement of water molecule from an area of high water concentrations to low water
concentration across semi permeable membrane
Osmosis depend on a concentration gradient of water and a partially permeable membrane
Is the movement of water molecule from dilute solution to concentrated solution
There are three type of solution depending upon their concentration of solute
Isotonic solution
The solute concentration of the cell and its surrounding environment are the same
There is no net movement of water into and out of the cell
Hypotonic solution
The solute concentration of surrounding the cell has less solute than the cell
The cell gain water and swell up
Hypertonic solution
The solute concentration outside the cell more concentrated then inside the cell
The cell losses water by osmosis
Osmosis in plant and animal cell
Solution Plant cell Animal cell
Isotonic There is no net movement of water There is no net movement
of water
Hypotonic The cell gain water and swells The cell gain water
Dilute or The cell becomes turgid The cell will swell and
Weak The cells do not burst. Because the cell eventually burst
solution wall exerts wall pressure against turgor /hemolysis/
pressure
Hypertonic The cell loss water by osmosis The cell loss water by
Concentrated The vacuole shrinks and the cell become osmosis
or strong flaccid The cell becomes shrink
solution The cytoplasm pulls away from cell wall and shrivel
known as plasmolysis
3. Active transport
Allows cell to move substance from an area of low concentration to an area of high
concentration
Substance moves against concentration gradient
Important the cell can absorb ions from dilute solutions
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Use energy from cellular respiration
UNIT 3
The human diet is a diet that provide all necessary class of nutrients in adequate amounts
What is food?
Food is the source of nutrients and energy for the body.
Three main use food in :
To provide energy for cells
Raw materials for growth, repair and replace damaged and worn out cells.
To provide the resources needed to fight disease and maintain a healthy body.
There are six main classes of food needed by the body. These are;
Carbohydrates, macronutrients; needed in a large amounts
Proteins
Fats
Minerals micronutrients ; needed in a small or tiny amounts
Vitamins
Water
1. Carbohydrates
simple sugars,
double sugars
complex sugars
I. The simple sugars (monosaccharide); one sugar unit
It contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms for a single carbon atom
present in the molecule. This can be written as a general formula: (CH2O)n
The common examples of simple sugar are glucose, fructose galactose;
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All have the same chemical formula C6H12O6.but different in structure
Fructose, the sugar found in fruit and honey
+ Hydrolysis
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Glycogen
Sometimes referred to as ‘animal starch’.
Storage form of carbohydrate in animal
Found mainly in muscle liver and brain tissue because;
They are very active and needs a readily available energy supply at all times.
Cellulose
Important structural material in plants.
It is the main constituent in plant cell walls.
Just like starch and glycogen it consists of long chains of glucose.
Human beings cannot digest cellulose because cannot break down the linkages
between glucose molecule.
2. Proteins
o Proteins are made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
o Important in growth and repair of tissue
o Protein-rich food includes;
meat, fish,
dairy products such as cheese and milk
Pulses, such as white pea beans, chick peas and red kidney beans.
o Proteins are used for body-building;
o About 17–18% of body is made up of protein – a high percentage next to water
o The highest abundance of organic compound in the body.
o Proteins are polymers, made up of many small units called amino acids.
o 20 different naturally occurring amino acids and joined together form proteins
o Amino acids are joined together in a condensation reaction and a molecule of water
is lost.
o The bond formed between two amino acids is known as a peptide link.
o Amino acids dissolve in water. However;
Some proteins are insoluble in water. These proteins are found in;
Connective tissue, tendons , matrix of bones (collagen),
The structure of muscles,
The silk of spiders’ webs and silkworm cocoons
Keratin that makes up hair nails horns and feathers.
Proteins soluble in water.
antibodies,
enzymes
hormones,
o A rise in temperature or a change in pH destroy the 3-D structure of cellular
proteins
o Lack of protein in the diet may result in diseases known as protein-energy
malnutrition.
o The best known of protein-energy malnutrition are marasmus and kwashiorkor.
1) Marasmus, deficiency in calories
Protein energy malnutrition predominantly due to prolonged calorie
deficit.
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Inadequate energy intake including protein
2) Kwashiorkor; deficiency in protein.
A malnutrition disease caused by sever protein deficiency usually
occur when the child is weaned ( stop breast feeding),
A protein deficiency with adequate energy intake
When a molecule of glycerol combines in a condensation reaction with three fatty acids, a lipid
is formed
Lipids include the highest profile chemicals in public health issues – cholesterol and fat.
Cholesterol used to make;
The membranes of your body cells
Sex hormones
The hormones which help your body deal with stress.
But high levels of cholesterol in blood increase risk of getting heart disease or diseased blood
vessels.
4. Minerals;
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Group of nutrients found in a small amount and classified as micronutrients
Important for the proper function of the body
Lack of mineral in the diet may result in a deficiency disease
5. Vitamins
Vitamins are important in regulation and maintenance of health body
@ Lack of vitamin in the diet cause deficiency disease
@ Vitamins are classified into two groups
Fat soluble vitamins; vitamin A,D,E,K
Water soluble vitamin C and B group
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Tocopherol reproductive system meat
in animals
Vitamin K For the formation of Liver, cheese, milk, Failure of blood to
phyloquinone blood clotting vegetables clot
6. Water
The most abundance substance in the body. It constitutes between 60 and 70% of the
body.
Some of the biological role of water
A medium of chemical reactions– it is a vital solvent.
Water is involved in the transport of substances around the body food,
hormones, waste products such as urea
Water is involved in temperature regulation as lose heat from the body through
sweating
Water is involved in the removal of waste materials such as urea
Water is a reactant in many important reactions in the body for example,
hydrolysis reactions.
Water is needed for the osmotic stability of the body
7. Fiber (Roughage )
Fiber Important part of a healthy balanced diet
Roughage or fiber cannot be broken down, digest or absorb in the human gut
It can help to prevent heart disease, diabetes, weight gain , some cancer and improve
healthy diet
Fiber also important in lowering cholesterol, blood pressure, glucose level and
inflammation
It is an essential part of diet because it provides bulk for the intestinal muscles to work on.
Low in roughage a diet results in the movements of food through the gut are sluggish
and the food moves through the gut relatively slowly. This can result in constipation
Food test
Food Reagent used Positive result
Carbohydrates
# Starch # Iodine solution # Blue black color
# Reduced sugar. E.g. glucose # Benedicts solution # Orange red precipitates
Proteins
@ Biuret test @ Biuret reagent @ Purple color
Lipids
Filter paper test or oil spot Piece of paper Translucent spot
test
Emulsion test Ethanol solution Milky suspension
Vitamin C E.g. orange or lemon DCPIP (dichlorophenol Colorless
juice indo phenol) reagent
DCPIP solution
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Balanced diet taking food from all major food groups in order to maintain a healthy body
Malnutrition diet is lacking in important elements needed for a healthy body
Undernutrition too little food is eaten. Overnutrition too much food is eaten
Body/mass index or BMI. This compares weight to height in a simple formula:
BMI = weight /(height)2
Most people have a BMI in the range 20–30. Have health weight
But, if a BMI of below 18.5, or above 35, then may have some real health problems.
Exercises
1. When some juice was added to DCPIP .The solution changed into colorless .This shows that
the solution contains;
A. Glucose B. Vitamin C C. Protein D. Lipids
2. The growth and maintainace of organism depends on?
A. Glucose B. Water C. Protein D. Lipids
3. . Which of the following The major role of carbohydrate in human diet is:
A. form cell membrane C, Catalyze cellular reaction
B. Supply energy to the body D. provide building blocks for protein
4. in equal weight of the following substance are oxidized, the large amount of energy is release
by? A. protein B. fat C. Starch D. Sugars
5. Which of the following organic tissue is most abundant in animal tissue?
A. Protein B. Lipids C. carbohydrates D. minerals
Digestive system is the system in which food substances are broken down into small soluble
molecules.
Digestion is the process in which large, complex and insoluble food particles are broken
down into smaller, simpler and soluble form that can be used by the body.
Two stage of Digestion
Physical [mechanical] digestion
Food is mechanical broken down by teeth and muscular activity of the gut.
Involves cutting, grinding, chewing food in the mouth.
Important to increase surface area of the food to act upon.
Chemical digestion
It involves the breaking down of food by hydrolysis reaction
Change large insoluble food into smaller and soluble form
chemical breakdown is controlled by enzymes
ENZYMES
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Enzyme are biological catalyst that speed the rate of chemical reaction
Properties of enzyme include
Enzyme are protein
Enzyme are biological catalyst
Not affected by the reaction they speed up
Enzyme can be re--used
Enzymes are very specific. E.g. amylase breaks down starch, lipase breaks down
fats, catalase breaks down hydrogen peroxide but pepsin breaks down proteins
Enzyme can be divided into two
@ Intracellular enzymes are enzyme that work inside side the cell
E.g. Respiratory enzyme
@ Extracellular Enzymes are enzyme that work outside the cell
E.g. Digestive enzyme
Process that occurs in digestive system
Ingestion the taking of food into the mouth
Digestion breaking down of food into smaller, simpler and simpler forms
Absorption taking in and used of digested food into the blood stream.
Assimilation the use of digested food by the body
Egestion the removal of undigested food from the body.
Mastication or chewing is the process by which food is crushed and grind by teeth
The first step of digestion which increase surface area of the food for enzyme action
TEETH
o Teeth are needed for a variety of different jobs – gripping food, tearing food and chewing
food,
o Type of teeth
Incisors used for biting
Canines
Premolar used for chewing and crushing food
molar
o Cross section of the teeth
Enamel the top surface the teeth, the hardest structure of the body
Dentine living layer underneath tooth enamel, dentine contains many fine channels
filled with cytoplasm, which supplied with oxygen and nutrients by the blood vessels in
the pulp cavity
pulp cavity centre of the tooth which contains nerves and blood vessels
Cement fibrous layer that holds teeth in jaw bone
o The longitudinal section of teeth
Crown; the upper part of tooth
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Root; embedded in jaw bone
Neck; narrow region between root and crown
Periodontal disease bacterial infection of the gum
Dental plaque a mass bacteria combined with food and saliva, form a thin biofilm
which the bacteria grow with in the mouth
Symptoms include tender gums (bleeding gums ) when you clean your teeth
Ways to avoid tooth decay include:
Regular brushing of teeth and gums twice a day. This removes the plaque from the
teeth, preventing the build-up of a sticky, acidic film over the enamel.
Avoiding sweet, sugary foods
Have regular dental check-ups.
Function of stomach
Digestion of protein
Formation of chime
Temporary storage 0f food
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Taking laxatives (chemicals which stimulate the gut to contract and force out the
faecal material).
Diarrhoea
@ Diarrhea the faeces that are produced very loose and watery.
@ Diarrhea can be fatal as it causes dehydration of the tissues.
@ Can be treated very simply by giving the sufferer frequent drinks of water with
rehydration salts.
@ These replace the fluids that are being lost and keep the body tissues hydrated until the
immune system overcomes the infection.
Exercise
1. Which of the following digestive processes is affected if the gall bladder is surgically
removed?
A. Digestion of lipid C. Digestion of protein
B. Digestion of protein D. Digestion of vitamins
2. The two human teeth types that are used for biting are;
A. Canines and premolars C. premolars and molar
B. Molar and incisors D. Canines and incisor
The human respiratory system are a serious organ responsible for taking in oxygen and
expelling carbon dioxide
The human respiratory system consists the following structures
1) The nasal passages
Have a large surface area,
A good blood supply, used warms the air
Lots of hairs. used to trap dust particles some bacteria
Lining secretes mucus., used to moist the air
So, breathing through nose is good because the air we breathe in is warm, clean and
moist before it gets into the delicate tissue of the lungs.
2) Pharynx; found behind the nasal cavity and mouth
is a common passage of air and food
3) Larynx; voice box, where sound is produced
4) Epiglottis; Prevents the entrance of the food into the trachea during swallowing of food
5) Trachea; wind pipe
Contain C shaped ring of cartilage keep open all the times
The opening of trachea is called glottis
Divided into two bronchi
6) Bronchi (singular bronchus) leading to each lung, Connects trachea to bronchioles
7) Bronchioles; are small tube branching from each brunching the lung
8) Alveoli; air sac
Is the site of gas exchange between blood capillaries and the lung
alveoli provide an ideal site for the most effective possible diffusion of gases into and
out of the blood
oxygen moves into the blood where as carbon dioxide moves out of the blood
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The mechanism of gas exchange in the alveoli depends on;
large surface area
moist surfaces
short diffusion distances
rich blood supply
The lung
The major breathing organ of animals
Surround by a membrane called plural membrane
Protected by ribs, sternum, vertebral column, diaphragm and intercostals muscles
The mechanism of breathing
# The movement of air in and out of the body is known as ventilation of the lungs
# Breathing involves two process inhalation and exhalation
Comparisons of Inhalation and Exhalation
Inhalation /inspiration/ Exhalation/expiration/
Composition of inhaled
Air enters into lungsand exhaled air air pushed out of lungs
Inhaled air
Diaphragm muscles contract become Exhaled air muscles relax,
diaphragm
flattenNitrogen About80% About About 80% About
becomes dome-shape
Oxygen 21% 16%
External intercostals muscles contract, Internal intercostals muscles contract,
Ribcage Carbon
movesdioxide 0.04%
upward and 4%
down ward Ribcage moves down and inward
Water vapor
Volume of thorax increase Less High
Volume of thorax decrease
Heat Less High of thorax decrease
Pressure of thorax decrease Pressure
Demonstrating the presence of carbon dioxide (CO2) in exhaled air
To demonstrate the presence of carbon dioxide (CO2) in exhaled air. Use;
Lime water (Ca(OH)2) as an indicator of the presence of carbon dioxide.
The clear liquid turns cloudy when carbon dioxide is bubbled through it,
Demonstrating the presence of water vapor in exhaled air
To demonstrate the presence of carbon dioxide (CO2) in exhaled air. Use;
Blue cobalt chloride paper turns pink in the presence of water,
White anhydrous copper (II) sulphate turns blue.
Breath out on a glass surface or mirror results in a droplet of water or moisture
Demonstrating the presence of heat in the air breathe out
Temperature of the air breathe out is higher than the temperature of breath in
Breathing on the back of the hand result in warm fealing
Cellular respiration is a process in which energy is released from the breaking down of
organic substance in the body
Cellular respiration is a serious biochemical reaction release energy from food
All cells need energy to carry out the reaction of life, and respiration provide this energy
Respiration release energy from the food we eat so that the cell of the body can use it
The energy that is used by the cells is stored in the form of molecule called ATP
ATP; stands for adenosine tri phosphate
Adenosine molecule attached to three phosphate
ATP is immediate source of energy for the cell
ATP energy currency of a cell
The direct energy source for each cell
During respiration ATP is made from ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and
phosphate (Pi) ADP + P energy produced ATP + H2O
When energy is needed for any chemical reaction in the cell, the third phosphate is
energy required
broken by a hydrolysis reaction ATP + H2O ADP +P
Importance of ATP to the body
To carry out basic function of life known as metabolism (anabolism+ catabolism)
Anabolism; build up large molecule from smaller one to make new cell material
Catabolism; break large molecule into smaller one
For muscle contraction
To regulate core body temperature in homeotherms
Provide energy for active transport material across cell boundaries.
Type of respiration
Based on the requirement of oxygen, respiration can be classified;
I. Aerobic respiration
Production of energy using oxygen
Relatively high amount of energy is produced than anaerobic respiration
Takes place in the mitochondria of a cell
An organelle found in almost any cells
Have a folded inner membrane to provides a large surface area for the enzyme
involved in aerobic respiration
Muscle cell, liver cell and cones and rods of eye have a lot of mitochondria because
they use a lot energy
Carbon dioxide and water are produced as waste product
Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + ATP
C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H2O +38ATP
II. Anaerobic respiration
Do not utilize oxygen
Less amount of energy is produced. Only 2ATP from one glucose is produced
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It mostly produced in the cytoplasm of a cell
1. Anaerobic respiration in animal cell (Lactate fermentation)
@ During heavy exercise the muscle cell respire anaerobic ally
@ Produce a waste product called lactic acid
@ The body cannot get rid of lactic acid
@ The accumulation of lactic acid during exercise causes muscular ache
@ The amount of oxygen needed to breakdown lactic acid oxygen dept
@ Anaerobic respiration in muscle cell
Glucose Lactic acid +2ATP
@ After exercise, the lactic acid is completely oxidize(broke down) by oxygen into carbon
dioxide and water in the liver
Oxygen dept repayment
Lactic acid + oxygen carbon dioxide + Water
2. Anaerobic respiration in yeast cell (Alcoholic fermentation)
When yeast have plenty of oxygen
Respire aerobically and produce carbon dioxide and water
Carbon dioxide produce in aerobic respiration of yeast cell makes the dough to
rise which also gives it tangy flavor so that used for making bread and injera
Yeast can also respire anaerobically
Yeast cell break down sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide
Glucose Ethanol + carbon dioxide +2ATP
Anaerobic respiration in yeast result in making alcoholic drinks
Exercise
1. Which of the following is not the product of aerobic respiration?
A, oxygen B. Water C. carbon dioxide D. ATP
2. The reaction lactic acid + oxygen ®carbon dioxide +water
A. Aerobic respiration B. Oxygen dept repayment C. lactate fermentation
3. Which of the following is the product of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration of yeast?
A. Ethanol B. Carbon dioxide C. Lactic acid D. Water
4. Lactic acid completely oxidize into carbon dioxide and water in the
A. Muscle cell B. Liver cell C. Pancreases D. Kidney
5. The fermentation of glucose by yeast produces
A. CO2,H2O and 2ATP . C. lactic acid ,2ATP
B. Ethanol, CO2 and 2ATP D. CO2, H2O and 36ATP
6. Cellular respiration is a series of biochemical reaction that:-
A. Make sugar from sun light C. Release energy from sunlight
B. Make energy from sunlight D. Release energy from food
7. Yeast is used in baking bread because. They produce:-
A. Ethanol B. Oxygen C. CO2 D. Lactate
8. What molecule is essential for aerobic respiration to take place?
A. N2 B. O2 C. CO2 D. Ethanol
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Oxygen, digested food and other nutrients transport to all part of body.
All organism does not have specialized circulatory system. Small, single celled
organism relies on simple diffusion to exchange material between the environment and
their cells.
CIRCULATION is the movement of blood and other fluid through blood vessels to all parts
of the body.
The human transport system is the blood circulatory system
It has three elements
1. Heart ( pump)
2. Blood vessels ( pipe)
3. Blood ( medium)
1. HUMAN HEART
Made up of cardiac tissue
It is a muscular blood pumping organ
Surrounded by a double membrane called pericardium
Human heart has four chambers
Two atria (auricles) upper chamber
Two ventricles lower chamber
The right auricle receives deoxygenated blood from all part of the body through vena cava
The left auricle receives oxygenated blood from lung through pulmonary vein
The right ventricle pump deoxygenated blood to lung whereas left ventricle pump
oxygenated blood to all part of the body
Left ventricle is the thickest chamber of the heart because it pumps blood longer distance
The left side of the heart separate from the right side by septum
The muscle of the heart supplied oxygenated blood by coronary artery
Valves the structure of the heart prevent the back flow of blood
Tricuspid valve
the valve between right atrium and right ventricle
prevent the back flow of blood from right ventricle to right atrium
Bicuspid (mitral) valves
The valve between left atrium and left ventricle
Prevent the back flow of blood from left ventricle and left auricle
Simi-lunar valve
Found at the opening of pulmonary artery and aorta
Prevent the back flow of blood into ventricle
The contraction of the heart chamber is stimulated specialized tissue called pacemaker
An instrument used to listen the heart beat is stethoscope
An average heart rate of human being is 72 times per minute.
@ Systole
The contraction of the heart chamber
Force the blood out of the heart
@ Diastole
The relaxation of the heart chamber
Fills the chamber of the heart with blood
Systolic blood pressure
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Pressure formed by the contraction heart chamber
Forced blood out into arteries
Blood pressure at highest reading
Diastolic blood pressure
Pressure exerted by the relaxation of the heart chamber
Blood pressure at lowest reading
The normal blood pressure of human being is 120mmHg/80 mmHg
The nominator is systolic and denominator is diastolic Pressure
2. BLOOD VESSELS
Blood vessel are the pathways through which transportation of material takes place
There are three main type of blood vessels
Arteries
ARTERIES SUPPLY OXYGEN
Veins
TO;
Capillaries
Carotid artery Head
ARTRIES
Coronary artery Heart muscle
Carry blood away from the heart Renal artery Kidney
Thick and elastic wall Hepatic artery liver
Thick muscle layer
Have elastic fiber
Small /narrow/ lumen
Blood flow rapid
High pressure and pulsate
No valves
Mostly deep seated
Blood oxygenated except
Pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to lung
Umbilical artery carry deoxygenated from fetus to placenta
Largest artery aorta smallest arterioles
VAINS
Carry blood back to the heart
Thin wall
Thin muscle layer
No elastic fiber
Big /wider/ lumen
Blood flow slowly
Low pressure and pulsate
Have valves
Mostly superficial
Carry deoxygenated blood vessels
Pulmonary vein return oxygenated back from lung to heart
Umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood placenta to fetus
Largest vein vena cava smallest venules
CAPILLARIES
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@Narrow thin-walled blood vessels
@Connects arteries and with veins
@Take blood to the tissue and cell
@Site of exchange of substance within the body
@Wall one cell thick
@Blood flow slowly
@Mix oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
@No valve
3. THE BIOOD
BLOOD is a fluid tissue that carries nutrient, respiratory gases, metabolic wastes and other
substance
Blood contains
1) Plasma
2) Blood cells
Red blood cells
White blood cells
platelets
PLASMA
~ A pale-yellow liquid portion of the blood
~ 90% of the plasma is water
~ 10% consists dissolved and suspended substance
~ Caries nutrients, carbon dioxide, hormones, enzymes and nitrogenous waste
~ Contain plasma protein such as fibrinogen, prothrombin and Thrombin
RED BLOOD CELLS (ERYTHROCYTES)
@ Biconcave disk shaped non nucleated cell
@ Live 100-120 days in your body
@ Worn out red blood cell destroyed and removed by liver and spleen
@ Thin surface membrane for ease of diffusion
@ Used to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide back into the lung
@ Formed in the bone marrow
@ Contain a red pigment called hemoglobin
@ Hemoglobin contain iron, the lack of iron in diet cause anemia
@ Hemoglobin is a complex protein which carries oxygen
High oxygen concentration
Hemoglobin +oxygen oxy-hemoglobin
Low oxygen concentration
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o Fewer white blood cell then red blood cell
o Much bigger than red blood cell
o Used to defense the body against disease
o White blood cell can be classified
Phagocytes a group of white blood cell that engulf and ingest infection microbes
Lymphocytes group which help to produce antibodies
PLATLATES (THROMBOCYTES)
Collarless and non-nucleated
Important in blood to clot at the site of a wound
Prevents the body from bleeding to death from a simple cut
Also protect the body from the entry of pathogen through open wound
Protect the new skin as it grows
Human blood group
Antibody are protein which are produces the body to fight foreign antigen and found in the
plasma of the blood
Two type of antibodies against antigen. These are anti-A and anti B antibodies
Agglutination is incompatibility of antigen and antibody in blood group
Blood groups that mix without agglutination are called compatibility
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There is another antigen found on the surface of RBC called Rh antigen
A person who does have this antigen is called Rh+ (Rh positive)
A person who does not have this antigenic called Rh- (Rh negative)
Rh system in relation to marriage
Mother Father
+ +
Rh Rh no problem
-
Rh Rh- no problem
Rh- Rh+ may be a risk Why?
Rh+ Rh- no problem
A DOUBLE CIRCULATION
Double circulation is the two transport system of the body these are;
1. pulmonary circulation
The pathway of blood between heart to lung
Important to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide
Right ventricle pulmonary artery lung pulmonary vein left auricle
2. systematic circulation
@ the pathway of blood form heart to all part of the body
@ supply oxygen rich blood to all part of the body
@ systematic circulation can be divided into:
Hepatic circulation the pathway of blood between heart to liver
Renal circulation the pathway of blood between heart to kidney
Coronary circulation the pathway of blood between heart to heart muscle
Hepatic portal circulation carries digestive nutrient from the digestive system to the
heart through the liver.
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UNIT 4
MICRO-ORGANISM AND DISEASE
1.4. MICRO-ORGANISM
Viruses
Smaller than bacteria
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Neither prokaryotic nor eukaryotic cell.
Viruses are a particle, made up of a protein coat (capsid) and genetic material
The genetic material is either DNA or RNA
They are obligate parasite
Viruses are considered to be living and non-living things. How?
Do not carry out any of the function of normal living organism except reproduction
Viruses only reproduce inside living cell
Viruses cause some common human disease such as AIDS, Influenza, rabbis
Fungi
1. Yeast;
Is a single called fungi
At anaerobic condition yeast carry out alcoholic fermentation
Yeast have heterotrophic mode of nutrition
Yeast reproduce asexually by budding
2. Moulds
Made up of filament called hyphae
A mass of hyphae together forms mycelium
Reproduce asexually by spore formation
# Germ theory diseases states that germs are the cause of disease
# The theory of spontaneous generation states that living things arise from non-living
things
# Louis Pasteur disproves the theory of spontaneous generation. How?
# Louis Pasteur indicates that, infectious disease caused by pathogenic micro-organism.
He also introduces pasteurization technique.
# Robert Koch discovered the first disease causing micro-organism called bacillus
anthracites which cause anthrax
Controlling micro-organism
The major methods of controlling microorganisms include;
Sterilization
Disinfectants
Pasteurization
1) Sterilization;
is the process of complete removal of micro-organism
some of the methods that are used as sterilization;
A. autoclave sterilization
Used to sterilize;
Equipments which are not damage by heat
Bacterial spores which do not die at low temperature
Killing micro-organisms by boiling them in water at 1200C under high pressure for 15-45
minutes.
B. Ultra high temperature (UHT)
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@ It is a way of treating food to kill all the micro-organism found in it.
@ It is a technique of heating the food at a temperature of 1350c to1500cfor 2-6 second
@ Used in food processing industries to prevent contamination of food
C. Dry heat sterilization
Used to sterilize scientific equipments
Requires higher temperature high temperature and longer period of time
Use the temperature of 1700C for one hour and1600C for two hour
2) Pasteurization
Involves boiling or heating of milk, bear, other food staff
It includes heating followed by rapid cooling
The temperature used
62.90C for 30 seconds
71.60C for at least 15 seconds
3) Disinfectants
Chemicals that are used to kill micro-organisms on inanimate object
Disinfectants have the following characteristics
Fast acting
Effective against all type of micro-organism
Disinfect material without damaging or discoloring it
Dilute bleach and calcium hypochlorite used as disinfectant on drinking water
Antiseptics
Chemicals (Disinfectants) that can be applied to a living tissue such as skin
Help to protect the entrance of germs if the skin is cut or damage
Culturing (Growing) Microbes
Importance of growing micro-organism
To know how to kill them
To develop vaccine
To identify useful and harmful aspect
Precondition for growing micro-organism;
Isolating the type of micro-organism to be studied
Developing suitable nutrients medium
Suitable environmental condition
Nutrient medium; nutrients required for the growth of micro-organisms
It can be solid or liquid
Agar
As solid nutrient medium which is extracted from red algae
Micro-organism are cultured in a petridish
Broth
A liquid nutrient medium
Micro-organism are cultured in test tube
Culture media; is a collection of nutrients and microbial cells grow on medium
Inoculation; a technique of transferring microbes into a nutrient medium
Inoculating loop / needle/; an instrument that is used to transfer micro-organism
Culture microbes should transfer in a zigzag streaks because to avoid
competition
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Immune system
@ Immune system the system in the body which protects against disease causing micro-
organisms and foreign proteins (antigen)
@ Immunity the ability of the body to resist disease
Type of immunity
i. Innate immunity
Natural ability of the body to fight disease producing micro-organism
Immunity present at the time of birth against certain diseases
Nonspecific antibodies against disease germs
Inborn and is due to the presence of naturally occurring antibodies since birth
It obtain without the stimulation any foreign bodies
ii. Acquired immunity
Immunity developing during the life time of individual after birth
Acquired immunity either active or passive
Active immunity
1. Natural active immunity
Immunity resulting from having had a disease previously
The infection stimulates the body to form its own specific antibodies
against germs
2. Artificial active immunity
Immunity acquire artificially by receiving vaccine
Vaccination /Immunization/the use of dead or weakened pathogens to produce
immunity to dangerous disease
Vaccine stimulated the body to form its own antibodies without having a
disease
A child receive vaccines for polio, tetanus, tuberculosis, hepatitis, measles,
mumps, diphetria
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2.4. DISEASES
Symptoms
@ Vitamin B12 deficiency
@ Weight loss
Control and prevention
@ Use proper latrine
@ Meat inspection
@ Meat should be cooked well
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Special adaptation of tape worm to service inhuman gut
Scolex has hooks and suckers helps the parasite attached to small intestine
Flattened body absorbed digested nutrient over a large surface area
Thick cuticle to prevent from intestinal enzymes
2) Tuberculosis(TB)
Cause
# The bacteria called mycobacterium tuberculosis
Symptoms TB usually affect lung (pulmonary TB)
# Loss of weight but it can also affect kidneys, lymph
# Persistent cough nodes, joints and bones
# Night sweat
# Loss of appetite
# Fever and chest pain
# Blood in sputum
Transmission
# Through air droplet cough, sneeze
# Infected milk
Prevention
# Pasteurize milk
# Vaccination
# Avoid droplet infection
# Antibiotics
1) Malaria
Vector born disease (vector an organism that transmit disease causing
microorganisms from one host to another)
Affect the liver and red blood cells. How?
Cause; parasite called plasmodium
Symptoms
High fever, chills and sweats
Transmission
by the bite of female anopheles’ mosquito
Preventions
Avoid contact with mosquito using mosquito repellents, fixing screen on
windows, using net over beds
Remove mosquito breeding place
Biological control (introducing an organism such as fish into the water that
feeds on larva)
Chemical control sprayed on to the water in order to kill mosquito larva and
egg
2) Gastroenteritis/acute watery diarrhea AWD/
If someone suffering from AWD, the lining of the stomach, small intestine, become
inflamed and painful
Water cannot be reabsorbed by the inflamed lining the large intestine, resulting in
liquid diarrhea
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Caused
Viruses’ rotaviruses
Bacteria salmonella and Escherichia coli
Protozoa giardia and amoeba
Transmission
Eating contaminated food and watery
Symptoms
Violet abdominal cramps and pain
Feeling nauseous, vomiting often both
Watery diarrhea which does not usually have blood in it
Slight fever
General muscle ache and head ache
Control and prevention
Wash hands after using toilet, and before preparing and eating food
Make sure that the water you drink and use to wash salad food and fruit is clean and
safe
Avoid raw and undercooked meat, egg, fish etc
Avoid contact with someone has AWD
3) Cholera
Caused
Bacterial infection called vibrio cholera
Transmission
Contaminated food and water with faces
Symptoms
Mild to severe diarrhea
Vomiting and dehydration
A pale and water y diarrhea
Loss of salt and dehydration
Sever muscular cramp
Control and prevention
Replace the fluids and salt to prevent dehydration
Antibiotics are used to treat disease
Everyone has supply of clean, uncontaminated water
The sewage is disposed effectively
Avoid consuming uncooked food and water
4) Typhoid
Cause
o bacterial infection salmonella typhi
Transmission
o Contaminated food and water by faces
Symptoms
o A very high fever 39-400C
o A painful abdomen
o Sore throat and headache
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o Constipation or diarrhea
o An enlarged spleen and liver
o Untreated thyroid, becomes delirious, weak, exhausted and may die
Control and prevention
o Used antibiotics
o Need plenty of fluids to replace the one lost
o High calorie meals to help mineral and energy they have lost
o Carful hand washing after toilet
7) Chancroids
Cause
A bacteria called Hemophilus ducrey
Transmission
Unprotected sexual intercourse
Symptoms
First stage
Ulceration on genitals, particularly on penis
Bleeding of ulcer and bursting of pus
Second stage
Swollen glands which are filled with pus
Permanent loss of penis
Control and prevention
Taking effective dose of antibiotics
Respect ABC rule
good genital hygiene , male circumcision
8) HIV/A IDS
# Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is the medical term for a combination of
illnesses that result when the immune system is weakened or destroyed
# Caused by Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), a virus that attacks the immune system,
making the sufferer susceptible to other diseases.
# Transmission
Sexual intercourse with infected person.
From infected mother to her baby in the womb, during birth breastfeeds.
Through Infected blood transfusion
Fight against HIV/AIDS
Education on HIV/AIDS (transmission and prevention)
Avoid stigma and discrimination
Encourage people to take voluntary HIV-test
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The lymph system and Immune system
@ Immune system is based in lymph system which spreads throughout the body.
@ The lymph vessels carrying a fluid called lymph
@ Lymph defends the body against disease by producing lymphocytes
@ Lymphocytes produce antibodies against invading pathogens.
@ The lymph glands filter out bacteria and other microbes from the lymph to be
ingested by the phagocytes.
@ Enlarged lymph glands are a sign that the body is fighting off an invading pathogen.
@ the main sites of the enlarged lymph glands
Axillary lymph nodes (in armpit)
Cervical lymph nodes (neck)
Mesenteric lymph nodes (gut)
Inguinal lymph nodes (in groin)
Summery
No Disease Caused by Root of transmission
1 Tape worm Parasitic flat worm Eating raw or under cooked meat
2 Tuberculosis Bacteria, Mycobacterium tuberculosis Air droplet /aerosol/
3 Malaria Protozoa, plasmodium Bite of anopheles mosquito
4 Cholera Bacteria, Vibro cholera Contaminated food and water
5 Typhoid Bacteria, Salmonella typhi Contaminated food and water
6 AWD Bacteria, Virus, Protozoa Contaminated food and water
7 Gonorrhea Bacteria, Neissaria gonorrhea Unprotected sexual intercourse
8 Syphilis Bacteria, Treponema palladium Unprotected sexual intercourse
9 Chancroid Bacteria, Hemophilus ducrey Unprotected sexual intercourse
10 AIDS Virus, Human Immune Virus Unprotected sexual intercourse
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UNIT 5
CLASSIFICATION
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@ Largest; kingdom Smallest; species
@ Kingdom divided into phylum; phylum divided into class
@ Similar phylum group into kingdom, similar class group into phylum
@ Species contain one type of organism, which have all their main feature in common
Naming of living things
∏ Linnaeus was the first biologist who introduce binomial system of classification
∏ Binomial system of naming organism has two names
∏ The first name genus while the second name species both name derived from latin
∏ The genus name starts in capital latter and the species name in small latter
∏ The scientific name should be underlined or printed in italics
∏ Examples
human beings ; Homo sapiens Homo, genus name sapiens, species name
Dog; Canis familiaris Canis, genus name and familiaris species name
House flies; Musca domestica
Domestic cat; Felies domestica Review Question p.177
I. Kingdom monera
Are unicellular prokaryotic, that do not have membrane bonded nucleus
Include all bacteria and blue green algae
Bacteria act as pathogens
Mycobacterium tuberculosis which causes tuberculosis
Haemophilus ducrey that cause chancroid
II. Kingdom protista /protoctista/
o Unicellular and eukaryotic, that do have a nucleus
o They live as a parasite and free living
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o Some protista cause a serious disease
Plasmodium falciparium which cause malaria
Entamoeba histolyca, which cause amoebic dysentery
Trypanosoma, a blood parasite that cause sleeping sickness
Dianoflagelates , which cause bioluminescence
III. Kingdom fungi
Eukaryotic, unicellular and heterotrophic organism
Have cell wall made up of chitin but lack chlorophyll
Mood of nutrition
Saprophytic fungi feed on dead materials. They act as decomposer which
have a role in recycling of nutrients .E.g. Rhizophus, Mucor, penicillium
Mutualism fungi; live in close association with other organism and both
benefit. E.g --Lichens an association of fungi and green algae
--Mycorrhizal an association of a fungus a root of plant
Parasitic fungi; Feeding on living organism. Candida albicans cause trush,
Tinea pedis cause athlete’s foot
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Spermatophyte (Seed bearing plant)
Have well develop root stem and leaf
Have well develop vascular tissues
Male gametes contained in a pollen
grains and the female gamete found in the embryo sac
The product of fertilization in sexual reproduction is seed
Spermatophyte divided into two division
Division gymnosperm
Division angiosperm
Division Gymnospermae (conifer, Non flowering plant)
@ Seed are not enclosed in a fruit
@ Have small needle shaped leaves with a weak waxy cuticle in order to
To reduce water loss, minimizes damage by excess heat or cold
@ They are evergreen
@ Reproductive organ male and female cones
@ Do not have flower and fruits
E.g. pinus , yabesha tid,
Division Angiosperm (flowering plant)
# Reproductive organ flower
# Seed enclosed in fruit
# Well develop xylem and phloem tissue
# Angiosperm divided into two sub class based on the number of cotyledon in their seed
A. Monocotyledon (monocot)
B. Dicotyledons ( dicots)
Monocots Dicots
The embryo has single seed leaf The embryo has two seed leaf
Parallel venation of leaves Net (reticulate) venation of leaves
Leaves are generally long and thin Leaves are often relatively broad
Vascular bundle are scattered Ring of vascular bundle
Generally do not reach great size ( absence Same dicot reach great size( have vascular
of cambium) cambium0
Often wind pollinated Often insect pollinated
E.g. maize, grass, Orichids E.g. pea rose, bean, mango, jacaranda
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V. Kingdom animalia
o Multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic organism
o Feed on another organism
o Exhibit locomotion, move their body from one place to another
o The cell does not have cell wall
o The major phylum in animal kingdom
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Chordate Pisces, amphibians, reptiles, aves, mammals
fig. Planarian
4. Phylum Nematodes - Round worm
@ Have narrow, thread like body
@ Bilateral symmetry
@ Body not segmented
@ No circulatory system
@ Complete digestive system with mouth and anus
5. Phylum Annelid- Segmented worm
Have closed blood circulatory system
They are hermaphrodite
Bristle like structure called chaetae, help them to move
Most are free living
6. Phylum mollusca -Soft bodied animal
∏ Have soft body
∏ Body not segmented
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∏ Most have shell
∏ Body divided into head, foot and Visceral mass, Breath through gills
7. Phylum Echinodermata- spiny skinned animal
# Have exoskeleton Have many tubular feet
# Body covered with spin Are radial symmetry
8. Phylum arthropods – joint footed animal
o Have jointed appendage
o Have an exoskeleton made of chitin, which is used;
Prevent water loss
Limits their growth
o Have segmented body
o Have well develop nerve system
o Complete gut from mouth to anus
o The most varied animal on the earth
Divided into a number of five class;
1) Class insect
2) Class crustacean
3) Class chilopodes - centipedes
4) Class Diplopod- millipedes
5) Class Arachnidan
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Compound eye wood lice, chewing prey
E.g flies, water flies
beetles
9. Phylum chordate
Have notochords
Have hallow nerve cord
Have gill slits later replaced by lungs
and gills Bony fish Cartilaginous fish
Vertebrates Have bony skeleton Have cartilaginous
Invertebrates make up 99.9% of animals skeleton
Have endoskeleton made of bone and Have round shaped Have scale but not
scales round
cartilage
Opercula covering No opercula but have
Have closed blood circulatory system
the gills gill slits
Have well developed nerve system
Two pair of limb and kidney as execratory Have homocerical Have heterocerical
organ Tail( even size fin) Tail (different size)
@ Phylum chordate divided into 5 classes Usually smaller size Usually larger size
1. Class Pisces-the fish E.g. Tilapia, Nile E.g. Sharks, skates,
∏ Are aquatic perch, catfish, cod, rays
∏ Ectothermic
variable body temperature
need environment to regulate their body temperature
∏ Have gill
∏ Have fins
∏ Lay unfertilized egg
∏ Divided into two sub class
Teleosts - bony fish
Elasmobranches- cartilaginous fish
EXERCISE
1. In the scientific name Canis familiaris the word canis stands for?
A. Genus name B. species name C. family name D. kingdom
2. Fish, Amphibian, reptiles, birds and mammals are grouped in the:
A. phylum B. Order C. family D. class
3. Which of the following is the segmented warms?
A. leech B. hook warm C. Ascaris D. tape warm
4. Dorsal nerve tube is a feature of;
A. Echinodermata B. Mollusks C. Arthropod D . Chordata
5. Which of the following group of animals has varied animal on earth?
A Arthropods B. chordata C. mollusks D. Echinodermata
6. Which major groups of plant kingdom is best characterize by having vascular tissue and
reproduce by spores?
A. Ferns B, conifer C. mosses D. Angiosperms
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UNIT 6
ENVIRONMENT
5.3. ECOSYSTEMS
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2. Hetrotrophs
Organism that cannot synthesis their own food. they are called consumer
Feed on other organism
Can be divided as herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and decomposer
Herbivores; animal that feed on vegetation. E.g. caw, giraffe
Carnivores; animal that feed on animal flesh. E.g. Lion , cat
Omnivores; animal that feed on b plant and animal flesh. E.g. human ,rat
Decomposers; organism that break down dead bodies. E.g. bacteria, fungi
Food chains
Is a simple and direct feeding relation ship
Involves the transfer of energy and nutrient from one organism to another
Energy flow from producer to consumer. Producers Consumers
Producers; first trophic level. Green plant
Primary consumer; second trophic level. Herbivores and omnivores
Secondary consumer; third trophic level. Herbivores and omnivores
Tertiary consumer; forth trophic level. Carnivores
Omnivores can occupy primary and secondary consumer
Decomposers are found at the end of food chain
Grass Caw human
Grass; first trophic level and producer
Caw; second trophic level and primary consumer
Human; third trophic level and secondary consumer
Aquatic food chain start microscopic photosynthetic organism known as phytoplankton
phytoplankton zooplankton fish human
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Food web
Is a complex feeding interrelation between organism that consists many food chain
The actual feeding relationships in a community
How many food chains can you construct in this food chain?
Ecological pyramid
Is a geographical representation designed to show the bio-productivity At each trophic level in a
given ecosystem
Three type of ecological pyramid
1. Pyramid of biomass
Biomass; the total amount of organic matter
Pyramid based on the dry mass of tissue of organism at each trophic level
The total amount of biomass decrease as we go from producer to consumer
At each trophic level biomass is lost by; BIRD
2. Pyramid of number
Pyramid made based on the number of organism in each trophic level.
In most ecosystem the number organism decrease from producer to consumer
Sometimes pyramid of number
Fox Fleas Does not accurately reflect
Rabbit Ecological pyramid
Rabbit
Grass
Grass
3. Pyramid of energy
Pyramid drown based on the amount energy produce at each trophic level
It gives the most accurate representation ecological pyramid
Fleas
Review question P. 211
Rabbit
Grass
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5.5. RECYCLING IN NATURE
Nutrient( carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and water) recycled in an ecosystem between organism
and environment
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Carbon cycle
Important process in carbon cycle
a) photosynthesis; remove the amount carbon dioxide from the cycle
b) respiration;
c) combustions; increase the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
d) decomposition;
Ozone; layer of the atmospheres that protect the earth from harmful ultraviolet light
from the sun
Global warming; is the rising of temperature on earth’s surface as a result of accumulation of
greenhouse gas like carbon dioxide and methane
Carbon dioxide CO2 ; Increase as a result of human activity such as
Combustion Burning of fissile fuel, Deforestation, Respiration
Methane; It is increased in the atmosphere as a result of
Growth of rice in swampy condition review question
Digestive activity of cattle produce methane P.217
5.6. ADAPTATIONS
Adaptations; features of organism develop which make it possible for them to survive in
a particular habitat
1) Animal in cold climate
Reduce surface area to volume ratio, larger size like seal, whales and polar beer in
order to prevent heat lost.
Small extremities like ear to reduce heat loss. E.g. polar beer
Thick layer of fat under skin (blubber) to store more internal heat
Have thick fur coat on the outside will insulate an animal
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