11

11
GRADE

Physical Sciences
CAPS

Physical Sciences 3-in-1

GRADE 8 - 12
ALL MAJOR SUBJECTS IN Stand a chance to
CLASS TEXT & STUDY GUIDE
ENGLISH & AFRIKAANS
WIN
an Apple iPad! CAPS
WWW.THEANSWER.CO. ZA www.theanswer.co.za/win
Terms & Conditions apply
Retha Louw

3-in-1

Retha Louw
Grade 11 Physical Sciences 3-in-1 CAPS
CLASS TEXT & STUDY GUIDE

This Grade 11 Physical Sciences 3-in-1 study guide simplifies the theory of Grade 11 Physical Sciences and builds confidence
through clear explanations supported by revision questions. It allows you to rapidly improve your problem-solving skills.

Key features:

• Comprehensive, explanatory notes and worked examples per topic

• Exercises and exam questions per topic

• Detailed answers with explanations and handy hints

This study guide provides reliable guidance through Grade 11, while building a solid platform for the upcoming
Grade 12 curriculum.
 11
GRADE

Physical Sciences
Retha Louw
CAPS

3-in-1

THIS CLASS TEXT & STUDY GUIDE INCLUDES

1 Comprehensive Notes

2 Exercises and Exam Questions

3 Detailed Memos with Explanations

E-book
(available in a separate booklet) available

2013 publication | ISBN: 978-1-920558-31-4 120221 | NOVUS

 CONTENTS THE GRADE 11 NOVEMBER EXAM

The Grade 11 November Exam ............................................................................. i

(hours) Level Level Level Level

10%

10%
Weighting of questions

4
across cognitive levels
Detailed contents per term according to CAPS.................................................... ii
Physical Constants and Formulae (back of the book) ......................................... iv

40%

35%
3
The Periodic Table of Elements (back of the book).............................................. v

35%

40%
2
NOTES with QUESTIONS:

15%

15%
Module 1: Mechanics ....................................................................... 1.1 - 1.28

1
Questions ................................................................................................ Q1 - Q7

marks Duration

3
Module 2: Matter and Materials ..................................................... 2.1 - 2.40

paper
Total

150

150
Questions ............................................................................................. Q7 - Q15

per
Marks

68

32

50

70

20

60
Module 3: Waves, Sound and Light ............................................... 3.1 - 3.16
Questions ............................................................................................ Q16 - Q19

Electricity and Magnetism

Waves, Sound and Light

Matter and Materials

Chemical Systems
Chemical Change
Module 4: Chemical Change............................................................ 4.1 - 4.33

Mechanics
(Module 1)

(Module 3)

(Module 5)

(Module 4)

(Module 6)

(Module 2)
Content
Questions ............................................................................................ Q20 - Q27

Module 5: Electricity and Magnetism ............................................ 5.1 - 5.29

Questions ............................................................................................ Q27 - Q33

Chemistry
Paper 1:

Paper 2:
Physics
Paper

focus

focus
Module 6: Chemical Systems .......................................................... 6.1 - 6.10
Questions ............................................................................................ Q33 - Q34

i Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal

4
4: CHEMICAL CHANGE
NOTES

We already did simple stoichiometric calculations in Grade 10 and now we will

QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS expand on that to reactions containing a limiting reagent or where the percentage
yield is calculated.
OF CHEMICAL CHANGE

In Grade 10, we looked at different types of chemical reactions. For example, REVISION OF IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
synthesis, decomposition, ion-exchange and electron-transfer (redox) reactions
were covered. The mole concept and Avogadro’s constant
A chemical reaction can be represented by a chemical equation. During any
chemical reaction, the principle of conservation of atoms applies. Therefore, a
chemical reaction is balanced so that the number of reactant atoms and the The mole is the SI unit used to indicate amount of substance.
number of product atoms are equal, e.g.: It is the amount of a substance containing as many particles as
` there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12. This number,
N2 + 3H2 t 2NH3 i.e. 6,02 % 1023, is known as Avogadro’s constant (NA).
2 N-atoms 6 H-atoms 2 N-atoms + 6 H-atoms

From this follows the Law of Conservation of Matter, i.e., that the mass of Number of particles to/from mole
substances in the reaction mixture is conserved during a chemical reaction.
In a complete reaction, the mass of the reactants = mass of the products. number of particles
number of moles (n) =
This allows us to do quantitative calculations to determine the mass of the NA
reactants and products during a chemical reaction. â number of particles = nNA
number of
particles

A chemical equation is balanced by placing n NA

coefficients in front of the formulae of the reactants
and products. Do not change the formulae themselves.
Example:
Determine the number of moles of ammonia (NH3) comprising 1,806 % 1024
molecules. Determine the number of atoms present in this amount of ammonia.
CHEMICAL CHANGE

STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative composition of chemical Solution:
substances. The stoichiometric ratio for a chemical reaction is the relationship number of particles
between the reacting substances that react fully with each other. In this way, it n = Number of moles of atoms = 3 % 4 = 12 mol
NA
can be determined how much of each reactant is required to react fully (so that no
unreacted reactants remain) and how much of each of the products are formed. 1,806  10 24
= Number of atoms = nNA = 12 % 6,02 % 1023
This has a very important application in industries where substances are 6,02  10 23
produced on a large scale. = 3 = 7,22 % 1024
Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal 4.1
The mole concept and mass of a substance
Therefore: 1 mole of oxygen atoms = 6,02 % 1023 atoms 4
= 16 g

NOTES
1 mole of oxygen gas (O2) = 6,02 % 1023 molecules
The relative atomic mass (A r ) of an element is a = 32 g
figure comparing the real mass of one atom of the
element with 1
of the mass of the carbon-12 atom. Mass of a substance to/from mole
12

mass
Number of moles =
 A mass of 12 units is assigned to the carbon-12 atom, and the masses of molar mass m
atoms of other elements are determined relative to this. m
n = n M
 It is only a comparative figure and has no units, e.g.: M

 A r (Mg) = 24 â m = nM

 A r (He) = 4
Therefore, an Mg atom is about twice as heavy Example 1:
as a C-12 atom and an He atom’s mass is
about one third of that of a C-12 atom. Determine the molar mass of A´2(SO4)3.

 The average relative atomic mass of the different isotopes of an element Solution:
is determined according to its percentage abundance in nature. These M(A´2(SO4)3) = (2 % 27) + 3[32 + 4(16)] = 54 + 288
values are shown on the Periodic Table as the atomic masses of the = 342 g·mol-1
different elements.

Example 2:
Remember:
Calculate the number of moles in:
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (with the same atomic number),
but with different numbers of neutrons, i.e. different mass numbers. 1) 213 g of chlorine gas 2) 39,5 g KMnO4

Solution:
The average 1) relative molecular mass (M r ) of molecules or m
1) n =
2) relative formula mass (M r ) of ionic compounds are M M(C´2) = 2 % 35,5
obtained by determining the sum of the relative atomic masses 213 = 71 g·mol-1

CHEMICAL CHANGE
=
of the atoms in the compound. These quantities have no units. 71
= 3 mol

m
2) n =
The relative atomic mass of an element or the relative M
molecular/formula mass of a compound in grams indicates one M(KMnO4) = 39 + 55 + 4(16)
39,5
mole of the specific element or compound. This is called the = = 158 g·mol-1
158
molar mass (M) of the substance. The unit for this is g·mol-1. = 0,25 mol
4.2 Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal
4 MOLAR VOLUME OF GASES; CONCENTRATION Volume of a gas at STD to/from mole
OF SOLUTIONS
NOTES

V V
n = =
Molar volume of gases V
Vm 22,4
â V = nVm
 In many chemical reactions, the reactants are gases, or gases are formed n Vm
during the reaction. where: n = number of moles
 The amount of gas formed can be determined by weighing it, i.e. determining V = real volume of gas
at STP
the mass, or by collecting it in a gas syringe and determining the volume. Vm = molar gas volume = 22,4 dm3

 It is easier to determine the volume and then convert it to number of moles Volume of gases at the same temperature and pressure
and mass by using Avogadro’s findings, i.e.:
Avogadro’s law: Equal volumes of different gases (at the
Volume of gases at STP same temperature and pressure) contain the same number
of moles of gas, i.e. the same number of molecules.
In the unit on gases, the relationship between p, V, T and the number of moles of
gas (n) was indicated by means of the ideal gas law, i.e.:
Therefore, gases react in the same simple mole or volume ratio with each other
pV = nRT
as can be seen in the following balanced equation:
nRT
âV =
p 3H2(g) + N2(g) t 2NH3(g)

â for 1 mole of gas at STP: 3 moles 1 mole 2 moles

3 % 22,4 1 % 22,4 2 % 22,4
1  8,31  273,15
V = = 67,2 dm3 = 22,4 dm3 = 44,8 dm3 (at STP)
101,3  103
Therefore:
= 0,0224 m3
The volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of molecules of the
= 22,4 dm3 gas at a specific temperature and pressure.
In symbols: V } n
One mole of any gas at STP has a volume of 22,4 dm3. V = kn
This is known as the molar gas volume (Vm), Vm = 22,4 dm3. V
= k
n
V1 V
CHEMICAL CHANGE

= k = 2
n1 n2
Therefore: where: V1, V2 = volume of gas1 and gas2
N2(g) H2(g) NH3(g) n1, n2 = number of moles of gas1 and gas2
1 mol = 28 g 1 mol = 2 g 1 mol = 17 g
3 3 The volume of a gas is influenced by its temperature and
= 22,4 dm = 22,4 dm = 22,4 dm3 pressure. Therefore, the volumes of gases may only be
compared at the same constant temperature and pressure.
Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal 4.3
This constant ratio between volume and number of moles for gases at the same
temperature and pressure can be used to calculate an unknown volume of gas.
Concentration of solutions to/from mole 4
number of moles
Therefore: Concentration =

NOTES
volume
Example:
200 cm3 nitrogen gas is added to an excess of hydrogen gas to form ammonia.
The reaction takes place at a temperature of 500 K and pressure of 800 kPa. n m  m
n c = or c =  substitute n with n = 
V MV  M
Calculate the volume of ammonia produced. c V â n = cV

Solution:
where: c = concentration of the solution in mol·dm-3
3H2(g) + N2(g) t 2NH3(g) n = number of moles of solute
V = volume of solution (dm3)
V2 n2 unit of concentration = mol·dm-3
= n1 (N2) = 1
V1 n1 from balanced
n2 (NH3) = 2 equation
V2 2 1 dm3 = 1 000 cm3 = 1 000 m ´ = 1 ´
â = V1 (N2) = 200 cm3
200 1 A concentration expressed in moles per dm3 (mol·dm-3)
V2 (NH3) = ?
â V2 = 400 cm3 or moles per litre is called the molarity or molar
concentration (M) of a solution, e.g. a 0,5 M KOH solution
is diluted KOH with a concentration of 0,5 mol·dm-3.

NB: The volume can be in any unit, but it must

Example:
be the same on either side of the reaction.
1) Determine the concentration of an NaOH solution if 5 g NaOH is dissolved in
250 cm3 water.

Shortcut: 2) What mass of copper(II)sulphate must be dissolved in 200 m´ water to yield a

The volume of NH3 will be twice that of N2, 0,4 mol·dm-3 solution?
because it has twice the number of moles.
m = 5g
Solution:
M(NaOH) = 23 + 16 + 1
m 5 = 40 g·mol-1
1) n = = = 0,125 mol
M 40 V = 250 cm3
Concentration of solutions
n 0,125 = 0,25 dm3
c = = = 0,5 mol·dm-3
V 0,25

CHEMICAL CHANGE
Calculation of the concentration of solutions
 If a soluble substance is dissolved in a solvent, a homogeneous solution is m
2) c =
obtained, e.g. sugar in water. The more sugar is dissolved in the same amount MV c = 0,4 mol·dm-3
of water, the sweeter it tastes and the higher the concentration of the solution. m V = 200 m´
0,4 =
(159,5)(0,2) = 0,2 dm3
 The concentration of a solution is determined by the amount (number m
0,4 = M(CuSO4) = 63,5 + 32 + 4(16)
of moles) of solute in a certain volume of solvent. Water is usually used 31,9 = 159,5 g·mol-1
as the solvent.
m = 0,4 % 31,9 = 12,76 g
4.4 Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal
4 Preparation of a standard solution Stoichiometric calculations with concentration and volume
 The number of moles of a substance participating in a chemical reaction can
NOTES

be calculated from n = cV if its concentration and volume are known.

A standard solution is a solution of
which the exact concentration is known.  The number of moles of any other reactant or product can be determined
from the mole ratio of the substances in the balanced equation.

Steps to make up a standard solution  If the volume of this reactant or product is known, but the concentration is
unknown (or vice versa), the unknown value can be calculated from
 Calculate the amount of solute that that has to be dissolved in a n = cV. Therefore:
specific amount of solvent to give the required concentration.
For substance a: For substance b:
Example: Prepare a 250 cm3 NaOH solution with a concentration
actual number of moles = ca Va actual number of moles = cbVb
of 0,5 mol·dm-3.
c aVa na
â =
calculation: c = m c bVb nb
MV M(NaOH) = 23 + 1 + 16
m = cMV = 40 g·mol-1 ca, cb = concentration of a and b
= (0,5)(40)(0,25)
Va , Vb = volume of a and b during the reaction
= 5g
na
= mole ratio from balanced equation
 Accurately weigh the correct amount of solute in a watch glass nb
on a scale.

 Use a funnel to carefully pour it into a conical flask. Carefully rinse the  Substitute all the known values and calculate an unknown volume
last bit of solute from the watch glass through the funnel with a little or concentration.
distilled water.

 First add a little distilled water (solvent) and gently swirl the flask to Application: The calculation of an unknown
dissolve the substance. concentration/volume during a titration reaction
 Carefully add more water, exactly up to the correct volume mark (the These types of calculations (with concentration and volume) are
bottom of the meniscus of the water must be right on the mark). generally used during titration reactions of an acid with a base to
calculate the unknown concentration of an acid or base.
 Shake well.
Steps:
 A standard solution (with known concentration) of the acid or
base is prepared.
CHEMICAL CHANGE

 A titration procedure is performed to neutralise the acid with

a base (see p. 4.24).
 The volumes of the acid and base required to neutralise
each other are noted.
 The unknown concentration is calculated from the
above equation.

Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal 4.5

Example: Solution: 4
3 -3
12 cm of a 0,4 mol·dm KOH solution is used to neutralise 1) M(NH4NO3) = (2 % 14) + (4 % 1) + (3 % 16) = 80 g·mol-1

NOTES
25 cm3 of a dilute sulphuric acid solution. Potassium sulphate and
2(14) 4(1)
water form during the reaction. Calculate the concentration of the %N = % 100 = 35% %H = % 100 = 5%
80 80
sulphuric acid solution.
3(16)
%O = % 100 = 60%
Solution: 80
2KOH + H2SO4 t K2SO4 + 2H2O 35
2) Mass of N in 40 g = % 40 = 14 g
100
c a Va na
=
c bVb nb
Take a = acid (H2SO4) Empirical and molecular formulae
c  25 1 b = base (KOH)
â a =  The empirical formula of a compound indicates the simplest whole number
0,4  12 2
ratio in which the different elements are bonded with each other.
50 % ca = 4,8
Volumes above and below the  The empirical formula of a compound is calculated from its
ca = 0,096 mol·dm-3 line must have the same unit. percentage composition.
j 0,1 mol·dm-3  The molecular formula could be the same as the empirical formula, or a
multiple of it, e.g. the molecular formula of acetic acid is CH3COOH
(or C2O2H4) and its empirical formula is COH2.
REVISION OF STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS
(GRADE 10)
Application: Determine the empirical and
Quantitative analysis molecular formulae of a compound
Steps:
A quantitative analysis of a compound indicates what elements the compound Empirical formula:
consists of, as well as the percentage/amount of each.  Take the percentage composition of the compound and express
the percentage of each element as a mass, in grams. The total
Percentage composition mass is 100 g.
The percentage of each element in the compound (percentage composition of the  Determine the number of moles of each element: n = m
M
compound) can be calculated by expressing the molar mass of each element as a
percentage of the molar mass of the compound.  Write down the mole ratio of the elements.
 Calculate the whole number mole ratio (divide by the smallest value

CHEMICAL CHANGE
molar mass of element 100 throughout) and use these values to write down the empirical formula.
% element = ×
molar mass of compound 1
Molecular formula:
 Calculate the molar mass of the empirical compound.
Example: Divide this into the given molar mass of the compound to find the
1) Calculate the % composition of NH4NO3. whole number ratio between the masses.
 Multiply the number of atoms of each element in the empirical
2) Calculate the mass of nitrogen in 40 g NH4NO3. formula by this value.

4.6 Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal

4 Example: Substance A
A certain compound of nitrogen and oxygen with a general formula Nx O y,
NOTES

contains 36,8% nitrogen. Determine the empirical formula of the compound. mass number of particles volume concentration
(gases at STP) (solutions)
Solution: number of particles
m n =
n = NA n = cV
% N = 36,8% â % O = 63,2% M
n =
V
m
âN : O Number of moles (n) = 3
Vm / 22,4 dm
M
Step 1: = 36,8 g : 63,2 g
36,8 63,2
M(N) = 14 g·mol-1
Step 2: = mol : mol M(O) = 16 g·mol-1
14 16
Step 3: = 2,63 : 3,95 Mol (n) substance A
Step 4: = 1 : 1,5 Simplified mole ratio: conversion using mole
Divide both sides by 2,63 ratio in equation
= 2 : 3
(smallest value).
â Empirical formula N2O3 Mol (n) substance B

Stoichiometric calculations with mass, number of particles,

volume (of gases) and concentration (of solutions) mass number of particles volume concentration
(gases at STP) (solutions)
Application: Stoichiometric calculations
Calculate the quantity of a certain substance (B) that is needed Substance B
or formed during a chemical reaction if the quantity of another
substance (A) participating in the reaction is known.
NB: For gases at other temperatures and pressures, the ideal gas
Steps: pV 
equation is used  n =  to calculate the number of moles or volume.
 Write a balanced equation for the reaction.  RT 
 Underline the substances (A and B). It is sometimes necessary
to determine their molar mass. Substances in excess may usually
be ignored. Example:
 Convert the given quantity of substance A (mass/number of Nitrogen dioxide is prepared in the laboratory by reacting copper with
particles, etc.) to mole. concentrated nitric acid. The reaction equation is:
 Determine the number of moles of substance B required/formed Cu(g) + 4HNO3(´) t Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(´) + 2NO2(g)
using the mole ratio of the two substances in the equation.
CHEMICAL CHANGE

 Convert the calculated number of moles (of B) to the mass/number 1) Calculate the mass of HNO3 required to react fully with 12,7 g Cu.
of particles or volume (gases), depending on the question. 2) Calculate the volume of nitrogen dioxide gas formed at STP if 12,7 g Cu and
sufficient HNO3 react with each other.
NB: The mole, as a unit to indicate amount of substance, is central to
stoichiometric calculations in chemistry. Other amounts of 3) Calculate the volume of nitrogen dioxide gas that forms if 150 cm3 HNO3
substance, whether mass, number of particles, volume (of with a concentration of 0,5 mol·dm-3 reacts with an excess of copper:
gases) or concentration of solutions, can be converted to or from
the mole. See the accompanying schematic representation. 3.1) at STP
3.2) at a pressure of 200 kPa and a temperature of 25ºC.
Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal 4.7
Solution: 3.1) Steps 1 & 2: Cu + 4HNO3 t Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2 4
1) Step 1 & 2: Cu + 4HNO3 t Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2
Step 3: Calculate number of moles of HNO3

NOTES
Step 3: Calculate the number of moles in 12,7 g Cu: n = cV
m c(HNO3) = 0,5 mol·dm-3
n = = 0,5 % 0,15 V(HNO3) = 150 cm3
M
M(Cu) = 63,5 g·mol-1 = 0,075 mol = 0,15 dm3
12,7 m = 12,7 g
= = 0,2 mol
63,5
Step 4: Calculate n(NO2) formed from mole ratio
Step 4: Calculate the number of moles of HNO3 required according to HNO3 : NO2
the mole ratio in the equation: = 4 : 2
Cu : HNO3 = 2 : 1
= 1 : 4 = 0,075 : 0,0375
= 0,2 : 0,8
Step 5: Convert n(NO2) to volume(NO2)
Step 5: Convert number of moles of HNO3 to mass:
V = nVm
m = n % M = 0,8 % 63
= 50,4 g M(HNO3) = 1 + 14 + 3(16) = 0,0375 % 22,4
= 63 g·mol-1 = 0,84 dm3 NO2 gas
Therefore:
m = nM Therefore:
     
mass (Cu) moles (Cu) moles (HNO3) mass (HNO3) c(HNO3) moles (HNO3) moles (NO2) volume (NO2)

use mole ratio between

Cu and HNO3 in equation 3.2) The number of moles of NO2 has already been calculated in Question 3.1,
i.e. n(NO2) = 0,0375
2) Steps 1 & 2: Cu + 4HNO3 t Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2
pV = nRT
Step 3: n(Cu) = 0,2 mol (already calculated)
nRT
V = p = 200 kPa = 2 % 105 Pa
Step 4: Calculate the number of moles of NO2 formed according p
T = 25 + 273 = 298 K
to mole ratio: 0,0375  8,31  298
=
Cu : NO2 2  10 5
1 : 2 (from equation) = 4,64 % 10-4 m3
= 0,2 : 0,4

CHEMICAL CHANGE
Step 5: Convert n(NO2) to volume: MORE COMPLEX STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS
V
n =
Vm Limiting reagent
â V = n % Vm = 0,4 % 22,4 = 8,96 dm3
 When the reactants in a chemical reaction are not
Therefore: V = n Vm added in the correct stoichiometric ratios, one reactant
  
will be used up first and some of the other reactants will
mass (Cu) moles (Cu) moles (NO2) volume (NO2) remain after the reaction has run its course.
4.8 Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal
4  The reactant/reagent used up first is called the limiting reagent. This reactant
determines when the reaction stops and how much product is formed.
Example:
During the combustion reaction of Mg in oxygen, 42 g of magnesium ribbon is
NOTES

 Consider the reaction that takes place when a piece of magnesium ribbon burnt in 24 g O2 gas. Determine whether Mg or O2 is the limiting reagent.
burns in oxygen in the air:
2Mg + O2 t 2MgO Solution:
2 moles of Mg will react fully with 1 mole of O2 gas, i.e. 48 g of Mg requires Step 1: 2Mg + O2 t 2MgO
32g of O2 gas for a complete reaction. There is an excess of oxygen present
m m
in the air; therefore the reaction will stop as soon as the magnesium ribbon Step 2: n(Mg) = n(O2) =
has burnt up. The magnesium, thus, is the limiting reagent. M M m(Mg) = 42 g
42 24 m(O2) = 24 g
= =
24 32
Application: Identify the limiting reagent = 1,75 mol = 0,75 mol
Steps: Mg (actual) = 1,75 mol O2 (actual) = 0,75 mol
 Write down the balanced equation for the reaction. Steps 3 & 4: O2 required:
 Convert the given mass, number of particles, volume (for gases) or Mg : O2
concentration (in solutions) of reactants A and B to the number of = 2 : 1 (from equation)
moles (nA actual and nB actual).
1,75
= 1,75 :  1
 Write down the mole ratio of A : B from the chemical equation, e.g. a : b. 2
= 1,75 : 0,875
 Use the given value of the actual number of moles of one of the
reactants to theoretically determine how much of the other is required Step 5: O2 (required) > O2 (actual)
according to the ratio a : b, e.g.:
0,875 > 0,75
Take the actual number of moles of reactant A (nA actual) and â O2 is the limiting reagent
determine the number of moles of B required, (nB required).
OR
 If nB (required) < nB (actual), then B is in excess and A is the
limiting reagent. nMg actual 1,75 Mg 2
= =
If nB (required) > nB (actual), then B is the limiting reagent. nO 2 actual 0,75 O2 1
OR = 2,33 = 2
n actual a but 2,33 > 2
Compare A to :
nB actual b â O2 is the limiting reagent
CHEMICAL CHANGE

n actual a
If A < t A limiting reagent
nB actual b
n A actual a
If > t B limiting reagent
nB actual b

 Use the limiting reagent to determine the amount of products or

unreacted reactants.

Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal 4.9

Percentage yield  Collect the precipitate (PbO2): 4
- place a test tube in a test tube rack

NOTES
Practical Investigation 1: Determine the mass of PbO2 - filter the warm mixture through a funnel lined with filter paper;
collect the PbO2 precipitate in the filter paper
prepared from Pb(NO3)2
- wash the precipitate by running water and dilute nitric acid
Apparatus and method:
NaOC´ (Jik) (3 % 5 m´ - measured with pipette) over it
 Prepare NaOH solution:
- accurately weigh 10 g NaOH in a - place the filter paper on a watch glass and let it dry overnight
rod
watch glass on a scale - accurately weigh the PbO2 on a scale
- carefully add it to a 150 m´ conical flask - calculate the theoretical yield the reaction should produce from the
NaOH + Pb(NO3)2
- measure 50 m´ water in a measuring balanced equation
gauze wire
cylinder and add to the flask - calculate the percentage yield
heating stand
- stir the contents in the flask with a
stirring rod until dissolved Bunsen burner Results and conclusion:
 The reaction takes place in two steps:
 Prepare Pb(NO3)2 solution:  lead nitrate reacts with the sodium hydroxide and forms lead(II)
- accurately weigh 4 g Pb(NO3)2 in a clean watch glass on a scale hydroxide and sodium nitrate
- carefully add it to a 250 m´ flask Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) t Pb(OH)2(aq) + 2NaNO3(aq)
- measure 25 m´ water in a measuring cylinder and add to the flask  lead(II)hydroxide reacts with sodium hypochlorite and forms
- dissolve the contents of the flask in the water lead(IV)oxide (brownish black precipitate), sodium chloride and water
Pb(OH)2(aq) + NaOC´(aq) t PbO2(s) + NaC´(aq) + H2O
To make up a solution with a specific concentration:
 The weighed mass of the lead oxide precipitate is less than that
the substance to be dissolved is weighed, added to a
volumetric flask and then filled with water to the volume
calculated theoretically. This could be because the sample of lead
required. (The water is not measured separately, see p. 4.5.) nitrate was not pure or because some of the reactants remained on
the filter paper.

 Prepare PbO2 solution:  Theoretical yield:

m(NaOH) = 10 g
m
- carefully add the 50 m´ NaOH solution to the Pb(NO3)2 in the n(NaOH) = M(NaOH) = 23 + 16 + 1
M = 40 g·mol-1
250 m´ flask
10 V = 50 m´ = 0,05 dm3
=

CHEMICAL CHANGE
- place the flask on gauze wire on a heating stand over 40
m(Pb(NO3)2) = 4 g
a Bunsen burner = 0,25 mol
M(Pb(NO3)2) = 207 + 2(14) + 6(16)
- set the flame to a low heat and boil the solution for 5-10 minutes while m = 331 g·mol-1
stirring continuously n(Pb(NO3)2) =
M V = 25 m´ = 0,025 dm3
- add 30 m´ of a 3,5% NaOC´ solution (household bleach) to the =
4
mixture, while heating it further; stir continuously 331
- a brownish black precipitate should form after 5 minutes = 0,012 mol

4.10 Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal

4 Limiting reagent: Apparatus and method:
Pb(NO3)2 : NaOH  Crush a seashell into small pieces using a pestle and mortar.
NOTES

= 1 : 2  Place the crushed seashell on a piece of filter paper and find the
= 0,012 : 0,024 mass of the shell (subtract the mass of the filter paper).
â Pb(NO3)2 is the limiting reagent, NaOH is in excess  Place the shell in a 100 m´ beaker and cover it with sufficient
Pb(NO3)2 : Pb(OH)2 hydrochloric acid with a concentration of 3 mol·dm-3. Gas bubbles
are observed due to the release of CO2.
= 1 : 1
= 0,012 : 0,012  Wait until the bubbles stop and the reaction is complete.

Assume that an excess of NaOC´ (bleach) is added:  Filter the mixture to remove the unreacted residue; use a scale and
determine the mass of the residue/impurities.
Pb(OH2) : PbO2
M(PbO2) = 207 + 2(16)  Allow the filtrate to dry out and determine the mass of the dry filtrate.
= 1 : 1
= 239 g·mol-1
= 0,012 : 0,012
CO2 gas
â 0,012 mol PbO2 precipitate should form
hydrochloric acid (HC´)
m(PbO2) = n % M = 0,012 % 239 = 2,87 g crushed seashell

actual/weighed yield 100

The percentage yield = 
theoretical yield 1 Results and conclusion:
 The balanced equation for the reaction is as follows:
CaCO3(s) + 2HC´ (aq) t CaC´ 2(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(´)
Practical Investigation 2: Determine the percentage
CaCO3 in a seashell  The mass of the dry filtrate (the CaC´ 2 salt formed), can be used
to determine the mass of CaCO3 in the shell, by means of a
 Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is commonly found in nature in rock stoichiometric calculation, i.e.:
strata as well as in shells, skeletons and exoskeletons of various
marine or terrestrial organisms. It hardens these structures. - convert mass (CaC´ 2) to moles
- calculate the number of moles of CaCO3 according to mole ratio
in equation:
CaC´ 2 : CaCO3
= 1 : 1
CHEMICAL CHANGE

- convert the number of moles of CaCO3 to mass

OR
- mass of CaCO3 = initial mass of shell - mass of residue

 Calculate the percentage CaCO3 as follows:

 Calcium carbonate readily reacts with a strong acid to form mass CaCO3 100
a salt, carbon dioxide and water. % CaCO3 = %
mass shell 1

Copyright © The Answer Series: Photocopying of this material is illegal 4.11