Scienceclinic Smartprep Gr12 Dbe Eng 1

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CORE THEORY SUMMARIES
Physics
Physics Data Sheets 1
Physics Definitions 4
2D Vectors 5
Newton’s Laws of Motion 7
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation 11
Momentum and Impulse 12
Work, Energy and Power 16
Motion in 1D 19
Vertical Projectile Motion 20
Electricity 23
Electrostatics 25
Electromagnetism and Electrodynamics 27
Photoelectric Effect 30
Doppler Effect 32
Chemistry
Chemistry Data Sheets 33
Chemistry Definitions 37
Organic Chemistry 39
Quantitative Aspects of Chemical Change 48
Energy and Chemical Change 51
Rates of Reactions 52
Chemical Equilibrium 53
Acids and Bases 56
Electrochemistry 59
Fertilisers 63
www
www
DATA FOR PHYSICAL SCIENCES GRADE 12
PAPER 1 (PHYSICS)
GEGEWENS VIR FISIESE WETENSKAPPE GRAAD 12

VRAESTEL 1 (FISIKA)
TABLE 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS/TABEL 1: FISIESE KONSTANTES
NAME/NAAM SYMBOL/SIMBOOL VALUE/WAARDE

Acceleration due to gravity
g 9,8 m·s-2
Swaartekragversnelling
Universal gravitational constant
G 6,67 x 10-11 N·m2·kg-2
Universele gravitasiekonstant
Speed of light in a vacuum
c 3,0 x 108 m·s-1
Spoed van lig in 'n vakuum
Planck's constant
h 6,63 x 10-34 J·s
Planck se konstante
Coulomb's constant
k 9,0 x 109 N·m2·C-2
Coulomb se konstante
Charge on electron
-e -1,6 x 10-19 C
Lading op elektron
Electron mass
me 9,11 x 10-31 kg
Elektronmassa
Mass of Earth
M 5,98 x 1024 kg
Massa van Aarde
Radius of Earth
RE 6,38 x 106 m
Radius van Aarde
TABLE 2: FORMULAE/TABEL 2: FORMULES
MOTION/BEWEGING
vf vi a t Δx v i Δt 1
2 a t 2 or/of Δy v i Δt 1
2 a t2
2 2 2 2 vi vf vi vf
vf vi 2a x or/of v f vi 2a y Δx Δt or/of Δy Δt
2 2
FORCE/KRAG
Fnet ma p mv
fs max = μsN fk = μk N
Fnet Δt = Δp
w mg
Δp = mv f - mvi
m1m 2 m1m 2 M M
F =G or/of F =G g =G or/of g =G
d2 r2 d2 r2
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER/ARBEID, ENERGIE EN DRYWING
W F x cos U mgh or/of EP mgh
Wnet K or/of Wnet Ek

1 1
K mv2 or/of Ek mv2
2 2
K Kf Ki or/of Ek Ekf Eki
W
Wnc K U or/of Wnc Ek Ep P
t
Pav = Fvav / Pgemid = Fvgemid
WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT/GOLWE, KLANK EN LIG
1
v f T
f
v vL v vL c
fL fs fL fb E hf or /of E h
v vs v vb
E = Wo + Ek(max) or/of E = Wo + K max where/waar
1 2 1 2
E hf and/en W0 hf0 and/en E k (max) = mvmax or/of K max = mvmax
2 2
ELECTROSTATICS/ELEKTROSTATIKA
kQ1Q 2 kQ
F E
r2 r2
W F
V E
q q
Q Q
n= or/of n=
e qe
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS/ELEKTRIESE STROOMBANE
emf ( ε )= I(R + r)
V
R
I
emk ( ε )= I(R + r)
Rs R1 R 2 ...
1 1 1 q I t
...
Rp R1 R 2
W = Vq W
P
Δt
W = VI t
P = VI
W = I2R t
2
P = I 2R
V Δt
W= V2
R P
R
ALTERNATING CURRENT/WISSELSTROOM
Pave Vrms Irms / Pgemiddeld Vwgk I wgk

I max Imaks
I rms / I wgk
2 2 2
Pave Irms R / Pgemiddeld I 2wgkR
Vmax Vmaks
Vrms / Vwgk 2
Vrms
2
Vwgk
2 2 Pave / Pgemiddeld
R R
Grade 12 Science Essentials SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
Grade 12 Physics Definitions

Normal force (FN): the force or the component of a force which a surface exerts on an object with which it is in contact, and
which is perpendicular to the surface
Frictional force (Ff): the force that opposes the motion of an object and which acts parallel to the surface
Static frictional force (fs): the force that opposes the tendency of motion of a stationary object relative to a surface
Kinetic frictional force (fk): the force that opposes the motion of a moving object relative to a surface
Newton's first law of motion: a body will remain in its state of rest or motion at constant velocity unless a non-zero resultant/
Newton’s Laws net force acts on it
Revision Newton's second law of motion: when a resultant/net force acts on an object, the object will accelerate in the direction of the
force at an acceleration directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the object
Newton's third law of motion: when object A exerts a force on object B, object B SIMULTANEOUSLY exerts an oppositely
directed force of equal magnitude on object A
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation: each body in the universe attracts every other body with a force that is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres
Weight: the gravitational force the Earth exerts on any object on or near its surface
Momentum: the product of an object's mass and its velocity

Linear momentum: a vector quantity with the same direction as the velocity of the object
Newton’s second law in terms of momentum: the net force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of momentum
of the object in the direction of the resultant/net force
Impulse: the product of the resultant/net force acting on an object and the time the resultant/net force acts on the object. It is a
Momentum and
vector quantity
Impulse
Isolated system (in Physics): a system on which the resultant/net external force is zero. An isolated system excludes external
forces that originate outside the colliding bodies, e.g. friction. Only internal forces, e.g. contact forces between the colliding
objects, are considered
Principle of conservation of linear momentum: the total linear momentum of an isolated system remains constant (is
conserved)
Vertical Projectile: an object which has been given an initial velocity and then moves under the influence of the gravitational force only
Projectile Motion Free fall: motion during which the only force acting on an object is the gravitational force
Work done on an object by a constant force F: is FΔxcosθ , where F is the magnitude of the force, Δx the magnitude of the
displacement and θ the angle between the force and the displacement
Work-energy theorem: The work done on an object by a net force is equal to the change in the object's kinetic energy OR the
work done on an object by a net force is equal to the change in the object's kinetic energy. (Wnet = ΔK = Kf - Ki)
Work, Energy
Conservative force: is a force for which the work done in moving an object between two points is independent of the path taken
and Power
Non-conservative force: is a force for which the work done in moving an object between two points depends on the path taken
Principle of conservation of mechanical energy: the total mechanical energy (sum of gravitational potential energy and
kinetic energy) in an isolated system remains constant
Power: is the rate at which work is done or energy is expended
Doppler Effect: the change in frequency (or pitch) of the sound detected by a listener, because the sound source and the listener
Doppler Effect
have different velocities relative to the medium of sound propagation
Coulomb's law: the magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted by one point charge (Q1) on another point charge (Q2) is
directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r)
between them
Electrostatics Electric field: a region of space in which an electric charge experiences a force. The direction of the electric field at a point is the
direction that a positive test charge would move if placed at that point
Electric field at a point: The electric field at a point is the electrostatic force experienced per unit positive charge placed at that
point
Ohm's law: the potential difference across a conductor is directly proportional to the current in the conductor at constant
temperature
Electric Circuits
Power: the rate at which work is done
Emf: the maximum energy provided by a battery per unit charge passing through it
rms value: the DC potential difference/current which dissipates the same amount of energy as AC
rms potential difference: the AC potential difference which dissipates/produces the same amount of energy as an equivalent DC
Electrodynamics
potential difference.
rms current: the alternating current which dissipates/produces the same amount of energy as an equivalent direct current (DC).
Optical Photoelectric effect: the process whereby electrons are ejected from a metal surface when light of suitable frequency is incident
Phenomena and on that surface
Properties of Threshold frequency (fo): the minimum frequency of light needed to emit electrons from a certain metal surface
Materials Work function (Wo): the minimum energy that an electron in the metal needs to be emitted from the metal surface
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Grade 12 Science Essentials
Vectors in 2D SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
RESOLVING INTO Fx COMPONENTS ON A

COMPONENTS
x SLOPE
θ Fg // = Fg sin θ
Diagonal vectors can be broken into When forces act on objects on a
components. When vectors are bro- Fx = F cos θ slope, it is useful to resolve vec- Fg ⊥ = Fg cos θ F g//
F Fg θ
F g⟂
ken into the x- and y-components, tors into components that are
Fy
we are determining the horizontal Fy = F sin θ parallel (//) or perpendicular (⟂)
Fg θ
F g⟂
(x-axis) and vertical (y-axis) effect components. The most common
of the vector. We can use sin or cos, force resolved into components θ
provided that the angle is between on a slope is weight (Fg).
the force F and the horizontal. y F g//
CONSTRUCTING FORCE TRIANGLE
When forces are not co-linear, force triangles can be used to determine resultant forces or the equilibrant. When force triangles are formed, basic geometric rules can be used to determine vectors or resultants.
Tail-to-head Parallelogram Manipulation
Used for consecutive vectors (vectors that occur in sequence). Used for vectors that act concurrently on the same object. The vector arrows can be manipulated to form a force triangle to determine the
The resultant is the diagonal of a parallelogram that originates resultant forces or an equilibrant. The vectors/arrows may only be moved if the
Eg. A boat travels 90 m east, and then moves 50 m north.
y from the tail of the vectors (common origin). magnitude and direction are both kept constant.
y When manipulating the vector arrows, the following has to remain the same:
• Length of arrow (magnitude)
• Angle of the arrow (direction)
• The direction of the arrow head
t
Vector 2
tan
su l
Re Eg. An object is suspended from a ceiling by 2 cables. Below is a free body dia-
Vector 2
nt
gram as well as a force triangle that can be used to calculate the values of T1 and
l ta
su
T2.
Re
Free body diagram Force triangle
x
Vector 1
x
This principle can also be applied to more than 2 vectors Vector 1
taken in order. The resultant is from the tail of the first vector
to the head of the last. Eg. Two tugboats apply a force of 6 000N and 5 000N at bear-
y ings of 60° and 120° respectively on a cargo ship.
T1
Vect
y
T2 T1
or 4
Fg
nt
Resulta
0N
6 00
or 3
Resultant
x
Vect
x 50 Fg T2
00
N
Vector 1
o r2
ct
Ve
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2D Vectors- Resultant and Equilibrant SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
RESULTANT: The single vector which has the same effect as the EQUILIBRANT: The force that keeps a system in equilibrium.
original vectors acting simultaneously on an object.
The equilibrant is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the resultant force.
PYTHAGORAS (90° ONLY) COMPONENT ADDITION
Pythagoras can only be applied to vector triangles that are right angle triangles. The resultant of diagonal forces can be determined using Pythagoras by determining the x-resultant and
y-resultant first. This is especially useful for determining resultants when more than 2 forces act on an
FOR FINDING SIDES: FOR FINDING ANGLES:
object and a force triangle can not be used.
o a o
R2 = x2 + y2 sin θ = cos θ = tan θ = EXAMPLE:
h h a
Three forces act on an object as shown in the diagram below. Determine the resultant force on the ob-
ject.
EXAMPLE:
1.Determine the x- and y-components of each force.
A boat travels 90 m due east, and then moves 50 m due north. Determine the displacement 11N force:
of the boat. y Fy = F sin θ
Fx = F cos θ
= 11 cos 70 = 11 sin 70 11 N
= 3,76 N right (90o ) = 10,34 N up (0o ) 70°
40° 35°
30N force:
Fx = F cos θ Fy = F sin θ 30 N 20 N
nt
su lta = 30 cos 40 = 30 sin 40
Re = 22,98 N left (270o ) = 19,28 N down (180o )
50 m
20N force:
Fx = F cos θ Fy = F sin θ
= 20 cos 35 = 20 sin 35
θ x = 16,38 N right (90o ) = 11,47 N down (180o )
90 m
R2 = x2 + y2 2. Determine the x- and y-resultants of components.
R = 2
90 + 50 2 Take left (270o) as positive Take down (180o) as positive
2,84 N
R = 102,96 m Fx = −3,76 + 22,98 − 16,38 Fy = −10,34 + 19,28 + 11,47 θ
= 2,84 N left (270o ) = 20,41 N down (180o )
o
tan θ =
20,41 N
a
tan−1( 50 R
90 )
3. Find resultant-Pythagoras. 4. Find angle- trigonometry
θ = o
R2 = x2 + y2 tan θ = a
θ = 29,05∘ 20,41
R = 2,842 + 20,412 θ = tan−1 2,84
∘
Remember that θ calculated is relative to the x-axis, R = 20,61 N θ = 82,08
∘ ∘ ∘
∴ bearing = 90 − 29,05 = 60, 95
∴Resultant = 20,61 N at a bearing of 187,92°
∴ Displacement = 102,96 m at a bearing of 60,95∘
Newton’s Laws of Motion SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
FORCES
Non-contact force: A force exerted between Contact force: A force exerted between A force is a push or a pull action exerted on an object by another object. This action can be exerted
while objects are in contact (contact force) or over a distance (non-contact force).
objects over a distance without physical contact. objects that are in contact with each other.
Because forces have magnitude and direction, they are vectors. Force is measured in newton (N). 1 N is
Electrostatic force (FE) Applied force (FA) the force required to accelerate a 1 kg object at 1 m·s-2 in the direction of the force. We can therefore
say that 1 N = 1 kg·m·s-2.
Gravitational force (w/Fg) Tension (T or FT)
NOTE:
Magnetic force Friction (Ff or fs/fk)
Free-Body Diagram: forces drawn away from a dot which represents the object
Normal force (N/FN)
Normal force (FN) Friction (Ff or fs/fk)

The perpendicular force exerted by a surface on an object in contact with it. Frictional force due to a surface is the force that opposes the motion of an object in contact
with it, parallel to the surface.
FN Friction is the parallel component of the contact force on an object by the surface on which
The normal force is equal to the perpendicular component of
gravity if there are no other forces acting on the object. it rests. The friction between the contact surfaces is determined by the properties of both the contact
surfaces of the object and surface. The coefficient of friction (µs/µk) is a description of the roughness of
the surface. The rougher the surface, the greater the coefficient of friction.
FN = Fg
Static friction (fs) Kinetic friction (fk)
Fg
Static friction is the frictional force on a sta- Kinetic friction is the frictional force on a mov-
If alternative forces act on the object, the normal force will change depending on the direction and mag- tionary object that opposes the tendency of ing object that opposes the motion of the
nitude of the applied force. All vertical forces must be balanced if there is no acceleration in the vertical motion of the object. The magnitude of the object. The magnitude of the kinetic friction is
plane. static friction will increase from 0N as the parallel constant for the specific system at all velocities
FA FA component of the applied force is increased, until greater than zero, and irrespective of the applied
FN FN maximum static friction is reached. fs(max) is the force.
θ θ magnitude of friction when the object just starts
to move.
fs(max) = μs FN fk = μk FN
Fg Fg
fs(max) = maximum static friction (N) fk = kinetic friction (N)
μs = coefficient of friction (no unit) μk = coefficient of friction (no unit)
FN + FAy − Fg = 0 FN − Fg − FAy = 0
FN = normal force (N) FN = normal force (N)
FN + FA sin θ = Fg FN = Fg + FA sin θ
If the applied force is greater than the maximum static friction, the object will start to move.
Objects suspended from a rope/string/cable have no fsmax

FT
normal force, as there is no surface on which the object rests.
Fric%on (N)
The tension is equal to the perpendicular component of )
(f s
gravity if there are no other forces acting on the object n
c $o
OR the full magnitude of Fg for vertically suspended
c fri Kine%c fric%on (fk)
objects that are stationary/moving at constant velocity. a$
St
FT + (−Fg ) = 0
Fg
Applied force (N)
Newton’s Laws of Motion SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
Newton’s First Law of Motion Newton’s Second Law of Motion Newton’s Third Law of Motion
An object continues in a state of rest or uniform (moving with When a net force is applied to an object of mass, it acceler- When object A exerts a force on object B, object B simulta-
constant) velocity unless it is acted upon by an unbalanced (net ates in the direction of the net force. The acceleration is neously exerts an oppositely directed force of equal mag-
or resultant) force. directly proportional to the net force and inversely propor- nitude on object A.
Newton’s First Law is due to inertia- the resistance of an object to tional to the mass.
change its state of rest or constant/uniform motion. NB!
Newton’s Third Law describes action-reaction force pairs. These
−2 Newton’s Second Law is dependent on the resultant force-
Fnet = 0 N a = 0 m⋅s The vector sum of all forces acting on the same object.
are forces on different objects and can not be added or sub-
tracted.
A 3kg object moves up an incline surface at an angle of 15º with a
constant velocity. The coe"cient of friction is 0,35. Determine Fnet = m a a ≠ 0 m ⋅ s −2 FA on B = − FB on A
the magnitude of the applied force.
FA
FN A 20 N force is applied to a 5 kg object. The object accelerates Force pairs properties:
up a frictionless incline surface at an angle of 15º. Determine
• Equal in magnitude
the acceleration of the object.
• Opposite in direction
Fg// FA • Acts on different objects (and therefore DO NOT CANCEL each
FN other out)
fk
15° Fg T
NOTE:
The force pairs shown
Take upwards as positive: Fg// here are gravitational
Fnet⊥ = 0 Fman on earth forces.
FN + (−Fg ⊥ ) = 0
FN = Fg ⊥
15° Fg T Fearth on man Gravity and Normal force
are NOT force pairs.
FN = m g cos θ
FN = (3)(9,8)cos 15∘
Take upwards as positive:
FN = 28,40 N
Fnet// = ma
∴ FN = 28,40 N ⊥ up from slope
FA + (−Fg // ) = ma Fman on wall
20 − (5)(9,8)sin 15∘ = 5a
Fnet// = 0 20 − 12,68 = 5a
FA + (−Fg // ) + (−fk ) = 0 7,32
a =
FA = Fg // + fk 5
FA = m g sin θ + μk FN ∴a = 1,46 m ⋅ s−2 // up the slope

FA = (3)(9,8)sin 15∘ + (0,35)(28,40)
∴ FA = 17,55 N
Effect of Newton’s Second Law on overloading:
According to Newton’s Second Law, the acceleration of an object Fwall on man
Importance of wearing safety belts: is directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional
According to Newton’s First Law, an object will remain in motion at a to the mass of the object. If a vehicle is overloaded, the stopping
constant velocity unless a non-zero resultant force acts upon it. When a distance will increase which can lead to serious accidents. When Newton’s Third Law during an accident
car is in an accident and comes to a sudden stop, the person inside the brakes are applied, the force (friction) remains the same, but the According to Newton’s Third Law, the force that two objects exert
car will continue with a constant forward velocity. Without a safety increase in mass causes a decrease in negative acceleration, in- on each other is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. If
belt, the person will make contact with the windscreen of the car, caus- creasing the time (and distance) it takes for the vehicle to stop. two cars are in an accident, they will both exert the same amount
ing severe head trauma. The safety belt acts as an applied force (new of force on each other irrespective of their masses.
Fnet), preventing the forward motion of the person.
ALL EXAMPLES:
Newton’s Laws of Motion DIRECTION OF MOTION POSITIVE
SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
Horizontal Slopes
The vertical resultant = 0 N. The perpendicular (⟂) resultant = 0 N. Fg // = Fg sin θ
The horizontal resultant determines acceleration. The parallel (//) resultant determines acceleration.
Fg ⊥ = Fg cos θ
Pulled at an angle REMEMBER: Use components of weight.
FA FN Force applied down the slope Force applied up the slope
FAy
FN θ FN Ff FA FN FA
FN Ff FN
Ff Ff FAx
Fg// Fg//
Fg// Fg//
Fg Fg FA Fg⟂ Ff
FA fk Fg⟂
Horizontal: Vertical: θ Fg T
θ Fg T
Fnet = m a Fnet = 0
FAx + (−Ff ) = m a (−Fg ) + FN + FAy = 0 Parallel: Perpendicular: Parallel: Perpendicular:
Fnet = m a Fnet = 0 Fnet = m a Fnet = 0
Pushed at an angle Fg ∥ + FA + (−Ff ) = m a Fg ⊥ + (−FN ) = 0 (−Fg ∥) + (−Ff ) + FA = m a Fg ⊥ + (−FN ) = 0
FN FA FN
No force applied
θ
Parallel:
Ff FAx Ff FN Ff FN Ff Fnet = m a
Fg ∥ + (−Ff ) = m a
FAy
Fg Fg Fg// Fg// Perpendicular:
Fnet = 0
Horizontal:
Fnet = m a
Vertical:
Fnet = 0 Fg
Fg⟂ Fg ⊥ + (−FN ) = 0
θ T
FAx + (−Ff ) = m a Fg + (−FN ) + FAy = 0
Lift stationary/constant velocity Lift accelerating Lift in freefall (cable snap)
FT FT FT
Suspended FT
Vertical: Vertical: Vertical:
Horizontal resultant = 0 N.
Fnet = 0 Fnet = m a Fnet = m a
Vertical resultant determines acceleration.
Fg + (−FT ) = 0 Fg + (−FT ) = m a Fg = m a
REMEMBER: No normal or friction forces. Fg
Fg
Fg
Fg
Acceleration will be in the direc-
Fg Fg
tion of the greatest force.
ALL EXAMPLES:
Newton’s Laws of Motion DIRECTION OF MOTION POSITIVE
SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
Connected objects (e.g Pulley Systems) Objects attached by rope/cable

Do separate free body diagrams for each object. FN FN FN FN
The velocity and acceleration of all objects are equal in Horizontal: Horizontal:
magnitude and direction. Fnet = m a
Ff FT FT FA Ff FA Fnet = m a
Applied forces are applied to only one object at a time. (−Ff ) + FT = m a Ff FA + (−FT ) + (−Ff ) = m a
Simultaneous equations for acceleration and tension are FT
sometimes needed. Fg
Ff Fg
Fg Fg
REMEMBER:
Ropes/cables- The tension forces on
the objects are the same in magnitude Objects in contact
but opposite in direction. FN FN
FN FN
Touching objects- Newton’s Third Law FA
Horizontal: A FBA FAB B Horizontal:
Fnet = m a Ff FA Ff Ff FAB Fnet = m a

Same axis Ff
FA + (−FBA) + (−Ff ) = m a (−Ff ) + FAB = m a
Can be horizontal (multiple objects on a surface) or vertical FBA
(multiple suspended objects). Fg Fg
The velocity and acceleration of all objects are equal in Fg Fg
magnitude and direction.
Multiple axes
Multiple axes
FN
Horizontal (objects on a surface) AND vertical (suspended
FT1 FN FN
objects). In these examples,
FT1 FT2
The velocity and acceleration of all objects are equal in
Ff FT1 clockwise is positive: Ff
magnitude NOT DIRECTION. Right positive FT2
Fg Ff
Fg Down positive Fg Fg
Vector direction on multiple axes FT2
Clockwise: Fg
Right and Down positive
Fg
Left and Up negative
FN FT2 FN FN FT2
FT1
Ff FT1 Ff FT1 Ff FT2
OR
FT1
Anti-clockwise: Fg Fg Fg Fg Fg
FT2 Fg
Left and Up positive
Right and Down negative Horizontal: Vertical: Vertical: Horizontal: Horizontal: Vertical:
Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a
FT1 + (−Ff ) = m a Fg + (−FT1) + FT 2 = m a Fg + (−FT 2 ) = m a FT1 + (−Ff ) = m a FT 2 + (−FT1) + (−Ff ) = m a Fg + (−FT 2 ) = m a
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with RATIOS CALCULATIONS
a force which is directly proportional to the product of their 1. Write out the original formula. Gm1m2
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance 2. Manipulate unknown as subject. The gravitational force can be calculated using F =
between their centres. 3. Substitute changes into formula (Keep symbols!). r2
4. Simplify ratio number. REMEMBER:
Gm1m2 5. Replace original formula with unknown symbol. Mass in kg
F= EXAMPLE:
r2 Two objects, m1 and m2, are a distance r apart and experience a
Radius in m
force F. How would this force be affected if: Radius: centre of mass to centre of mass.
F = force of attraction between objects (N)
G = universal gravitational constant (6,67 ×10−11 N·m2·kg−2 ) a) One mass is doubled and the distance between the masses is Direction is ALWAYS attractive.
m= object mass (kg) halved?
Both objects experience the same force.
r = distance between object centers (m) Gm1m2 (Newton’s Third Law of Motion)
F= Write out the formula
r2
A uniform sphere of matter attracts a body that is outside the shell as if G(2m1)m2 EXAMPLE:
all the sphere’s mass was concentrated at its center. Fnew = Substitute changes into formula
( 1 r)2 The earth with a radius of 6,38 x 103 km is 149,6 x 106 km
2
away from the sun with a radius of 696 342 km. If the earth
2 Gm1m2 has a mass of 5,97 x 1024 kg and the sun has a mass of
= Simplify ratio number
1 r2 1,99 x 1030 kg, determine the force between the two bodies.
4
Gm1m2
= 8( )
Thus, the distance is determined between the centers of the two bodies. r2 r = 6,38 × 10 3 km + 149,6 × 106 km + 696 342 km
∴ Fnew = 8 F Replace original formula = 6,38 × 106 m + 149,6 × 109 m + 696 342 × 10 3 m
b) Both the two masses as well as the distance are doubled? = 1,5 × 1011 m
Gm1m2
F= Write out the formula Gm1m2
r2 F=
rmoon rman G(2m1)(2m2 ) r2
Fnew = Substitute changes into formula 6,67 × 10−11(5,97 × 10 24 )(1,99 × 10 30 )
NOTE: NOTE: (2r)2 F=
The radius of the earth is added The radius of object 4 Gm1m2 (1,50 × 1011)2
= Simplify ratio number
to the distance between the (man) on the earth is 4 r2 F = 3,52 × 10 22 N attraction
earth and the moon. negligibly small. Gm1m2
= 1(
r2 )
The force of gravitational attraction is a vector, therefore all vec-
tor rules can be applied:
KNOW THE DIFFERENCE! ∴ Fnew = 1 F Replace original formula
• Direction specific
g vs G
DETERMINING GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION (g) • Can be added or subtracted
g: Gravitational acceleration (9,8 m·s−2 on earth)
Gm object mPlanet
g is the acceleration due to gravity on a specific planet. F = m object g and F=
r 2Planet
G: Universal gravitational constant (6,67×10−11 N·m2·kg−2)
Proportionality constant which applies everywhere in the universe. Gm o mP
m og =
r 2P
Mass vs Weight Take right as positive:
Gm o mP
Mass (kg) g= Fnet on satallite = Fm on s + Fe on s
m o r 2P
= −( )+ ( )
A scalar quantity of matter which remains constant everywhere in the Gm m m s Gm e m s
GmP
universe. ∴g= rms 2 res 2
r 2P
∴ ( )= ( )
Weight (N) [gravitation force] Gm m m s Gm e m s
Weight is the gravitational force the Earth exerts on any object. Weight Therefore the gravitational acceleration of an object only depends rms 2 res 2
differs from planet to planet. Fg = mg. Weight is a vector quantity. on the mass and radius of the planet. Object mass is irrelevant!
Momentum and Impulse SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
MOMENTUM VECTOR NATURE OF MOMENTUM NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

Momentum: the product of the mass of an Momentum is a vector quantity and has both mag- Newton’s second law in terms of momentum: The resultant/net Derivation from Newton’s
object and its velocity. nitude and direction. It is therefore important to force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of mo- Second Law
always include direction in all momentum calcu- mentum of the object in the direction of the resultant/net force. Fnet = m a
Momentum can be thought of as quantifying the
lations. According to Newton’s Second Law, a resultant force applied to an object
motion of an object. The following equation is used Δv
to calculate momentum: will cause the object to accelerate. When the net force on an object Fnet = m
EXAMPLE: changes, so does its velocity and hence the momentum. Δt
A golf ball of mass 0,05 kg leaves a golf club mvf − mvi
at a velocity of 90 m·s 1 in an easterly direc-
Fnet =
Fnet = resultant force (N) Δt
tion. Calculate the momentum of the golf
Δp
ball. Fnet Δt = Δp Δp = change in momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1) Fnet =
p = momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1) Δt
p = mv m = mass (kg) Δt = time (s) Fnet Δt = Δp
Choosing east as positive:
v = velocity (m ⋅ s ) −1 p = mv IMPULSE
= (0,05)(90) Impulse: the product of the net force acting on an object and the time the over which the
= 4,5 kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1 east net force acts on the object.
CHANGE IN MOMENTUM By rearranging Newton’s second law in terms of momentum, we find that impulse is equal to the change
in momentum of an object according to the impulse-momentum theorem:
When a net force acts on an object, it results in a change in velocity for the object and therefore a
change in momentum (p) for the object. The change in momentum can be calculated by using: Impulse = FΔt
Impulse, FΔt , is measured in N·s.
Impulse = Δp
Δp = change in momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1) mΔv = Δp Δp is measured in kg·m·s−1
Δp = pf − pi pf = final momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1) The change in momentum is directly dependent on the magnitude of the resultant force and the dura-
−1
tion for which the force is applied. Impulse is a vector, ∴ direction specific.
pi = initial momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s )
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
Due to the vector nature of momentum, it is very important to choose a positive direction.
A golf ball with a mass of 0,1 kg is driven from the The following graph shows the force ex-
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: tee. The golf ball experiences a force of 1000 N while erted on a hockey ball over time. The
A 1000 kg car initially moving at a constant A cricket ball with a mass of 0,2 kg approaches a in contact with the golf club and moves away from the hockey ball is initially stationary and has a
velocity of 16 m·s 1 in an easterly direction cricket bat at a velocity of 40 m·s 1 east and golf club at 30 m·s 1. For how long was the golf club mass of 150 g.
approaches a stop street, starts breaking and leaves the cricket bat at a velocity of 50 m·s 1 in contact with the ball?
comes to a complete standstill. Calculate the west. Calculate the change in the ball’s momen- Fnet Δt = m Δv
change in the car’s momentum. tum during its contact with the cricket bat. 1000t = (0,1)(30 − 0)
t = 3 × 10−3 s
Choosing east as positive: Choosing east as positive: EXAMPLE:
Δp = pf − pi Δp = pf − pi Why can airbags be useful during a collision? State Calculate the magnitude of the impulse
Δp = mvf − mvi Δp = mvf − mvi your answer by using the relevant scientific principle. (change in momentum) of the hockey ball.
Δp = (1 000)(0) − (1 000)(16) Δp = (0,2)(−50) − (0,2)(40) The change in momentum remains constant, but the Fnet Δt = area under graph
Δp = −16 000 Δp = −18 use of an airbag prolongs the time (t) of impact dur- 1
ing the accident. The resultant force experienced is impulse = b ⊥h
2
∴ Δp = 16 000 kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1 west ∴ Δp = 18 kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1 west inversely proportional to the contact time (F ∝ 1/t), 1
impulse = (0,5)(150)
therefore resulting in a smaller resultant force (Fnet) 2
(Δp is constant). impulse = 37,5 N ⋅ s
Conservation of Momentum SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM NEWTON’S THIRD LAW AND MOMENTUM

Conservation of linear momentum: The total linear momentum of an isolated system re- During a collision, the objects involved will exert forces on each other. Therefore, according to Newton’s
mains constant . third law, if object A exerts a force on object B, object B will exert a force on object A where the two
forces are equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction.
Σpbefore = Σpafter
pA(before) + pB(before) = pA(after) + pB(after) The magnitude of the force, the contact time and therefore the impulse on both objects are
equal in magnitude.
mA viA + mBviB + . . . = mA vfA + mBvfB + . . .
Forces are applied between objects during:
System: A set number of objects and their interactions with each other.
External forces: Forces outside of the system. Collisions: Move off together, collide and deflect, object dropped vertically on moving object.
Isolated system: A system on which the net external force is zero. Explosions: Explosions, springs, firearms
Collisions Explosions
Move off together Explosions
vA vB = 0 vA+B Objects that experience the same vA+B = 0 vA vB

When objects collide and move off explosion will experience the same
together, their masses can be force.
added as one object
mA mB Collision mA+B The acceleration, velocity and mo- mA+B Explosion mA mB
mentum of the object is dependent
Objects that are stationary (B) on the mass.
have an initial velocity of zero. Σp before = Σpafter Objects that are stationary (A+B) Σp before = Σpafter
mA viA + mBviB = (mA + mB)vf have an initial velocity of zero. (mA + mB)vi = mA vfA + mBvfB
Collide and rebounds Springs
Objects can collide and move off

vA vB vA vB The spring will exert the same vB = 0 vB = 0 vA vB
separately force on both objects (Newton’s
Third Law).
mA mB Collision mA mB The acceleration, velocity and mo- mA mB Push mA mB
REMEMBER: The velocity and mentum of the object is dependent
momentum are vectors (i.e. direc- on the mass.
tion specific). Velocity substitution Σp before = Σpafter Σp before = Σpafter
must take direction into account. Objects that are stationary (A+B)
mA viA + mBviB = mA vfA + mBvfB have a velocity of zero. (mA + mB)vi = mA vfA + mBvfB
Object dropped vertically on a moving object Firearms/ cannons

Example: A stuntman jumps off a vA+B
bridge and lands on a truck. vA MB The gun and bullet will experience vG+B = 0 vG vB
the same force.
Linear momentum= momentum
vB = 0 Shoot
The acceleration of the weapon is
along one axis. mA Collision mA+B significantly less than the bullet
mG+B mG mB
A dropped object has a horizontal due to mass difference
velocity of zero,
Σp before = Σpafter Recoil can be reduced by increas- Σp before = Σpafter
ing the mass of the weapon.
∴viB= 0m·s 1
mA viA + mBviB = (mA + mB)vf (m G + mB)vi = m G vfG + mBvfB
Momentum and Energy SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
ELASTIC VS INELASTIC COLLISIONS PENDULUMS
Elastic collision: a collision in which both momentum and kinetic

energy are conserved.
Inelastic collision: a collision in which only momentum is conserved.
DOWNWARD SWING:
Conservation of mechanical en-
In an isolated system, momentum will always be conserved. To prove ergy (EM) to determine velocity at
that a collision is elastic, we only have to prove that kinetic energy is the bottom of the swing:
conserved.
Kinetic energy can be calculated using the mass and velocity of an EM(top) = EM(bottom)
object:
1 1
mv 2 = mg h + mv 2
mg h + 2 2 h
EK = kinetic energy (J)
1 COLLISION:
EK = mv 2 m = mass (kg)
2 Conservation of linear momentum to deter-
v = velocity (m ⋅ s−1) mine the velocity of the block after impact.
Σp before = Σpafter
Elastic collision: ΣEk(before) = ΣEk(after)
pA(before) + pA(before) = pA(after) + pA(after)
Inelastic collision: ΣEk(before) ≠ ΣEk(after)
mA viA + mBviB + . . . = mA vfA + mBvfB + . . .
(some energy is lost as sound or heat)
EXAMPLE:
The velocity of a moving trolley of mass 1 kg is 3 m·s 1. A block of
mass 0,5 kg is dropped vertically on to the trolley. Immediately
UPWARD SWING:
after the collision the speed of the trolley and block is 2 m·s 1 in
the original direction. Is the collision elastic or inelastic? Prove your Conservation of mechanical en-
answer with a suitable calculation. ergy (EM) to determine height that
the pendulum will reach:
1 1
ΣEk(before) = mt vt2 + m v2
2 b b
2 EM(bottom) = EM(top)
1 1
= (1)(3)2 + (0,5)(0)2 1 1
2 2 mg h + 2
mv 2 = mg h + 2
mv 2
= 4,5 J
1
ΣEk(after) = 2
mt+ b vt+2 b COLLISION:
1 Conservation of linear momentum to deter-
= 2
(1 + 0,5)(2)2 mine the velocity of the pendulum after impact.
= 3J Σp before = Σpafter
pA(before) + pA(before) = pA(after) + pA(after)
ΣEk(before) ≠ ΣEk(after) mA viA + mBviB + . . . = mA vfA + mBvfB + . . .
∴ Kinetic energy is not conserved and the collision is inelastic
Energy SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
ENERGY PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

The ability to do work Principle of conservation of mechanical energy: The total mechanical
Unit: joules (J) energy in an isolated system remains constant. EMECHA = EMECHB
Scalar quantity The law of conservation of mechanical energy applies when there is no fric- (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B
Gravitational Potential Energy (EP) Kinetic Energy (EK) tion or air resistance acting on the object. In the absence of air resistance, or
1 1
other forces, the mechanical energy of an object moving in the earth’s gravita- (m g h + m v 2 )A = (m g h + m v 2 )B
The energy an object possesses The energy an object has 2 2
due to its position relative to a as a result of the object’s tional field in free fall, is conserved.
reference point. motion
General law of conservation of energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, merely transferred.
In the following instances the gravitational potential energy of an object is converted to kinetic energy (and vice versa), while the
Amount of energy transferred when an Amount of energy transferred
mechanical energy remains constant.
object changes position relative to the to an object as it changes
earth’s surface. speed. EXAMPLE 1: Object moving vertically EXAMPLE 2: Object moving on an inclined plane
A 2 kg ball is dropped from rest at A, determine the maximum velocity A 2 kg ball rolls at 3 m·s−1 on the ground at A, determine the maximum
1 of the ball at B just before impact. height the ball will reach at B.
EP = mg h EK = mv 2
2
g = 9,8 m·s–2, m is mass in kg, m is mass in kg,
h is height in m above the ground v is velocity in m·s–1
Example: Example:
Determine the gravitational potential Determine the kinetic energy (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B
energy of a 500 g ball when it is placed of a 500 g ball when it travels (m g h + 1 m v 2 )A = (m g h + 1 m v 2 )B 1
(m g h + m v 2 )A = (m g h +
1
m v 2 )B
2 2 2 2
on a table with a height of 3 m. with a velocity of 3 m.s–1.
1 1
(2)(9,8)(4) + (2)(0 2 )
2
= (2)(9,8)(0) + (2)vB2
2
(2)(9,8)(0) + 1 (2)(32 ) = (2)(9,8)(h B ) + 1 (2)(0 2 )
2 2
EP = mg h EK =
1
m v2
2 78,4 + 0 = 0 + 1vB2 0+ 9 = 19,6h B + 0
= (0,5)(9,8)(3) 1 9
= (0,5)(32 ) vB = 78,4 = hB
= 14,7 J 2 19,6
= 2,25 J vB = 8,85 m ⋅ s−1 downwards hB = 0,46 m
EXAMPLE 3: Pendulum EXAMPLE 4: Rollercoaster
Mechanical Energy (EM) The 2 kg pendulum swings from A at 5 m·s−1 to B, on the ground, The 2 kg ball rolls on a toy rollercoaster from A, at 20 m above the
The sum of gravitational potential and kinetic energy of an where its velocity is 8 m·s−1. Determine the height at A. ground, to B where its height is 8 m and velocity is 14 m·s−1. Calculate
its starting velocity at A.
object at a point
EM = EP + EK
1
EM = mg h + 2
mv 2
EXAMPLE:
A ball, mass 500 g, is thrown horizontally through the air. The ball travels
at a velocity of 1,8m·s −1 and is 2,5 m from the ground. Determine the (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B
mechanical energy of the ball. (m g h + 1 m v 2 )A = (m g h + 1 m v 2 )B
1
(m g h + m v 2 )A = (m g h +
1
m v 2 )B
2 2 2 2
EM = EP + EK 1
(2)(9,8)(h A ) + (2)(52 ) =
1
(2)(9,8)(0) + (2)(82 )
1
(2)(9,8)(20) + (2)(vA2 ) =
1
(2)(9,8)(16) + (2)(142 )
2 2 2 2
1
EM = mg h + 2
m v2 19,6h A + 25 = 0 + 64 392 + vA2 = 313,6 + 196
1 64 − 25
EM = (0,5)(9,8)(2,5) + 2
(0,5)(1,82 ) 19,6
= hA vA = 313,6 + 196 − 392
EM = 13,06 J hA = 1,99 m vA = 10,84 m ⋅ s−1 to the right
Work, Energy and Power SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
WORK No Work done on an object (moving at a constant velocity) if the force and NET WORK ON AN OBJECT
Work done is the transfer of energy. Work done on an displacement are perpendicular to each other. A number of forces can act on an object at the same time. Each force
object by a force is the product of the displacement Consider a man carrying a suitcase with a weight of 20 N on a ‘travelator’ can do work on the object to change the energy of the object. The net
and the component of the force parallel to the dis- moving at a constant velocity. work done on the object is the sum of the work done by each force act-
placement.
W = FΔx cos θ FA = 20 N W = Fx Δx cos θ ing on the object.
W = work (J) Fx = F cos θ If Wnet is positive, energy is added to the system.

NOTE:
F = force applied (N) If Wnet is negative, energy is removed from the system.
Work is a scalar quantity, Direc)on
Δx = displacement (m) i.e. NO DIRECTION for of mo)on
θ = Angle between F and Δx F or x! Fg = 20 N Work and Energy are SCALARS, and NOT direction specific.
The joule is the amount of work done when a force of one EXAMPLE:
newton moves its point of application one meter in the di- Calculate the net work done on a trolley where a force of 30 N is ap-
rection of the force. Δx plied to the trolley. The trolley moves 3 m to the left. The force of
FA is perpendicular to the displacement: θ = 90° ; cos 90° = 0. friction is 5 N to the right.
Work always involves two things:
Work done by applied force: Work done by frictional force:
1. A force which acts on a certain object. (F) No force in the plane of the displacement, hence, NO WORK IS DONE by
2. The displacement of that object. (Δx / Δy) FA and Fg and no energy is transferred. We can also say that FA / Fg does WA = FΔx cos θ Wf = Ff Δx cos θ
not change the potential energy (height) or kinetic energy (vertical velo- = (30)(3)cos 0 = (5)(3)cos 180
F city) of the object.
= 90 J gained = − 15 J "lost"
A force/force component in the direction of the displacement does positive
work on the object. The force increases the energy of the object. Work done by gravity Work done by normal force:
Δx Wg = FgΔx cos θ WN = FN Δx cos θ
Positive work means that energy is added to the system.
When a resultant force is applied to an object, the resultant = (Fg )(3)cos 90 = (FN )(3)cos 90
force accelerates the block across distance Δx. Work has
been done to increase the kinetic energy of the block. F Direc+on = 0J = 0J
of mo+on W = Fx Δx cos θ
Wnet = WA + Wf + WN + Wg
θ Fx = F cos θ = 90 − 15 + 0 + 0
Δx
If a resultant force is applied to an = 75 J nett energy gained
object vertically, the resultant force
Alternative method for determining net work:
lifts the block through distance Δy.
0° ≤ θ < 90° ; +1 ≥cos θ > 0 1. Draw a free body showing only the forces acting on the object.
Work has been done to increase the F
potential energy of the block. Δy A force/force component in the opposite direction of the displacement does 2. Calculate the resultant (net) force acting on the object.
“Lifting” usually implies at a constant negative work on the object. The force decreases the energy of the 3. Calculate the net work using Wnet = FnetΔx cos θ
velocity. object. Step 1: Freebody diagram
Negative work means that energy is being removed from the FN
system.
W = Fx Δx cos θ
F
Fx = F cos θ Direc+on
of mo+on FA = 30 N Ff = -5 N
θ F θ Fg
Δx
Take left as positive:
Δx
90° < θ ≤ 180° ; 0 > cos θ ≥ −1 Step 2: Calculate Fnet Step 3: Net work
Work is only done in the direction of the displacement.
Work is done by the component of the force that is parallel Fnet = FA + Ff Wnet = Fnet Δx cos θ
to the displacement. The angle between the force and the = 30 − 5 = (25)(3)cos 0
displacement is θ. If no displacement takes place due to NB: Never use a – for F in the opposite direction. The cos θ = 25 N left = 75 J gained
the applied force, no work is done. makes provision for that.
WORK ENERGY THEOREM NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES POWER

(FT, FA, Ff, Fair resistance)
According to Newton’s Second Law of Motion, when a resultant force Power is the rate at which work is done OR the rate at
acts on an object, the object accelerates. This means there is a which energy is transferred.
change in velocity of the object, and therefore a change in kinetic A force is a non-conservative force if: W E
energy of the object, since Ek = ½ mv2
1. The work done by the force in moving an object from point A to P= =
WORK-ENERGY THEOREM: The work done by a net force on point B is dependent of the path taken.
Δt Δt
an object is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the P = power (watt)
object 2. The net work done in moving an object in a closed path which starts W = work (J)
and ends at the same point is not zero. Δt = time (s)
Wnet = ΔE K
1 EXAMPLE:
Fnet Δx = 2
m(v 2f − v 2i ) A non-conservative force does not conserve mechanical energy.
A certain amount of energy is converted into other forms such as internal Calculate the power expended by an engine when an object
CONSERVATIVE FORCES energy of the particles which the objects is made of. An example of a of mass 100 kg is lifted to a height of 2,2 m in a time of 3 s,
non-conservative force is the frictional force. at a constant velocity.
A force is a conservative force if:
Consider the crate on a rough surface being pushed with a constant
W NOTE:
1. The work done by the force in mov- EP = EP force FA from position 1 to position 2 along two different paths. P=
Δt
ing an object from point A to point B
is independent of the path taken. FA FA = FΔx cos θ
Fnet = 0 N
Ff Δt
∴ Wnet = 0 J
2. The net work done in moving an Ff =
(100)(9,8)(2,2)cos 0
3 ∴ Pnet = 0 W
object in a closed path which starts
and ends at the same point is zero. = 718,67 W
FA
AVERAGE POWER (CONSTANT VELOCITY)
1 Ff 2
Conservative force conserve mechanical energy. Example of We can calculate the average power needed to keep an object
conservative forces are gravitational force and spring force. The work done by FA is more when the longer path is taken. The work moving at constant speed using the equation:
done to overcome the friction will result in the surface of the crate be-
coming hotter. This energy is dissipated (as sound and/or heat) and is Paverage = Fvaverage
very difficult to retrieve, i.e. not conserved.
Δx
Paverage = F
Δt
Note: the total energy of the system is conserved in all cases, whether
the forces are conservative or non-conservative. EXAMPLE:
Wnc = ΔE K + ΔEP A man lifts a 50 kg bag of cement from ground level up to a
The work done by gravity on each ball is independent of the path 1 height of 4 m above ground level in such a way that the bag
taken. Only the h⟂ is considered. = 2
m(v 2f − v 2i ) + mgΔh of cement moves at constant velocity (i.e. no work is done to
change kinetic energy). Determine his average power if he
does this in 10 s.
EXAMPLE: ΔEP = mgΔh ΔE K = E Kf − E Ki
= mg(h f − h i ) =
1
m(v 2f − v 2i )
An 800 kg car traveling at
= (800)(9,8)(0 − 100 sin 30∘ )
2 Paverage = Fvaverage
15 m·s−1 down a 30° hill needs 1
100 = (800)(0 2 − 152 )
to stop within 100 m to avoid m = − 392 000 J 2 Δy
= F
an accident. Using energy calcu- = − 90 000 J Δt
lations only, determine the mag- Wnc = ΔE K + ΔE P 4m = (50)(9,8)( 10
4
)
nitude of the average force that FA Δx cos θ = ΔE K + ΔEP
must be applied to the brakes = 196 W
FA (100)cos 180 = − 90 000 − 392 000
over the 100 m. Assume that
− 482 000
the surface is frictionless. FA = −100
30° This cannot be used for object in freefall, unless the object has
FA = 4 820 N reached terminal velocity.
When to use which formulae

CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY ALTERNATIVE METHODS TO DETERMINE WORK DONE BY Fg ON A SLOPE
WITHOUT RESOLVING Fg INTO Fg⟂ AND Fg//
E MA = E MB
1. When an object moves up a slope 2. When an object moves down a slope
(E P + EK )A = (E P + EK )B with a known angle with a known angle
• When there are no external force (FA/Ff) present.

• Any track/pendulum with a curve that is not a straight line. 4m
4m 120° 120°
60° 60°
WORK-ENERGY PRINCIPLE 30°
Fg = 100 N
30°
Fg = 100 N
Wnet = ΔEK
1 1
= 2
mv 2f − 2 mv 2i Wg = Fg Δx cos θ Wg = Fg Δx cos θ
= (100)(4)cos 120∘ = (100)(4)cos 60∘
= −200 J = 200 J
• If an object is accelerating on a horizontal/incline plane.
Any of the following methods may be used:
FN
FA
3. When an object moves up a slope without a 4. When an object moves down a slope without a
given angle, but with specified height given angle, but with specified height
Fg 3m 3m
30°
A. Fnet → Wnet A. Wnet = ∑W Fg = 100 N Fg = 100 N
1. Determine Fnet separately 1. Determine W of each force seperately
Fnet = FA − F f − Fg // WA = FAΔx cos θ Wg = Fg Δx cos θ Wg = Fg Δx cos θ
Fnet = FA − Ff − Fg sin θ WN = FN Δx cos θ
= (100)(3)cos 180∘ = (100)(3)cos 0∘
Fnet = FA − Ff − (100 sin 30∘ ) Wg = Fg Δx cos θ
= −300 J = 300 J
Wf = Ff Δx cos θ
2. Apply Fnet to Wnet 2. Apply ∑W to Wnet

1 1 1 1
Wnet = Fnet Δx cos θ = m v 2 − m vi2 WA + Wf + Wg + WA = Wnet = m v 2 − m vi2
2 f 2 2 f 2
Motion in 1D SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
VARIABLES Calculations:
A racing car starting from rest on the grid, travels straight Position vs Time Velocity vs Time Acceleration vs Time
vi initial velocity
along the track and reaches the 400 m mark after 8,6 s.
a) What was its average acceleration? Stationary (velocity = 0 m·s−1)
vf final velocity
a acceleration
a (m·s−2)
v (m·s−1)
∆x / ∆y displacement vi 0 Let forward be positive.
1
x (m)
Δx = vi Δt + a t2
∆t change in time vf / 2
1
EQUATIONS OF MOTION a ? 400 = (0)(8,6) + 2 a8,62 Δt (s) Δt (s) Δt (s)
−2
vf = vi + a Δt ∆x 400 m a = 10,82 m ⋅ s forward
1 Constant velocity (acceleration = 0 m·s−2)
Δx = vi Δt + a Δt 2 ∆t 8,6 s
2
vf2 = vi2 + 2a Δx
a (m·s−2)
v (m·s−1)
1 b) What was its velocity at the 400 m mark?
Δx = (v + vf )Δt
2 i vf = vi + aΔt
x (m)
Steps to using the equations: vf = 0 + (10,82)(8,6)
Δt (s) Δt (s) Δt (s)
vf = 93,05 m ⋅ s−1 forward
a) Draw a diagram of the motion of the object.
b) Identify each stage of the motion (where the accel- Increasing velocity (constant positive acceleration)
eration has changed). c) At the 400 m mark, the brakes are applied and the car
c) Choose a positive direction and use the same conven- slowed down at 2 m·s−2 to come to rest. Calculate the time it
tion throughout.
a (m·s−2)
v (m·s−1)
took for the car to stop.
d) Record the information given and value required by
x (m)
writing next to each variable. Check the unit and direc- NB! New stage of motion.
tion. Find the new value of each variable.
e) Select correct equation and solve for unknown. Δt (s) Δt (s) Δt (s)
f) Include units and direction in your answer.
Remember: vi 93,05 m·s-1 Decreasing velocity (constant negative acceleration)
‘starting from rest’ means: u or vi = 0 Let forward be positive.
vf 0
‘comes to a stop’ means: v or vf = 0 vf = vi + aΔt
a (m·s−2)
v (m·s−1)
Slowing down means: acceleration is negative (a < 0), a -2 m·s−2 0 = 93,05 − 2t
while still moving in a positive direction. Δt (s)
x (m)
Constant velocity means: a =0, u = v or vi = vf ∆x / t = 46,53 s
Use a new set of variables for each stage of the motion. ∆t ?
Conversion of units: 1 m.s-1 = 3,6 km.h-1.
Δt (s) Δt (s)
Displacement-Time Velocity-Time Acceleration-Time

• 1 is positive acceleration • 1 is positive acceleration • 1 is positive acceleration
• 2 is constant velocity • 2 is constant velocity • 2 is constant velocity (a = 0)
• 3 is negative acceleration • 3 is negative acceleration • 3 is negative acceleration
a (m·s–2)
• 4 is at rest • 4 is at rest, v = 0 m.s–1 • 4 is at rest or constant v
v (m·s–1)
x (m)
GRADIENT: GRADIENT: GRADIENT:

Velocity Acceleration n/a
AREA BELOW GRAPH: AREA BELOW GRAPH: AREA BELOW GRAPH:
n/a ΔDisplacement ΔVelocity
t (s) t (s)
t (s)
Vertical Projectile Motion SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
PROJECTILE MOTION PARTS OF PROJECTILE PATH

Only vertical movement (up and down) is considered, no hori- EXAMPLE:
A projectile is an object that moves freely under the influ- zontal movement is taken into account. The path of projectile
An object is projected vertically upwards. 4 seconds later, it is caught at the same
ence of gravity only. It is not controlled by any mechanism motion can be analysed using the 4 sections as shown below.
height (point of release) on its way downwards. Determine how long it took the
(pulley or motor). The object is in free fall, but may move The combination of these 4 parts will depend on the actual
ball to pass a height of 8 m in the upward direction. Choose downward as posi-
upwards (thrown up) or downwards. path travelled by the projectile. Example: Dropped projectile is tive direction.
Forces on a projectile sections C and D only. Object thrown upwards and falls on roof 1
is sections A to C.
Δy = viΔt + 2
at 2
In the absence of friction, the gravitational force of the earth total time = 4 s
1
is the only force acting on a free falling body. This force al- ∴ t up = 2 s −8 = − 19,6t + 2
(9,8)t 2
ways acts downwards. Time:
tA = tD 0 = 4,9t 2 − 19,6t + 8
Because the gravitational force is always downward, a projec- vf = vi + aΔt
tile that is moving upward, must slow down. When a projec- tB = tC
tile is moving downward, it moves in the direction of the B C 0 = vi + (9,8)(2)
SAME Displacement:
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
gravitational force, therefore it will speed up. vi = − 19,6 t =
HEIGHT ΔyA = ΔyD 2a
Acceleration due to gravity ΔyB = ΔyC ∴ vi = 19,6 m ⋅ s −1 u p
−(−19,6) ± (−19,6) 2 − 4(4,9)(8)
All free falling bodies near the surface of the earth have the
A D Velocity: t = 2(4,9)
same acceleration due to gravity. This acceleration is 9,8
m·s−2 downward. viA = vfD
−b ± 2
b − 4a c t = 0,46 s OR 3,54*
vfA = viD x=
Ignoring air resistance/friction; If a marble and a rock are SAME ∴ t = 0,46 s *time for downward
viB = vfC 2a
released from the same height at the same time, they will VfB = ViC = 0 m·s−1 direction
strike the ground simultaneously, and their final velocity will HEIGHT
be the same.
GRAPHS OF PROJECTILE MOTION
Their momentum (mv) and kinetic energy (½mv2) are (Eg. A ball is thrown into the air and is caught at the same height.)
not the same, due to a difference in mass. Graph manipulation:
Area
If two objects are released from different heights, they have Change in positive direction:
the same acceleration, but they strike the ground at different Flip graph along x-axis Δy vs Δt v vs Δt a vs Δt
times and have different velocities. Change in reference position:
Shift x-axis (Δy-Δt only) Gradient
vf = vi + aΔt Nega%ve
a
Ne
ga
UP POSITIVE
Δy = displacement (m) %
vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔy Posi%ve
ve
a
v (m·s−1)
a (m·s−2)
Δt = time (s) Δy
Nega
ve v
Δy (m)
Δt (s) Δt (s)
vi = initial velocity (m·s−1) Ne Nega%ve
1
Posi%
Nega%ve Δv
%ve
ga Δy
Δy = viΔt + aΔt 2 %v
ea
vf = final velocity (m·s−1)
v
2
a = acceleration (m·s−2)
vi + vf (9,8 m·s−2 downwards) Δt (s)
Δy = ( )Δt Posi%ve
2 a
DOWN POSITIVE
a
ve
REMEMBER: si% Posi%ve
a (m·s−2)
o
Nega
ve v
v (m·s−1)
P Posi%ve Δv
Δy (m)
1. Draw a sketch diagram Δy

Δt (s) Δt (s)
Posi%
Nega%ve
%ve
2. Write down given variables Δy

v
3. Choose positive direction

4. Solve
Δt (s)
Path of a Projectile
ALL EXAMPLES:
UP POSITIVE, POINT OF RELEASE IS REFERENCE
OBJECT DROPPED FROM HEIGHT (C+D) OBJECT THROWN DOWN FROM HEIGHT (D) OBJECT THROWN UP FROM HEIGHT (B+C+D)
vi = 0 m·s−1 vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 vi(down) = 0 m·s−1

vi ≠ 0 m·s−1
Δy (m)
Δy (m)
Δy (m)
vi(up) ≠ 0m·s−1
Δt (s) Δt (s)
Δt (s)
v (m·s−1) Δt (s) Δt (s)
v (m·s−1)
Δt (s)
v (m·s−1)
vf vf vf(down)
a (m·s−2)
Δt (s)
a (m·s−2)
a (m·s−2)
Also applies to objects Δt (s) Also applies to objects Δt (s)
dropped from a downward dropped from an upward
moving reference. moving reference.
OBJECT THROWN UP AND CAUGHT (A+B+C+D) OBJECT THROWN UP, LANDS AT HEIGHT (A+B+C) OBJECT THROWN UP FROM HEIGHT, BOUNCES (B+C+D)
vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 = vi(down) vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 = vi(down)

Δy (m)
Δy (m)
B
A
C
Δt (s)
Δy (m)
B D
v (m·s−1)
A
vf(down) D
C C
E
Δt (s) Δt (s) E
Δt (s)
Accera&on due to force
v (m·s−1)
by surface during bounce

v (m·s−1)
Δt (s) vi(up) ≠ 0m·s−1
Vi(up) = Vf(down)
a (m·s−2)
Δt (s)
Δt (s)
A B D E
C
a (m·s−2)
a (m·s−2)
Δt (s) Δt (s) If the collision is perfectly elastic, the downward velocity before the bounce
and the upward velocity after the bounce is equal in magnitude.
Treat the 2 projectile paths (before and after bounce) as separate paths.
Special Projectile Paths SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
HOT AIR BALLOON LIFT BOUNCING BALL – Ball falls from rest and bounces
Contact time
When an object is dropped Lift moving up Lift moving down
A C
from a moving reference B
D
(hot air balloon), the initial
Δy (m)
Δyli%
Δy (m)
velocity will be equal to that
of the reference. The accel-
eration of the object will be
li% height
D
downwards at B A C
Δt (s)
9,8 m·s−2, regardless of the
li% height
Δyball Δyball Δt (s) Contact time
acceleration of the refer-
ence.
Bounce
Apex
v (m·s−1)
v (m·s−1)
A B C D
A B C D Δt (s)
Δyli%
EXAMPLE: Apex
A hot air balloon ascends with a constant Δt (s) Bounce
Δyball = lift height + Δylift
velocity of 5 m·s−1. A ball is dropped from the
hot air balloon at a height of 50 m and falls gradient = g = +9,8 m.s–2 gradient = g = –9,8 m.s–2
EXAMPLE:
vertically towards the ground. Determine (a)
the distance between the hot air balloon and A lift accelerates upwards at a rate of 1,4 m·s−2. As the lift
ball after 2 seconds and (b) the velocity of the starts to move, a lightbulb falls from the ceiling of the lift. 10
ball when it reaches the ground. Determine how long it takes the lightbulb to reach the EXAMPLE:
lift’s floor. The height from the ceiling of the lift to its floor The velocity-time graph below represents the 5
(a) Take downwards as positive: Δt (s)
v (m·s−1)
Distance travelled by balloon : is 3m. bouncing movement of a 0,1 kg ball. Use the
graph to answer the questions that follow:
1 Take downwards as positive:
Δy = vi Δt + 2
aΔt 2
movement of lift :
1
= (−5)(2) + 2
(0)(22 ) Δylif t = vi Δt +
1
aΔt 2 a) Which direction of movement is positive?
−8
2
= − 10 Downwards
1
∴ Δy = 10 m up ylif t = (0)t + (−1,4)t 2
2 b) How many times did the ball bounce?
2 3 times
∴ ylif t = − 0,7t
Distance travelled by ball :
1 c) What does the gradient of the graph represent?
Δy = vi Δt + 2
aΔt 2 Acceleration of the ball
movement of bulb :
1
= (−5)(2) + 2
(9,8)(22 ) Δybu lb = vi Δt +
1
aΔt 2
d) Are the collisions between the ball and ground elastic or inelastic?
2 After each bounce there is a decrease in magnitude of the velocity of the ball,
= − 10 + 19,6 1 and therefore a change in kinetic energy. The collisions are inelastic as kinetic
3 + ylif t = (0)t + (9,8)t 2
∴ Δy = 9,6 m down 2 energy is not conserved.
3 − 0,7t 2 = 4,9t 2
∴ total distance = 10 + 9,6 e) If the ball is in contact with the ground for a duration of 0,08 s, determine the impulse on
= 19,6 m apart 3 = 5,6t 2 the ball
∴ t = 0,73s
Impulse = Δp
(b) Take downwards as positive: = m (vf − vi )
vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔy Simultaneous equation is needed be-
cause there are 2 unknown variables: = (0,1)(−8 − 10)
vf2 2
= (−5 ) + 2(9,8)(50) = − 1,8
•Distance that lift moved
∴ Impulse = 1,8 N ⋅ s upwards
vf = 25 + 980 •Time to reach floor
f) Predict why the ball stopped moving.
vf = 31,70 m ⋅ s−1 downwards
it was most likely caught
Electricity SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
SERIES PARALLEL CALCULATIONS (NO INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

If resistors are added in series, the If resistors are added in parallel, the total resistance will decrease Series circuit Parallel circuit
total resistance will increase and the and the total current will increase, provided the emf remains
total current will decrease provided constant. 10 V V1
V1
the emf remains constant.
CURRENT is the rate of flow of charge.
Q
I=
t
I is the current strength, Q the charge in coulombs and t the time in seconds. SI unit is ampere (A). 3A A3
A1 A2 V2
A1 R1 A1 R1 R2
A1 R1 R2 A2 R1
2Ω 5Ω 4Ω
A2 R2 A2 R3
R1 R2 12 Ω
R2
IT = I1 = I2 IT = I1 + I2 IT = I1 + I2 a) Determine the total resistance.
I1 = IR1 = IR2 a) Determine the total resistance. 1 1 1
= +
Rp R1 R2
RESISTANCE is defined as the material’s opposition to the flow of electric current. Rtot = R1 + R2
1 1
V = IR = 2+ 5 = +
4 12
R is the electrical resistance of the conducting material, resisting the flow of charge through it. = 7Ω = 1
Resistance (R) is the quotient of the potential difference (V) across a conductor and the current (I) in 3
it. The unit of resistance is called the ohm (Ω). ∴ Rp = 3Ω
b) Determine the reading on A1 and A2.
R1 R1 R2 V = IR b) Determine the reading on V1 and V2.
10 = I (7) V1 = IR
R1 R2
I = 1,43 A = (3)(3)
R2 R3 ∴ A1 = A2 = 1,43 A = 9V
∴ V1 = V2 = 9V
R s = R1 + R2 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = + Combination circuits
Rp R1 R2 Rp R1 + R2 R3
15 V
Consider the circuit given. (Internal resistance is negligible)
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (p.d.) is the work done per V2
NOTE: Calculate:
unit positive charge to move the charge from one point to an-
other. It is often referred to as voltage. 1. Emf (ε): voltage across cells when
W no current is flowing (open circuit). a) the effective resistance of the circuit.
V=
Q b) the reading on ammeter A1.
2. V term or VT: voltage across cells
V is Potential difference in V (volts), W is Work done or energy
R1
3Ω A1
when current is flowing. c) the reading on voltmeter V1.
transferred in J (joules) and Q is Charge in C (coulombs).
d) the reading on ammeter A2. 2Ω
V1 V1 V2 A2 R2
a)
1 1 1 4Ω
= +
R1 R1 R2 RP R2 R3 R3
1 1
V1 V2 = +
2 4 V1
R2 R3 3
=
R1 R2 4
V2 V3 4 b) c) d)
∴ Rp = = 1,33 Ω Vtot V1 V1
3 Rtot = RP = R2Ω =
I1 I1 I2
V4 Rtot = R3Ω + RP 15 V1 4,60
V3
4,33 = 1,33 = 2 =
= 3 + 1,33 I1 3,46 I2
Vs = V1 + V2 Vp = V1 = V2 = V3 Vp = V3 = V4 = (V1 + V2 ) = 4,33 Ω I1 = 3,46 A V1 = 4,60 V I2 = 2,30 A
Electricity SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
OHM’S LAW INTERNAL RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS (WITH INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

VT of external
The potential difference across the conductor is directly propor- The potential difference across a bat- ε = Vint + Vext circuit
tional to the current through the conductor provided that the tery not connected in a circuit is the 6V emf
temperature remains constant. emf of the battery. ΔV of internal
resistance
V Emf is the total energy supplied
R= per coulomb of charge by the cell.
I Vint = Ir Vext = IRext
5V
Proof of Ohm’s law: When connected in a circuit the poten-
tial difference drops due to the inter-
The current in the circuit is changed nal resistance of the cells.
using the rheostat, thus current is the ε = I(Rext + r)
independent variable and potential In reality all cells have internal resis-
A
difference is the dependent variable. tance (r). Internal resistors are al- EXAMPLE:
It is important that the temperature of ways considered to be connected in V
the resistor is kept constant. series with the rest of the circuit.
Determining the emf and internal resistance of a cell r
The resultant graph of potential differ-
ence vs current indicates if the con- V
V
V ε
ductor is ohmic or non-ohmic.
Ohmic conductor Non-ohmic conductor r y-intecept
= Emf Lost volts 5Ω 3Ω
• An Ohmic conductor is a conduc- • A Non-ohmic conductor is a ε Gra
Int dien = Ir
tor that obeys Ohm’s law at all conductor that does not obey A ern t =
al r Neg
temperatures. Ohm’s law at all temperatures. esi
sta ative 4Ω
V V nce
• Constant ratio for I . • Ratio for I change with change I When the switch is open the reading on the voltmeter is 12 V.
in temperature. When the switch is closed, the current through the 3 Ω resistor is 1 A.
• E.g. Nichrome wire
• E.g. Light bulb a) Calculate the total current of the circuit.
Independent variable Current (I) b) Calculate the internal resistance of the battery.
V V Dependent variable Potential difference (V)
c) How will the voltmeter reading change when the 4 Ω resistor is
e removed?
nc a) Rtop = R5Ω + R3Ω b) 1
=
1
+
1
ta Controlled variable Temperature
si s
Rp Rtop R 4Ω
Re = 5+ 3 1
t = = 8Ω = + 1
en
COST OF ELECTRICITY 8 4
i Rtop : R 4Ω
ad
3
=
Gr Electricity is paid for in terms of the amount of energy used
8 : 4
8
by the consumer. Rp =
8
= 2,67 Ω
I I 2 : 1 3
Note: ∴ Itop : I4Ω
POWER ε = I (R + r)
Cost of electricity = power × time × cost per unit P in kW
t in hours 1 : 2 12 = 3(2,67 + r)
Power is the rate at which work is done. r = 1,33 Ω
I4Ω = 2Itop
P = power (W) c) When the 4 Ω resistor is re-
W Example = 2(1)
P = W = work (J) moved, the external resistance
Δt = 2A increases and the current de-
A geyser produces 1200 W of power. Calculate the
Δt = time (s) cost of having the geyser switched on for 24 hours, if Itot = Itop + I4Ω creases. (I ∝ 1/R). Emf and
P = VI
I = current (A) the price of electricity is R1,55 per unit. = 1+ 2 internal resistance are constant,
P = I2R Cost = power × time × cost per unit = 3A therefore a decrease in current
V = potential will result in an increase in exter-
difference (V) = (1,2)(24)(1,55)
V2 nal VT (Voltmeter reading)
P = = R44,64
R R = resistance (Ω) V = ε – Ir
Electrostatics SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
FLASHBACK!! Unit of charges: CALCULATIONS- Electrostatic force

Prefix Conversion Electrostatic force is a vector, therefore all vec- The force can be calculated using • Substitute charge magnitude only.
tor rules can be applied: • Direction determined by nature of
Principle of conservation of charge. centi− (cC) ×10−2 kQ1Q2 charge (like repel, unlike attract).
• Direction specific F=
Q1 + Q2 milli− (mC) ×10 −3 r2 • Both objects experience the same
Q new = • Can be added or subtracted force (Newton’s Third Law of Motion).
2
micro− (µC) ×10−6
Principle of charge quantization. 1 Dimensional
nano− (nC) ×10−9
Q Determine the resultant electrostatic force on QB.
Ne− = pico− (pC) ×10−12
qe +
3 cm 5 cm
COULOMB’S LAW A B C
3
FAB FCB
The magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted by one point charge (Q1) −2 nC +3 nC −1 nC
on another point charge (Q2) is directly proportional to the product of the
magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the kQ A Q B kQ C Q B
Fnet = FAB + FCB
distance (r) between them. 1 FAB = 2 FCB = 4
r2 r2
= (−6 × 10−5) + (1,08 × 10−5)
9 × 109 (2 × 10−9 )(3 × 10−9 ) 9 × 109 (1 × 10−9 )(3 × 10−9 )
kQ1Q2 =
(3 × 10−2 ) 2
=
(5 × 10−2 ) 2 = − 4,92 × 10−5
F= ∴ Fnet = 4,92 × 10−5 N left
r2 = 6 × 10−5 N left (A attracts B) = 1,08 × 10−5 N right (C attracts B)
2 Dimensional
F = force of attraction between charges Q1 and Q2 (N)
k = Coulomb’s constant (9×109 N·m2·C−2) Determine the resultant electrostatic force on QB.
Q = magnitudes of charge (C)
r = distance between charges (m) -10 μC +7 μC
15 mm 2 FCB FCB
RATIOS B C
θ θ
In ratio questions, the same process is used as with Newton’s Law of Uni-
10 mm
versal Gravitation. OR
EXAMPLE:
Fnet FAB FAB Fnet
Two charges experience a force F when held a distance r apart. How
would this force be affected if one charge is doubled, the other charge is
tripled and the distance is halved.
A
+5 μC PYTHAGORAS :
3
kQ1Q 2 F 2net = F 2AB + F 2BC
F=
r2 kQ A Q B
1 FAB = Fnet = 4 500 2 + 2 800 2
k(2Q1)(3Q 2 ) r2
= Fnet = 5 300 N
( 1 r)2 =
9 × 109 (5 × 10−6 )(10 × 10−6 )
2
(10 × 10−3) 2
6 kQ1Q 2
= = 4 500 N down (A attracts B) tanθ = o
1 r2 4 a
4 FAB
kQ1Q 2 θ = tan−1
= 24( )
kQ C Q B FCB
FCB =
r2 r2 −1 4 500
θ = tan
= 24F 9 × 109 (7 × 10−6 )(10 × 10−6 ) 2 800
= θ = 58,11∘
(15 × 10−3) 2
= 2 800 N right (C attracts B) ∴ Fnet = 5 300 N at 58,11∘ clockwise from the positive x − axis
Electrostatics SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
ELECTRIC FIELDS ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH

An electric field is the region around an electric charge where another charge (or Electric field strength at any point in space is the force per unit charge experienced by a
charged object) will experience an electrostatic force. The direction of the electric positive test charge at that point.
field at a point is the direction that a positive test charge (+1C) would move if
placed at that point. F kQ
E= E=
REMEMBER: Field lines leave a conducting surface at 90 o
q r2
Single point charges E = electric field strength (N·C−1) E = electric field strength (N·C−1)
F = force on charge q (N) k = Coulomb’s constant (9×109 N·m2·C−2)
q = charge (C) Q = charge (C)
r = distance from charge Q (m)
+ − q is the charge that experiences the force. Q is the charge that creates the electric field.
Force due to
charge Q Certain point
Q in space
r X
Unlike charges (of equal magnitude) F Charge experiencing
Q the electric field due Distance between
q to charge Q charge Q and point X
+ −
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
Charge A experiences a force of 2 N due to charge B. Determine the electric field strength at point P due to
Determine the electric field strength at point B. charge Q.
A B Q
5mm P
+2μC −5μC +3μC
Like charges
F kQ
E = q E =
r2
− −
2
= 9 × 109(3 × 10−6 )
–2C –2C
–C 2 × 10−6 =
(5 × 10−3) 2
= 4 × 10 N ⋅ C−1 to the right
6
= 1,08 × 109 N ⋅ C−1 to the right
Different magnitude charges Equal magnitude charges

DIRECTION OF E: DIRECTION OF E:
Direction that charge q would move Direction that point in space ( X )
IF it was positive. would move IF it was positive.
+C +2C + + NOTE:
Electric field strength is a VECTOR. All vector rules and calculations apply.
(linear addition, 2D arrangement, resultant vectors, etc.)
Electromagnetism GRADE 11 RECAP SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
INDUCTION OF A MAGNETIC FIELD INDUCTION OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT INCREASING THE INDUCED EMF
•Increase the rate of change of magnetic flux, ie. decrease
When current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is induced When a magnet is brought close to a metal wire, and relative motion
the time it takes to change the flux, ie. increase speed of
around the wire. occurs between the conductor and magnet, it causes movement of
movement.
charge in the wire. As a result, an EMF is induced in the wire, which
The direction of the magnetic field can be determined by the right hand •Increase the number of loops in the coil.
causes an induced current. Only a change in magnetic flux will in-
thumb rule. For a straight, single wire, point the thumb of your right hand •Increase the strength of the magnet.
duce a current.
in the direction of the conventional current and your curled fingers will point •Increase the surface area of the loops in the coil.
in the direction of the magnetic field around the wire. Faraday’s law states that the emf induced is directly propor- •Increase the change of flux by changing the angle, θ,
tional to the rate of change of magnetic flux (flux linkage). from a minimum of 0° to a maximum of 90°.
Magnetic flux linkage is the product of the number of turns on ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
I I Out of page Into page the coil and the flux through the coil. OVERHEAD CABLES
•Birds fly into power lines as they cannot see them from a
NOTE THAT NO CALCULATIONS ARE distance.
REQUIRED, ONLY RELATIONSHIP •This places birds at risk of becoming extinct because of
B BETWEEN VARIABLES the increase in unnatural mortality.
•Trees fall onto power lines and can cause fires to erupt.
•Trees have to be cut down to make space for the power
lines.
For a wire loop, the magnetic field is the sum of the individual magnetic ε = emf (V) •There is no evidence that the electromagnetic effect of
fields around the single wires at each end. Use the right hand rule for a sin- −NΔϕ N= number of turns/windings in coil the power lines has any negative impact on people and the
gle wire at each end of the loop.
ε= Δɸ= change in magnetic flux (Wb)
Δt surroundings as the strength of the field is low.
F F Δt= change in time (s) •The electromagnetic effect of the power line can disrupt
radio signals and for emergency services, this can be a
major problem.
The magnetic flux (ɸ) is the result of the product of the perpendicular
component of the magnetic field (B) and cross-sectional area (A) the DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT
field lines pass through. As a bar magnet moves into a solenoid the needle of the
I galvanometer is deflected away from the 0 mark. As the
ɸ= magnetic flux (Wb) bar magnet is removed, the needle deflects in the oppo-
B= magnetic flux density (T) site direction. The magnetic energy is converted to electri-
F F ϕ = BA cos θ A= area (m2)
cal energy. The direction of the induced current can be
determined using Lenz’s law.
θ= angle between magnetic field line and normal
N
B S
Normal Normal
I
S
B θ θ θ N
N
For a solenoid, curl your fingers around the solenoid in the direction of the
θ S
N
S
conventional current and your thumb will point in the direction of the North A=l ×b
pole. This is know as the right hand solenoid rule. A=πr2 Lenz’s Law states that the induced current flows in
I a direction so as to set up a magnetic field to op-
B pose the change in magnetic flux.
Electrodynamics SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
GENERATORS ALTERNATING CURRENT

Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. A generator works on the principal of mechanically rotating The potential difference and current for an alternating current fluctuates between a posi-
a conductor in a magnetic field. This creates a changing flux which induces an emf in the conductor. tive and negative maxima. The average potential difference and current is zero and so
the average power is used to define the potential difference and current for an alternat-
Direct Alternating ing current.
A direct current generator uses a split ring commutator to The alternating current generator is connected to the exter- Power versus time graph for a AC circuit.
connect the conductor to the external circuit instead of a nal circuit by 2 slip rings which is connected to the conduc-
slip ring. tor. The slip rings make contact with brushes which are
connected to the external circuit. Pmax = VmaxImax
B C B C
Pave = ½ VmaxImax
N S N S
A D A D Δt (s)
1
V V Pave = P
2 max
The current in the external circuit does not change direc- The direction of the current changes with every half turn of 1
tion and is known as direct current (DC). the coil. The current that is produced is known as alternat- = (Vmax ⋅ I max )
2
ing current (AC).
1 1
θ = 0° θ = 90° θ = 180° θ = 270° θ = 360° θ = 0° θ = 90° θ = 180° θ = 270° θ = 360°
= Vmax ⋅ I max
B C B B B
2 2
C
C B B C C B B C
= Vrms ⋅ I rms
C B C C B C
+ – – +
The potential difference for an alternating current is therefore defined by the root mean
square of the maximum potential difference (Vrms) and the current for an alternating
current is defined as the root mean square of the maximum current (Irms). These values
can be calculated from the maximum potential difference and maximum current as fol-
EMF(V)
lows:
Induced EMF
Inducedemf
Rotations Rotations Vmax

Vrms =
Induced
0 1/4 1/2 3/4 1 0 1/4 1/2 3/4 1 2

I max
I rms =
ɸ ɸ 2
FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND-DYNAMO RULE

The right hand rule is used to predict the direction of
the induced emf in the coil. Using your right hand, F B C B C
hold your first finger, second finger and thumb at
right angles to each other. Point your first finger in B
the direction of the magnetic field (N to S), your
thumb in the direction of the motion (or force) of the
N S N S
A D A D
conductor. The middle finger will point in the direc- I
tion of the induced current (from + to -).
V V
Electrodynamics SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
MOTORS
Electric motors convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. It consists of a current carrying armature, connected to a
source by a commutator and brushes and placed in a magnetic field.
Direct Alternating
A direct current motor uses a split ring commutator to con- The alternating current motor is connected to the external
nect the conductor to the external circuit instead of a slip circuit by a slip ring. The slip ring makes contact with
ring. brushes which are connected to the external circuit at-
tached to an alternating current source.
The split ring commutator allows the current in the coil to The direction of the current in the coil is constantly chang-
alternate with every half turn, which allows the coil to con- ing, which allows the coil to continue to rotate in the same
tinue to rotate in the same direction. direction.
When a charge moves in a magnetic field it experiences a force. The force experienced on both sides of the armature
creates torque which makes it turn. The direction of the force can be explained using the left hand rule.
FLEMING’S LEFT HAND MOTOR RULE
The Left hand Rule is used to predict the direction of the movement of the coil in the motor. Using your left hand, hold your
first finger, second finger and thumb right angles to each other. Point your first finger in the direction of the magnetic field,
your second finger in the direction of the conventional current and your thumb will then point in the direction of the force.
F B C
B
I
N S
A D
Photoelectric Effect SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT THRESHOLD FREQUENCY (f0), WORK FUNCTION (W0) AND FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
The photoelectric effect occurs when light is shone on a metal’s
ELECTRON ENERGY An increase in frequency will increase the kinetic energy of
surface and this causes the metal to emit electrons. The frequency required to produce enough energy to emit an electron is called the electrons. On a graph of Ek(max) vs frequency, the
the threshold frequency (f0). The threshold frequency (f0) is the minimum x-intercept indicates the threshold frequency.
Metals are bonded in such a way that they
share their valence electrons in a sea of frequency of incident radiation at which electrons will be emitted from
a particular metal. The minimum amount of energy needed to emit an No emission Emission
delocalized electrons. In order to get an
electron to be removed from the surface of electron from the surface of a metal is known as the work function f < f0 f > f0
EK(max) (J)
a metal, you would have to provide it with (W0). The work function is material specific.
enough energy in order to escape the If the energy of the photons exceed the work function (i.e. the frequency of light
bond. exceeds the threshold frequency), the excess energy is transferred to the liber-
ated electron in the form of kinetic energy.
The energy that light provides enables the electron to escape and f0 f (Hz)
this phenomenon is called photoelectric effect. The kinetic energy of the electron can be determined by:
NOTE: Similarly, on the graph of Ek(max) vs wavelength, the
PHOTON ENERGY E = W0 + E K(max) Sometimes work function is given x-intercept indicates the maximum wavelength of light
in eV. Convert from eV to J: that can emit an electron (wavelength is inversely propor-
Photons are “little packets” of energy called quanta, which act as tional to frequency).
particles. The energy of the photon(light) can be calculated in one f < f0 f = f0 f > f0 J = eV × 1,6×10−19
of two ways: Emission No emission
hc
EK(max) (J)
E = hf E= c/! > f0 c/! < f0
λ
E = energy of the photon measured in joules (J) e-
EK(max) = ½ mv(max)2
h = Planck’s constant, 6,63 × 10−34 (J·s) e-
f = frequency measured in hertz (Hz) W0 = hf0
𝜆 = wavelength measured in meters (m) e- Maximum
! (m)
wavelength
c = speed of light, 3 × 108 (m·s−1)
INTENSITY AND FREQUENCY INTENSITY, FREQUENCY AND CURRENT

Increasing the intensity (brightness) of the light (radiation) means that there are more photons with the same frequency. This The higher the intensity of the radiation, the more electrons are emitted per sec-
will result in more electrons with the same amount of energy being emitted. Thus the number of electrons emitted per second ond. Therefore an increased intensity will increase the current produced.
increases with the intensity of the incident radiation
The higher the frequency, the more kinetic energy is provided to the same number
Light
LOW INTENSITY HIGH INTENSITY of electrons. The rate of electron flow REMAINS THE SAME.
source
Metal
.
. ..
. . .
ejected per second (current)

. . .
f0
. . . . .
. .
. . .
. . .
. . .
High-intensity light
. .. .
Number of electrons
V Metal Electron Photon
Note that the energy of the electrons remain the same. If the frequency of the incident radiation is below the cut-off frequency, Low-intensity light
then increasing the intensity of the radiation has no effect i.e. it does not cause electrons to be ejected. To increase the energy,
the frequency of the radiant light needs to be increased.
INCREASE INTENSITY AT CONSTANT FREQUENCY = INCREASE AMOUNT OF EMITTED ELECTRONS

INCREASE FREQUENCY AT CONSTANT INTENSITY = INCREASE KINETIC ENERGY OF EMITTED ELECTRONS Frequency of light on cathode (Hz)
Emission and Absorption Spectra SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM ENERGY LEVELS ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTRA

When white light shines through a prism, the light is dispersed into a The lines on the atomic spectrum (line emission spectrum) are as a result
spectrum of light. It is called the continuous spectrum. White light is of electron transitions between energy levels. As electrons gain energy As white light is passed through a cold gaseous element,
made up of all the colours of the spectrum, and when dispersed we are (heat) they transition to a higher state of energy, hence a higher energy the electrons inside the atoms of the element absorb the
able to see the components of white light. This is the same range as the level. As the element cools, the electrons drop back down to the lower en- energy of the light (photons). The energy is absorbed in
visible spectrum. ergy state. As they do this they emit the absorbed energy in the form of specific bands which corresponds to the energy required
light (photons). Therefore, each electron gives off a frequency of light by electrons to transition between energy levels.
which corresponds with the line emission spectrum.
R O Y G B I V n=4 The absorbed energy furthermore corresponds to a spe-
cific frequency of light. As the electrons absorb energy,
red orange yellow green blue indigo violet
n=3 the specific frequency of light disappears, resulting in an
absorption spectrum. The black lines below represent the
The white light is emitted from a bulb, therefore the continuous spectrum is an energy absorbed by the element.
emission spectrum. Red has the lowest frequency, and violet the highest.
n=2
ATOMIC EMISSION SPECTRA

When an element in the gaseous phase is heated, it emits light. If the n=1
light produced is passed through a prism, a spectrum is produced. How- Electrons in the n = 1 energy level are closest to the nucleus and have the The absorption spectra for a specific element will be the
ever, this spectrum is not continuous, but consists of only some lines of lowest potential energy. Electrons in the energy level furthest from the nu- inverse of its emission spectra.
colour. This is known as line emission spectrum. cleus (eg. n = 4) has the highest potential energy. If an electron is free
Each element has their own light signature as no two elements have the from the atom then it has zero potential energy. The potential energy is
same spectrum. given as a negative value due to a decrease in potential as the electrons
get close to the nucleus.
As the electrons transition from their energized state back to their normal
state they give off energy that is equal to the difference in potential energy
between the energy levels.
ΔE = E 2 − E1
ΔE = difference in potential energy between two energy levels
E2 = the highest energy state
E1 = the lowest energy state
CONTINUOUS EMISSION SPECTRA
The amount of energy that is released relates directly to a specific fre-
quency or wavelength (thus colour) of light.
hc
E = hf E=
λ
ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTRA
EXAMPLE:
A sample of hydrogen gas is placed in a discharge tube. The electron
from the hydrogen atom emits energy as it transitions from energy level
E6 (−0,61×10−19 J) to E2 (−5,46×10−19). Determine the wavelength of
light emitted.
E = hc ATOMIC EMISSION SPECTRA
λ
ΔE = E 6 − E 2
−19 (6,63 × 10−34 )(3 × 108 )
= − 0,61 × 10−19 − (−5,46 × 10−19 ) 4,85 × 10 =
λ
= 4,85 × 10−19 J λ = 4,1 × 10−7 = 410 nm
Doppler Effect SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
As a sound source moves through space, it moves relative to the waves that it has already produced.
This causes an apparent change in wavelength, and therefore also a change in the perceived frequency. Listener away from source (−) Source away from listener (+)
Doppler effect: The change in the frequency of the sound observed by
a listener, because the sound source and the listener have different Decrease in observed frequency. Decrease in observed frequency.
speeds relative to the medium in which the sound is propagated.
v ± vL v ± vL
fL = f fL = f
v ± vs s v ± vs s
v − vL v
fL = fs fL = fs
v v + vs
Listener to source (+) Source to listener (−)

When a source moves towards an ob- When a source moves away from an
server OR an observer moves towards observer OR an observer moves away Increase in observed frequency. Increase in observed frequency.
a source, the distance between the wave- from a source, the distance between the
fronts (wavelength) is decreased and wavefronts (wavelength) is increased and v ± vL v ± vL
the perceived frequency increases. the perceived frequency decreases. fL = f fL = fs
v ± vs s v ± vs
A change in wavelength/frequency can be observed as:
• Sound- A change in pitch (higher frequency, higher pitch) v + vL v
fL = fs fL = f
• Light- A change in light colour (red-shift OR blue shift) v v − vs s
EQUATIONS DOPPLER EFFECT AS PROOF OF EXPANDING UNIVERSE
The visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum The shift can be observed by comparing the ab-
REMEMBER:
v ± vL ALWAYS start with the
is as follow: sorption spectra of moving stars with a stationary
fL = f f
reference sample.
v ± vs s
FULL original formula
(on data sheet)! Red shi3
R O Y G B I V
fL = frequency of listener (Hz)
v = speed of sound (m·s−1) Red light has a longer wavelength than blue light, Sta$onary
OR thus a shift towards the red spectrum (longer wave- reference
speed of light (3 ×108 m·s−1) length, lower frequency) indicates that the source
vL = velocity of listener (m·s−1) of the light is moving away from the observer.
vS = velocity of source (m·s−1) Blue shi3
fS = frequency of source (Hz) Red shift: object moving away from observer.
Blue shift: object moving towards observer. Because most stars exhibit a red shift, we can con-
To convert between frequency and wavelength: clude that they are moving away from the earth
and thus that the universe is expanding.
Material waves (i.e. sound) Electromagnetic radiation
APPLICATIONS OF DOPPLER EFFECT
v = fλ c = fλ
Medicine Maritime Law enforcement
• Measures blood flow rate • SONAR positioning underwater • Radar monitoring of speed-
v = speed of wave (m·s−1) c = speed of light (3 ×108 m·s−1) • Observation of foetus heart rate ing cars
f = frequency of sound (Hz) f = frequency of sound (Hz)
𝜆 = wavelength (m) 𝜆 = wavelength (m)
www
DATA FOR PHYSICAL SCIENCES GRADE 12
PAPER 2 (CHEMISTRY)
GEGEWENS VIR FISIESE WETENSKAPPE GRAAD 12

VRAESTEL 2 (CHEMIE)
TABLE 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS/TABEL 1: FISIESE KONSTANTES
NAME/NAAM SYMBOL/SIMBOOL VALUE/WAARDE

Standard pressure
p 1,013 x 105 Pa
Standaarddruk
Molar gas volume at STP
Vm 22,4 dm3∙mol-1
Molêre gasvolume by STD
Standard temperature
T 273 K
Standaardtemperatuur
Charge on electron
e -1,6 x 10-19 C
Lading op elektron
Avogadro's constant
NA 6,02 x 1023 mol-1
Avogadro-konstante
TABLE 2: FORMULAE/TABEL 2: FORMULES
m N
n n
M NA
n m V
c or/of c n
V MV Vm
cava na
pH = -log[H3O+]
cbvb nb
Kw = [H3O+][OH-] = 1 x 10-14 at/by 298 K
Eθcell Eθcathode Eθanode / Eθsel θ

Ekatode Eθanode
or/of
Eθcell Ereduction
θ
Eθoxidation / Eθsel θ
Ereduksie Eθoksidasie
or/of
Eθcell θ
Eoxidisingagent
θ
Ereducing θ
agent / E sel Eθoksideermiddel θ
Ereduseermiddel
TABLE 3: THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
TABEL 3: DIE PERIODIEKE TABEL VAN ELEMENTE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
(I) (II) (III) (IV) (V) (VI) (VII) (VIII)
Atomic number
1 KEY/SLEUTEL Atoomgetal 2
2,1
H He
1 29 4
3 4 Electronegativity Symbol 5 6 7 8 9 10
Cu
1,9
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
Li Be Elektronegatiwiteit
63,5
Simbool B C N O F Ne
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Aℓ Cℓ
0,9
1,2
1,5
1,8
2,1
2,5
3,0
Na Mg Approximate relative atomic mass Si P S Ar
23 24 Benaderde relatiewe atoommassa 27 28 31 32 35,5 40
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
0,8
1,0
1,3
1,5
1,6
1,6
1,5
1,8
1,8
1,8
1,9
1,6
1,6
1,8
2,0
2,4
2,8
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 63,5 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
0,8
1,0
1,2
1,4
1,8
1,9
2,2
2,2
2,2
1,9
1,7
1,7
1,8
1,9
2,1
2,5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
86 88 89 91 92 96 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Tℓ
0,7
0,9
1,6
1,8
1,8
1,9
2,0
2,5
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Pb Bi Po At Rn
133 137 139 179 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209
87 88 89
0,7
0,9
Fr Ra Ac 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
226
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140 141 144 150 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173 175
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232 238
TABLE 4A: STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS
TABEL 4A: STANDAARDREDUKSIEPOTENSIALE
Half-reactions/Halfreaksies E θ (V)
F2(g) + 2e ⇌ 2F + 2,87
3+ 2+
Co +e ⇌ Co + 1,81
+
H2O2 + 2H +2e ⇌ 2H2O +1,77
+ 2+
MnO 4 + 8H + 5e ⇌ Mn + 4H2O + 1,51
Cℓ2(g) + 2e ⇌ 2Cℓ + 1,36
2 + 3+
Cr2O 7 + 14H + 6e ⇌ 2Cr + 7H2O + 1,33
+
O2(g) + 4H + 4e ⇌ 2H2O + 1,23
+ 2+
MnO2 + 4H + 2e ⇌ Mn + 2H2O + 1,23
2+
Pt + 2e ⇌ Pt + 1,20
Br2(ℓ) + 2e ⇌ 2Br + 1,07
+
NO 3 + 4H + 3e ⇌ NO(g) + 2H2O + 0,96
Increasing reducing ability/Toenemende reduserende vermoë

2+
Hg + 2e ⇌ Hg(ℓ) + 0,85
+
Ag + e ⇌ Ag + 0,80
Increasing oxidising ability/Toenemende oksiderende vermoë
+
NO 3 + 2H + e ⇌ NO2(g) + H2O + 0,80
3+ 2+
Fe +e ⇌ Fe + 0,77
+
O2(g) + 2H + 2e ⇌ H2O2 + 0,68
I2 + 2e ⇌ 2I + 0,54
+
Cu + e ⇌ Cu + 0,52
SO2 + 4H + 4e
+
⇌ S + 2H2O + 0,45
2H2O + O2 + 4e ⇌ 4OH + 0,40
2+
Cu + 2e ⇌ Cu + 0,34
2 +
SO 4 + 4H + 2e ⇌ SO2(g) + 2H2O + 0,17
2+ +
Cu +e ⇌ Cu + 0,16
4+ 2+
Sn + 2e ⇌ Sn + 0,15
+
S + 2H + 2e ⇌ H2S(g) + 0,14
+
2H + 2e ⇌ H2(g) 0,00
3+
Fe + 3e ⇌ Fe 0,06
2+
Pb + 2e ⇌ Pb 0,13
2+
Sn + 2e ⇌ Sn 0,14
2+
Ni + 2e ⇌ Ni 0,27
2+
Co + 2e ⇌ Co 0,28
2+
Cd + 2e ⇌ Cd 0,40
3+ 2+
Cr +e ⇌ Cr 0,41
2+
Fe + 2e ⇌ Fe 0,44
3+
Cr + 3e ⇌ Cr 0,74
2+
Zn + 2e ⇌ Zn 0,76
2H2O + 2e ⇌ H2(g) + 2OH 0,83
2+
Cr + 2e ⇌ Cr 0,91
2+
Mn + 2e ⇌ Mn 1,18
3+
Aℓ + 3e ⇌ Aℓ 1,66
2+
Mg + 2e ⇌ Mg 2,36
+
Na + e ⇌ Na 2,71
2+
Ca + 2e ⇌ Ca 2,87
2+
Sr + 2e ⇌ Sr 2,89
2+
Ba + 2e ⇌ Ba 2,90
+ -
Cs + e ⇌ Cs - 2,92
+
K +e ⇌ K 2,93
+
Li + e ⇌ Li 3,05
TABLE 4B: STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS
TABEL 4B: STANDAARDREDUKSIEPOTENSIALE
Half-reactions/Halfreaksies E θ (V)
+
Li + e ⇌ Li 3,05
+
K +e ⇌ K 2,93
+
Cs + e ⇌ Cs 2,92
2+
Ba + 2e ⇌ Ba 2,90
2+
Sr + 2e ⇌ Sr 2,89
2+
Ca + 2e ⇌ Ca 2,87
+
Na + e ⇌ Na 2,71
2+
Mg + 2e ⇌ Mg 2,36
3+
Aℓ + 3e ⇌ Aℓ 1,66
2+
Mn + 2e ⇌ Mn 1,18
2+
Cr + 2e ⇌ Cr 0,91
Increasing oxidising ability/Toenemende oksiderende vermoë
2H2O + 2e ⇌ H2(g) + 2OH 0,83

2+
Zn + 2e ⇌ Zn 0,76
Increasing reducing ability/Toenemende reduserende vermoë

3+
Cr + 3e ⇌ Cr 0,74
2+
Fe + 2e ⇌ Fe 0,44
3+ 2+
Cr +e ⇌ Cr 0,41
2+
Cd + 2e ⇌ Cd 0,40
2+
Co + 2e ⇌ Co 0,28
2+
Ni + 2e ⇌ Ni 0,27
2+
Sn + 2e ⇌ Sn 0,14
2+
Pb + 2e ⇌ Pb 0,13
3+
Fe + 3e ⇌ Fe 0,06
+
2H + 2e ⇌ H2(g) 0,00
+
S + 2H + 2e ⇌ H2S(g) + 0,14
4+ 2+
Sn + 2e ⇌ Sn + 0,15
2+ +
Cu +e ⇌ Cu + 0,16
2 +
SO 4 + 4H + 2e ⇌ SO2(g) + 2H2O + 0,17
2+
Cu + 2e ⇌ Cu + 0,34
2H2O + O2 + 4e ⇌ 4OH + 0,40
+
SO2 + 4H + 4e ⇌ S + 2H2O + 0,45
+
Cu + e ⇌ Cu + 0,52
I2 + 2e ⇌ 2I + 0,54
+
O2(g) + 2H + 2e ⇌ H2O2 + 0,68
3+ 2+
Fe +e ⇌ Fe + 0,77
+
NO 3 + 2H + e ⇌ NO2(g) + H2O + 0,80
+
Ag + e ⇌ Ag + 0,80
2+
Hg + 2e ⇌ Hg(ℓ) + 0,85
+
NO 3 + 4H + 3e ⇌ NO(g) + 2H2O + 0,96
Br2(ℓ) + 2e ⇌ 2Br + 1,07
2+
Pt +2e ⇌ Pt + 1,20
+ 2+
MnO2 + 4H + 2e ⇌ Mn + 2H2O + 1,23
+
O2(g) + 4H + 4e ⇌ 2H2O + 1,23
2 + 3+
Cr2O 7 + 14H + 6e ⇌ 2Cr + 7H2O + 1,33
Cℓ2(g) + 2e ⇌ 2Cℓ + 1,36
+ 2+
MnO 4 + 8H + 5e ⇌ Mn + 4H2O + 1,51
+
H2O2 + 2H +2 e ⇌ 2H2O +1,77
3+ 2+
Co +e ⇌ Co + 1,81
F2(g) + 2e ⇌ 2F + 2,87
Grade 12 Chemistry Definitions

Intermolecular Boiling point: The temperature at which the vapour pressure equals atmospheric pressure
Forces Revision Melting point: The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are at equilibrium
Vapour pressure: The pressure exerted by a vapour at equilibrium with its liquid in a closed system
Organic molecules: molecules containing carbon atoms

Functional group: a bond or an atom or a group of atoms that determine(s) the physical and chemical properties of a group of
organic compounds
Hydrocarbon: organic compounds that consist of hydrogen and carbon only
Homologous series: a series of organic compounds that can be described by the same general formula OR in which one
member differs from the next with a CH2 group
Saturated compounds: compounds in which there are no multiple bonds between C atoms in their hydrocarbon chains
Organic chemistry Unsaturated compounds: compounds with one or more multiple bonds between C atoms in their hydrocarbon chains
Functional group: A bond or an atom or a group of atoms that determine(s) the physical and chemical properties of a group of
organic compounds
Molecular formula: a chemical formula that indicates the element and numbers of each of the atoms in a molecule
Structural formula: a structural formula of a compound shows which atoms are attached to which within the molecule. Atoms
are represented by their chemical symbols and lines are used to represent ALL the bonds that hold the atoms together
Condensed structural formula: this notation shows the way in which atoms are bonded together in the molecule, but DOES
NOT SHOW ALL bond lines
Structural isomer: Organic molecules with the same molecular formula, but different structural formulae
Macromolecule: A molecule that consists of a large number of atoms

Polymer: A large molecule composed of smaller monomer units covalently bonded to each other in a repeating pattern
Monomer: Small organic molecules that can be covalently bonded to each other in a repeating pattern
Polymerisation: A chemical reaction in which monomer molecules join to form a polymer
Addition polymerisation: A reaction in which small molecules join to form very large molecules by adding on double bonds
Polymers Addition polymer: A polymer formed when monomers (usually containing a double bond) combine through an addition
reaction.
Condensation polymerisation: Molecules of two monomers with different functional groups undergo condensation reactions
with the loss of small molecules, usually water
Condensation polymer: A polymer formed by two monomers with different functional groups that are linked together in a
condensation reaction in which a small molecule, usually water, is lost
Heat of reaction (ΔH): the energy absorbed or released in a chemical reaction

Exothermic reactions: reactions that release energy
Energy change
Endothermic reactions: reactions that absorb energy
Revision
Activation energy: the minimum energy needed for a reaction to take place
Activated complex: the unstable transition state from reactants to products
Rate and Extent Reaction rate: as the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time
of reaction Positive catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing a permanent change.
Open system: one which continuously interacts with its environment

Closed system: one which is isolated from its surroundings
Chemical
Chemical equilibrium: it is a dynamic equilibrium when the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction
Equilibrium
Le Chatelier’s principle: when the equilibrium in a closed system is disturbed, the system will re-instate a new equilibrium by
favouring the reaction that will oppose the disturbance
Grade 12 Chemistry Definitions

Arrhenius theory
Acid: a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) when it dissolves in water
Base: a substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH–) when it dissolves in water
Lowry-Brønsted theory:
Acid: a proton (H+ ion) donor
Base: a proton (H+ ion) acceptor
Strong acids: ionise completely in water to form a high concentration of H3O+ ions.
Weak acids: ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentration of H3O+ ions.
Strong bases: dissociate completely in water to form a high concentration of OH– ions.
Acids and Bases Weak bases: dissociate/ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentration of OH– ions.
Concentrated acids/bases: contain a large amount (number of moles) of acid/base in proportion to the volume of water
Dilute acids/bases: contain a small amount (number of moles) of acid/base in proportion to the volume of water
Ampholyte (amphiprotic substance): a substance that can act as either an acid or a base. Eg. Water
Equivalence point (of a titration): the point at which the acid/base has completely reacted with the base/acid.
Endpoint (of a titration): the point where the indicator changes colour
Hydrolysis: the reaction of a salt with water
Auto-ionisation of water: the reaction of water with itself to form H3O+ ions and OH– ions
Kw: the equilibrium constant for the ionisation of water or the ionic product of water or the ionisation constant of water, i.e. Kw =
[H3O+][OH–] = 1 x 10-14 by 298 K
Oxidation: a loss of electrons, an increase in oxidation number

Reduction: a gain of electrons, a decrease in oxidation number
Oxidising agent: a substance that is reduced/gains electrons.
Reducing agent: a substance that is oxidised/loses electrons.
Anode: the electrode where oxidation takes place
Electrochemical Cathode: the electrode where reduction takes place
Reactions Electrolyte: a substance of which the aqueous solution contains ions OR a substance that dissolves in water to give a solution
that conducts electricity
Electrolysis: the chemical process in which electrical energy is converted to chemical energy OR the use of electrical energy to
produce a chemical change
Galvanic cell: a cell in which chemical energy is converted to electrical energy
Electrolytic cell: a cell in which electrical energy is converted into chemical energy
Eutrophication: the process by which an ecosystem, e.g. a river or dam, becomes enriched with inorganic plant nutrients,
Fertilizers especially phosphorus and nitrogen, resulting in excessive plant growth. As plant growth becomes excessive, the amount of dead
and decaying plant material increases rapidly.
Organic molecules SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
Organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen atoms. These compounds can be in the REPRESENTING ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
gaseous, liquid, or solid phase. All living matter contains organic compounds.
We use a variety of ways to draw or write organic compounds. We either make use of the molecular formula, con-
UNIQUENESS OF CARBON densed formula or we use full structural formulae.
Carbon is very unique and is the basic building block of all organic compounds. It’s atoms
have a valency of four in a tetrahedral arrangement. A chemical formula that indicates the type of
Molecular
This means it is able to make four bonds. NOTE:
formula
atoms and the correct number of each in the
molecule.
C3H8
Carbon atoms can form single, double or triple bonds Carbon atoms have to form 4
bonds, but not necessarily with
C C C C C C
4 other atoms Condensed
formula
The notation shows the way in which atoms
are bonded to each other in a molecule, but CH3CH2CH3
HYDROCARBONS does not show all bond lines.
A hydrocarbon is a compound that contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms. These H H H
compounds can be saturated (single bonds) and unsaturated (double or triple bonds).
Structural This formula shows all the bonds and atoms
H C C C H
Hydrocarbon: A compound containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms. formula in the molecule.
Saturated compound: Unsaturated compound: H H H
A compound in which all of the bonds be- A compound in which there is at least one
tween carbon atoms are single bonds. double and/or triple bond between carbon General Describes the homologous series formula for
atoms. formula similar compounds. Alkanes: CnH2n+2
H H H H H
H
H C C C H (Alkanes) C C C H (Alkenes and alkynes)
ISOMERS
H H H H H Isomers: Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structural formulae.
Test to differentiate between saturated and unsaturated solutions
butane 2-methylpropane
1) Unknown solution
H H H
Brown colour vanishes Does not discolour Chain isomers have the same
immediately
H H H H
Add brown Br2 immediately Chain molecular formula but H C C C H
isomers different arrangements of H C C C C H
chains in the molecule. H H
Unsaturated ∴ alkene/alkyne Saturated ∴ alkane H H H H H C H
2) H
Purple colour vanishes Unknown solution
immediately. Brown Purple colour does not propan-1-ol propan-2-ol
precipitate forms vanish immediately H
Add purple KMnO4 These have the same H
Positional molecular formula but the H H O H O H
Unsaturated ∴ alkene/alkyne Saturated ∴ alkane isomers functional group is in a
different position H C C C H H C C C H
CLASSIFICATION OF ALCOHOL
H H H H H H
Primary Secondary Tertiary
One C bonded to the C Two C’s bonded to the C Three C’s bonded to the C These have the same propanoic acid methyl ethanoate
bonded to the OH bonded to the OH bonded to the OH molecular formula but a
H H R’’ different functional group. H H O H O H
Functional
Aldehydes and ketone are
isomers
R C O H R C O H R C O H functional isomers as well as H C C C O H H C C O C H
carboxylic acids and
esters H H H H
H R’ R’
Organic molecules- Naming SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
All organic compounds belong to a specific group which allows us to

identify or name the compound. The group that compounds belong Number of
to, known as the homologous series, depends on the the func- carbon atoms Root name Substituent Formula Structural formula Name
tional group of the compound. in main chain
Homologous series: A series of organic compounds that can be H

1 meth−
described by the same general formula OR in which one member
differs from the next with a CH2 group CH3− C C H methyl−
Functional group: A bond or an atom or a group of atoms that 2 eth−
H
determine(s) the physical and chemical properties of a group of or-
ganic compounds 3 prop− H H
4 but− Alkyl CH3CH2− C C C H ethyl−

NAMING ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
H H
Every distinct compound has a unique name, and there is only one 5 pent−
possible structure for any IUPAC (International Union of Pure and H H H
Applied Chemistry) name. The IUPAC method for naming is a set 6 hex− CH3CH2CH2− propyl−
C C C C H
pattern. It indicates the longest chain (the longest continuous
chain), the functional group and names of substituent groups 7 hept− H H H
(side chains) or atoms attached to the longest chain.
8 oct− X repesents a halogen:
Three parts of an IUPAC name:
Fluorine: fluoro−
Substituent Functional 9 non− Halogen X− C X Chlorine: chloro−
Root name Bromine: bromo−
Prefix group suffix
10 dec− Iodine: iodo−
The root name indicates the number of carbon atoms in the long-
est chain. This chain must contain the functional group. The EXAMPLE:
prefix indicates the number and location of atoms or groups Number of Substituent
substituents prefix Write down the name of the molecule below:
(substituents) attached to the longest chain. The suffix identifies
the functional group.
Steps to naming organic compounds: di
2
1. Identify the longest continuous carbon chain which must contain eg. dimethyl
the functional group.
2. Number the longest carbon chain beginning at the carbon (car- tri
3
bon 1) nearest to the functional group with the alkyl substitu- eg. triethyl
ents on the lowest numbered carbon atoms of the longest chain.
3. Name the longest chain according to the number of carbons in tetra
the chain. (the root name) 4
eg. tetramethyl
4. The suffix of the compound name is dependent on the func-
tional group. NOTE: Substituents Main chain Functional group
A maximum of THREE substituent
5. Identify and name substituents (alkyl and halogen substituents), 1−chloro 7 = hept 1,4−diene
chains (alkyl substituents) are al-
indicating the position of the substituent
lowed on the main chain 2,4−diethyl
6. For several identical side chains use the prefix di-, tri-, tetra-
NOTE: 3−methyl
7. Arrange substituents in alphabetical order in the name of the comma between numbers
compound, ignore the prefix di-, tri-, tetra- (substituent pre- 5,6−dibromo
number , number
fix) dash between letter and number
letter − number − letter 5,6−dibromo−1−chloro−2,4−diethyl−3−methylhept−1,4−diene
8. Indicate position using numbers.
Organic Functional Groups SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
Homologous Examples
series and Functional
Suffix Properties
General group Condensed
formula Structural formula Name
formula
Single bonds H H H Polarity: Non-Polar
Alkanes IMF: Weak London
CnH2n+2
R C C R’ -ane H C C C H CH3CH2CH3 propane
Reactions: Substitution, Elimination,
H H H Combustion
Double bonds H H H
Polarity: Non-polar
Alkenes
CnH2n
R C C R’ -ene H C C C H CH3CH=CH2 propene IMF: London
Reactions: Addition, combustion
H
Triple bonds H
Polarity: Non-polar
Alkynes
CnH2n−2
R C C R’ -yne H C C C H CH≣CCH3 propyne IMF: London
Reactions: Addition
H
Br Cl H
Haloalkane/ X (Group
Halogens
17)
fluoro−
chloro−
Polarity: Polar
Haloalkene H C C C H CH2BrCHClCH3 1−bromo−2−chloropropane IMF: Dipole−Dipole
bromo−
(Alkyl halide) Reactions: Elimination, Substitution
R C R’ iodo−
H H H
Hydroxyl H H H Polarity: Polar
Alcohols IMF: Strong Hydrogen bonds
CnH2n+2O
R O H -ol H C C C O H CH3CH2CH2OH propan−1−ol
Reactions: Substitution, Elimination,
Esterification, Combustion
H H H
Carboxyl H H O
O Polarity: Polar
Carboxylic acids
-oic acid H C C C O H CH3CH2COOH propanoic acid IMF: Strong Hydrogen bonds
CnH2nO2
R C O H Reactions: Esterification
H H
Carbonyl H H O H H
O Polarity: Polar
Esters -yl -oate CH3CH2COOCH2CH3
H C C C O C C H ethyl propanoate IMF: Dipole−Dipole
R−COO−R’ (alch.) (carbox.) (carbox.) (alch.)
R C O R’ Reactions: Formed by esterification
H H H H
Formyl H H O
O
Aldehydes Polarity: Polar
-al H C C C H CH3CH2CHO pronanal
CnH2n+1CHO IMF: Dipole−Dipole
R C H
H H
Carbonyl H O H
O
Ketone Polarity: Polar
-one H C C C H CH3COCH3 propan−2−one
R−COC−R’ IMF: Dipole−Dipole
R C R’
H H
Organic Intermolecular Forces SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
Intermolecular forces are forces that exist between molecules in the solid, liquid and gaseous phases. They are electrostatic COMPARING IMF
attractive forces. The strength of the IMF will determine the freedom of the particles, determining the phase of the sub- 1. Identify the type of intermolecular force.
stance (solid, liquid, gas). 2. Discuss the difference between the two compounds ( → ).
Intermolecular force are a weak force of attraction between molecules or between atoms of noble gases 3. Discuss how this difference either ↑ or ↓ the strength of the intermolecular force.
4. Discuss how the physical property is affected (↑ or ↓ ).
The types of intermolecular forces that exists between different types of organic molecules and the strength of the intermo-
5. Discuss energy required to overcome forces.
lecular forces will affect the physical properties of a molecule.
●Strongest of all the intermolecular forces Alcohols TYPE OF FUNCTIONAL GROUP
●Act over shorter distances. (1 bonding site) The more polar the molecule, the stronger the IMF
Hydrogen Bonds
●Between molecules that are strongly polar that contain hydrogen Carboxylic Acids
TYPES OF IMF
bonded to a small highly electronegative atom such as N, O or F. (2 bonding sites)
Haloalkane
Carboxylic
●Stronger than Dispersion forces/Induced Dipole forces. Aldehydes
Alcohol
carbon
Hydro-
Ester
Dipole-Dipole ●Between slightly polar molecules. Ketones
acid
Forces ●Force of attraction between the δ+ end of the one molecule and the Esters
δ– end of another. Alkyl Halides INCREASING IMF, MORE ENERGY REQUIRED TO OVERCOME
London Dipole-dipole Hydrogen
●Very weak Van der Waals forces. Alkanes (dispersion) bonding
Induced Dipole
●Between non-polar molecules that form induced (temporary) dipoles Alkenes
Forces (London)
and these temporary dipoles attract each other Alkynes NUMBER OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
An increase in functional groups increase the IMF
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND IMF
OH H H OH OH H OH OH OH
RELATIONSHIP
PHYSICAL PROPERTY
TO IMF H C C C H H C C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H H H H
Melting Point: The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are
Directly
at equilibrium. It is the temperature where solid particles will undergo a phase change (melt) INCREASING IMF, MORE ENERGY REQUIRED TO OVERCOME
proportional
and become a liquid.
Boiling Point: The temperature at which vapour pressure of the substance equals Directly CHAIN LENGTH: MOLECULAR MASS
atmospheric pressure. It is the temperature where liquid boils and turns into a vapour (gas). proportional The greater the number of carbon atoms in the chain, the greater the molecular
mass. An increase in molecular mass increases the IMF
OPTIONAL
H H H H H H
Vapour Pressure: This is the pressure that an enclosed vapour at equilibrium exerts on Inversely
the surface of its liquid. proportional H C H H C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H
Viscosity: this is the measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow. A liquid with high viscosity Directly
resists motion e.g. syrup. A liquid with low viscosity is runny e.g water. proportional INCREASING IMF, MORE ENERGY REQUIRED TO OVERCOME
Solubility: Substances will only dissolve in substances that are like bonded. A non-polar
Inversely CHAIN LENGTH: BRANCHES
substance will dissolve in a non-polar substance. A polar substance will dissolve only in polar
proportional
substances. More branching results in a smaller contact surface area and lower the strength
of the IMF
Density: Density is a measure of the mass per unit volume. The solid phase of the Directly
substance is generally more dense than the gaseous and liquid phase. proportional CH3 CH3
Flammability: The ability to burn in air or ignite causing combustion. Most organic Inversely CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 CH3 CH CH2 CH3 CH3 C CH3
compounds are flammable and burn in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. proportional CH3
Odour: Different functional groups attach differently to different receptors in our nose. Different Inversely DECREASING IMF, LESS ENERGY REQUIRED TO OVERCOME
organic substances give off odour quicker based on their intermolecular forces and distinct odours. proportional
Organic Reactions SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
ADDITION REACTIONS (UNSATURATED → SATURATED) ELIMINATION REACTIONS (SATURATED → UNSATURATED)

Addition reactions are reactions where atoms are added to an organic molecule. The double or triple An elimination reaction is a reaction where atoms or groups of atoms are removed from an organic mole-
bonds break open and the new atoms are added to the carbon atoms on either side of the double or cule to form either a double or triple bonded compound.
triple bond.
This reaction is the opposite reaction to the addition reactions and is the removal of hydrogen (H2), a
We can add hydrogen (H2), a halogen (Group 7 – e.g. Cl2), a Hydrogen halide or water H2O. In addition halogen (Group 7 – e.g. Cl2), a hydrogen halide or water H2O. In elimination reactions, alkanes form ei-
reactions alkenes or alkynes form an alkane chain as a product. ther an alkene or alkyne chain as a product.
1) Hydrogenation – add H2 1) Dehydrogenation – remove H2
Reaction conditions: Reaction conditions:
H H H H H H H H H H H H
The alkene needs to be dis- The alkane needs to be in the
H2 + H C C C H H C C C H solved in a non-polar solvent H C C C H H C C C H + H2 presence of a catalyst eg. Pt, Ni
and needs to have a catalyst or Pd.
H H H H present eg. Pt, Ni or Pd. H H H H
hydrogen + alkene/alkyne → alkane alkane → alkene + hydrogen
2) Halogenation – add X (X = Halogen: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2) 2) Dehalogenation – remove X (X = Halogen: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2)
H H H H H H H H H H H H
Reaction conditions: Reaction conditions:
X2 + H C C C H H C C C H No water to be present if it is to H C C C H H C C C H + X2 Takes place in an unreactive
H X X take place solvent
H H X X H
halogen + alkene/alkyne → haloalkane haloalkane → alkene + halogen
3) Hydrohalogenation – add HX (X = Halogen: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2) 3) Dehydrohalogenation – remove HX (X = Halogen: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2)
(Major product) (Major product)
Reaction conditions:
H H H H H H Reaction conditions: H H H H H H H H Takes place in the presence of
No water to be present if it is to H C C C C H HX + concentrated NaOH/KOH in
HX + H C C C H H C C C H H C C C C H
take place. ethanol as the solvent. Strong
H H X H H H X H H H heating under reflux.
(Minor product) (Minor product)
Markovnikov’s rule: The H H H H H Zaitzev’s rule: H atom is re-
H H H
atom will bond to the carbon moved from the carbon atom
H C C C H atom which has the greater H C C C C H with the least number of H at-
number of H atoms bonded to oms. (Keeps biggest H groups)
H H X H H
it. (Form biggest H groups)
hydrogen halide + alkene/alkyne → haloalkane haloalkane → hydrogen halide + alkene
4) Hydration – add of H2O 4) Dehydration – remove H2O
(Major product) (Major product) Requires the heating of an alco-
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H hol with concentrated acid cata-
Strong but dilute acid catalyst
lyst eg. H2SO4 or H3PO4. The
H2O + H C C C H H C C C H e.g. H2SO4 or H3PO4
H C C C C H H2O + H C C C C H acid should be in excess
Heat in the form of steam
H H O H
(H2O) reactant H H O H H H
H Sulfuric acid is known
(Minor product) Markovnikov’s rule: The H H as a dehydrating agent.
H H H atom will bond to the carbon (Minor product)
atom which has the greater H H H H
H C C C H number of H atoms bonded to Zaitzev’s rule: H atom is re-
H H O it. (Form biggest H groups) H C C C C H moved from the carbon atom
with the least number of H at-
H H H oms. (Keeps biggest H groups)
water (H2O) + alkene/alkyne → alcohol alcohol → water (H2O) + alkene
Organic Reactions SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS (SATURATED → SATURATED) COMBUSTION/OXIDATION REACTIONS

Substitution reactions is when an atom or group of atoms in an organic molecule are replaced or Hydrocarbons are the main source of fuel in the world at the moment. They are used in the production
swopped/exchanged for another atom or group of atoms. Substitution reactions take place between com- of electrical energy and as fuel for various engines. When hydrocarbons and alcohols react with oxygen
pounds that are saturated alkanes, haloalkanes and alcohols. they form water and carbon dioxide. These reactions are exothermic and produce large quantities of
heat.
1) Alkanes: Halogenation- Substitute X2 (X = Halogen: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2)
Complete combustion (excess oxygen): C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O + energy
H H H H H H Reaction conditions: Incomplete combustion (insufficient oxygen): 2C3H8 + 7O2 → 6CO + 8H2O + energy
Reaction takes place in the
H C C C H + X2 H C C C H + HX Balancing: C → H → O
presence of sunlight/heat
H H H H X H
CRACKING
alkane + halogen → haloalkane + hydrogen halide Hydrocarbons can be made up of very long chains of hundreds of carbons. Crude oil is a mixture of
many large hydrocarbons and each source of crude oil is different resulting in different types and
2) Haloalkanes: Hydrolysis - Substitute H2O amounts of hydrocarbons.
Shorter chain hydrocarbons are more useful to use as fuels as they burn more readily and are more flam-
H H H H H H
H2O / HX / Reaction conditions: mable. Cracking is the breaking up of long hydrocarbon chains into smaller more useful hydrocarbons.
H C C C H + NaOH / H C C C H + NaX / The haloalkane is dissolved An alkene and alkane will be the products as a result of cracking. Cracking is a type of elimination reac-
KOH KX in an ethanol solution and tion.
H X H H O H
treated with hot aqueous H H H H H H H H H H H H
H NaOH/KOH solution
H C C C C C C H H C C C H + H C C C H
haloalkane + H2O/NaOH/KOH → alcohol + HX/NaX/KX
H H H H H H H H H H
3) Alcohols: Hydrohalogenation- Substitute HX (X = Halogen: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2) alkane → alkane + alkene
Tertiary alcohols
Thermal cracking
This method makes use of high pressures (up to 70 atmospheres) and high temperatures to crack the
H H long hydrocarbon chains with no catalyst. Products: alkanes and alkenes.
H C H H C H Catalytic cracking
H H H H Reaction conditions: This method uses a catalyst to crack long carbon chains at low pressure (up to 1 atmosphere) and low
Require HX present at room temperature. The heated crude oil is passed into a fractional distillation column and passed over a cata-
H C C C H + HX H C C C H + H2O
temperature. lyst. The column is hottest at the bottom and coolest at the top. The crude oil separates according to
H O H H X H boiling points and condenses as the gas rises up the column. The substances/chains with the longest
chains will have higher boiling points and condense at the bottom and vice versa. Products: alkanes
H and alkenes OR alkenes and H2.
alcohol + hydrogen halide → haloalkane + water
ESTERIFICATION
Primary and secondary alcohols This is a reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid in the presence of a concentrated acid
catalyst, H2SO4. This reaction is a type of an elimination reaction and is also known as a condensation
reaction as two organic molecules form one organic molecule and water is removed from the reactants
Reaction conditions: and forms as a product in the reaction. Esters are responsible for the various smells which occur in na-
H H H H H H
High temperatures and need ture and they are generally pleasant smells like banana and apple etc.
H C C C O H + HX H C C C X + H2O to be treated with NaBr and H H O H H O H
H H H
H H H H H H concentrated H2SO4.
H C C O H + H O C C C H H C C O C C C H + H2O
H H H H H H H H
alcohol + hydrogen halide → haloalkane + water
alcohol + carboxylic acid → ester + water
Summary of Organic Reactions SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
Haloalkane ( Subs ( )
Alkane + Alkene
[d H2 O
with 1 halogen
H H H H H H ilu /N
te aO Add ( + )
) ds H
C H + C C ct C C C tro /K Hyd
od
u Ha ng OH ro Elim ( − )
H H pr H X H lo ,
m bas HX ysis
l
X by ge
na od e /N
te er dis aX
, H V] m [te tio
Dehydrohalogenation
base, strongly heated,

[Concentrated strong
dissolved in ethanol]
pe rt n at so /K
X2 –U
Hydrohalogenation
ra ia ( e h lv X
( ght t u ry ea ed by
Thermal cracking
n li re al HX t] in pro
ti o S u n alc . Pr coh , H et d
( − HX)
( + HX)
a oh im ol 2 O h a uc
gen [ ols ar s a by no t )
y l,
H alo t
- h an ro pro
ea d om du
te sec ct)
d] on
da
ry Alcohol
Hydrogenation ( + H2) Alkene
Alkane Hydration ( + H2O) H H H
H H H [Pt] H H H [H2SO4]
C C C
C C C C C C
Catalytic cracking ( − H2) Dehydration ( − H2O) H O H
H H H H
[Pt] [concentrated H2SO4] H
Dehalogenation
[Sunlight – UV]
Halogenation
[concentrated H2SO 4 ]
( + Carboxylic acid )
( − X2)
( + X2 )
( reacts with O2 )
Esterification
Combustion
Haloalkane
with 2 halogens
H H H
C C C
CO2 + H2O Ester
X X H
Polymers SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
POLYMERS ADDITION POLYMERIZATION

Polymers are very large organic molecules. They are made up of hundreds or thousands of atoms. Addition polymers are made by joining two or more monomers which have double bonds- unsaturated
Polymers are structured from repeated smaller units called monomers. molecules. (These are alkene’s and alkyne’s) and form long single bonded chains.
Monomer: Small organic molecules that can be covalently bonded to each other in a repeating pattern The double bond breaks open and the electrons join the two monomers together to create the long
chain. No atoms are added or lost. Monomers may have different groups that are attached to the car-
A B bon atoms.
Polymer: A large molecule composed of smaller monomer units covalently bonded to each other in a H H H H H H
repeating pattern
C C C C C C
A B A B A B A B
H H H H H H
n
CONDENSATION POLYMERIZATION
ethene monomer ethene polymer (polyethene)
Condensation polymerization occurs when two different monomers which have functional groups
(alcohols and carboxylic acids) on both ends of their molecules react. In this reaction a water molecule is Steps of addition polymerization of polyethene (polyethylene)
eliminated. Polyethene is used to make squeeze bottles, plastic bags, films, toys and molded objects, and electric
insulation. Polythene has the recycling number 4.
Formation of polyesters
1) Initiation
A polyester forms in a similar way as to a normal ester i.e. an alcohol and carboxylic acid reacting. The
The presence of a free radical initiates the double bond of the monomer to break open. A free radical is
only difference is that the alcohol and carboxylic acids have a functional group on both their ends and
a molecule that has an unpaired electron. When the monomer reacts with the free radical it creates an-
are diols and dicarboxylic acids.
other free radical.
Monomer (ester) formation H H H H
* : Free radical
H H Esterifica1on O O H H O O R* + C C R C C* (unpaired electron)
H O C C O H +H O C R C O H H O C C O C R C O H + H2O H H H H
2) Propagation
H H H H
This new free radical will add to the double bond of another monomer and create another free radical.
Polymer formation The chain will continue to grow and get longer and longer. These additions give rise to a macromole-
H H O O Esterifica0on H H O O cule. This reaction takes place very quickly.
H O C C O C R C O H + H O C C O C R C O H H H H H
H H H H
H H * : Free radical
H H R C C* + C C R C C C C* (unpaired electron)
H H H H H H H H
3) Termination
O H H O O H There are two ways in which the polymerization can terminate.
C R C O H H O C •Two radicals join together and terminate.

C O H H O C C O
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
R C C C C* + *C C C C R R C C C C C C C C R
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
• One radical removes a hydrogen from another radical and forms a saturated molecule (alkane) and
O H H O O H forces the other radical to form an unsaturated molecule(alkene).
C O C C O C R C O C H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H H H R C C C C* + *C C C C R R C C C C H + C C C C R
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Polymers SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
MONOMER FREE RADICAL

MONOMER STRUCTURE POLYMER STRUCTURE POLYMER NAME
NAME BUILDING BLOCK
Addition polymerization
H H H H H H H H H H
Propene C C C C C C C C C C Polypropylene
H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H CH3
H H H H H H H H H H
Styrene C C C C C C C C C C Polystyrene
H H H H H
H H H H H
H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H
O C O C O C O C O C
Vinyl acetate PVA (polyvinyl acetate)
H O H O H O H O H O
C C C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H H H H
Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl H
Chloroethene C C C C C C C C C C PVC (polyvinyl chloride)
H H H H H H H H H H
Condensation polymerization
H H H H PLA (polylactic acid)

PLA monomer formed from
Polymer formed by H
H C H C H H C H H C H biological fermentation of
esterification.
Lactic acid plant materials is
REMEMBER: Water is O C C O C C O C C biodegradable. Used for
H O C C O H formed as byproduct. packaging material, has the
H O H O H O potential to alleviate land-
H O fill disposal problems.
Quantitative aspects of chemical change SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
The Mole Concentrations of solutions Molar Volumes of Gases

Atoms, molecules and ions are too small to count, and there are so many Solutions are homogeneous (uniform) mixtures of two or more sub- If different gases have the same volume under the
particles in even the smallest sample of a substance. stances. A solution is formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent. same conditions of temperature and pressure, they
The solvent and solute can be a gas, liquid, or solid. The most common sol- will have the same number of molecules.
The mole is the SI unit for the amount of substance. A mole of particles is vent is liquid water. This is called an aqueous solution. The molar volume of a gas, VM, is the volume
an amount of 6,02 x 1023 particles. 6,02 x 1023 is known as Avo- occupied by one mole of the gas.
gadro’s number, NA. number of particles Solution Solute Solvent
N salt water salt water VM for all gases at STP is 22.4 dm3·mol−1.
n=
number of mole (mol) NA Avogadro’s number
soda water carbon dioxide water
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) is
(6,02 x 1023) Concentration 273 K (0°C) and 1,01×105 Pa (1 atm).
The concentration of a solution is the number of moles of solute
EXAMPLE: This also means that for reactions at constant tem-
per unit volume of solution.
Determine the amount of H+ ions in 3 mol of H2SO4. perature and pressure, gas volumes will react in the
N(H2 SO4 ) = nNA H2 SO4 : H + number of moles (mol) same ratio as the molar ratio.
= 3(6,02 × 10 23) 1:2 n of solute
= 1,81 × 10 24 H2 SO4 molecules 1,81 × 10 24 : 3,62 × 10 24 concentration (mol ⋅ dm−3) c= volume (dm3)
∴ N(H + ) = 3,62 × 10 24 ions V of solution
Molar Mass can also be calculated with
Particles are too small to weigh individually.
Molar mass (M) is defined as the mass in grams of one mole of that m
c=
substance (atoms, molecules or formula units) and is measured in the MV
unit g.mol-1.
m mass of substance (g)
Concentration is the number moles of solute per 1 dm3 of solution
number of mole (mol) n= i.e. mol·dm-3. If a solution of potassium permanganate KMnO4 has a
M molar mass (g ⋅ mol−1) concentration of 2 mol.dm-3 it means that for every 1 dm3 of solution, there
N2 + 2O2 → 2NO2
EXAMPLE: are 2 moles of KMnO4 dissolved in the solvent.
Determine the number of moles in 13 g of CuSO4. 1 mol + 2 mol → 2 mol
M(CuSO4 ) = 63,5 + 32 + 4(16) m
n= EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
−1
M 1 dm3 + 2 dm3 → 2 dm3
= 159,5 g ⋅ mol
= 13 A solution contains 10 g of sodium Calculate the mass of solute in
159,5
= 0,082 mol hydroxide, NaOH, in 200 cm3 of 600 cm3 of 1,5 mol·dm-3 sodium volume of gaseous
solution. Calculate the concentra- chloride solution. V substance (dm3)
Percentage Composition tion of the solution. n=
n(NaOH) =
m V = 600 cm3 = 0,6 dm3 VM
molar mass of element M
Percentage composition of element= × 100 M(NaCl) = 23 + 35,5
MR of compound 10 number of moles (mol) molar gas volume at STP
= 23 + 16 + 1 = 58,5 g ⋅ mol−1 (22,4 dm3 ⋅ mol−1)
Consider these iron ores: haematite and magnetite – which con- = 0,25 mol
tains more iron by mass? EXAMPLE:
3 3 n = cV A gas jar with a volume of 224 cm3 is full of chlo-
Ore Haematite Magnetite V = 200 cm = 0,2 dm rine gas, at STP. How many moles of chlorine gas
= 1,5 × 0,6
Formula Fe2O3 Fe3O4 are there in the gas jar?
n
= 0,9 mol
Relative (2 x 56) + (3 x 16) (3 x 56) + (4 x 16) c(NaOH) = V n =
V
molecular mass =160 =232 VM
0,25
= m = nM 0,224
% iron by mass
[(2 x 56) /160] x 100 [(3 x 56) / 232] x 100 0,2
= 0,9 × 58,5 = 22,4
= 70% = 72% = 1,25 mol ⋅ dm−3 = 52,65 g = 0,01 m ol
∴ magnetite contains more iron
Calculating Empirical Formula Empirical formula to Molecular Formula Limiting Reactants

from Mass
The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a molecule. In a reaction between two substances, one reac-
The molecular formula is actual ratio of the atoms in a molecule. tant is likely to be used up completely before the
Empirical formula is the chemical formula of a compound
The molecular formula can be calculated from the empirical formula and the relative other. This limits the amount of product formed.
that shows the smallest whole number ratio of the atoms.
molecular mass. Consider the reaction between magnesium and
STEPS TO DETERMINE MOLECULAR FORMULA: dilute sulphuric acid. The balanced chemical equa-
1.Determine the mass of the elements. tion is
2.Determine mol of each substance. 1. Determine the empirical formula (if not given).
3.Simplify the atomic ratio. 2. Determine the molar mass of the empirical formula. Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
3. Determine the ratio between molecular formula and empirical formula.
This means that 1 mole of magnesium reacts with
EXAMPLE: 4. Multiply the ratio into the empirical formula 1 mole of sulphuric acid. Both reactants will be
A sample of an oxide of copper contains 8 g of copper combined EXAMPLE: completely used up by the time the reaction stops.
with 1 g of oxygen. Find the empirical formula of the compound.
An unknown organic compound has the empirical formula CH2. What happens if 1 mole of magnesium and 2 mole
Steps Copper Oxygen The molecular mass of butene is 56g·mol-1. Determine the mo- of sulphuric acid are available to react? There is
lecular formula of the compound. now insufficient magnesium to react with all of the
Step 1:
8g 1g sulphuric acid. 1 mole of sulphuric acid is left after
Mass of element 1. Empirical formula given: CH2
the reaction.
n=m/M n=m/M 2. Determine the molar mass of the empirical formula.
Step 2: Mol M(CH2 ) = 12 + 1 + 1 All of the magnesium is used up, We say the mag-
= 8 / 63,5 = 1 / 16
(divide by mass of 1 mol) nesium is the limiting reactant. Some sulphuric
= 0,126 mol = 0,0625 mol −1
= 14g ⋅ mol acid is left after the reaction. We say the sulphuric
Step 3: Atom ratio 0,125/0,0625 0,0625/0,0625 acid is in excess.
(divide by smallest no in ratio) ≈2 =1
3. Determine the ratio between molecular and empirical.
molecular formula mass
Empirical formula: Cu2O ratio number = empirical formula mass
The amount of limiting reactant will deter-
mine:
56
Calculating Empirical Formula from = • The amount of product formed.
14
Percentage Composition
= 4 • The amount of other (excess) reactants used.
The empirical formula of a compound can also be found from its per-
centage composition. We assume that 100 g of the compound is ana-
lysed, then each percentage gives the mass of the element in grams 4. Multiply the ratio into the empirical formula
in 100 g of the compound. CH2 × 4 = C4 H8 Determining limiting reactants
An oxide of sulphur contains 40% sulphur and 60% oxygen by 1. Calculate the number of moles of each reactant.
mass. Determine the empirical formula of this oxide of sulphur. Approach to reaction stoichiometry 2. Determine the ratio between reactants.
1. Write a balanced chemical equation. 3. Determine limiting reactant using the ratios.
Steps Sulphur Oxygen 2. Convert the ‘given’ amount into mole (use limiting reactant if applicable).
Step 1: 40 60 3. Determine the number of mole of the ‘asked’ substance using the mole ratio.
% of element 4. Determine the ‘asked’ amount from the number of mole.
NOTE:
Step 2: 40 60
Mass of element (g) Concentra0on Concentra0on Concentra0on Concentra0on If one reactant is in excess, it means
that there is more than enough of it.
Step 3: n=m/M n=m/M If there are only 2 reactants and one is in
Mol = 40 / 32 = 60 / 16 excess, it means that the other is the limit-
= 1,25 mol = 3,75 mol MOL + MOL MOL + MOL ing reactant.
Step 4: 1,25 / 1,25 3,75 /1,25
Divide by smallest =1 =3
mol ratio Mass Volume Mass Volume Mass Volume Mass Volume
Empirical formula: SO3
EXAMPLE: Percentage Purity Percentage Yield

A 8,4 g sample of nitrogen reacts with 1,5 g hydro- Sometimes chemicals are not pure and one needs to calculate the Yield is the measure of the extent of a reaction, generally measured by comparing
gen. The balanced equation is: percentage purity. Only the pure component of the substance the amount of product against the amount of product that is possible.
will react. For an impure sample of a substance:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) Some of the product may be lost due to evaporation into the surrounding air, or due
to a little being left in solution. Some of the reactants may not react. We say that
Determine (a) which reactant is the limiting reac- the reaction has not run to completion.
Mass of pure substance
tant, and (b) the mass of ammonia that can be Percentage purity = × 100
produced. Mass of impure substance This results in the amount of the product produced being less than the maximum
theoretical amount you would expect. We can express this by the percentage yield:
(a)
1. STEPS TO DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE PURITY
n(N2 ) = m Actual yield
M 1. Determine moles of products. Percentage yield = × 100
8,4 2. From the balanced formula, determine the ratio between reactants Theoretical yield
=
28 and products.
= 0,3 mol 3. Using the ratio, determine the number of moles of reactants.
Percentage yield is usually determined using mass, but can also be determined with
4. Determine the mass of pure reactant.
mol and volume.
5. Calculate the percentage purity of the sample.
m
n(H2 ) =
M STEPS TO DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE YIELD
1,5
= EXAMPLE: 1. Determine moles of reactants.
2
2. From the balanced formula, determine the ratio between reactants and products.
= 0,75 mol An impure sample of calcium carbonate, CaCO3, contains calcium 3. Using the ratio, determine the number of moles of products.
sulphate, CaSO4, as an impurity. When excess hydrochloric acid 4. Determine the theoretical mass of product.
2. was added to 6g of the sample, 1200 cm3 of gas was produced 5. Calculate the percentage yield.
N2 : H2 (measured at STP). Calculate the percentage purity of the cal-
1 : 3 cium carbonate sample. The equation for the reaction is: EXAMPLE:
0,3 mol : 0,9 mol
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2 O(l) + CO2(g) 128g of sulphur dioxide, SO2, was reacted with oxygen to produce sulphur trioxide,
0,25 mol : 0,75 mol SO3. The equation for the reaction is:
V 1,2 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)

3 . 1. n(CO2 ) = = = 0,054mol
If all nitrogen is used, 0,9 mol hydrogen is VM 22,4 140g of SO3 was produced in the reaction. Calculate the percentage yield of the
needed, However, only 0,75 mol hydrogen is avail- reaction.
2. 3.
able. The hydrogen will run out first, therefore CaCO3 : CO2
hydrogen is the limiting reactant. CaCO3 : CO2 m 128
1 : 1 1. n(SO2 ) = = = 2mol
1 : 1 M 64
0,054 : 0,054
(b) 2. 3.
∴ 0,054mol CaCO3 reacted SO2 : SO3 SO2 : SO3
Because the hydrogen is the limiting reactant, it
will determine the mass of ammonia produced: 4.
2 : 2 1 : 1
m(CaCO3) = nM = (0,054)(40 + 12 + 16 + 16 + 16) = 5,4g 1 : 1 2 : 2
H2 : NH3 ∴ 2mol SO3
5.
3 : 2 Mass of pure substance 4. m(SO3) = nM = (2)(32 + 16 + 16 + 16) = 160g
Percentage purity = × 100
0,75mol : 0,5mol Mass of impure substance
5.
5,4 Mass of product produced
Percentage purity = × 100 Percentage yield = × 100
m(NH3) = nM 6,0 Maximum theoretical mass of product
= (0,5)(17) Percentage purity = 90 % Percentage yield = 140
× 100
160
= 8,5g
Percentage yield = 87.5 %
Energy and Chemical Change SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
ENERGY CHANGE ENTHALPY AND ENTHALPY CHANGE

The energy change that takes place occurs because of bonds being broken and new bonds being formed. Enthalpy (H) is the total amount of stored chemical energy (potential energy) of the reactants and the
products. During chemical reactions, energy can be exchanged between the chemical system and the
When bonds are broken, energy is absorbed from the environment. (endothermic)
environment, resulting in a change in enthalpy. This change in enthalpy, 𝚫H, represents the heat of the
When bonds are formed, energy is released into the environment. (exothermic) reaction measured in kJ·mol−1.
The net energy change will determine if the reaction is endothermic or exothermic.
The heat of reaction (𝚫H) is the net change of chemical potential energy of the system.
ACTIVATION ENERGY
CHEMICAL SYSTEM AND THE ENVIRONMENT
In order to start a reaction, energy first needs to be absorbed to break the bonds. This energy is known
as the activation energy – the minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction OR the The chemical system is the reactant and product molecules.
energy required to form the activated complex.
The environment is the surroundings of the chemical system, including the container in which the reac-
Once the bonds have been broken, the atoms in the chemical system form an activated complex – a tion takes place, or the water in which the molecules are dissolved.
high energy, unstable temporary transition state between the reactants and the products.
CATALYST
ENDOTHERMIC EXOTHERMIC
In order for a reaction to occur, enough en-
ergy has to be provided (activation energy)
A reaction that absorbs heat energy A reaction that releases heat energy for particles to collide effectively.
The amount of required energy can be de-
More energy absorbed than released More energy released than absorbed creased by using a catalyst. A catalyst is a
chemical substances that lowers the activa-
Net energy change is energy absorbed from the environment Net energy change is energy released into the environment tion energy required without undergoing
chemical change. By lowering the activation
The chemical system’s energy increases (𝚫H>0) The chemical system’s energy decreases (𝚫H<0) energy, the rate of the reaction can also be
increased.
The environment’s energy decreases The environment’s energy increases A catalyst is a substance that increases
the rate of the reaction but remains
Temperature of the environment decreases (test tube gets colder) Temperature of the environment increases (test tube gets hotter)
unchanged at the end of the reaction
POTENTIAL ENERGY PROFILE GRAPH OF AN ENDOTHERMIC REACTION POTENTIAL ENERGY PROFILE GRAPH OF AN EXOTHERMIC REACTION
IMPORTANT REACTIONS
Ac+vated Ac+vated
ENDOTHERMIC
Complex Complex
Photosynthesis
Effect of Effect of 6CO2 + 6H2 O
light
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 ; 𝚫H>0
Poten+al Energy- EP (kJ)
Poten+al Energy- EP (kJ)

catalyst catalyst
EA
Products EXOTHERMIC
Reactants
Cellular respiration
EA ΔH ΔH C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2 O ; 𝚫H<0
Reactants Products Combustion

CH 4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2 O ; 𝚫H<0
Course of reac+on Course of reac+on C 2 H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2 O ; 𝚫H<0
Rates of Reactions SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
RATES OF REACTIONS FACTORS INFLUENCING REACTION RATE

Temperature Nature of reactants
The change in concentration per unit time of either a reac-
Increasing temperature increases rate of reaction. When the temperature increases, The physical and chemical properties of certain
tant or product.
the kinetic energy of the particles increases. More particles have sufficient energy to molecules make them more likely to react.
overcome the activation energy, and more effective collisions can take place per
Δ amount of product For example:
unit time.
Rate = • O2 has many effective orientations
Δt EA • F’s electronegativity makes it more reactive
Number of particles
Δ amount of reactant
Amount of product
• Tertiary alcohols have limited effective collision
re
(mol)/(mol·dm−3)
Rate =
pe h
tu
m ig
orientations due to molecule structure
ra
Δt
te H
w re
Hi
Lo ratu • Simple (Ca2+) and complex (C2O4−) ions.
gh
May be given terms of change in mass per unit time (g·s−1) OR of pe
T
Low
m
em
change in volume per unit time (dm3·s−1) OR change in number of te State of division / surface area (solids only)
p.
Increased state of division (powder instead of
Tem
mole per unit time (mol·s−1)
chunks) increases rate of reaction. Increasing the
p.
surface area exposed to collisions increases that
The gradient of a concentration/mass/volume versus time graph number of particles that will undergo collisions, and
gives the rate of a reaction, thus a steeper gradient means a higher Time (s) more effective collisions can take place per unit
Energy
rate of reaction. time.
Concentration (gases and solutions only)
Increasing concentration increases rate of reaction. The greater the concentration, the
Amount of product
COLLISION THEORY
(mol)/(mol·dm−3)
more particles occur per unit volume. More particles have sufficient energy to over-
er
The conditions for successful collisions are: come the activation energy, and more effective collisions can take place per unit
wd
lar
time. If the concentration of a limiting reactant is increased, more product can be
Po
u
1. Particles must collide with correct orientation
an
formed. High conc.
Gr
The structure of the molecules and their relative orientations to
1M
each other is important for effective collisions. Some catalysts EA Limiting react.
Number of particles
Amount of product
function by improving molecular orientation.
(mol)/(mol·dm−3)
onc.
2. Particles must collide with sufficient energy (kinetic High c act.
s s re
energy ≥ activation energy) 0,5 M Exce Time (s)
The molecules have to collide with sufficient amount of energy
Pressure (gases only)
for bonds to break and the reaction to occur (activation energy). .
nc Increased pressure (by decreasing volume) in-
MAXWELL-BOLTZMAN DISTRIBUTION CURVE co creases the concentration of the gas thus increas-
w
The Maxwell-Boltzman distribution curve shows the distribution of Lo ing the rate of reaction.
the kinetic energy of molecules. The area under the graph to the (See ‘Concentration’)
right of the EA line represents the particles with sufficient kinetic Energy Time (s)
energy
Amount of product
Catalyst
(mol)/(mol·dm−3)
most particles have moderate energy The presence of a catalyst decreases the activation energy (EA). More particles have
pre igh
re
sufficient energy to overcome the lowered activation energy, and more effective colli- w
Lo sure
ssu
∴ average EK
H
sions can take place per unit time. res
p
number of
EA (catalyst)
particles
Number of particles
few particles have
Amount of product
EA
(mol)/(mol·dm−3)
very high energy
t
lys
∴ high EK EA (no catalyst)
ta
t Time (s)
ou
Ca
ith lyst
W ta WAYS TO MEASURE RATE
ca
energy 1. Change in mass
2. Volume of gas produced All calculated
few particles have
Particles with sufficient energy 3. Change in colour per unit time
very little energy
for an effective collision 4. Turbidity (precipitation)
∴ low EK
Energy Time (s) 5. Change in pH
Chemical Equilibrium SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
An open system is one in which both energy and matter can LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE
be exchanged between the system and its surroundings - it
interacts continuously with its environment. When the equilibrium in a closed system is disturbed, the system will re-instate a new equilibrium by favouring
A closed system is one in which energy can enter or leave the reaction that will oppose the disturbance.
the system freely, but no reactant or products can leave or Factors which affect equilibrium position
enter the system. 1. Concentration
A reaction is a reversible reaction when products can be Equilibrium will shift to decrease any increase in Removing HI (t1):
converted back to reactants. Reversible reactions are repre- concentration of either reactants or products. H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
When HI is removed, the system re-
sented with double arrows. • Adding reactant: forward reaction favoured HI H2
Concentra/on (mol·dm−3)
H2(g) establishes equilibrium by favouring the reac-
• Adding product: reverse reaction favoured removed added
For example: tion that will produce more HI. Because the
Hydrogen reacts with iodine to form hydrogen iodide: forward reaction is favoured, some of the reac-
Equilibrium will shift to increase any decrease in
H2 (g) + I2 (g) → 2HI(g) tants are used.
concentration of either reactants or products.
I2(g)
Hydrogen iodide can decompose to form hydrogen and iodine: • Removing reactant: reverse reaction favoured Adding H2 (t2):
2HI(g) → H2 (g) + I2 (g) • Removing product: forward reaction favoured
HI(g) When adding H2, the system re-establishes
Therefore the reversible reaction can be written as: equilibrium by favouring the reaction that uses
The concentration can be changed by adding/
H2. Because the forward reaction is favoured,
Forward reac*on removing reactants/products that are in solution
the reactants are used and more products
(aq) or a gas (g). Changing the mass of pure sol-
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g) Time (min) t1 t2 form.
ids (s) or volume of liquids (l) will not disrupt the
Reverse reac*on
equilibrium or change the rate of the reactions.
Dynamic chemical equilibrium refers to a reversible 2. Pressure (gases only)
reaction in which the forward reaction and the reverse reaction A change in pressure can be identified on a Pressure decrease (t1):
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
are taking place at the same rate. The concentrations of the graph by an instantaneous change in concentra- When the pressure is decreased, the system
reactants and products are constant. Chemical equilibrium can tion of all gasses due to a change in volume. Pressure Pressure re-establishes equilibrium by favouring the
N2(g) decrease increase
only be achieved in a closed system. Equilibrium will shift to decrease any increase in reaction that will produce more moles of gas.
Equilibrium pressure by favouring the reaction direction that The reverse reaction is favoured, reacting 2
H2(g) produces less molecules. mol gas and forming 4 mol gas.
reached H2(g)
Equilibrium will shift to increase any decrease in
Pressure increase (t2):
Concentra/on pressure by favouring the reaction that produces
more molecules. When the pressure is increased, the system
I2(g) remains constant
To determine which reaction is favoured, com- re-establishes equilibrium by favouring the
a?er equilibrium
pare the total number of mol of gaseous reaction that will produce less moles of gas.
reached
reactants to the total number of mol of gaseous NH3(g) The forward reaction of favoured, reacting 4
HI(g) products. mol of gas and forming 2 moles of gas.
Time (min) t1 t2
3. Temperature
If the temperature is increased, the endo- 2NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4(g); ΔH = -57 kJ Temperature increase (t1):
Time (min) t1
thermic reaction will be favoured. brown colourless When the temperature is increased, the system
Forward reac0on Temperature Temperature
If the temperature decreases, the exother- re-establishes equilibrium by favouring the reac-
Concentration (mol·dm−3)
H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g) Equilibrium increase decrease
mic reaction is favoured. NO2(g) tion that will decrease the temperature (i.e. the
reached
Rate of reac0on
endothermic reaction). The reverse reaction will

The heat of the reaction, ΔH, is always be favoured because the forward reaction is exo-
Equilibrium: used to indicate the forward reaction. thermic. The gas mixture becomes darker brown.
H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
NOTE: An increase in temperature in- Temperature decrease (t2):
Reac0on rate creases the rate of both the forward
remains constant When the temperature is decreased, the system
and the reverse reaction, but shifts
aAer equilibrium re-establishes equilibrium by favouring the reac-
Reverse reac0on the equilibrium position.
reached tion that will increase the temperature (i.e. the
2HI(g) → H2(g) + I2(g) N2O4(g)
NOTE: Temperature change is the only exothermic reaction). The forward reaction will be
Time (min) t1 change that affects Kc. Time (min) t1 t2 favoured. The gas mixture becomes lighter brown.
Chemical Equilibrium SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
COMMON ION EFFECT EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT (KC) EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT TABLE

When ionic substances are in solution, they form ions: General equation: aA + bB ⇌ cC The equilibrium constant table assists in calculating the concentration of reactants
and products when the reaction has reached equilibrium.
Where A,B,C are chemical substances (ONLY aq and g, NOT s or l !)
NaCl(s) ⇌ Na+ (aq) + Cl−(aq) EXAMPLE:
and a,b,c are molar ratio numbers Note: The factors of the
wh i t e c ol ou r l ess numerator and denominator 3 moles of NO2 are placed in a 1,5 dm3 container and the following equilibrium
[C]c must be MULTIPLIED is established:
Kc = If no volume is given,
If HCl is added to this solution, the concentration of [A]a[B]b respectively (NOT added) 2NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4(g)
Cl− ions will increase because Cl− is a common ion. assume volume = 1 dm3
Kc value is a ratio and therefore has no units.
The system will attempt to re-establish equilibrium by At equilibrium it was found that 0,3 mol of NO2 was present in the container.
favouring the reverse reaction, forming a white If Kc > 1 then equilibrium lies to the right – there are more products Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant for this reaction.
sodium chloride precipitate. than reactants.
If Kc < 1 then equilibrium lies to the left – there are more reactants
The disturbance of a system at equilibrium that occurs NO2 N2O4
than products.
when the concentration of a common ion is increased,
is known as the common ion effect. Kc values are constant at specific temperatures. If the temperature of Ratio 2 1
the system changes then the Kc value will change. [N2 O4 ]
CATALYST AND EQUILIBRIUM Initial (mol) 3 0 Kc =
[NO 2 ]2
When a catalyst is added, the rate of the forward, as Temperature Kc of Exothermic Kc of Endothermic
(0,9)
well as the reverse reaction, is increased. The use of a Change (mol) -2,7 +1,35 =
(0,2) 2
catalyst does not affect the equilibrium position or the Increase Decrease Increase
Equilibrium (mol) 0,3 1,35 = 22,5
Kc value at all.
Decrease Increase Decrease
Forward reac0on Eq. concentration 0,3/1,5 1,35/1,5
H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g) EXAMPLE: in (mol·dm−3) = 0,2 =0,9
Rate of reac0on
Consider the following equilibrium system:

Catalyst
added CoCl 4 2−(aq) + H2 O(l) ⇌ Co(H2 O)6 2+ (aq) + 4Cl−(aq) ΔH < 0 EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
bl u e pi nk The Haber Process: N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) ΔH<0
For each change made to the system state and explain the colour
Reverse reac0on change seen. Temperature: The forward reaction is exothermic, thus a decrease in tempera-
2HI(g) → H2(g) + I2(g) ture will favour the forward exothermic reaction. However, a decrease in tempera-
a) Water added ture will also decrease the rate of the reaction. Therefore, a compromise be-
Time (min) t1 Adding water decreases the concentration of all the ions. According tween rate and yield is found at a temperature of around 450 °C to 550 °C.
to Le Chatelier’s principle, the equilibrium will shift in such as way
so as to produce more ions. Thus the forward reaction will be Pressure: As there are fewer reactant gas particles than product gas particles,
DESCRIBING EQUILIBRIUM SHIFT AC- an increase in pressure will therefore favour the production of products. Thus this
favoured, forming more product and the solution turns pink.
CORDING TO LE CHATELIER reaction is done under a high pressure of 200 atm.
1. Identify the disturbance b) AgNO3 added Catalyst: Iron or Iron Oxide
Adding/removing reactants or products, pressure Adding AgNO3 creates an insoluble precipitate of AgCl. This
change, temperature change. decreases the Cl− ion concentration. According to Le Chatelier’s The Contact Process: 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g) ΔH < 0
principle the equilibrium will shift in such a way so as to produce
2. State Le Chatelier’s principle Temperature: The forward reaction is exothermic, thus a decrease in tempera-
more Cl− ions. The forward reaction will be favoured, more product
ture will favour the forward exothermic reaction. However, a decrease in tempera-
3. System response is made and the solution turns pink.
ture will also decrease the rate of the reaction. Therefore, a compromise be-
Use up/create more products or reactants, make
tween rate and yield is found at a temperature of around 450 °C
more/less gas molecules, increase/decrease tem- c) Temperature is increased
perature. The temperature of the system is increased. According to Pressure: There are more reactant gas particles than product gas particles, there-
Le Chatelier’s principle, the equilibrium will shift in such a way to fore an increase in pressure will favour the production of product. However, in
4. State favoured reaction
reduce the temperature. The reverse endothermic reaction is practice a very high yield is obtained at atmospheric pressure.
5. Discuss results favoured. This decreases the temperature and produces more reac-
Catalyst: Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5)
Equilibrium shift, change in colour/concentration/ tant and the solution turns blue.
pressure/temperature.
Chemical Equilibrium - Rate and Concentration SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
1: Increase in pressure 2: Decrease in pressure

Le Chatelier: The forward reaction is favoured, Le Chatelier: The reverse reaction is favoured,
less gas particles are formed and the pressure more gas particles are formed and the pressure
decreases. increases.
2 NO + O2 ⇌ 2 NO2 ∆H<0 Concentration:

Concentration of all gasses increases sharply.
Concentration:
Concentration of all gasses decreases sharply.
The forward reaction is favoured. The reverse reaction is favoured.
1 2 3 4 5 6 [NO 2 ] gradually increases, [NO], [O 2 ] [NO 2 ] gradually decreases, [NO], [O 2 ]
gradually decreases. gradually increases.
NO Rate: Concentration of all gasses increases, Rate: Concentration of all gasses decreases,
therefore the rate of both the forward and the therefore the rate of both the forward and the
reverse reaction increases. reverse reaction decreases.
According to Le Chatelier the forward reaction According to Le Chatelier the reverse reaction is
Concentration
will be favoured, therefore the forward reaction favoured, therefore the reverse reaction
O2 experiences a greater increase in rate. experiences a smaller decrease in rate.
3: O2 is added 4: NO is removed
Le Chatelier: The forward reaction is favoured Le Chatelier: The reverse reaction is favoured
to decrease the [O2]. to increase the [NO].
Concentration: Concentration:
NO2
Concentration of O2 decreases sharply. Concentration of NO decreases sharply.
The forward reaction is favoured. The reverse reaction is favoured.
[NO 2 ] increases gradually, [NO], [O 2 ] [NO 2 ] decreases gradually, [NO], [O 2 ]
decreases gradually. increases gradually.
Rate: An increase in concentration of a reactant Rate: A decrease in concentration of a reactant

Forward
leads to an increase in the rate of the and leads to an decrease in the rate of the forward
reaction forward reaction. and reverse reaction.
Rate of reaction
5: Increase in temperature 6: Decrease in temperature

Le Chatelier: The reverse (endothermic)reac- Le Chatelier: The forward (exothermic) reac-
tion is favoured to decrease the temperature. tion is favoured to increase the temperature.
Concentration: Concentration:
The reverse reaction is favoured. The forward reaction is favoured.
[NO 2 ] decreases gradually, [NO], [O 2 ] [NO 2 ] increases gradually, [NO], [O 2 ]
Reverse increases gradually. decreases gradually.
reaction
Rate: An increase in temperature increases the Rate: A decrease in temperature decreases the
rate of both the forward and the reverse rate of both the forward and the reverse
reactions. reactions.
Acids and Bases SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
ACID/BASE DEFINITIONS CONCENTRATED VS DILUTE ACIDS AND BASES INFLUENCE OF ACID/BASE STRENGTH
Arrhenius Concentration is the number of moles of solute per unit volume Reaction rate
An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+)/ n m
of solution. ( c = of c = ) Reaction rates increase as the strength of the acid/base in-
hydronium ions (H3O+) when it dissolves in water. V MV creases.
A base is a substance that produces hydroxide (OH−) when
A concentrated acid/base contains a large amount (mol) of acid/ Stronger acid = higher concentration of ions = greater rate of
dissolved in water.
base in relationship to the volume of water. reaction.
Lowry-Brønsted
An acid is a proton (H+ ion) donor. A dilute acid/base contains a small amount (mol) of acid/base in Conductivity
A base is a proton (H+ ion) acceptor. relationship to the volume of water. Conductivity increases as the strength of the acid/base increases.
ACID PROTICITY Concentrated strong acid - 1mol.dm-3 of HCl Stronger acid = higher concentration of H+ = greater
Some acids are able to donate more than one proton. The number of protons conductivity.
Concentrated weak acid - 1mol.dm-3 of CH3COOH
that an acid can donate is referred to as the acid proticity.
1 proton- monoprotic 2 protons- diprotic 3 protons- triprotic Dilute strong acid - 0,01mol.dm-3 of HCl
Dilute weak acid - 0,01mol.dm-3 of CH3COOH COMMON ACIDS COMMON BASES
HCl → Cl− + H+ H2SO4 → HSO4− + H+ H3PO4 ⇌ H2PO4− + H+
(Similar for bases) Hydrochloric acid Sodium Hydroxide S
HSO4− → HSO42− + H+ H2PO4− ⇌ HPO42− + H+ (HCl) (NaOH) T
S
HPO42− ⇌ PO43− + H+ STRONG VS WEAK ACIDS AND BASES T R
CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIRS The strength of an acid/base refers to the ability of the sub- R Potassium hydroxide O
Nitric acid (HNO3) N
stance to ionise or dissociate. O (KOH)
An acid forms a conjugate base when it donates a proton. N G
acid ⇌ conjugate base + H+ G
ACIDS Sulfuric acid
HA ⇌ A– + H+ (H2SO4)
A strong acid will ionise completely in water. Sodium hydrogen
A base forms a conjugate acid when it accepts a proton. HCl (g) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + Cl− (aq) Oxalic acid ((COOH)2) carbonate (NaHCO3)
base + H+ ⇌ conjugate acid (strong acid → weak conjugate base) Hydrofluoric acid (HF)
W
HA ⇌ A– + H+ Sulfurous acid (H2SO3)
W Calcium carbonate E
A weak acid will only partially ionise in water. Carbonic acid E (CaCO3) A
Conjugate acids and bases differ only by a proton (H+).
2H2CO3 (l) + 2H2O (l) ⇌ 2H3O+ (aq) + CO32− (aq) (H2CO3) A K
EXAMPLE: (weak acid → strong conjugate base) Acetic acid / ethanoic acid K Sodium carbonate
Identify the conjugate acid-base pair in the following example: (CH3COOH) (Na2CO3)
H+ Conjugate acid-base pair
BASES Ammonia
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
(NH3)
A strong base will dissociate completely in water.
HNO3 (g) + H2O (l) → NO3− (aq) + H3O+ (aq) NaOH (s) → Na+ (aq) + OH− (aq) THE pH SCALE
acid base conjugate base conjugate acid (strong base → weak conjugate acid)
The pH of a solution is a number that represents the acidity or
alkalinity of a solution.
Conjugate acid-base pair
A weak base will dissociate only partially in water. The greater the concentration of H+ ions in solution, the more
AMPHOLYTE/ AMPHIPROTIC SUBSTANCES 2Mg(OH)2 (s) ⇌ Mg2+ (aq) + 2OH− (aq) acidic the solution and the lower the pH. The lower the concen-
tration of H+ in solution, the more alkali the solution and the
Ampholyte- A substance that can act as either an acid or a base. (weak base → strong conjugate acid) higher the pH.
Ampholytes/amphiprotic substances can therefore either donate or accept The pH scale is a range from 0 to 14, and is a measure of the
protons. Common ampholytes include H2O, HCO3− and HSO4−. [H3O+] at 25 °C (in water). pH = − log[H3O+ ]
NH3 is an exception, it ionises.
HSO4− as an ampholyte:
Neutral
Acid: HSO4− + H2O → SO42− + H3O+ NH3 (g) + H2O (l) ⇌ OH− (aq) + NH4+ (aq)
Base: HSO4− + H2O ⇌ H2SO4 + OH− 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

ACID REACTIONS HYDROLYSIS OF SALTS INDICATORS

Acid reactions are reactions during which Hydrolysis is the reaction of An indicator is a compound that changes colour according to the pH of the sub-
ACID BASE SALT stance. During titrations, the indicator needs to be selected according to the pH
protons (H+) are transferred. an ion with water. During
hydrolysis, the salt will form of the salt solution that will be produced (see hydrolysis).
Strong Weak Acidic
acid + metal → salt + H2 an acidic, alkali or neutral
HA + M → A— + M+ + H2 solution. The pH of the salt Strong Strong Neutral
2HNO3(aq) + 2Na(s) → 2NaNO3(aq) + H2(g) solution is determined by the COLOUR AT
COLOUR COLOUR PH RANGE OF
relative strength of the acid Weak Strong Alkali INDICATOR EQUIVALENCE
IN ACID IN BASE EQUIVALENCE
and base that is used to form POINT
A weak acid and a weak base do not
acid + metal hydroxide (base) → salt + H2O the salt.
form ions readily.
HA + MOH → A— + M++ H2O
H2SO4(aq) + Mg(OH)2(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) How to determine the pH of a salt
Litmus Red Blue 4,5 - 8,3
NH4Cl Na2CO3
NH4Cl → NH4+ + Cl– Na2CO3 → 2Na+ + CO32–
NH4+ + H2O ⥂ NH3 + H3O+ Methyl orange Red Yellow Orange 3,1 - 4,4
acid + metal oxide → salt + H2O Na+ + H2O ⥃ NaOH + H+
HA + MO → A— + M+ + H2O Cl– + H2O ⥄ HCl + OH– CO32– + 2H2O ⥂ H2CO3 + 2OH–
2HCl (aq) + MgO(s) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l) Bromothymol
Yellow Blue Green 6,0 - 7,6
·NH3 is a weak base ·NaOH is a strong base blue
·Equilibrium lies to the right ·Equilibrium lies to the left
acid + metal carbonate → salt + H2O + CO2 ·High concentration H3O+ ·Low concentratioin H+/H3O+ Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink Pale Pink 8,3 - 10,0
HA + MCO3 → A— + M+ + H2O + CO2
2HCl (aq) + CaCO3(s) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) ·HCl is a strong acid ·H2CO3 is a weak acid Neutral: pH 7
·Equilibrium lies to the left ·Equilibrium lies to the right
Neutralisation is when the equivalence point is reached. Equivalence point is
The ionic salt is made up of A— (from the acid) and ·Low concentration OH– ·High concentration OH–
NOT when the solution is at pH 7, but when the acid/base has completely re-
M+ (from the base). High [H3O+], low [OH–], Low [H3O+], high [OH–], acted with the base/acid according to the molar ratio. The pH at neutralisation
∴NH4Cl(aq) is acidic (pH<7) ∴Na2CO3(aq) is alkali (pH>7) is dependent on the salt that is formed. (see hydrolysis).
TITRATIONS Titration setup EXAMPLE:

A titration is a practical laboratory method to de- During a titration, 25 cm3 of dilute H2SO4 neutralises 40 cm3 of NaOH solution.
Va Burette
termine the concentration of an acid or base. The If the concentration of the H2SO4 solution is 0,25 mol.dm−3, calculate the con-
concentration of an acid or base can be deter- Acid centration of the NaOH.
mined by accurate neutralisation using a
standard solution- a solution of known con- Stopcock H2 SO4 + 2NaOH → Na 2 SO4 + 2H2 O
centration. Neutralisation occurs at the equiva- na = 1 nb = 2
lence point, when the acid/base has completely ca = 0,25 mol ⋅ dm−3 cb = ?
reacted with the base/acid according to the molar Conical flask Va = 25 cm3 = 0,025 dm3 Vb = 40 cm3 = 0,04 dm3
ratio. Vb
na cV Base & By titration equations By first principles:
= a a Indicator na c aVa
nb cbVb nb
=
c bVb
Acid:
n = cV
1 (0,25)(0,025) = (0,25)(0,025)
n- number of mole of substance (mol) / mol ratio 1. Pipette a specific amount of the standard solution into conical flask =
2 c b (0,04)
from the balanced equation (usually base). = 6,25 × 10−3 mol
c- concentration of acid/base (mol.dm−3) cb = 0,31 mol ⋅ dm−3
2. Add appropriate indicator to flask (according to pH of final solution).
V- volume of solution (dm3) 3. Fill the buret with the solution of unknown concentration (usually Base:
n
acid). c =
1 mL = 1 cm 3 V
1 L = 1 dm3 4. Add solution from burette to conical flask at a dropwise rate (remem- 6,25 × 10−3 × 2
ber to swirl). =
1000 mL = 1 L 0,04
1000 cm3 = 1 dm3 5. Stop burette when indicator shows neutralisation/equivalence point
= 0,31 mol ⋅ dm−3
has been reached.
CALCULATING PH VALUE OF AUTO-IONISATION OF WATER AND KW KA AND KB VALUES

A STRONG ACID/BASE Water reacts with water to form hydronium and hydroxide ions When weak acids or bases are dissolved in water, only partial ionisation/
in the following reaction: dissociation occurs. There is a mixture of the original reactant as well as the ionic
pH = − log[H3O+ ]
products that were formed. The extent of ionisation can be treated in the same
H2O (ℓ) + H2O (ℓ) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + OH− (aq)
Strong acids ionise completely in water, meaning that all way as the extent to which an equilibrium reaction takes place. The acid
acids donate their protons (H+). The concentration of the The concentration of H3O+ (aq) and OH− (aq) are equal, and the dissociation constant (Ka) and base dissociation constant (Kb) values are like the
H+ ions can be determined from the initial concentration of equilibrium constant for the ionisation of water (Kw) is 1,00 ✕ equilibrium constant (Kc), but specifically described the extent of ionisation/
the acids, taking the proticity of the acid into account. 10−14 (at a temperature of 25°C or 298 K), therefore: dissociation, and therefore the strength of the acid/base.
Monoprotic: HCl(g) → H+(aq) +. Cl−(aq) [H3O+] [OH−] = 1,00 ✕ 10−14 mol·dm−3 Calculating Ka
General equation Example
1 mol : 1 mol : 1 mol [H3O+] = 1,00 ✕ 10−7 mol·dm−3 HA + H2O ⇌ A− + H3O+ CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ CH3COO− + H3O+
0,3 mol·dm−3 : 0,3 mol·dm−3 : 0,3 mol·dm−3 [OH−] = 1,00 ✕ 10−7 mol·dm−3 [A−][H3O+ ] [CH3COO−][H3O+ ]
Ka = Ka =
When the concentration of H3O+ (aq) and OH− (aq) are equal, [HA] [CH3COOH]
the solution is neutral and has a pH of 7. −l og [1 × 10−7] = 7 Calculating Kb
Diprotic: H2SO4(g) → 2H+(aq) + SO42−(aq)
General equation Example
1 mol : 2 mol : 1 mol The pH of a base can be determined by first determining the B + H2O ⇌ BH+ + OH− NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH−
[OH–], then the [H3O+] [NH +4 ][OH−]
0,3 mol·dm−3 : 0,6 mol·dm−3 : 0,3 mol·dm−3 [BH + ][OH−]
Kb = Kb =
[B] [NH3]
EXAMPLE:
Triprotic: H3PO4(g) →. 3H+(aq) +. PO43− Calculate the pH of a Ba(OH)2 solution with a concentration DETERMINING CONCENTRATION FROM PH
(aq) of 0,35 mol·dm−3.
To determine the [H3O+] when the pH is known:
1 mol : 3 mol : 1 mol Step 1: Write down the dissociation pH = − log[H3O+ ]
0,3 mol·dm−3 : 0,9 mol·dm−3 : 0,3 mol·dm−3 reaction
∴ [H3O+ ] = 10−pH
H2 O
+ −
EXAMPLE: Ba(OH)2 (s) → Ba (aq) + 2OH (aq) EXAMPLE:
Calculate the pH of a H2SO4 solution with a concen- 0,1 mol HF is dissolved in 1 dm3 water. Determine the Ka of HF if the pH is found
tration of 0,25 mol·dm−3 Step 2: Determine the mole ratio of base to OH− ions to be 2,1. HF dissociates according to the following chemical equation:
Step 1: Write down the ionisation reaction: 1 mol Ba(OH)2 : 2 mol OH− H2O (ℓ) + HF (aq) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + F− (aq)
H2 SO4 + 2H2 O → 2H3 O+ + SO 2−
4
pH = − log[H3O+ ]
Step 3: Determine the [OH−]
Step 2: determine the ratio of acid to H3O+ ions [OH−] = 2[Ba(OH)2 ] [H3O+ ] = 10−2,1
H2 SO4 : H3O+ = 2(0,35) [H3O+ ] = 7,94 × 10−3 mol ⋅ dm−3
1:2 = 0,7 mol ⋅ dm−3 HF H3O+ F−

Step 4: Determine the [H3O ] + Ratio 1 1 1
Step 3: determine the [H3O+] [H3O+ ][OH−] = 1,00 × 10−14 Initial (mol) 0,1 0 0
[H3O+ ] = 2[H2 SO4 ] [H3O+ ](0,7) = 1,00 × 10−14
Change (mol) −7,94 ×10−3 +7,94 ×10−3 +7,94 ×10−3
= 2(0,25) Equilibrium (mol) 0,092 7,94 ×10−3 7,94 ×10−3

[H3O+ ] = 1,43 × 10−14 mol ⋅ dm−3 Eq. concentration in
= 0,5mol ⋅ dm−3 (mol·dm−3)
0,092 7,94 ×10−3 7,94 ×10−3
Step 5: Calculate the pH
Step 4: Calculate the pH [H3O+ ][F −]
pH = −log [H3O+]
Ka =
pH = − log[H3O+ ] [HF]
= −log (1,43 x 10−14) Ka/Kb > 1; Strong acid/base
(7,94 × 10−3)(7,94 × 10−3)
= − log(0,5) =
= 13,84 0,092 Ka/Kb < 1; Weak acid/base
= 0,3 = 6,85 × 10−4
Electrochemistry-Redox SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
REDOX REACTION TABLE OF STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS (REDOX TABLE)

A redox reaction is a reaction in which there is a transfer of electrons The oxidation and reduction half reactions can also be found using the Table of Standard Reduction Potentials. (We will use Table 4B).
between elements/compounds.
The reactions shown on the table are all written as reduction half reactions, with the reversible reaction arrow (⇌) shown. This
Oxidation is the loss of electrons (oxidation number increases)
means that each reaction is reversible. When a reaction is written from the table the arrow must only be one way (i.e. →).
Reduction is the gain of electrons (oxidation number decreases)
The reduction half reaction is written from the table from left to right and the oxidation half reaction is written from right to left.
(Oxidation reaction)
The oxidising agent is the substance which accepts electrons.
(It is the substance which is reduced and causes oxidation.)
Oxidising agent Reducing agent
(weak) Li+ + e- Li (strong)
The reducing agent is the substance that donates electrons.
(It is the substance which is oxidised and causes reduction.)
Positive gradient
Spontaneous reaction
The anode is the electrode where oxidation takes place.
The cathode is the electrode where reduction takes place.
F2 + 2e- 2F-
OIL: Oxidation is loss (strong) (weak)
RIG: Reduction is gain (Reduction reaction)
LEO: Loss of electrons is oxidation Once the half-reactions are identified it is possible to write a balanced reaction, without the spectator ions. A spectator ion is an ion in
GER: Gain of electrons is reduction a redox reaction that does not take part in electron transfer. Remember that the number of electrons lost or gained by each substance
must be the same.
REDCAT: Reduction at cathode
ANOX: Oxidation at anode If the line drawn between the two reactants has a positive gradient, the reaction is spontaneous.
If the line between the reactants are negative, the reaction is non-spontaneous.
STEPS TO WRITING BALANCED REDOX EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:

REACTIONS USING REDOX TABLE +
Zinc metal reacts with an acid, H (aq) to produce hydrogen gas. Using Magnesium ribbon is burnt in a gas jar containing chlorine
1. IDENTIFY THE REACTANTS the oxidation and reduction half reactions write a balanced equation for gas. Using half reactions write a balanced chemical equation
this reaction. for this reaction.
2. UNDERLINE REACTANTS ON THE REDOX TABLE
STEP 1: IDENTIFY THE REACTANTS
3. DRAW ARROWS IN DIRECTION OF REACTION
Ox half-reaction: Mg → Mg2+ + 2e−
Zn(s) and H+(aq)
4. WRITE THE OXIDATION AND REDUCTION HALF-REACTIONS Red half-reaction: Cl2 + 2e− → 2Cl−
STEP 2: UNDERLINE REACTANTS ON THE REDOX TABLE
5. BALANCE ELECTRONS IF NECESSARY Overall reaction: Mg + Cl2 → Mg2+ + 2Cl−
STEP 3: DRAW ARROWS IN DIRECTION OF REACTION
6. WRITE OVERALL REACTION (LEAVE OUT SPECTATORS) EXAMPLE:
STEP 4: WRITE THE OXIDATION AND REDUCTION HALF-
REACTIONS Using half reactions, complete and balance the following reac-
tion: Pb + Ag+
Ox half-reaction: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e−
Ox half reaction: Pb → Pb2+ + 2e−
Red half-reaction: 2H + 2e− → H2
+
Red half reaction: Ag+ + e− → Ag
STEP 5: BALANCE ELECTRONS IF NECESSARY
STEP 6: WRITE OVERALL REACTION (LEAVE OUT SPECTATORS) Ox half reaction: Pb → Pb2+ + 2e−
Overall: Zn + 2H → Zn + 2+
+ H2 (x2 red half reaction): 2Ag+ + 2e− → 2Ag
Overall reaction: Pb + 2Ag+ → Pb2+ + Ag
Electrochemistry- Galvanic/Voltaic cell SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
A galvanic cell reaction is always a spontaneous, EMF OF THE CELL ZINC-COPPER CELL
exothermic reaction during which chemical energy
is converted to electrical energy. A electric cell/ The emf of the cell is calculated using one of the following equations: e– Voltmeter
battery is an example of a galvanic cell. V
Eθcell = Eθcathode − Eθanode
STRUCTURE Eθcell = Eθreduction − Eθoxidation A positive εθ value indicates Anode Cathode
Two half-cells (usually in separate containers): a spontaneous reaction KCl
Anode – where oxidation takes place – negative
electrode
Eθcell = Eθoxidising agent − Eθreducing agent − Salt bridge +
Cathode – where reduction takes place – positive The emf of the half-cells are determined using the standard hydrogen
electrode half-cell
Zn
Cu
The anode and cathode connected together through
an external circuit, which allows for current to flow
Standard hydrogen half-cell
from the anode to the cathode The hydrogen half-cell is allocated a reference potential of 0,00 V. All Zn(NO3)2 Cu(NO3)2
other half-cells will have a potential which is either higher or lower
Voltmeter
e– than this reference. This difference is the reading on the voltmeter
V The zinc half-cell (–): The copper half-cell (+):
placed in the circuit.
• Zinc electrode • Consists of a copper electrode
Anode Cathode • Zinc salt solution • Copper salt solution
Salt bridge H2 at Temperature (e.g. zinc (II) nitrate) (e.g. copper (II) nitrate)
− + 1 atm = 298 K • Zn is a stronger RA than • Cu2+ is a stronger OA than Zn2+,
Cu, ∴Zn oxidises ∴Cu2+ reduces
• Oxidation reaction occurs: • Reduction reaction occurs:
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e− Cu2+ + 2e− → Cu
• Anode • Cathode
Electrolyte Electrolyte • Electrode decreases in mass • Electrode increases in mass
Pla3num Dilute H2SO4
SALT BRIDGE electrode [H+] = 1 mol·dm−3 Ox: Zn (s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e−
The salt bridge connects the two half-cells. It is filled Red: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu (s)
with a saturated ionic solution of either KCl, NaCl, H2 is bubbled through the electrolyte over the inert platinum electrode.
KNO3 or Na2SO4. A concentrated solution is used to Reduction potentials are measured under standard conditions: Nett cell: Zn (s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)
reduce the internal resistance. The ends of the tubes temperature 25 °C; 298 K For the zinc-copper cell:
are closed with a porous material such as cotton wool concentration of the solutions 1 mol·dm−3
or glass wool. The anode reaction is: Zn (s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e−; Eθ = −0,76 V
pressure 1 atm; 101,3 kPa (only relevant for gases) The cathode reaction is: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu (s); Eθ = +0,34 V
Functions of the salt bridge:
Completes the circuit (which allows current to flow) Eθ cell = Eθ cathode − Eθ anode
Maintains the electrical neutrality of the electrolyte The cell-notation for the hydrogen half-cell is:
solutions. Pt | H2 (g) / H+ (aq) (1 mol⋅dm−3) = 0,34 − (−0,76)
EQUILIBRIUM IN A CELL = + 1,1 V (spontaneous)

When the circuit is complete the current will begin to EXAMPLE
flow. The current and potential difference of the cell
CELL NOTATION
Consider the cell notation of the following electrochemical cell: Anode Salt bridge Cathode
is related to the rate of the reaction and extent to
which the reaction in the cell has reached equilibrium. Pt | H2(g)/H2SO4(aq) (0,5 mol⋅dm−3)// CuSO4(aq) (1 mol⋅dm−3)/Cu(s)
As the chemical reaction proceeds, the rate of the The experimentally determined cell potential is 0,34 V at 25 °C. Zn(s) / Zn2+(aq) (1 mol·dm−3) // Cu2+(aq) (1 mol·dm−3) / Cu(s)
forward reaction will decrease, so the rate of transfer
of electrons will also decrease which results in the If a value of 0,00 V is given to the hydrogen half-cell, it means that
Eθcell value decreasing. the value of the copper half-cell must be 0,34 V. Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e− Cu2+(aq) + 2e− → Cu(s)
The cell potential will continue to decrease gradually When the half-reactions do not include conductors (metals), unreactive electrodes
Eθ cell = Eθ cathode − Eθ anode
until equilibrium is reached at which point the cell are used, e.g. carbon or platinum.
potential will be zero and the battery is “flat”. 0,34 = Eθ (Cu) − 0,00 Pt(s)/H2(g)(1 atm)/H+(aq)(1 mol·dm–3)//Br2(g)(1 atm)/Br–(aq)(1 mol·dm–3)/Pt(s)
Le Chatelier’s principle can be applied to increase the
θ
EMF, with conditions that favour the forward reaction. E (Cu) = + 0,34 V Ca(s)/Ca2+(aq)(1 mol·dm–3 )//Fe3+(aq)(1 mol·dm–3), Fe2+(aq)(1 mol·dm–3)/C(s)
Electrochemistry- Electrolytic cells SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
An electrolytic cell reaction is always a non-spontaneous, ELECTROREFINING OF COPPER EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM (HALL-HEROLT PROCESS)
endothermic reaction which requires a battery. The electrical
energy is converted to chemical energy. Electrolytic cells When copper is purified, the process is similar to electroplating. Aluminium is found in the mineral known as bauxite which contains primarily
require a DC power source. Impure (blister) copper is used as the anode and the cathode is aluminium oxide (Al2O3) in an impure form.
pure copper.
STRUCTURE Bauxite is not found in South Africa so is imported from Australia for refining.
At the anode the copper is Step 1: Converting impure Al2O3 to pure Al2O3
Two electrodes (in the same container):
oxidised to produce Cu2+ Pure Impure
Anode – where oxidation takes place – positive electrode Bauxite treated with NaOH – impure Al2O3 becomes Al(OH)3
ions in the electrolyte. The copper copper
Cathode – where reduction takes place – negative electrode mass of the impure copper
The anode and cathode are connected to an external circuit, anode decreases. − + Al(OH)3 is heated (T > 1000 °C)
which is connected to a DC power source. Al(OH)3 becomes pure Al2O3 – alumina

At the cathode the Cu2+ Cu2+
ions in the electrolyte is Step 2: Melting Al2O3
Cu2+
reduced to form a pure Alumina is dissolved in cryolite (sodium aluminium hexafluoride – Na3AlF6).
copper layer on the
cathode. The mass of the Ag Pt Au Melting point reduced from over 2000 °C to 1000 °C.
cathode anode cathode increases.
− + Reduces energy requirements, costs and less environmental impact.
The less reactive elements and compounds found in the impure Step 3:
Anion copper anode are precipitated to the bottom of the reaction ves- Molten Alumina (Al2O3) – cryolite mixture placed in reaction vessel
(−) sel. The more reactive metals (stronger reducing agents) are also Anodes (+) are carbon rods in mixture
oxidised. The ions of these metals remain in the solution. Cu2+ is a
Ca#on Electrolyte Cathode (-) is the carbon lining of the tank
stronger oxidising agent, thus it is preferentially reduced at the
(+) cathode. Cu2+ stays constant. At cathode Al3+ ions are reduced to Al metal
ELECTROPLATING Oxidation (anode): Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− Carbon anodes (+)
Electroplating is the process of depositing a layer of one metal Reduction (cathode): Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu (s)
onto another metal. Steel tank
Nett cell: Cu2+ (aq) + Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + Cu (s)
EXAMPLE: Silver plating of a metal spoon impure pure Solu9on of aluminium
oxide in molten cryolite
ELECTROLYSIS OF COPPER (II) CHLORIDE
The anode is silver, it will be oxi-
dised to Ag+ ions. The mass of the Molten aluminium
silver electrode decreases.
Carbon lining for
The cathode is the object (spoon)
cathode (−)
to be plated. The Ag+ ions from the Ag+ − +
electrolyte will be reduced to form
silver metal, which plates the Cl−
spoon. The mass of the cathode Ag+
Oxidation (Anode): 2O2− (aq) → O2(g) + 4e− ×3
(spoon) increases. Cu2+ Reduction (Cathode): Al3+ (aq) + 3e− → Al (l) ×4
AgNO3 (aq)
CuCl2 (aq) Nett cell: 2Al2O3 (aq) → 4Al (l) + 3O2 (g)
The anode and electrolyte always
contains the plating metal. Oxidation (anode): 2Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e−
Reduction (cathode): Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu (s) Due to the high temperature of the reaction, the oxygen produced reacts
Oxidation (anode): Ag (s) → Ag+ (aq) + e−
Reduction (cathode): Ag (s) + e− → Ag (s)
+ Nett cell: 2Cl− (aq) + Cu2+ (aq) → Cl2 (g) + Cu (s) with the carbon electrodes to produce carbon dioxide gas. The carbon
electrodes (anodes) therefore need to be replaced regularly.
Nett cell: Ag+ (aq) + Ag (s) → Ag+ (aq) + Ag (s)
Aluminium extraction uses a large amount of electrical energy, therefore the
∴ [Ag ] stays constant
+ Chlorine gas is produced at the anode, while copper metal is pro- cost of aluminium extraction is very high.
duced at the cathode.
Electrochemistry- Electrolytic cells SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
ELECTROLYSIS OF SOLUTIONS MEMBRANE CELL

In the electrolysis of NaCl, the Na+ ions are not reduced as might be An ion-exchange membrane is used to separate the sodium and chloride ions of the sodium chloride. The selectively permeable ion-
expected. To identify which ions are oxidised/reduced apply the exchange membrane is a fluoro-polymer which allows only Na+ ions to pass through it. The cell consists of two half cells separated by the
following rules (based on relative strength of OA/RA): membrane. The electrolytic cell has the lowest environmental impact. It is also the most cost effective to run, as the internal resistance is
far lower than that of the diaphragm and mercury cells.
OXIDATION (ANODE):
Either the anion or H2O will be oxidised. Chlorine gas Hydrogen gas
Anode (+) Cathode (−)
− − − −
If a HALOGEN ION (Cl , Br , I , not F ) is present, the HALOGEN ION
is oxidised.
The cathode is filled with pure water Dilute
If no halogen ion is present, or the concentration is very low, water is
oxidised according to: At cathode - Reduction: NaCl (aq) NaOH (aq)
2H2O (l) → O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e− Cl2 (g) H2 (g)
TITANIUM
2H2O (l) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH−
STEEL
Membrane
REDUCTION (CATHODE): H2O
Either the cation or H2O will be reduced.
The anode is filled with the brine solution Conc.
If a GROUP I OR GROUP II METAL CATION is present, WATER will be NaCl (aq) Cl− (aq)
At anode - Oxidation: OH− (aq) H2O
reduced according to:
2Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e−
2H2O (l) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq) Na+ (aq) Na+ (aq)
Water is reduced because it is a stronger oxidising agent than other
group I and II elements. If any other cation is present, the cation will
Nett cell: 2Cl− (aq) + 2H2O (l) → Cl2 (g) + H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq)
ELECTROLYSIS OF NaCl (CHLOR-ALKALI INDUSTRY) Overall reaction: 2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) → Cl2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Brine (concentrated NaCl solution) is placed in an electrolytic cell to
produce chlorine gas, hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide solution.
Overall reaction: 2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) → Cl2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
At the anode, Cl− ions are oxidised to form Cl2 (g). Cl2 gas bubbles
form on the electrode.
At the cathode, water is reduced to form H2 (g) and OH− (aq). H2 (g)
bubbles form on the electrode.
Cl− Na+
H2O
Oxidation (anode): 2Cl (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e−
−
Reduction (cathode): 2H2O (l) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq)

Nett cell: 2Cl− (aq) + 2H2O (l) → Cl2 (g) + H2 (g) + OH− (aq)
Overall reaction:
2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) → Cl2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
The electrolysis is conducted in specialised electrolytic cells to control
the reaction process and allow reactions to occur under controlled con-
ditions.
Fertilisers SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
PLANT NUTRIENTS NPK FERTILISERS Fractional Distillation SASOL

Non-mineral nutrients Fertilisers are classified according to
Some non-mineral nutrients are not derived from their NPK content ratio. The ratio is of Liquid Air
soil: given as: N2 H2
Carbon (C): From CO2 in the atmosphere N:P:K (%)
Oxygen (O): From CO2 and O2 in the atmosphere N- Ratio of nitrogen (N)
Hydrogen (H): From rainwater in the soil P- Ratio of phosphorus (P) HARBER PROCESS ( NH3 ) OSTWALD PROCESS ( HNO3 )
K- Ratio of potassium (K)
These non-mineral nutrients are needed in great N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 Catalytic oxidation of ammonia
EXAMPLE 1
quantities for the synthesis of glucose through pho- 4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O
3:2:1 (25)
tosynthesis.
3 of 6 parts are N
Mineral nutrients
2 of 6 parts are P Ammonium nitrate Oxidation of nitrogen monoxide
1 of 6 parts are K
Mineral nutrients are dissolved in water in the soil NH3 + HNO3 → NH4NO3
and are absorbed by the roots of the plants. These
25% of the total mass is pure 2NO + O2 → 2NO2
fertiliser.
nutrients can be supplemented by means of fertilis-
ers to ensure healthy plant development. EXAMPLE 2 Absorption of NO2 in water
2:6:3 (40) Potassium nitrate
Nitrogen (N): 3NO2 + H2O → 2HNO3 + NO
Nitrogen is absorbed from nitrate- and ammonium
2 of 11 parts are N KCl + HNO3 → KNO3 + HCl
6 of 11 parts are P
salts in the soil. 3 of 11 parts are K
• Assists protein formation 40% of the total mass is pure
• Promotes leaf growth fertiliser. UREA ( CO(NH2)2 ) CONTACT PROCESS ( H2SO4 )
• Improves the rate of above-ground growth
The percentages of each nutrient can NH3 + CO2 → CO(NH2)2 Combustion of sulfur
Nitrogen can be found naturally in guano, or syn- be determined as follows: S + O2 → SO2
thetically in nitrate- and ammonium salts. (FROM EXAMPLE 2)
2
Phosphorus (P): % N: × 40 = 7,27% Ammonium sulphate Catalytic oxidation of SO2
11
Phosphorus is absorbed from bonemeal, superphos- 2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3
phate and dissolved fertilsers. 6 NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
% P: × 40 = 21,82%
• Stimulates early root growth 11
• Assists in photosynthesis Formation of oleum (H2S2O7)
• Early formation of flowers and maturation of 3
% K: × 40 = 10,91% Monoammonium phosphates 2SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7
fruits and seeds 11
NH4H2PO4
Phosphorus can be found naturally in bonemeal, or EUTROFICATION Diammonium phosphates Conversion of oleum to H2SO4
synthetically in superphosphate fertilisers. Due to over-irrigation dissolved minerals
and phosphates are ‘leached’ from the (NH4)2HPO4 H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4
Potassium (K): soil and ends up in rivers and dams mak-
Potassium is found is small quantities in organic ing them nutrient rich.
plant and animal material (compost and manure).
• Promotes protein and carbohydrate synthesis The nutrient rich water allows algae to Triple super phosphates ( Ca(H2PO4)2∙H2O ) Superphosphates
• Assists photosynthesis grow rapidly. When algae die, it de-
No CaSO4 byproduct, ∴Higher P concentration Ca(H2PO4)2∙H2O
• Improves quality of flowers and fruit. pletes the dissolved O2 in the water.
• Makes plants more heat, drought and disease Fish and other water-life die.
resistance.
Excess nitrates in drinking water is also
PHOSPHORIC ACID ( H3PO4 )
Potassium can be found naturally in compost and harmful to humans.
manure, but is primarily imported from Germany in Ca5(PO4)3F + 5H2SO4 + 5H2O → 5CaSO4∙H2O + 3H3PO4 + HF
the form of potash.

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CORE THEORY SUMMARIES

GEGEWENS VIR FISIESE WETENSKAPPE GRAAD 12

TABLE 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS/TABEL 1: FISIESE KONSTANTES

NAME/NAAM SYMBOL/SIMBOOL VALUE/WAARDE

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER/ARBEID, ENERGIE EN DRYWING

W F x cos U mgh or/of EP mgh

Wnet K or/of Wnet Ek

WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT/GOLWE, KLANK EN LIG

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS/ELEKTRIESE STROOMBANE

Pave Vrms Irms / Pgemiddeld Vwgk I wgk

Grade 12 Physics Definitions

Momentum: the product of an object's mass and its velocity

RESOLVING INTO Fx COMPONENTS ON A

Normal force (FN) Friction (Ff or fs/fk)

Objects suspended from a rope/string/cable have no fsmax

FA = m g sin θ + μk FN ∴a = 1,46 m ⋅ s−2 // up the slope

FAx + (−Ff ) = m a Fg + (−FN ) + FAy = 0

Lift stationary/constant velocity Lift accelerating Lift in freefall (cable snap)

Connected objects (e.g Pulley Systems) Objects attached by rope/cable

Fnet = m a Ff FA Ff Ff FAB Fnet = m a

MOMENTUM VECTOR NATURE OF MOMENTUM NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM NEWTON’S THIRD LAW AND MOMENTUM

vA vB = 0 vA+B Objects that experience the same vA+B = 0 vA vB

Collide and rebounds Springs

Objects can collide and move off

Object dropped vertically on a moving object Firearms/ cannons

ELASTIC VS INELASTIC COLLISIONS PENDULUMS

Elastic collision: a collision in which both momentum and kinetic

ENERGY PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

W = work (J) Fx = F cos θ If Wnet is positive, energy is added to the system.

WORK ENERGY THEOREM NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES POWER

When to use which formulae

• When there are no external force (FA/Ff) present.

2. Apply Fnet to Wnet 2. Apply ∑W to Wnet

Displacement-Time Velocity-Time Acceleration-Time

GRADIENT: GRADIENT: GRADIENT:

PROJECTILE MOTION PARTS OF PROJECTILE PATH

1. Draw a sketch diagram Δy

2. Write down given variables Δy

3. Choose positive direction

vi = 0 m·s−1 vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 vi(down) = 0 m·s−1

vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 = vi(down) vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 = vi(down)

by surface during bounce

SERIES PARALLEL CALCULATIONS (NO INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

OHM’S LAW INTERNAL RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS (WITH INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

FLASHBACK!! Unit of charges: CALCULATIONS- Electrostatic force

ELECTRIC FIELDS ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH

Different magnitude charges Equal magnitude charges

GENERATORS ALTERNATING CURRENT

Rotations Rotations Vmax

0 1/4 1/2 3/4 1 0 1/4 1/2 3/4 1 2

FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND-DYNAMO RULE

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND MOTOR RULE

INTENSITY AND FREQUENCY INTENSITY, FREQUENCY AND CURRENT

ejected per second (current)

INCREASE INTENSITY AT CONSTANT FREQUENCY = INCREASE AMOUNT OF EMITTED ELECTRONS