Lab Report no.

6
To demonstrate the relationship between power output and surface
temperature in free and forced convection and determine the convective
heat transfer coefficient for a finned plate.
Theory
Heat
Heat is a type of energy that can only be exchanged between two bodies when there is a
thermal gradient between them. Heat travels from bodies at higher temperatures to bodies at
lower temperatures.
Conduction
Conduction is a type of heat transfer in which heat is transferred between atoms or molecules
of a substance by collision caused by internal energy.
Radiation
Radiative heat transfer is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves between two bodies.
This kind of heat transmission doesn't need a medium and is even capable of occurring in a
vacuum.
Convection
Convective heat transfer happens when the bulk velocity of the fluids is greater than zero. It is
a macroscopic heat transfer phenomena caused by observable fluid motion. The phenomena of
evaporative cooling is the most typical example of convective heat transfer. Many natural
processes, including the movement of molten rock beneath the Earth's crust, the circulation of
air in the atmosphere, and the flow of water in rivers and oceans, are caused by convection.
Additionally, it is essential in systems that circulate water or air for heating and cooling.
Natural Convection:
Natural convection is a heat transfer process driven by temperature-induced density variations
in a fluid. When a fluid is heated, it rises, displacing cooler, denser fluid which descends,
creating a convection current. This phenomenon is seen in everyday scenarios like rising warm
air near a heat source.
Forced Convection:
Forced convection involves using external means, like fans or pumps, to induce fluid motion
and enhance heat transfer. This method is crucial when natural convection alone is insufficient.
It's widely used in engineering, from cooling electronics with fans to circulating coolant in
engines, providing precise control over heat transfer processes.
Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient:
The convection heat transfer coefficient, often denoted as "h," is a fundamental parameter in
heat transfer engineering. It quantifies the rate of heat transfer between a solid surface and a
moving fluid (liquid or gas) due to convection. Essentially, it characterizes how effectively heat
is exchanged between the surface and the surrounding fluid.
Formula:
The convection heat transfer coefficient is determined by various factors including fluid
properties, flow conditions, and surface geometry. It is mathematically expressed by the
following formula:
q=h⋅A⋅ΔT
Where:
• q represents the rate of heat transfer.
• A denotes the surface area over which heat is transferred.
• ΔT signifies the temperature difference between the solid surface and the fluid.
Fins
Fins play a crucial role in enhancing heat transfer from a body. These elongated structures
protrude from the surface of the body to be cooled, facilitating the extraction of heat. The
process involves utilizing conduction to transfer heat, and ultimately, convection disperses the
heat into the surrounding atmosphere.
Uses
In various applications, fins find extensive use, particularly in vehicles where the objective is to
release heat from the system into the ambient air. The distribution of heat along a fin is not
uniform; it is highest at the base of the fin and gradually decreases as one moves along its
length. Consequently, the maximum heat dissipation through convection occurs at the base of
the fin.
Placement
Ideally, the entire fin should be at the base temperature, but this is not achievable due to the
presence of conduction resistance in the material. Despite this resistance, fins effectively
contribute to improving heat dissipation and are integral in thermal management systems,
especially in applications where efficient cooling is critical.
Apparatus
1. A Finned Plate
2. Thermocouples
3. Heat Source
Experimental Procedure
1. Start your experiment by inserting the finned plates into the duct.
2. Activate the power supply. Since firstly, we’re focusing on free convection, ensure the
fan remains turned off.
3. Allow ten minutes for the flat plate to reach a steady-state condition and properly heat
up.
4. Utilize a thermocouple to measure the temperature, ensuring the wire is inserted
 correctly into the designated hole.
5. Repeat this process for various power inputs to get better results.
6. Record the temperature values corresponding to different power inputs.
7. Create a graph illustrating the relationship between temperature change and supplied
power.
8. Duplicate the entire procedure for distinct values of heat input (q).
Observations and Calculations
Area of the Fin = 0.011
Table 1: Experimental values of finned plate temperature and heat transfer

Plate Convective Heat

Power Speed of Air
Temperature Transfer

0 30 151.51
0.5 29 227.27
5
1 28 454.54
0 31 227.27
0.5 30 303.03
10
1 29 454.54
0 32 272.72
0.5 30 454.54
15
1 29 681.8181
0 35 227.27
20 0.5 33 303.03
1 31 454.54

Results and Discussion

The graph shows us the convective heat transfer coefficient when compared to the air speed
and the surface temperature. These help us in determining the effectiveness of the forced
convection. A decrease in heat transfer coefficient is noted as the surface temperature is
increased but in case of air speed as the air speed increases the heat transfer coefficient
increases. This tells us that more and more heat is being radiated thus cooling the fins in a short
amount of time.
 Figure 1: 4 Different graphs show the trend of Air Speed and Convective Coefficient

Figure 2:4 Different graphs show the trend of Surface Temperature and Convective Coefficient
Conclusion
From the experiment we can conclude that as the surface area of the plate was increased a
slight decrease in temperature was noted. The primary focus of concern in this experiment is
the observed decrease in the convective heat transfer coefficient (hc) when compared to the
case of a flat plate. The application of fins is typically intended to increase surface area, thereby
enhancing convection. In this experiment, the controlled variable was the heat supplied, with a
constant value maintained for each velocity case.
This decrease in hc indicates an improvement in convective heat transfer due to the increased
surface area provided by the fins. It is noted that if the heat supplied were not constant,
increasing surface area while keeping hc and temperature distribution constant would likely
lead to an increase in convective heat transfer.
If we compare our values to the theoretical ones, we observe some error. This is because of
several reasons:
1. The apparatus did not reach a steady state.
2. Small data set meant greater errors in values
3. Faulty apparatus / uncontrolled environment
Lab Report no. 7
To demonstrate the relationship between power output and surface
temperature in free and forced convection and determine the convective
heat transfer coefficient for a Pinned plate.
Theory
Heat
Heat is a type of energy that can only be exchanged between two bodies when there is a
thermal gradient between them. Heat travels from bodies at higher temperatures to bodies at
lower temperatures.
Conduction
Conduction is a type of heat transfer in which heat is transferred between atoms or molecules
of a substance by collision caused by internal energy.
Radiation
Radiative heat transfer is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves between two bodies.
This kind of heat transmission doesn't need a medium and is even capable of occurring in a
vacuum.
Convection
Convective heat transfer happens when the bulk velocity of the fluids is greater than zero. It is
a macroscopic heat transfer phenomena caused by observable fluid motion. The phenomena of
evaporative cooling is the most typical example of convective heat transfer. Many natural
processes, including the movement of molten rock beneath the Earth's crust, the circulation of
air in the atmosphere, and the flow of water in rivers and oceans, are caused by convection.
Additionally, it is essential in systems that circulate water or air for heating and cooling.
Natural Convection:
Natural convection is a heat transfer process driven by temperature-induced density variations
in a fluid. When a fluid is heated, it rises, displacing cooler, denser fluid which descends,
creating a convection current. This phenomenon is seen in everyday scenarios like rising warm
air near a heat source.
Forced Convection:
Forced convection involves using external means, like fans or pumps, to induce fluid motion
and enhance heat transfer. This method is crucial when natural convection alone is insufficient.
It's widely used in engineering, from cooling electronics with fans to circulating coolant in
engines, providing precise control over heat transfer processes.
Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient:
The convection heat transfer coefficient, often denoted as "h," is a fundamental parameter in
heat transfer engineering. It quantifies the rate of heat transfer between a solid surface and a
moving fluid (liquid or gas) due to convection. Essentially, it characterizes how effectively heat
is exchanged between the surface and the surrounding fluid.
Formula:
The convection heat transfer coefficient is determined by various factors including fluid
properties, flow conditions, and surface geometry. It is mathematically expressed by the
following formula:
q=h⋅A⋅ΔT
Where:
• q represents the rate of heat transfer.
• A denotes the surface area over which heat is transferred.
• ΔT signifies the temperature difference between the solid surface and the fluid.
Fins
Fins play a crucial role in enhancing heat transfer from a body. These elongated structures
protrude from the surface of the body to be cooled, facilitating the extraction of heat. The
process involves utilizing conduction to transfer heat, and ultimately, convection disperses the
heat into the surrounding atmosphere.
Uses
In various applications, fins find extensive use, particularly in vehicles where the objective is to
release heat from the system into the ambient air. The distribution of heat along a fin is not
uniform; it is highest at the base of the fin and gradually decreases as one moves along its
length. Consequently, the maximum heat dissipation through convection occurs at the base of
the fin.
Placement
Ideally, the entire fin should be at the base temperature, but this is not achievable due to the
presence of conduction resistance in the material. Despite this resistance, fins effectively
contribute to improving heat dissipation and are integral in thermal management systems,
especially in applications where efficient cooling is critical
Apparatus
1. A Pinned Plate
2. Thermocouples
3. Heat Source
Experimental Procedure
1. Start your experiment by inserting the pinned plates into the duct.
2. Activate the power supply. Since firstly, we’re focusing on free convection, ensure the
fan remains turned off.
3. Allow ten minutes for the flat plate to reach a steady-state condition and properly heat
up.
4. Utilize a thermocouple to measure the temperature, ensuring the wire is inserted
 correctly into the designated hole.
5. Repeat this process for various power inputs to get better results.
6. Record the temperature values corresponding to different power inputs.
7. Create a graph illustrating the relationship between temperature change and supplied
power.
8. Duplicate the entire procedure for distinct values of heat input (q).
Observations and Calculations
Area of the pin = 0.011
Table 1: Experimental values of finned plate temperature and heat transfer

Plate Convective Heat

Power Speed of Air
Temperature Transfer

0 32 90.90
0.5 30 151.51
5
1 29 227.27
0 33 151.51
0.5 31 227.27
10
1 29 454.54
0 34 194.80
0.5 32 272.72
15
1 31 340.90
0 36 202.02
20 0.5 33 303.03
1 31 454.54

Results and Discussion

Table 2: Power Supplied and Convective heat transfer compared

Power Supplied Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient

5W 90.90909091 151.515 227.273
10 W 151.5151515 227.273 454.545
15 W 194.8051948 272.727 340.909
20 W 202.020202 303.03 454.545
Air Speed 0 0.5 1
Figure 1: Heat Transfer Coefficient and Surface Temperature

Figure 2: Power Input and Meean Temperature

Figure 3: Effect of Air Speed on Heat Trasnfer coefficient

Figure 4: Comparison of Flat, Finned, Pinned Plate

The graphs compare the convective heat transfer coefficient for all three of the surface i.e. Flat
plate, Pinned plate and Finned plate surface. It is evident that the pinned surface performs the
best and has the highest heat transfer coefficient. Now this is because the pins tend to absorb
more heat and radiate it to environment more quickly than flat surface or finned surface. This
can be argued but in case of our experimentation the results tell us the above stated facts.
Conclusion
The experiment successfully showcased the interplay between power output and surface
temperature in both free and forced convection scenarios. The pinned surface offered a more
aerodynamic shape than the other two which could have caused it to improve its heat
dissipation. The pinned surface also performed well with lower air speeds and higher air speeds
indicating that the pinned surface is a good option for heat dissipation.
The data collected revealed distinct trends, emphasizing the significance of convection modes
in heat transfer and as we increase heat supplied, we see an increase in mean temperature of our
plate.
We can also increase our convective heat transfer by using forced convection methods.
If we compare our values to the theoretical ones, we observe some error. This is because of
several reasons:
1. The apparatus did not reach a steady state.
2. Small data set meant greater errors in values
3. Faulty apparatus / uncontrolled environment
Lab Report no. 8
To perform an energy balance & calculate overall efficiency of
concentric tube heat exchanger in parallel flow conditions at different
flow rates.
Theory
Heat Exchanger
A heat exchanger is essentially a device that transfers heat between two different mediums. For
instance, a Hydraulic Oil Cooler takes heat away from hot oil by using cold water or air. On the
other hand, a Swimming Pool Heat Exchanger utilizes hot water from a boiler or a solar-heated
water circuit to warm the pool water. The transfer of heat occurs through conduction in the
materials of the exchanger that separate the mediums. A shell and tube heat exchanger directs
fluids through and over tubes, whereas an air-cooled heat exchanger passes cool air through a
core of fins to cool a liquid.
The working principle of a heat exchanger is based on the second law of thermodynamics, where
heat flows from a hotter body to a cooler one due to their temperature difference. In a shell and
tube heat exchanger, the cooling medium (such as water, steam, ethanol, or polypropylene
glycol) passes through tubes within the shell structure, while the medium to be cooled circulates
around these tubes. Baffles within the shell structure enhance efficiency by creating turbulence,
preventing the formation of hot and cold pockets in the medium. The design may involve
concurrent, counter current, or cross-flow arrangements. The output fluid's temperature is
controlled using a bypass valve, and pressure differentials are maintained to prevent intermixing
in case of leaks.
Regarding types of heat exchangers, there are those based on construction:
1. Shell and Tube: These consist of small tubes within a cylindrical shell. The tubes are
arranged in a tube bundle, either with fixed tube plates or a floating tube stack for
expansion and contraction.
2. Plate Type: Operating similarly to shell and tube exchangers, this use stacked plates
instead of tubes, often brazed or gasketed, suitable for various applications.
3. Air Cooled: Common in vehicles or mobile applications, these exchangers use cool air
from fans or vehicle movement, combining different cooling functions into a single unit.
On the basis of flow, heat exchangers can be categorized as:
1. Parallel Flow: Both fluids enter and exit from the same end, traveling parallel to each
other. The temperature difference between the fluids decreases from entrance to exit.
2. Counter Flow: Fluids in the tubes flow in opposite directions, leading to higher
efficiency due to a higher average temperature difference along the length.
3. Cross Flow: Here, two fluids move perpendicular to each other, often used when one is
a liquid and the other is a gas, such as in car radiators or steam condensers.
Apparatus
 1. Heat Exchanger Apparatus
Experimental Procedure
1. Turn on the apparatus and allow sufficient time for the tank temperature to stabilize.
2. Refer to the manual for the device and configure it for parallel flow by adjusting the
provided rotating taps.
3. Set the water flow rate to a chosen value.
4. Initiate the process by opening both the hot and cold-water taps and let the water flow for
some time.
5. Allow an additional 10 to 15 minutes for the water flow to reach a stable state.
6. Record readings from the labeled thermometer at various data points, which will be
analyzed in the subsequent sections of this document.
7. Feel free to modify the volume flow rates to obtain readings corresponding to different
tank temperatures.
8. Duplicate the entire procedure for distinct values of heat input (q).
Observations and Calculations
The inlet temperature of hot water and cold water is measures and its value is written in the table.
Similarly, the temperature for both hot and cold water was measure at several points to further
see the decrease in the temperature.
Table 1: Experimental values of plate temperature and heat transfer

Flow Rate Temperature (°C) First Half Second Half Overall

(L/min)
Hot Cold T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Qe Qa E Qe Qa E Qe Qa E
Water Water
4 2.5 47 41 24 32 44.0 28.0 0.8 0.7 83.3 0.8 0.7 83.3 1.7 1.4 83.3
4 2.2 45 39 26 32 43.0 28.0 0.6 0.3 55.0 1.1 0.6 55.0 1.7 0.9 55.0
4 1.8 44 38 26 34 42.0 29.0 0.6 0.4 67.5 1.1 0.6 56.3 1.7 1.0 60.0

Results and Discussion

The graph below shows the variation in temperature as they pass through the pipes. We can see
that the temperature for the cold water increase while that of the hot water decreases. This is due
to exchange of heat when hot fluid flows over the cold fluid. The cold fluid takes up the heat and
raises its temperature.
Figure 1: Temperature variation at 0.5 Flowrate

Figure 2: Temperature variation at 1 Flowrate

 Figure 3: Temperature variation at 1.5 Flowrate

Conclusion
From the experiment, it is understood that the temperature of hot water decreases and that of cold
water increases over the course of flow. This phenomenon occurs because, in parallel flow, both
hot and cold water are flowing simultaneously. Consequently, heat from the hot water is
transferred to the cold water as soon as both taps are opened concurrently. Graphically, this
principle is illustrated by the hot and cold-water curves almost converging at infinity. The point
of convergence at infinity indicates an equilibrium state where the temperature of the hot water
outlet equals that of the cold-water outlet. Both streams exhibit identical outlet temperatures. In
practice, achieving this condition is not 100% possible due to unavoidable heat losses during the
flow.
If we compare our values to the theoretical ones, we observe some error. This is because of
several reasons:
1. The apparatus did not reach a steady state.
2. Small data set meant greater errors in values
3. Faulty apparatus / uncontrolled environment
Lab Report no. 9
To perform an energy balance & calculate overall efficiency of
concentric tube heat exchanger in cross flow conditions at different flow
rates.
Theory
Heat Exchanger
A heat exchanger is essentially a device that transfers heat between two different mediums. For
instance, a Hydraulic Oil Cooler takes heat away from hot oil by using cold water or air. On the
other hand, a Pool Heat Exchanger utilizes hot water from a boiler or a solar-heated water circuit
to warm the pool water. The transfer of heat occurs through conduction in the materials of the
exchanger that separate the mediums. A shell and tube heat exchanger directs fluids through and
over tubes, whereas an air-cooled heat exchanger passes cool air through a core of fins to cool a
liquid.
Working
The working principle of a heat exchanger is based on the second law of thermodynamics, where
heat flows from a hotter body to a cooler one due to their temperature difference. In a shell and
tube heat exchanger, the cooling medium (such as water, steam, ethanol, or polypropylene
glycol) passes through tubes within the shell structure, while the medium to be cooled circulates
around these tubes. Baffles within the shell structure enhance efficiency by creating turbulence,
preventing the formation of hot and cold pockets in the medium. The design may involve
concurrent, counter current, or cross-flow arrangements. The output fluid's temperature is
controlled using a bypass valve, and pressure differentials are maintained to prevent intermixing
in case of leaks.
Types
Regarding types of heat exchangers, there are those based on construction:
1. Shell and Tube: These consist of small tubes within a cylindrical shell. The tubes are
arranged in a tube bundle, either with fixed tube plates or a floating tube stack for
expansion and contraction.
2. Plate Type: Operating similarly to shell and tube exchangers, this use stacked plates
instead of tubes, often brazed or gasketed, suitable for various applications.
3. Air Cooled: Common in vehicles or mobile applications, these exchangers use cool air
from fans or vehicle movement, combining different cooling functions into a single unit.
On the basis of flow, heat exchangers can be categorized as:
1. Parallel Flow: Both fluids enter and exit from the same end, traveling parallel to each
other. The temperature difference between the fluids decreases from entrance to exit.
2. Counter Flow: Fluids in the tubes flow in opposite directions, leading to higher
efficiency due to a higher average temperature difference along the length.
3. Cross Flow: Here, two fluids move perpendicular to each other, often used when one is
 a liquid and the other is a gas, such as in car radiators or steam condensers.
Apparatus
1. Heat Exchanger Apparatus
Experimental Procedure
1. Turn on the apparatus and allow sufficient time for the tank temperature to stabilize.
2. Refer to the manual for the device and configure it for cross flow by adjusting the
provided rotating taps.
3. Set the water flow rate to a chosen value.
4. Initiate the process by opening both the hot and cold-water taps and let the water flow for
some time.
5. Allow an additional 10 to 15 minutes for the water flow to reach a stable state.
6. Record readings from the labeled thermometer at various data points, which will be
analyzed in the subsequent sections of this document.
7. Feel free to modify the volume flow rates to obtain readings corresponding to different
tank temperatures.
8. Duplicate the entire procedure for distinct values of heat input (q).
Observations and Calculations
The inlet temperature of hot water and cold water is measures and its value is written in the table.
Similarly, the temperature for both hot and cold water was measure at several points to further
see the decrease in the temperature.
Table 1: Experimental values of plate temperature and heat transfer

Flow Rate Temperature (°C) First Half Second Half Overall

(L/min)
Hot Cold T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Qe Qa E Qe Qa E Qe Qa E
Water Water
1.6 1 44 38 25 32 41 28 0.33 0.21 62.50 0.33 0.28 83.33 0.67 0.49 72.92
1.2 1 48 37 24 34 44 28 0.33 0.28 83.33 0.59 0.42 71.43 0.92 0.70 75.76
0.8 1 51 38 24 33 45 28 0.33 0.28 83.33 0.39 0.35 89.29 0.72 0.63 86.54

Results and Discussion

The graph below shows the variation in temperature as they pass through the cross-flow pipes.
We can see that the temperature for the cold water increase while that of the hot water decreases.
This is due to exchange of heat when hot fluid flows over the cold fluid. The cold fluid takes up
the heat and raises its temperature.
Figure 1: Temperature curve at 0.5L Flowrate

Figure 2: Temperature curve at 1.0 L Flowrate

 Figure 3: Temperature curve at 1.5L Flowrate

The trend line tells us that the graphs will meet at a certain point. This will mean that all of the
heat has been exchanged from hot water to cold water at a certain point in length.
Conclusion
From the experiment, it is understood that the temperature of hot water decreases and that of cold
water increases over the course of flow. In a counter-flow configuration, hot and cold-water flow
simultaneously but in opposite directions. Heat from the hot water is transferred to the cold water
as the two streams interact at a specific point along the flow path. Graphically, this behaviour is
represented by the hot and cold-water curves flowing in opposite directions. Initially, the hot
fluid, starting at a high temperature, moves along the temperature gradient, losing heat.
Simultaneously, the cold fluid, starting at a lower temperature, gains heat and achieves a higher
temperature as it flows in the opposite direction. Some heat from the hot fluid is rejected due to
inherent losses. However, these losses can be overcome by using better-conducting metals
between the fluids and employing improved insulation on the outside of the tubes. It is observed
that altering the volume flow rate of the cold fluid affects the efficiency. Generally, an increase
in flow rate results in a decrease in efficiency.
The point of convergence at infinity symbolizes an equilibrium state where the temperature of
the hot water outlet matches that of the cold-water outlet. Both streams attain identical
temperatures at the outlet. However, achieving this condition in practice is not entirely possible,
as there are inevitable heat losses during the flow process.
If we compare our values to the theoretical ones, we observe some error. This is because of
several reasons:
1. The apparatus did not reach a steady state.
2. Small data set meant greater errors in values
3. Faulty apparatus / uncontrolled environment
Lab Report no. 10
Visual Demonstration of Convective, Nucleate & Film Boiling.
Theory
Newton's Law of Cooling
Newton's Law of Cooling describes the rate at which a hot object cools down in a surrounding
environment. It states that the rate of heat loss of a body is directly proportional to the temperature
difference between the body and its surroundings.
Definite Regimes of Boiling
In boiling processes, whether its pool boiling or forced circulation boiling, there are three distinct
regimes associated with increasing heat flux. These regimes illustrate the relationship between
heat flux (or film coefficient) and temperature excess where Ts is the temperature of the hot
surface and is the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure of the evaporating liquid.
Evaporation Process with No Bubble Formation
Boiling occurs in a thin layer of liquid adjacent to the heated surface. The liquid in this region
becomes superheated, rising to the liquid-vapor interface for evaporation. Fluid motion is
primarily determined by free convection effects.
Nucleate Boiling
During nucleate boiling, vapor bubbles initiate at specific nucleation sites on the surface. This
phase involves a dynamic interplay of bubble formation, collapse, and detachment, with some
bubbles condensing back into the liquid. As nucleate boiling progresses, there is a noticeable
escalation in both the frequency and intensity of bubble formation. The bubbles, gaining
momentum, rise from the nucleation sites to reach the liquid surface. This intricate process
contributes to the phenomenon of rapid evaporation, as the ascending bubbles facilitate the
transfer of heat from the heated surface to the surrounding liquid. The stages of nucleate boiling
underscore the complex dynamics involved in the transformation of liquid to vapor, offering
valuable insights for the analysis and optimization of heat transfer systems.
Film Boiling
In the transition to film boiling, the boiling process undergoes distinct changes. Initially, there is
a rapid formation of bubbles that blanket the heating surface, creating a vapor film. This film,
however, exhibits a low thermal conductivity, diminishing the advantageous effects of liquid
agitation. Consequently, there is a noticeable drop in heat flux as the temperature excess
increases. This phase is characterized by transition boiling, serving as an intermediate stage
between nucleate and film boiling. Understanding these phenomena is crucial for optimizing heat
transfer processes and preventing potential challenges associated with excessive temperature
excess in boiling applications.
Critical Heat Flux
The critical heat flux, denoted as the maximum heat flux, is a pivotal parameter in boiling
phenomena. It corresponds to the critical temperature difference, marking a crucial point in the
boiling curve. For water evaporating at atmospheric pressure, burnout occurs at a temperature
excess slightly surpassing 55 K, accompanied by a significant heat flux of around 1.58 × 10^6
W/m². Beyond this burnout point, the boiling process remains in an unstable state until reaching
a stable equilibrium at point B on the boiling curve. It is imperative to note that a continued
increase in temperature excess beyond burnout could result in structural damage and failure,
particularly if the surface temperature exceeds the material's established limits. This underscores
the importance of understanding and managing critical heat flux in applications involving
boiling.
Apparatus
1. Boiling Heat Transfer Unit
Experimental Procedure
1. Turn on the apparatus by switching on the main supply and apply a low level of power
using the knob.
2. After waiting for a few minutes, we gradually increased the power setting.
3. The power was raised, allowing us to observe and analyse the physical response of the
fluid. This allowed us to observe the transitions between nucleate boiling, convective
boiling, and film boiling.
4. We also monitored the water flow meter to ensure a continuous and sufficient flow of
water through the coil, validating the proper functioning of the system.
Conclusion
From the observation of the experiment, we were able to discern different regions on the boiling
curve. Initially, in the absence of bubble formation, convection currents rose in the liquid,
signifying the onset of convective boiling. The condensation rate was moderate, hence aligning
with the constant pressure conditions. As bubbles slowly appeared around the heating surface
and moved towards the free surface without completely covering it, we identified the transition
into nucleate boiling, accompanied by an increase in condensation. The process reached a critical
point where pressure remained constant, showing a shift in the rates of boiling and condensation.
In the film boiling phase, a complete vapor layer formed around the heating surface, resulting in
a decrease in heat flux. Notably, the heat flux reached its maximum at the conclusion of the
nucleate boiling region and subsequently decreased in the film boiling region.
Lab Report no. 11
To determine the heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient up to and
beyond the critical condition at constant pressure.
Theory
Newton's Law of Cooling
Newton's Law of Cooling describes the rate at which a hot object cools down in a surrounding
environment. It states that the rate of heat loss of a body is directly proportional to the temperature
difference between the body and its surroundings.
Heat Flux
Heat flux signifies the amount of heat transferred per unit area and is indicative of the rate at
which heat energy moves through or conducts across a specific surface area within a given
timeframe. Typically measured in watts per square meter (W/m²), heat flux (q) provides insight
into the intensity of heat transfer.
Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient
The surface heat transfer coefficient, often represented by the symbol "h," gauges the efficiency
of heat transfer between a solid surface and an adjacent fluid, be it liquid or gas. This transfer
predominantly occurs through convection and is a crucial parameter utilized in computations
related to convective heat transfer.
Critical Heat Flux
The critical heat flux, denoted as the maximum heat flux, is a pivotal parameter in boiling
phenomena. It corresponds to the critical temperature difference, marking a crucial point in the
boiling curve. For water evaporating at atmospheric pressure, burnout occurs at a temperature
excess slightly surpassing 55 K, accompanied by a significant heat flux of around 1.58 × 10^6
W/m². Beyond this burnout point, the boiling process remains in an unstable state until reaching
a stable equilibrium at point B on the boiling curve. It is imperative to note that a continued
increase in temperature excess beyond burnout could result in structural damage and failure,
particularly if the surface temperature exceeds the material's established limits. This underscores
the importance of understanding and managing critical heat flux in applications involving
boiling.
Apparatus
1. Boiling Heat Transfer Unit
Experimental Procedure
1. Begin by turning on the heat input to 146 W and tune the condense flow rate until the
desired condensed pressure is achieved.
2. Record the vapor pressure, as well as the temperatures of the metal and liquid at this
point.
3. Now, raise the heat input to 205 W and adjust the flow rate accordingly to meet the
 specified pressure requirements.
4. Iterate through a similar process, progressing from nucleate to film boiling.
5. Once film boiling is established, decrease the heat input and continue observations until
reaching the critical point.
Observations and Calculations
Pressure 1 = 20 psi
Pressure 2 = 40 psi
Area = 0.0019 m2

At Pressure 1:
Heat input Liquid Metal
Flow rate Temp Temp
W C C
146 2 34 53
205 10.5 33 55
266 7 32 56
282 7.5 34 58
At Pressure 2:
Heat input Liquid Temp Metal Temp
Flow rate
W C C
115 1 39 56
155 1 38 57
200 4 40 61.5
255 2 38 61

The flux and heat transfer coefficient are given for 20 psi pressure as:

Heat input Flux h

W W
W
m2 m2 K
146 76842.11 4044.321
205 107894.7 4904.306
266 140000 5833.333
282 148421.1 6184.211
The flux and heat transfer coefficient are given for 40 psi pressure as:

Heat input Flux h

W W
W
m2 m2 K
115 60526.32 3560.372
155 81578.95 4293.629
 200 105263.2 4895.961
255 134210.5 5835.24

Results and Discussion

Figure 1: Temperature Vs Convection Coefficient Plot

The above graphs show the variation in convective heat transfer coefficient as the temperature
increases. We can see that it increases as we increase the temperature.
Conclusion
In this report, we assessed the heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient under constant
pressure beyond the critical point. The graphs indicate that as the temperature difference rises,
the heat transfer coefficient also increases. Essentially, raising the liquid temperature results in a
corresponding increase in both heat flux and heat transfer rate.
Lab Report no. 12
To Measure the Effect of Distance on Heat Transfer through Radiation
Theory
Heat
Heat is a type of energy that can only be exchanged between two bodies when there is a thermal
gradient between them. Heat travels from bodies at higher temperatures to bodies at lower
temperatures.
Conduction
Conduction is a type of heat transfer in which heat is transferred between atoms or molecules of
a substance by collision caused by internal energy.
Convection
Convective heat transfer happens when the bulk velocity of the fluids is greater than zero. It is a
macroscopic heat transfer phenomena caused by observable fluid motion. The phenomena of
evaporative cooling is the most typical example of convective heat transfer. Many natural
processes, including the movement of molten rock beneath the Earth's crust, the circulation of
air in the atmosphere, and the flow of water in rivers and oceans, are caused by convection.
Additionally, it is essential in systems that circulate water or air for heating and cooling.
Radiation
Radiative heat transfer denotes the exchange of heat between two bodies through electromagnetic
waves. This mode of heat transfer doesn't require a medium and can occur even in a vacuum. An
illustrative example of radiative heat transfer is solar energy.
Radiation Intensity
Radiation intensity is the measure of received radiation per unit area. The greater the radiation
intensity, the higher the amount of heat radiation received per unit area. This intensity is
influenced by the physical properties of the material, including its shape and emissivity. The laws
governing radiation intensity are dictated by the Stefan-Boltzmann law, asserting that radiation
intensity is the fourth power of the temperature of the radiating body.
Radiation and Length
The relationship between radiation and length primarily pertains to the wavelength of
electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation encompasses a spectrum of wavelengths,
and each wavelength corresponds to a specific type of radiation. The electromagnetic spectrum
spans from short wavelengths, such as gamma rays and X-rays, to longer wavelengths, including
ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, microwaves, and radio waves.
Sensor
A sensor serves as a measurement device designed to gauge a specific quantity. Sensors can be
electrical, mechanical, or electromechanical. They play a crucial role in everyday life and are
ubiquitous in nearly every electronic device or gadget today. Modern sensors are equipped with
electronics, enabling them to transmit results directly to a computer screen or store them in hard
drive memory. With built-in filters, these sensors can efficiently process data, reducing errors
and enhancing accuracy.
Apparatus
1. Radiation Heat Unit
Experimental Procedure
1. First, turn on the main supply for the apparatus to provide energy to it.
2. Allow sufficient time for the heat source to reach a steady state.
3. Use the sensor to measure the intensity of the heat source.
4. Shift the sensor away from the source and record another reading.
5. Repeat this process to obtain multiple readings at specific lengths.
6. Note down the readings and plot graphs.
Observations and Calculations
The readings measured were as follows:
Distance (cm) Radiation intensity at 1 Radiation intensity at 2
5 1850 1873
10 1387 1406
15 1102 1081
20 791 862
25 680 702
30 555 565
Results and Discussion
The below graphs show the variation of radiation intensity with length. As we increase the length
meaning as we move away from the radiation source the radiation intensity decreases. This is
due to loss of heat in the surrounding. The radiation intensity will be maximum at 0 length and
0 at infinity length.
Figure 1: Variation in Radiation Intensity as the length is increases at Configuration 1

Figure 2: Variation in Radiation Intensity as the length is increases at Configuration 2

Conclusion
In this report, we assessed the relationship between radiation intensity and distance and found
that it is of crucial significance. The variation in radiation intensity with distance follows a
logarithmic pattern, where the intensity decreases logarithmically as the distance from the
radiative source increases. This relationship holds paramount importance in various applications,
particularly for devices like heaters.
The logarithmic decrease in radiation intensity with distance has practical implications,
especially for heaters. Assessing the effective range of heaters becomes essential to determine
whether they can efficiently heat up the designated room. Precise knowledge of the variation in
radiation intensity helps in optimizing the placement and usage of heaters, ensuring they can
provide the desired level of warmth within a given space. This understanding contributes to the
efficient design and utilization of heating systems, promoting energy conservation and effective
thermal management.