Introduction to Soil

Investigation
Brian B. Tan, M.Sc.
 Why do we need to investigate
the soil in each project?
1. Soil is heterogeneous
2. Soil is a natural material and does
not have well-understood
properties
3. Soil conditions can be highly
variable
Discussion Outline
1. Soil/Rock Characteristics C. Consolidation Tests

A. Types D. Moisture-Density Tests

B. Consistency/Quality 4. In-Situ Testing
C. Parameters A. Standard Penetration Test
2. Field Sampling B. Plate Load Test
A. Disturbed Sampling C. Cone Penetrometer
B. Undisturbed Sampling D. Pressuremeter
C. Rock Coring E. Field Vane
D. Test Pits 5. Typical Soil Investigation in
3. Laboratory Testing the Philippines
A. Index Tests A. Borehole Procedure
B. Strength Tests B. Laboratory Tests
C. Soil Investigation Data
SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
Soil Characteristics
1. Types
2. Consistency or Quality
3. Parameters
Soil Types—Granular vs. Cohesive
Granular/Non-Plastic Cohesive/Plastic

• Gravel or Sand • Silt or Clay

• Particle size > 75μm (#200 • Particle size < 75μm (#200
sieve) sieve)
• No interparticle forces • Interparticle forces
• Large voids • Small voids
• High permeability • Low permeability
• Strength derived from • Strength derived from
intergranular friction interparticle cohesion
• Nil to low long-term • Low to high long-term
compressibility compressibility
Soil Consistency
Granular/Non-Plastic Cohesive/Plastic

• Very loose • Very soft

• Loose • Soft
• Medium dense • Medium stiff/Firm
• Dense • Stiff
• Very Dense • Very Stiff
• Hard
Soil Parameters
Granular/Non-Plastic Cohesive/Plastic

• Particle grading • Plasticity

• Strength (friction angle) • Swell potential
• Moisture-density • Compressibility
relationship • Strength (undrained and
drained shear strength)
• Moisture-density
relationship
Rock
• Types: • Parameters
• Igneous • Strength
• Sedimentary • Compressibility (modulus of
• Metamorphic elasticity)
• Local rock
• Guadalupe Tuff Formation
(Adobe)
• Taal Tuff Formation
• Limestone
• Strength depends on
• Cementation
• Weathering
Discussion Outline
1. Soil/Rock Characteristics A. Standard Penetration Test

A. Types B. Plate Load Test

B. Consistency/Quality C. Cone Penetrometer

C. Parameters D. Pressuremeter
E. Field Vane
2. Field Sampling
A. Disturbed Sampling 5. Typical Soil Investigation in
B. Undisturbed Sampling the Philippines
C. Rock Coring A. Borehole Procedure
D. Test Pits B. Laboratory Tests
C. Soil Investigation Data
3. Laboratory Testing
A. Index Tests
B. Strength Tests
C. Consolidation Tests
D. Moisture-Density Tests
FIELD SAMPLING
Field Sampling
1. Disturbed Soil Sampling
2. Undisturbed Soil Sampling
3. Rock Coring
4. Test Pits
Disturbed Sampling
• Thick-walled sampler
• Split-spoon sampler
• 50-mm O.D.
• Hammered into ground
• Splits open to reveal
sample
• ASTM D1586
• Soil is in disturbed
state
• For tests that are soil
fabric independent
Disturbed Sampling
Undisturbed Sampling
• Thin-walled sampler
• Shelby-tube
• Piston-tube
• Sampler is pushed into
ground
• Sample is pushed out in
laboratory
• ASTM D1587
• Soil is in relatively
undisturbed state
• For soft clays and silts
• For tests that require
samples to be tested with
the soil fabric intact
Rock Coring
• Rotary coring • Rock Quality Designation
• Total length of sample greater
• Samplers:
than 100-mm
• Single-tube (NEVER)
• Expressed as % of total core
• Double-tube (NEVER) run
• Triple-tube (ALWAYS)
• To get high recovery and
• Coring bits: RQD
• Tungsten-carbide • Use good core bit
• Diamond • Replace core bit as necessary
• Recovery • Slower drilling speed
• Total recovered sample • Shorter core run
• Expressed as % of total core • ASTM D2113
run
• RQD
Rock Coring
Test Pits
• Typically 2-m deep
• Large soil sample
volume
• Allows visual
inspection of soil
conditions
Discussion Outline
1. Soil/Rock Characteristics A. Standard Penetration Test

A. Types B. Plate Load Test

B. Consistency/Quality C. Cone Penetrometer

C. Parameters D. Pressuremeter
E. Field Vane
2. Field Sampling
A. Disturbed Sampling 5. Typical Soil Investigation in
B. Undisturbed Sampling the Philippines
C. Rock Coring A. Borehole Procedure
D. Test Pits B. Laboratory Tests
C. Soil Investigation Data
3. Laboratory Testing
A. Index Tests
B. Strength Tests
C. Consolidation Tests
D. Moisture-Density Tests
LABORATORY TESTING
Laboratory Testing
1. Index Tests (Disturbed) (Undisturbed)
A. Particle Size Analysis A. Oedometer
B. Atterberg Limits B. Controlled Rate of Strain
C. Natural Moisture Content 4. Moisture-Density Tests
D. Free Swell (Test Pit)
E. Specific Gravity A. Proctor Test (Standard or
2. Strength Tests Modified)
(Undisturbed) B. Harvard Kneading
A. Vane Shear C. California Bearing Ratio
B. Unconfined Compression
C. Direct Shear
D. Triaxial Shear

3. Consolidation Tests
Index Tests
• Goal is to have quick and easy tests that give indication of
basic soil properties
• Generally inexpensive
• All laboratories are capable
• Can be performed in the field
• Basis of soil classification (USCS)
• Index test parameters:
• Particle size distribution
• Liquid limit (LL)
• Plastic limit (PL)
• Moisture content (NMC)
• Swell potential
• Specific gravity (Gs)
Index Tests—Particle Size Analysis
• Sieve analysis
• Granular soils
• Gravel/sand: < 50%
passing #200 sieve (75μm)
• Silt/clay: > 50% passing
#200 sieve (75μm)
• ASTM D422
• Hydrometer analysis
• Distinguish between silt or
clay
• Performed on soil passing
#200 sieve
• ASTM D1140
Index Tests—Atterberg Limits
• For cohesive soils
• To determine degree of
plasticity
• Liquid limit (upper end of
plasticity)
• Plastic limit (lower end of
plasticity)
• Shrinkage limit (completely
dry)
• Plasticity index (difference
between LL and PL)
• ASTM D4318
Index Tests—Natural Moisture Content
• To determine moisture
content in-situ
• Sample must be
properly preserved in
the field
• Not useful for clean
sands and gravel
• ASTM D2216
Index Tests—Free Swell Test
• To determine swell
potential of the soil
• Original and modified
versions
• No ASTM Standard
Index Tests—Specific Gravity
• To determine specific
gravity of the soil
particles
• Pycnometer
• ASTM D854
Strength Tests
• Goal is to provide estimate of soil/rock strength
• Extraction of samples changes soil state
• Laboratory tests should recreate in-situ state to represent strength in-situ
• Ranges from simple to complex tests
• Ranges from inexpensive to very expensive
• Most laboratories capable of simple tests
• Complex tests usually done in universities or large commercial
laboratories
• Strength test parameters:
• Undrained shear strength (su)
• Drained shear strength (su)
• Unconfined compressive strength (qu)
• Failure strain
• Modulus of elasticity (E)
Strength Tests—Lab Vane Shear
• For soft clays
• Vane is inserted into
undisturbed sample
• Vane is rotated at
constant rate
• Test is very quick
• Strength is not
accurate but
reasonable
• ASATM D4648
Strength Tests—Unconfined Compression
• For clay and rock
• Clay sample:
• Sample is not in in-situ state
• Can give conservative or
unconservative results
• ASTM D2166
• Rock sample:
• Gives reasonable indication
of rock strength
• Sample is not in in-situ state
• Sample disturbance can
greatly affect results
• ASTM D2938/D7012
Strength Tests—Direct Shear
• For soft to medium stiff
clays
• ASTM D3080
• Strength is generally
on high-side
• Sample is sheared along
preferred (horizontal)
plane
• Time to failure is quick
• Relatively inexpensive
Strength Tests—Direct Shear
Strength Tests—Triaxial Shear
• Sample types: • Strength is accurate
• Undisturbed clay • Sample shears along weakest
• Reconstituted clay plane
• Reconstituted sand • Sample is consolidated to in-
• Rock (need very high pressure
situ state (except for UU)
load frame and cell) • Stress path can be calculated
• Consolidation behavior can be
• Test types:
calculated
• Unconsolidated-undrained (UU)
– ASTM D2850 • Expensive
• Consolidated-undrained (CU) – • Test time:
ASTM D4767 • UU: 1 to 2 days
• Consolidated-drained (CD) – • CU: 3 to 5 days
ASTM D7181
• CD: 5 days to 15 days
• Computer controlled
Strength Tests—Triaxial Shear
Strength Tests—Triaxial Shear
Consolidation Tests
• Goal is to provide parameters to calculate magnitude and
rate of consolidation of compressible clays
• Sample disturbance is critical to accuracy of results

• Test takes 3 days to 14 days

• Most laboratories capable of basic oedometer test (slower)
• Universities capable of CRS test (faster)

• Consolidation test parameters:

• Compression index (Cc)
• Recompression index (Cr)
• Coefficient of consolidation (cv)
• Overconsolidation ratio (OCR)
Consolidation Tests—Oedometer
• Most common test
• Manual test
• Load is changed every
24-hours
• Can take up to 14
days
• ASTM D2435 and
D4546
Consolidation Tests—CRS
• Constant rate of strain
• Computer controlled
• Strain is applied at a
constant rate
• Takes 3 to 5 days
• ASTM D4186
Moisture-Density Tests
• Goal is to provide moisture-compaction density
relationship
• For backfill material
• Moisture-density test parameters:
• Maximum dry density
• Optimum moisture content
• California bearing ratio (CBR test only)
Moisture-Density Tests—Proctor Test
• For granular soils,
hence vibratory
compactors
• Types:
• Standard (ASTM D698)
 for lighter compactors
• Modified (ASTM
D1557) for heavier
compactors
Moisture-Density Tests—Harvard Test
• For cohesive soils,
hence sheepsfoot or
kneading rollers
• No ASTM standard
Moisture-Density Tests—CBR Test
• To determine
California Bearing
Ratio
• Used for pavement
design
• In conjunction with
Proctor test, gives
CBR at MDD
• ASTM D1883
Discussion Outline
1. Soil/Rock Characteristics 4. In-Situ Testing
A. Types A. Standard Penetration Test
B. Consistency/Quality B. Plate Load Test
C. Parameters C. Cone Penetrometer

2. Field Sampling D. Pressuremeter

A. Disturbed Sampling E. Field Vane

B. Undisturbed Sampling 5. Typical Soil Investigation in

C. Rock Coring the Philippines
D. Test Pits A. Borehole Procedure
3. Laboratory Testing B. Laboratory Tests

A. Index Tests C. Soil Investigation Data

B. Strength Tests
C. Consolidation Tests
D. Moisture-Density Tests
IN-SITU TESTING
In-Situ Testing
1. Standard Penetration Test
2. Plate Load Test
3. Cone Penetrometer Test
4. Pressuremeter
5. Field Vane Test
Standard Penetration Test
• Most common field test • Upper 6-m: Every 1-m
• Below 6-m: Every 1.5-m
• SPT Procedure:
• Split-spoon sampler is lowered • Refusal criteria:
into borehole • 50 blows in any of the three
• Drop height: 76-cm (30”) 150-mm increments
• Hammer weight: 63.5-kg (140- • A total of 100 blows
lb) • No observed advance in 10
• Total penetration: 450-mm successive blows
• Hammer types:
• Automatic trip hammer (Pilcon
type)
• Free fall hammer (Donut type)

• Frequency:
Standard Penetration Test
Standard Penetration Test
Standard Penetration Test—N-Value
• SPT N-value:
• Number of blows to drive last 300-mm
• Value should be corrected to reference energy level (N60)
• Value should be corrected to reference overburden stress (N1)
• Combine corrections to give corrected N-values (N1(60))
• Published correlations to various engineering parameters
• Limitations:
• Lazy field operator (hammer not lifted to correct height)
• False resistance due to gravel
• Elevated N-value due to very highly plastic (sticky) clay
• Disturbance due to wash-boring procedure
Plate Load Test
• Measures elastic load-settlement behavior
• Test details:
• 300 to 750-mm square plate
• Hydraulic jack with counterweight

• Limitations:
• Load zone is small (2x plate width)
• Long-term settlement behavior is not provided

• Test output:
• Bearing capacity
• Modulus of subgrade reaction

• ASTM D1194
Plate Load Test
Cone Penetrometer
• Instrumented cone
pushed into the ground
• Load cell at tip
• Friction sleeve
• Piezometer at tip
• Test output
• Cone resistance
• Friction resistance
• Published correlations to
cone and friction
resistance
• ASTM D3441/D5778
Pressuremeter
• Inflateable probe
inserted into borehole
• Measures pressure vs
volume change
• Test output:
• Pressuremeter modulus
• Pressuremeter limit
pressure
• Correlations to modulus
and limit pressure
• ASTM D4719
Field Vane
• Probe inserted into
borehole
• Vane is rotated at
specified rate
• Torque is correlated to
underained shear
strength
• ASTM D2573
Discussion Outline
1. Soil/Rock Characteristics 4. In-Situ Testing
A. Types A. Standard Penetration Test
B. Consistency/Quality B. Plate Load Test
C. Parameters C. Cone Penetrometer

2. Field Sampling D. Pressuremeter

A. Disturbed Sampling E. Field Vane

B. Undisturbed Sampling 5. Typical Soil Investigation in

C. Rock Coring the Philippines
D. Test Pits A. Borehole Procedure
3. Laboratory Testing B. Laboratory Tests

A. Index Tests C. Soil Investigation Data

B. Strength Tests
C. Consolidation Tests
D. Moisture-Density Tests
TYPICAL SOIL
INVESTIGATION IN THE
PHILIPPINES
Field Procedures
STEP 1: Wash-boring
• High pressure jets to break
up the soil
• Cuttings are transported up
and out of borehole with
wash-water
• Install casing if borehole
collapses
• Advance hole to desired
depth then proceed to STEP
2
• If rock is encountered, skip
to STEP 3
Field Procedures
STEP 2: Remove wash-boring tool and connect split-
spoon sampler
• Perform SPT
• Retrieve and store samples
• If undisturbed sample is to be obtained, proceed to STEP 2A
• If field vane will be performed, proceed to STEP 2B
• If no SPT refusal, go to STEP 1
• If SPT refusal, go to STEP 3
STEP 2A: Remove split-spoon sampler and attach shelby-
tube sampler
• Only if previous sample is soft clay or silt (SPT N < 6)
• When complete, retrieve sample and store properly
• Interval is 1-m in upper 6-m and 1.5-m below 6-m
Field Procedures
STEP 2B: Remove split-spoon sampler and attach field
vane tool
• Only if previous sample is soft clay or silt (SPT N < 6)
• Go to STEP 1 or STEP 2
STEP 3: Switch to core drilling
• Use triple tube sampler
• Limit core length to less than 1.5-m
• Store samples in core box
• If recovery is 0% go to STEP 2
Laboratory Tests
Standard By request

• Sieve analysis • Hydrometer

• Atterberg limits • Free swell
• Natural moisture content • Specific gravity
• Unconfined compression • Unconfined compression
test on rock test on clay
• Standard/modified proctor • Oedometer
test (if test pit conducted) • Direct shear
• California Bearing Ratio (if
test pit conducted)
Boring Log
Boring Log
Boring Log
Laboratory Data Summary Sheet
Atterberg Limits Data
Particle Size Analysis
UCS Data
THANK YOU!!