Mechanical Workshop

Department of Engineering Science &Management

WELDING
Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It joins different
metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal. The fusion
of metal takes place by means of heat. The heat may be generated either from combustion of gases, electric
arc, electric resistance or by chemical reaction. The welding is widely used as a fabrication and repairing
process in industries. Some of the typical applications of welding include the fabrication of ships, pressure
vessels, automobile bodies, off-shore platform, bridges, welded pipes, sealing of nuclear fuel and explosives,
etc. Most of the metals and alloys can be welded by one type of welding process or the other. However, some
are easier to weld than others. To compare this ease in welding term ‘weldability’ is often used. The weldability
may be defined as property of a metal which indicates the ease with which it can be welded with other similar
or dissimilar metals.

Welding Processes:
The number of different welding processes has grown in recent years. These processes differ greatly in the
manner in which heat and pressure (when used) are applied, and in the type of equipment used. Among the
different types of welding processes, two commonly used welding processes are discussed here. One process
is electric arc welding and another is gas welding. The most popular process in arc welding is shielded metal
arc welding (SMAW).
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) or Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW):
SMAW is an arc welding process that uses a flux covered metal electrode to carry an electrical current.
The current forms an arc that jumps a gap from the end of the electrode to the work. The electric arc creates
enough heat to melt both the electrode and the base material(s). Molten metal from the electrode travels across
the arc to the molten pool of base metal where they mix together. As the arc moves away, the mixture of molten
metals solidifies and becomes one piece. The molten pool of metal is surrounded and protected by a fume
cloud and a covering of slag produced as the coating of the electrode burns or vaporizes. Due to the appearance
of the electrodes, SMAW is commonly known as ‘stick’ welding.

SMAW is one of the oldest and most popular methods of joining metal because of its low cost, flexibility,
portability and versatility. Moderate quality welds can be made at low speed with good uniformity. SMAW is
very flexible in terms of the material thicknesses that can be welded (materials from 1/16” thick to several
inches thick can be welded with the same machine and different settings). It can weld many different types of
metals, including cast iron, steel, nickel & aluminum. Some of the biggest drawbacks to SMAW are (1) that it
produces a lot of smoke & sparks, (2) there is a lot of post-weld cleanup needed if the welded areas are to look
presentable, (3) it is a fairly slow welding process and (4) it requires a lot of operator skill to produce consistent
quality welds.

Schematic diagram showing constituents of SMAW

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Many electric arc welding processes make use of a direct current (DC) rather than alternating current. In any
direct current arc, the specification of polarity can be very important. If the electrode is a cathode and is
negative (DCEN), it refers to as direct current straight polarity, or DCSP. If the welding electrode is an anode
or electrode positive (DCEP), this is referred to as direct current reverse polarity (DCRP). In the normal DCSP
condition, the base metal being bombarded by the electrons is hotter than the electrode and a deep,
“penetrating” weld is produced. In contrast, DCRP produces a wider, shallower weld and the electrode is hotter
than the base metal. The choice of current and polarity depends on the process, the type of electrode, the arc
atmosphere, and the metal being welded.
Arc Welding Equipment:
1) Welding machine with Current regulating hand wheel 2) Welding cable 3) Cable connector
4) Earth clamp 5) Channel for cable protection 6) Electrode Holder 7) Electrode
8) Chipping hammer 9) Welding table 10) Leather apron 11) Hand gloves
12) Hand shield/Welding Helmet 13) Wire brush 14) Tong 15) Job
Apart from the above mentioned equipments, the measuring tools, marking tools and filling tools are also
required.

Shielded metal arc welding equipment

Welding machine with Current regulating hand wheel: Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC)
are used for electric arc welding, each having its particular applications. DC welding supply is usually obtained
from generators driven by electric motor or if no electricity is available by internal combustion engines. For
AC welding supply, transformers are predominantly used for almost all Arc-welding where mains electricity
supply is available. They have to step down the usual supply voltage (200-400 volts) to the normal open circuit
welding voltage (50-90 volts). In case of DC welding power is required at 8 to 25 volts and 50 ampere.
Comparison between A.C & D.C Welding:

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Welding cable: Welding cables are required for conduction of current from the power source through the
electrode holder, the arc, the work piece and back to the welding power source. These are insulated copper or
aluminum cables.
Electrode holder: Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode manually and conducting current to it.
These are usually matched to the size of the lead, which in turn matched to the amperage output of the arc
welder. Electrode holders are available in sizes that range from 150 to 500 Amps.

Electrode: An electrode is a piece of wire or a rod of a metal or alloy, with or without coatings. An arc is set
up between electrode and work piece. Welding electrodes are classified into following types
(i) Consumable Electrodes: (a) Bare Electrodes (b) Coated Electrodes
(ii) Non-consumable Electrodes: (a) Carbon or Graphite Electrodes (b) Tungsten Electrodes

Consumable electrode is made of different metals and their alloys. The end of this electrode starts melting
when arc is struck between the electrode and workpiece. Thus consumable electrode itself acts as a filler metal.
Bare electrodes consist of a metal or alloy wire without any flux coating on them. Coated electrodes have flux
coating which starts melting as soon as an electric arc is struck. This coating on melting performs many
functions like prevention of joint from atmospheric contamination, arc stabilizers etc.
The size of electrode is measured and designated by the diameter of the core wire in SWG and length, apart
from the brand and code names; indicating the purpose for which they are most suitable.
Non-consumable electrodes are made up of high melting point materials like carbon, pure tungsten or alloy
tungsten etc. These electrodes do not melt away during welding. But practically, the electrode length goes on
decreasing with the passage of time, because of oxidation and vaporization of the electrode material during
welding. The materials of non-consumable electrodes are usually copper coated carbon or graphite, pure
tungsten, zirconiated tungsten etc.

Parts of a coated electrode

Welding Helmet/Hand Screen:

This is used to protect the eyes and face from the rays of the arc and from spatter or flying particles of hot
metal and supervision of weld bead. It is available either in hand or helmet type. The hand type is convenient
to use wherever the work can be done with one hand. The helmet type though not comfortable to wear, leaves
both hands free for the work.
Chipping hammer:
A chipping hammer is used to remove slag which is formed on welds by striking. One end of the head is
sharpened like a cold chisel and the other, to a blunt, round point. It is generally made of tool steel. Molten
metal dispersed around the welding heads, in the form of small drops, is known as spatter. When a flux coated
electrode is used in welding process, then a layer of flux material is formed over the welding bead which
contains the impurities of weld material. This layer is known as slag. Removing the spatter and slag formed
on and around the welding beads on the metal surface is known as chipping.
Wire brush:
A wire brush is used for cleaning and preparing the work for welding.
Welding table:
It is made of steel plate and pipes. It is used for positioning the parts to be welded properly.

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Earthing Clamp: It is used to connect the metallic table with the earthing cable.

Protective clothing: Operator wears the protective clothing (Apron, Glove) such as apron to keep away the
exposure of direct heat to the body.

Tong: It is used to hold the job for placing the same at the desired location.

Chipping Hammer Wire Brush Welding Helmet Earthing Clamp

Edge preparations:
For welding the edges of joining surfaces of metals are prepared first. Different edge preparations may be
used for welding butt joints, which are given in figure.

Welding joints
Some common welding joints are shown in Figure. Welding joints are of generally of two major kinds
namely lap joint and butt joint. The main types are described as under

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Lap Joint
This joint, made by overlapping the edges of the plate, is not recommended for most work. The single lap
has very little resistance to bending. It can be used satisfactorily for joining two cylinders that fit inside one
another. For obtaining stronger joint than the single-lap joint double-lap joint may be employed, but it has
the disadvantage that it requires twice as much welding.
Single-Vee Butt weld joint:
Butt welds are welds where two pieces of metal are to be joined are in the same plane. It is used for plates up
to 15.8 mm thick. The angle of the vee depends upon the technique being used, the plates being spaced
approximately 3.2 mm.
Double-Vee Butt Weld
It is used for plates over 13 mm thick when the welding can be performed on both sides of the plate. The top
vee angle is either 60° or 80°, while the bottom angle is 80°, depending on the technique being used.
Corner and Tee joints:
These joints are used to join two members located at right angles to each other. In cross section, the corner
joint forms an L‐shape, and the tee joint has the shape of the letter T. Various joint designs of both types
have uses in many types of metal structures.
Edge joint
This type of joint is used to join the edges of two or more members lying in the same plane. In most cases,
one of the members is flanged, view E. While this type of joint has some applications in plate work, it is
more frequently used in sheet metal work.

Welding Positions

Flat or Down-hand Welding Position:

The flat position or down hand position is one in which the welding is performed from the upper side of the
joint and the face of the weld is approximately horizontal.
Horizontal Welding Position:
In horizontal position, the plane of the work piece is vertical and the deposited weld head is horizontal. This
position of welding is most commonly used in welding vessels and reservoirs.
Vertical Welding Position:
In vertical position, the plane of the work-piece is vertical and the weld is deposited upon a vertical surface.
It is difficult to produce satisfactory welds in this position due to the effect of the force of gravity on the
molten metal.
Overhead Welding Position:
The overhead position is probably even more difficult to weld than the vertical position. Here the pull of
gravity against the molten metal is much greater.

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JOB NO: ` BUTT JOINT DATE:

Aim: To make a Butt joint using the given two M.S plates by arc welding.
Material: Mild steel plate of size mm – 2 No’s
Welding Electrodes: M.S electrodes mm X mm
Welding Equipment: Air cooled transformer 26KVA, 3 phase supply, amps up to 400.
Tools and Accessories required:
1. Rough and smooth files. 2. Protractor 3. Arc welding machine (transformer type)
4. Mild steel electrode and electrode holder 5. Ground clamp 6. Tongs
7. Face shield 8. Apron 9. Chipping hammer.

Sequence of operations:
1. Marking 2. Cutting 3. Edge preparation (Removal of rust, scale etc.) by filling
4. Try square leveling 5. Tacking 6. Welding 7. Chipping 8. Cooling
9. Cleaning

Procedure:
1. The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
2. One edge of each piece is believed, to an angle of 30 0, leaving nearly ¼ th of the flat thickness, at
one end.
3. The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, they are separated slightly for better
penetration of the weld.
4. The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is set to be a proper value.
5. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
6. Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and holding the two pieces together;
first run of the weld is done to fill the root gap.
7. Second run of the weld is done with proper weaving and with uniform movement. During the
process of welding, the electrode is kept at 150 to 250 from vertical and in the direction of welding.
8. The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
9. Filling is done to remove any spanner around the weld.
Result:
Thus the desired butt joint of mentioned dimension has been made by Arc welding.
Precaution: (To be filled by student)
Job Drawing:

All dimensions are in mm

Not to true scale

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Welding Defects:

1. Lack of Penetration: It is the failure of the filler metal to penetrate into the joint. It is due to (a) Root
gap too small. (b) Electrode size to big. (c)Travel speed too high. (d) Incorrect use of electrode.
2. Lack of Fusion: Lack of fusion is the failure of the filler metal to fuse with the parent metal. It is duo
to (a) Heat input too low. (b) Weld pool too large and running ahead of the arc. (c) Joint included angle
too small (d) Electrode or torch angle is incorrect. (e) Unfavorable bead positioning.

3. Porosity: It is a group of small holes throughout the weld metal. It is caused by the trapping of gas
during the welding process, due to Moisture, for example from incorrectly stored electrodes or fluxes,
humid shielding gas or leaks in water-cooled welding torches. It is also happened due to Moisture, rust,
grease or paint on the plate edges, insufficient gas shielding and welding onto small gaps filled with air.
4. Slag Inclusion: It is the entrapment of slag or other impurities in the weld. It is caused by slag runs
ahead of the weld, insufficient de-slagging between passes, convex passes which produce slag pockets,
and unfavorable bead sequence.

5. Undercuts: These are grooves or slots along the edges of the weld caused by arc voltage too high,
arc too long, incorrect electrode use or electrode angle, electrode is too large for the plate thickness, travel
speed too high.
6. Cracking: It is the formation of cracks either in the weld metal or in the parent metal. It is due to
unsuitable parent metals used in the weld, bad welding technique, the base material is prone to hardening
(because of a high carbon content or other alloying elements), weld cools down too rapidly, hydrogen in
the weld e.g. because of wet weld edges, wrong or damp electrodes or shielding gases.

7. Distortion: Distortion is due to high cooling rate, small diameter electrode, poor clamping and slow arc
travel speed.

8. Blowholes: These are large holes in the weld caused by (a) Gas being trapped, due to moisture.
(b) Contamination of either the filler or parent metals.

9. Excessive Penetration: It is where the weld metal protrudes through the root of the weld. It is caused by
(a) Incorrect edge preparation (b) Too big a heat concentration (c) Too slow a travel.

10. Overlays: These consist of metal that has flowed on to the parent metal without fusing with it. The defect
is due to (a) Contamination of the surface of the parent metal (b) Insufficient heat.
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GAS WELDING

A fusion welding process which joins metals, using the heat of combustion of an oxygen /air and fuel gas
(i.e. acetylene, hydrogen propane or butane) mixture is usually referred as ‘gas welding’. The intense heat
(flame) thus produced melts and fuses together the edges of the parts to be welded, generally with the
addition of a filler metal. Operation of gas welding is shown in Fig. The fuel gas generally employed is
acetylene; however gases other than acetylene can also be used though with lower flame temperature.
Oxy-acetylene flame is the most versatile and hottest of all the flames produced by the combination of
oxygen and other fuel gases. Other gases such as Hydrogen, Propane, Butane, Natural gas etc., may be
used for some welding and brazing applications. The flux may be used to dioxide and clean the weld
metal. The flux melts, solidifies and forms a slag skin on the resultant weld metal.

A typical oxyacetylene welding operation

In oxy-acetylene welding, flame is the most important means to control the welding joint and the welding
process. The correct type of flame is essential for the production of satisfactory welds. The flame must be of
the proper size, shape and condition in order to operate with maximum efficiency. There are three basic types
of oxy-acetylene flames.

a) Neutral Flame: A neutral flame results when approximately equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene
are mixed in the welding torch and burnt at the torch tip. The temperature of the neutral flame is of
the order of about 5900°F (3260°C). It has a clear, well defined inner cone, indicating that the
combustion is complete. The inner cone is light blue in color. It is surrounded by an outer flame
envelope, produced by the combination of oxygen in the air and superheated carbon monoxide and
hydrogen gases from the inner cone. This envelope is usually a much darker blue than the inner cone.
A neutral flame is named so because it affects no chemical change on the molten metal and, therefore
will not oxidize or carburize the metal. The neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of mild
steel, stainless steel, cast Iron, copper, and aluminum.

b) Oxydizing Flame : The oxidizing flame has an excess of oxygen over the acetylene. An oxidizing
flame can be recognized by the small cone, which is shorter, much bluer in color and more pointed
than that of the neutral flame. The outer flame envelope is much shorter and tends to fan out at the
end. Such a flame makes a loud roaring sound. It is the hottest flame (temperature as high as 6300°F)
produced by any oxy-fuel gas source. But the excess oxygen especially at high temperatures tends to
combine with many metals to form hard, brittle, low strength oxides. Moreover, an excess of oxygen
causes the weld bead and the surrounding area to have a scummy or dirty appearance. For these
reasons, an oxidizing flame is of limited use in welding. It is not used in the welding of steel. A slightly
oxidizing flame is helpful when welding (i) Copper-base metals (ii) Zinc-base metals and (iii) A few
types of ferrous metals such as manganese steel and cast iron. The oxidizing atmosphere in these cases,
create a base metal oxide that protects the base metal.

c) Carbonizing Flame: The carburizing or reducing flame has excess of acetylene and can be recognized
by acetylene feather, which exists between the inner cone and the outer envelope. The outer flame
envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame and is usually much brighter in color. With iron and
steel, carburizing flame produces very hard, brittle substance known as iron carbide. A reducing flame
may be distinguished from carburizing flame by the fact that a carburizing flame contains more

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acetylene than a reducing flame. A reducing flame has an approximate temperature of 3038°C. A
carburizing-flame is used in the welding of lead and for carburizing (surface hardening) purpose. A
reducing flame, on the other hand, does not carburize the metal; rather it ensures the absence of the
oxidizing condition. It is used for welding with low alloy steel rods and for welding those metals, (e.g.,
non-ferrous) that do not tend to absorb carbon. This flame is very well used for welding high carbon
steel.

Gas welding Technique:

It is also known as forwad welding. In this, the filler rod
is held in the left hand and the blowpipe in the right
hand. Welding commences at the right hand side

Leftward Welding:
it

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Different parts of gas welding equipment

Gas Cylinders:
Acetylene and oxygen gas is stored in compressed gas cylinders. These gas cylinders differ widely in capacity,
design and colour code. However, in most of the countries, the standard size of these cylinders is 6 to 7 m3
and is painted green or black for oxygen and maroon or red for acetylene. An acetylene cylinder is filled with
some absorptive material, which is saturated with a chemical solvent acetone. Acetone has the ability to absorb
a large volume of acetylene and release it as the pressure falls. If large quantities of acetylene gas are being
consumed, it is much cheaper to generate the gas at the place of use with the help of acetylene gas generators.
Acetylene gas is generated by carbide-to-water method. Oxygen gas cylinders are usually equipped with about
40 litres of oxygen at a pressure of about 154 Kgf/cm2 at 21°C. To provide against dangerously excessive
pressure, such as could occur if the cylinders were exposed to fire, every valve has a safety device to release
the oxygen before there is any danger of rupturing the cylinders. Fragile discs and fusible plugs are usually
provided in the cylinders valves in case it is subjected to danger. Oxygen pressure can be as high as 300 bar
and in case of Acetylene, pressure which is approximately 15bar.

Gas Pressure Regulators:

The primary function of a gas regulator is to control gas pressure. It reduces the high pressure of the bottle-
stored gas to the working pressure of the torch, and this will be maintained during welding. The cylinder and
hose connections have left-handed threads on the acetylene regulator while these are right handed on the
oxygen regulator. The regulator has two separate gauges: a high pressure gauge for gas in the cylinder and a
low pressure gauge for pressure of gas fed to the torch. The amount of gas remaining in the cylinder can be
judged from the high pressure gauge. The regulator, which has a pressure adjusting screw, is used to control
gas flow rate to the torch by setting the outlet gas pressure.
Note: Acetylene is supplied in cylinders under a pressure of about 15 bar but welding is carried out with
torch gas pressures typically up to 2 bar.

Hose Pipes:
The hose pipes are used for the supply of gases from the pressure regulators. The most common method
of hose pipe fitting both oxygen and acetylene gas is the reinforced rubber hose pipe. Hoses between the
torch and the gas regulators should be colour-coded; generally red for acetylene, and blue for oxygen.

Welding Torch:
The welding torch is a tool for mixing oxygen and acetylene in correct proportion and burning the mixture at
the end of a tip. Gas flow to the torch is controlled with the help of two needle valves in the handle of the
torch. There are two basic types of gas welding torches:
(1) Positive pressure (also known as medium or equal pressure), (2) Low pressure or injector type
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The positive pressure type welding torch is the more common of the two types of oxyacetylene torches.

Welding Torch
Torch Tips:
It is the portion of the welding apparatus through which the gases pass just prior to their ignition and burning.
A great variety of interchangeable welding tips differing in size, shape and construction are available
commercially. The tip sizes are identified by the diameter of the opening. The diameter of the tip opening used
for welding depends upon the type of metal to be welded.

Goggles:
These are fitted with colored lenses and are used to protect the eyes from harmful heat and ultraviolet and
infrared rays.
Gloves:
These are required to protect the hands from any injury due to the heat of welding process.

Spark-Lighter:
It is used for frequent igniting the welding torch.

Filler Rods:
Gas welding can be done with or without using filler rod. When welding with the filler rod, it should be held
at approximately 900 to the welding tip. Filler rods have the same or nearly the same chemical composition as
the base metal. Metallurgical properties of the weld deposit can be controlled by the optimum choice of filler
rod. Most of the filler rods for gas welding also contain deoxidizers to control the oxygen content of weld pool.

Fluxes:
Fluxes are used in gas welding to remove the oxide film and to maintain a clean surface. These are usually
employed for gas welding of aluminium, stainless steel, cast iron, brass and silicon bronze. They are available
in the market in the form of dry powder, paste, or thick solutions.
Flame traps:
Flame traps (also called flashback arresters) must be fitted into both oxygen and acetylene gas lines to prevent
a flashback flame from reaching the regulators. Non-return spring-loaded valves can be fitted in the hoses to
detect/stop reverse gas flow. Thus, the valves can be used to prevent conditions leading to flashback, but should
always be used in conjunction with flashback arresters. A flashback is where the flame burns in the torch body,
accompanied by a whistling sound. It will occur when flame speed exceeds gas flow rate and the flame can
pass back through the mixing chamber into the hoses. Most likely causes are: incorrect gas pressures giving
too low a gas velocity, hose leaks, loose connections, or welder techniques which disturb gas flow.

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EXPT NO: 02 LAP JOINT DATE

Aim: To make a Lap joint, using the given two M.S pieces and by arc welding.
Material Supplied:
Mild steel plate of size 50X50X3 mm – 2 No’s
Welding Equipment: Air cooled transformer
Voltage-80 to 600 V,3-ɸ supply, Current up to 350Amps
Tools and Accessories required:
1. Rough and smooth files. 2. Protractor 3. Arc welding machine (transformer type)
4. Mild steel electrode and electrode holder 5. Ground clamp
6. Tongs 7. Face shield 8. Apron 9. Chipping hammer
Sequence of operations:
1. Marking
2. Cutting
3. Edge preparation (Removal of rust, scale etc.) by filling
4. Try square leveling
5. Tacking
6. Welding
7. Cooling
8. Chipping

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9. Cleaning
Procedure:
1. The given M.S pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust and scale.
2. The two pieces are positioned on the welding table such that, the two pieces overlapped one over the other
as shown in drawing.
3. The electrode is fitted in the electrode holder and the welding current is ser to be a proper value.
4. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
5. Wearing the apron and using the face shield, the arc is struck and the work pieces are tack-welded at both
the ends and at the centre of the joint.
6. The alignment of the lap joint is checked and the tack-welded pieces are required.
7. The scale formation on the welds is removed by using the chipping hammer.
8. Filling is done to remove any spanner around the weld.

DRAWING:

75mm

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