Joining

Joining
• A positive (addition) process used for

assembling different members to get
desired the configuration.
• Joint can be temporary or permanent in FUSION WELD
nature produced by mechanical or atomic
bond.
ADHESIVE SPOT WELD

GAS JOINING
WELDING
BRAZE WELD
MECH. SOLDERING
Classification
• Joining processes can classified in different ways:
– Fusion or plastic state
• Fusion: Gas, arc
• Plastic: Friction and resistance welding
– Source of heat generation
• Gas, arc, laser, electron, friction, ultrasonic
– Composition of welds
• Heterogeneous: a filler material different from the parent
material is used. i.e. soldering and brazing
• Autogeneous: no filler (TIG with filler and resistance
welding)
• Homogeneous: filler is same as the parent i.e. arc, gas,
and thermit welding
CLASSIFICATION of JOINING PROCESSES
 Unlike the Manufacturing Processes Employed to Produce a Single
Component, the Joining Processes are Used to Assemble Different
Members to Yield the Desired Complex Configuration.
 Joining of Different Elements can be Either Temporary or Permanent
in Nature. The Mechanism of Bonding may be either Mechanical
Bonding or Atomic Bonding.
 Another Criterion Used for Classifying the Joining Processes is Based
on the Composition of the Joint.
 Autogeneous: No Filler Material is Added During Joining.
i.e. All Types of Solid Phase Welding and Resistance Welding
 Homogeneous: Filler Material Used to Provide the Joint is the
Same as the Parent Material.
i.e. Arc, Gas, and Thermit Welding
 Heterogeneous: A Filler Material Different from the Parent
Material is Used.
i.e. Soldering and Brazing
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
Metallurgical Bonding
• Fusion welding: (welding melting of
plates being welded)
– Gas welding, arc welding
processes
– Resistance welding processes
• Solid state
– Ultrasonic welding (usw)
– Friction welding
– Diffusion bonding

Metallurgical bonding
DIFFUSION BONDING
FUSION WELDING
LIQUID AND SOLID STATE WELDING
• SOLDERING (Pb-Sb alloy with mp< 450 0C)

• BRAZING (Cu-Zn alloy with mp> 450 0C)
Adhesive
• ADHESIVE JOINING
BRAZING
[4.2.1] Various Conventional Joining or Fabrication Processes
Bond Sub Sub-sub Categories, Examples, Remarks
Type Category
Mechanical Temporary Threaded Fasteners: Screws, Nuts, Bolts
Bonding  Allow Easy Dissembling for Repair, Replace, and
Adjustment
 Convenient for Human Assembly Workers but
Difficult for Robots and Automated System
Permanent Riveting and Crimping:
or Press/Shrink Fit: Pulley or Gear on Shaft
Semi-  Interference Fit Between Mating Parts
permanent
Snap Fit: C-Rings, Snap Rings, Retainers
 Temporary Interference of Mating Parts
Sewing, Stitching, Stapling: To Assemble Soft
Thin Materials
 For Fabrics, Cloth, Leather, Thin Flexible Plastics

Atomic Solid  Cold Welding: Pressure Welding , Explosive Welding,
Bonding State and Ultrasonic Welding (USW)
Welding  Friction Welding
 Hot Forge Welding
 Diffusion Welding
Liquid Electrical Arc Consumable Electrode:
State Weld  Manual or Shielded Metal Arc Welding
or ing (MMAW or SMAW)
Fusion  Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) or
Welding Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding
 Flux Coated Arc Welding (FCAW)
 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Non-Consumable Electrode:
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) or
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding
 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
 Stud Welding (SW)
Resistance Welding: Resistance Spot Welding
(RSW), Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW),
Resistance Projection Welding (RPW)
Induction Welding:
Chemical Gas Welding: Oxy-Acetylene Welding (OAW),
Pressure Gas Welding (PGW),
Thermit Welding (TW)

Atomic Solid/ Brazing: Melting Point of Filler Material > 450 oC
Bonding Liquid Filler Material is Cu-Zn & Cu-Ag Alloys
State Soldering: Melting Point of Filler Material < 450 oC
Filler Material is Pb-Sn Alloy
Adhesive Thermoplastic Adhesives: Easy to Apply but
Bonding Cannot withstand High Temperature;
Thermosetting Adhesives: Epoxies

(More Stronger and Capable)
[4.2.2] Various Advanced Joining or Fabrication Processes

Unique Welding Processes: Welding Processes For Plastics:
 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)  Spin Welding,
 Laser Beam Welding (LBW)  Vibration Welding,
 Friction Stir Welding,
 Hot-Plate Welding,
 Hot-Gas Welding,
 Implant Welding,
 Infrared Welding ,
 Micro-Wave Welding
[4.3] TYPES of WELDED JOINTS

[4.3.1] Edge Preparations for Butt Joints
 Single or Double U-, V-, J-, and Bevel Edges

[4.3.2] Various Weld Procedures

[4.3.3] Types of Welding Positions

[4.3.4] Types of Fusion Welds
Slot Weld
Common Weld Terminologies
• Base plate
• Weld bead
• Backing plate
• Penetration
• Weld toe
• Weld root
• Weld face
• Weld pass
• Crater
Welded Joint Terminology
 Backing: It is the Material Support Provided at the Root Side of a
Weld to Aid in the Control Of Penetration.
 Base Material: The Material to be Joined or Cut is Termed as the
Base Material.
 Bead or Weld Bead: Bead is the Material Added during a Single
Pass of Welding.
 Crater: In Arc Welding, a Crater is the Depression in the Weld
Material Pool at the Point Where the Arc Strikes the Base Material.
 Deposition Rate: The Rate at which the Weld Material is
Deposited Per Unit Time, is the Deposition Rate and is Normally
Expressed as Kg Per Hour.
 Fillet Weld: The Metal Fused into the Corner of a Joint Made of
Two Pieces Placed at Approximately 90° to Each Other is Termed
Fillet Weld.
 Penetration: It is the Depth Up to Which the Weld Combines with
the Base Material as Measured from the Top Surface of the Joint.

 Puddle: The Portion of the Weld Joint that Melted by the Heat of
Welding is Called Puddle.
 Root: It is the Point at which the Two Pieces to be Joined by Welding
are Nearest.
 Tack Weld: A Small Weld, Generally Used to Temporarily Hold
the Two Pieces Together during Actual Welding, is the Tack Weld.
 Toe of Weld: It is the Junction Between the Weld Face and Base
Material.
 Torch: In Gas Welding, the Torch Mixes the Fuel and Oxygen and
Controls its Delivery to Get the Desired Flame.
 Weld Face: It is the Exposed Surface of the Weld
 Weld Material: The Material that is Solidified in the Joint is Called
Weld Material. It may be only Base Material or a Mixture of Base
Material and Filler Material.
 Weld Pass: A Single Movement of the Welding Torch or
Electrode Along the Length of the Joint which Results in a Bead, is a
Weld Pass.
[4.5] GAS WELDING PROCESS
 Gas Welding, also Called as Oxy-Fuel Gas Welding (OFW), Derives
the Heat from the Combustion of a Fuel Gas such as Acetylene in
Combination with Oxygen.
 This Process is a Fusion Welding Process wherein the Joint is
Completely Melted to Obtain the Fusion. The Heat Produced by the
Combustion of Gas is Sufficient to Melt Any Metal.
 Fuel Gas Generally Used is Acetylene Because of the High
Temperature Generated in the Flame. This Process is Called Oxy-
Acetylene Welding (OAW).

[4.5.1] Chemical Reactions:
Production of Acetylene
Reactions in First Stage (Produce Inner White Cone ~31000C)
Reactions in Second Stage (Combining with Atmospheric Oxygen

Giving Rise to Bluish Flame ~ 1200-20000C)
[4.5.2] Types of Flames: Three Types
(A) Neutral Flame

 Complete Combustion
of Acetylene Present
 Most Desirable Flame

(B) Carburizing Flame:
 Less Oxygen
 Part of Combustible Matter Left
 Presence of Additional Third Phase in Between the Outer Blue
Flame and Inner White Cone (Intermediate Flame Feather)
Reddish in Color.
 Metal Appears to Boil (Due to Presence of Unburnt Carbon).
 Excess Carbon Causes the Steel to Become Extremely Hard and
Brittle.
 Useful for Material which are Readily Oxidized (by Providing
Reducing Atmosphere)
 Welding High Carbon Steels, Cast Irons and Hard Surfacing
with High Speed Steel & Cemented Carbides.
(C) Oxidizing Flame:
 Oxygen in Excess
 Smaller Inner White Cone (Higher Tip Temperatures ~3300 0C).
 Excess Oxygen Oxidizes the Weld Metal
 Weld Metal Foams and Sparks (because of Burning of Metal)
 Loud Noise
 Useful for Welding some Non-ferrous Alloys (Cu and Zn Based
Alloys), Cast iron, Manganese Steel
 Presence of Excess Oxygen in the Oxidizing Flame Causes an Oxide
Film to Form Quickly which Provides a Protective Cover Over
the Base Material Pool.
[4.5.3] Oxy Acetylene Welding Equipment

 Oxygen Normally Stored in Strong Cylinders at a Pressure Ranging
from 13.8 MPa to 18.2 MPa.
 Acetylene is Normally Made Available in the Two forms: Acetylene
Storage cylinder, and Acetylene Generator.
 Free Acetylene is Highly Explosive, if Stored at a Pressure >
200 kPa then it Becomes Very Unstable and Likely to Explode.
 Acetylene Stored in a Strong Cylinder, Filled with 80 to 85%
Porous Material such as Calcium Silicate and then Filled with
Acetone which can Absorb up to 420 times its Volume of
Acetylene at a Pressure of 1.75 MPa.
 Acetylene Molecules Fit in Between the Acetone Molecules. This
helps in Storing Acetylene at a much Higher Pressure than
Permitted when in Free Form.
 Acetylene is Released from Acetone at a Slow Rate and thus
would not Form Any Pockets of High Pressure Acetylene. The Rate of
Release Depends on the Temperature of the Gas.

 Rate of Consumption of Acetylene should be Less than the Rate of
Release which is Normally about One-Seventh of the Capacity of the
Cylinder per Hour.
 If Acetylene is Drawn at a Rapid Rate, Acetone may also Come Out
Along with the Acetylene. Presence of Acetone in the Flame Gives it
a Purple Colour. It is Not Desirable since it Reduces the Flame
Temperature.
 It is also Possible to
have an Acetylene
Generator in Place of
an Acetylene
Cylinder.
 Acetylene is Normally
Produced by a
Reaction between
Calcium Carbide and
Water which is
Instantaneous

Oxy Acetylene Welding Technique
 To light the flame, acetylene valve on the torch is
slightly opened first and lighted and adjust the needed
flow rate.
 Flame draws the oxygen from the atmospheric air and
thus results in a reducing flame.
 Then adjust the oxygen valve opening to get desired
flame.
 Choice of the torch size depends on the thickness of
the material to be joined.
 larger torch tip sizes for thicker materials, larger tip
radii are used.

Metal vs flame
Welding Parameters for Welding Carbon Steel

Welding techniques
 Torch tip should be positioned above the base plate so
that the white cone is at a distance of 1.5 to 3.0 mm from
the plate.
 Torch should be held at an angle of 30 to 45 degrees from
the horizontal plane and given either oscillating or
circular movement.
Welding techniques
 Forehand: for hardening ferrous metal system

(preheating)
 Backhand: for thick plates
backhand welding allows a better penetration as well as
form a bigger weld bead so good for thicker materials.

Forehand welding: torch is
moved in the direction of
the tip which preheats the
parent material before
melting .
Backhand welding: torch

points opposite to direction of
welding so outer flame is
directed on the already welded
joint which helps (PWHT)
relieving the welding stresses.

Preheating of filler and its melting
 Filler rod is held at a distance of 10 mm from the flame
and 1.5 to 3.0 mm from the puddle when dipped into the
puddle, it readily gets melted.
 Preheating of the welding rod should be maintained by
keeping it at a proper distance from the flame.
Too far distance makes the rod cooler and would chill
the puddle when dipped.
Too little distance makes the tip melt with the result that
the molten material would be blown away by the flame
causing uneven bead and poor penetration.

Suggested Butt
Joint Edge
Preparations for
Oxy-Fuel
Welding

ARC WELDING
 Arc welding uses of the heat of the electric arc for fusion of
plates for welding.
 Physic of arc: a) starting arc and stabilizing the same
Connect power supply to anode and cathode
Close the circuit by touching electrode together
Short circuiting: thermo ionic emission followed by
electro magnetic field emission on separation
Increased conductivity of gap facilitates to establishing
the arc
Ionization of gases is arc gap due to electron collision
Thus continuous flow of electron i.e. arc
Physics of arc
• Cope with heat and electron losses
• Collisions of electrons with anode
results in large amount of heat
generation (6000 °C).
• In case of DC, about 2/3rd of the
total arc heat is liberated at the
anode.
• Balance 1/3rd heat is generated at
cathode
• In case of AC, polarity reverse in
each which results equal distribution
of heat both sides.
Electrode, Arc and Arc-Shielding in SMAW process
Effect of arc gap
• Increase in gap increases the resistance for flow
of current and so potential difference.
• Excessive gap can extinguish the arc due

increased loss of electrons from arc surfaces and
heat by convection
Welding Power source
(A) Alternating Current (AC) Machines

(i) Transformer, OR
(ii) Motor OR Engine Driven Alternator
(B) Direct Current (DC) Machines
(i) Transformer with DC Rectifier, OR
(ii) Motor OR Engine Driven Generator.
 In DC Welding Machine use Stepped Down Transformer
to the Required Voltage then Silicon Controlled
Rectifiers to Convert AC to DC.
 DC Generator power/engine driven system

• DC allows better control over Polarity
heat input using either straight
or reverse polarity.
• Straight polarity is used for
thicker plates of higher thermal
conductivity
• Reverse polarity for thinner
sections and shallow
penetration
AC Arc Welding Set Up

[4.6.4] Electrodes
 Electrodes Used For Providing Heat Input in Arc Welding are of Two
Types: Consumable and Non-consumable.
[4.6.4.1] CONSUMABLE ELECTRODES
 When Consumable Electrodes are Used, the Welding Process is Called
Metal Arc Welding
 Weld Metal Under the Arc Melts as also the Tip of the Electrode. The
Molten Material from the Electrode and that Obtained from the Parent
Material Gets Intimately Mixed Under the Arc and Provides the
Necessary Joint After Solidification.
 Once the Arc is Initiated, Electrode is Continuously Consumed
therefore Electrode should be Moved Continuously Towards the
Workpiece to Maintain the Constant Arc Length.
 Electrode Acts as a Filler Rod and Provides Filler Material to the Joint.
 Wide Ranges of Electrodes and Welding Machines are Available for
Different Heat Input as well as the Material Deposition Required.

 Type of Material of Consumable Electrodes Depends on the
Purpose and Chemical Composition of the Material to be Welded.
 Consumable Electrodes may be Made of Steel, Cast Iron, Copper,
Brass, Bronze, or Aluminium.
 A Consumable Electrode, Used in Welding, can be Either Bare Or
Coated.
 Coated Electrode also called Stick Electrode, is Used for the
Manual Arc Welding Process.

Function of electrode coatings
– To introduce alloying elements in
weld to Sp. properties.
– Control the slag viscosity for
vertical/overhead welds to avoid
falling down of molten metal and
better control over puddle.  Common stick
– Coating extending beyond the Electrodes are
Available in
electrode core wire concentrates diameters of 1.6,
the arc and directs the filler 2.0, 3.2, 4, 5, 6, 8
material at desired position and 9 mm and the
length is 350 Or
– Act as insulator to avoid short 450 mm.
circuiting in narrow gap welding  Baking of
electrode done to
remove Moisture
from the Coating
as they are mostly
hygroscopic.
[4.6.4.2] NON-CONSUMABLE ELECTRODES
 These Are Made of Carbon, Graphite Or Tungsten.
 Carbon and Graphite Electrodes are Used Only in DC Welding,
 Tungsten Electrodes are Used for Both AC and DC Welding.
 Filler Material Required has to be Deposited Through a Separate
Filler Rod. Therefore, in this Welding Method it is Possible to
Properly Control the Heat Input as Well as the Amount of Filler
Material Deposited, Since both are Separately Controlled.
 When Non-Consumable Electrodes are Used, the Welding Process is
Termed by the Electrode Material Used, for example, Carbon Arc
Welding Or Tungsten Arc Welding.

[4.6.4.3] SELECTION of ELECTRODES
Main Factors to be Considered in Proper Selection of Electrodes
are:
 Composition of the Base Metal (Determining The Electrode
Composition)
 Tensile Strength of the Required Joint.
 Thickness of the Base Metal. For Thinner Metals the Current

Setting should be Lower.
 Required Metal Deposition Rate.
 Type of Arc Welding Equipment Used: DC Arc Welding

Equipment Would Be Preferable For Overhead Welding.
 Weld Position: Flat, Horizontal, Vertical Or Overhead. A Flat

Position Can Accommodate A Larger Size Electrode. Also To
Increase Metal Deposition Rate Coatings With Iron Powder Can Be
Used (Necessary In Case Of Vertical And Overhead Positions)

Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW) Or Shielded Metal
Arc Welding (SMAW) Process
AC SMAW Set Up
Electrode, Arc and

Arc-Shielding during
SMAW process

 Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW) Or Shielded Metal Arc
Welding (SMAW) is the Most Extensively Used Manual Welding
Process Which is done with Stick (Coated) Electrodes.
 It is Highly Versatile and can be Used Extensively, For Both Simple
and Sophisticated Jobs. The Equipment is Least Expensive
Compared to that Being Used in another Arc Welding Processes.
 Welds by this Process can be Made in any Position. Job of any
Thickness can be Welded by Shielded Metal Arc Welding. But Very
Small Thickness (Less than 3 mm) May Give Rise to Difficulty in
Welding Because of their Lack of Rigidity. Similarly Very Large
Thicknesses Above 20 mm may Take a Long Time for Filling Up the
Joint Groove.
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding can be done with Either AC Or DC
Power Source. Typical Value of the Current Used may Vary from 50 to
500 A with Voltages from 20 to 40 V.

 Main Disadvantage of the Shielded Metal Arc Welding Process is the
Slow Speed. Critical Metal Deposition Rates may be in the Range
of 1 to 8 Kg/hr in the Flat Position (Less in Vertical and Overhead
Positions).
 A Lot of Electrode Material is Wasted in the Form of Unused End,

Slag and Gas. Also Special Precautions are Needed to Reduce Moisture
Pick-up.

 To Start the Arc, First the Welder has to Make a Contact Between
the Electrode and the Workpiece so that Current Flow is
Established. Then the Electrode should be Moved Away From The
Workpiece by a Very Small Amount so that the Arc is Established.
To Accomplish this Generally Two Different Methods are Employed,
which are Shown in the Following Figure
 After Establishing the Correct Arc Length, the Welder should Move
the Electrode Along the Length of the Joint Maintaining the
Arc. Intense Heat Generated Under the Arc Starts Melting the Metal,
with the Metal at the Centre of the Arc being at the Highest
Temperature.
SELECTION of ELECTRODES
Factors to be considered selection of electrodes are:
 Composition of the Base Metal (matching/dissimilar)
 Functional properties required from the joint (mechanical,
corrosion, physical etc.)
 Thickness of the Base Metal (heat input for penetration)
 Required Metal Deposition Rate.
 Type of current AC/DC is to be used
 Weld Position: Flat, Horizontal, Vertical Or Overhead. Low
heat input small diameter electrode for odd position
welding while flat position can accommodate high heat
input from larger size electrode

Details Edge Preparation of Butt Joint for Manual Metal Arc Welding
[4.6.7] ARC BLOW
 Predominant Problem Faced with the DC Arc Welding is the Arc
Blow, Deflection of the Arc by the Magnetic Fields Setup due
to the Flow of the Welding Current.
 Magnetic Flux Lines Move with the Electrode, when the Weld
Comes to the Edge of the Plate, or Taking a Turn, the Flux Lines
try to Move Out of the Base Material which is Not Possible. This
Causes High Magnetic Pull on the Arc which Results in a Backward
Arc Blow.
 Result of an Arc Blow is an Excessive Spatter (Throwing Out the
Tiny Droplets of Weld Metal Out of the Joint on to the Base Material
which Appear as Tiny Dots on the Base Material) and Incomplete
Fusion and Reduced Welding Speed.
 When a Large Slag is Produced, the Arc Blow Melts the Slag
Causing Still More Excessive Spatter.
 Problem of Arc Blow Gets Multiplied when Welding the Strongly
Magnetic Materials such as Nickel Alloys because of the Strong
Magnetic Fields Set Up by These Metals.

Arc Blow in DC Arc Welding
Some Methods Used to Reduce the Severity of Arc Blow Problem:
1. Change to AC Welding, because of the Continuous Change in the
Polarity, the Effect of Magnetic Field is Nullified,
2. Reduce the Current Used so that the Strength of the Magnetic
Field is Reduced,
3. Use a Short Arc Length so that the Filler Material would not be
Deflected but Carried Easily to the Arc Crater,
4. Put Steel Blocks Near the End of the Plate in Contact with the Base
Material so that the Magnetic Flux Lines would Flow through them
and Reduce the Arc Blow

Electrode designation
• Electrode are designated using a set of 6 characters which
combines alphabets and numbers
– First is alphabet E/R indicates method of manufacturing (E:
extruded and R: reinforced)
– Second is number (1-9) indicates type of coating on
electrode
– Third is number (1-9) indicates welding position on
electrode
– Forth is number (1-9) indicates welding current on
electrode
– Fifth is a set of three numbers indicating ultimate strength
of weld
– Sixth is a alphabet indicating type of electrode
[4.6.6] Electrode Designation
Current

Details Edge
Preparation
of Butt Joint
for SMAW

WELDING DEFECTS and THEIR REMEDIES
 Weld thermal cycle experienced by base metal causes
many undesirable microstructural changes apart from
Discontinuities.
 Common welding discontinuities that affect weld
quality are:
 Porosity
 Slag inclusions
 Incomplete fusion
 Incomplete penetration
 Poor weld bead profile
 Cracks

Defects and
weld tests
Porosity
 CAUSE: poor escaping of gases like O2, N2, H2, CO2 or

H2O etc from weld pool during solidification:
 These gases may come from decomposition of fluxes
(oxides), moisture, hydro-carbon present in form of
lubricants, paints etc.
 Entrapment (poor escaping) of Gases due to high
solidification rate (SR) results in poor escaping of gases
from molten weld pool
 High difference in solubility of these gases H2, N2, O2 in
liquid and solid state
Control of Porosity
• Preheating the base plates (to remove moisture and
hydro-carbons in form grease, oil etc.) and reduce
SR
• Proper Cleaning of filler and edges of the plates to
be welded
• Avoid sources causing gases by selection of
proper welding consumable such as filler, fluxes,
coatings and shielding gases
Slag Inclusions
Why does it occur

 Entrapment of slag due to inability to come up to the
molten pool surface owing high solidification rate.
 Inefficient protection of the weld pool from atm. gas
increases the formation of slag inclusion so their
increased tendency of their entrapment.
REMEDIES:
 Avoid atmospheric contamination using proper welding
procedure e.g. adequate Shielding Gas
 Proper removal of slag from weld bead surface using
wire brush
 Redesigning the weld joint to permit sufficient space for
manipulation of the puddle of molten weld material
CAUSE Incomplete
Fusion / Lack of
 Low heat input caused by low
Penetration
current &/ high welding speed
REMEDIES
 Preheating of base metal
 Proper cleaning (of rust or
refractory oxides) before welding
 Poor accessibility of faying surfaces
and root for applying heat (e.g. in U,
J joints for thick section) so change
weld joint design
 Select proper electrode size for
given plate thickness (to allow high
enough welding current/heat input)
 Weld profile affects strength and appearance of
the Weld: width, reinforcement, undercut, overlap
 These are caused by improper welding
Weld
parameters and poor workmanship Profile
Excessive high speed or low speed
Excessive high or low welding current
Improper arc voltage so poor arc stability
Poor manipulation/control over weld pool
Mainly due to high welding

speed
Mainly due
MI-102: to high Techniques
Manufacturing welding I. I. T. ROORKEE
Typical poor weld beads
Poor weld bead and causes
• These can be classified on the basis of
their location and conditions under which
Weld Crack
these occur
• Conditions of their occurrence
– Hot cracks or solidification cracks (near
the end of solidification)
– Cold cracks or hydrogen induced cracks
(caused by H2 at room temperature)
– Liquation cracks (partial melting)
• Location based cracks are
– Longitudinal cracks
– Transverse cracks
– Under bead cracks
– Toe crack
– Crater crack
• Most of the cracks in weld joints occur due
to development tensile residual stresses
Causes of
except cold cracks or hydrogen induced cracks
cracks conversely “no stress, no cracks”.
• Stresses arise mainly due to shrinkage of Hot crack
the weld and HAZ under restraint
conditions. (no restraint, no stress)
• While conditions based cracks are caused
by improper composition of the base metal
– High solidification temperature range of
alloy increases hot cracking e.g. S & P in
steel/cast iron encourage hot cracks
– Cold cracks occur in hardenable steel in
presence of hydrogen
Cold crack
Control of cracks
• Reduce tensile residual stresses
– Reduce volume of (shrinking) weld metal by modifying groove
design (e.g. from V to U groove)
– Balance the shrinkage stresses (use double V or U groove)
– Proper filler of low yield strength if acceptable
– Post weld stress relieving heat treatment
– Preheat of the base metal to avoid rapid cooling
• Control the composition and impurities of the weld metal
– Avoid hydrogen in weld
– Control the low melting point elements S, P, Pb within limits
– Add enough Mn to reduce effect of S (Mn/S>7)
Residual Stresses (RS)
 These are stresses present in weld even in absence of
external load and occurs due to:
 Non-uniform expansion and contraction caused by
weld thermal cycle i.e. localized heating and cooling of
base metal called thermal stresses
 Differential cooling rate at top and bottom of groove
called quench stress
Effect of RS on performance of weld:

 Distortion of weld joints
 Stress Corrosion Cracking (in corrosive environment)
 Reduced tensile and fatigue performance

DISTORTION
[4.8] BRAZING
 Brazing and Soldering Involve Lower Temperatures than those
Required for Welding.
 Brazing Temperatures (> 450 0C) are Higher than Soldering
Temperature (< 450 0C)
 Brazed Joint has Higher Strength than the Soldered Joint.
 In Brazing, a Filler Material is Placed at or Between the Surfaces to
be Joined, and the Temperature is Raised to Melt the Filler
Material but Not the Work Pieces (Fig. a).
 Molten Material Fills Closely the Fitting Space by Capillary
Action. Upon Cooling and Solidification of the Filler, a Strong Joint is
Developed.
 There are Two Types of Brazing Processes:
 Brazing (Fig. a)
 Braze Welding: Filler Metal is Deposited at the Joint (Fig. b).

BRAZING
• It is solid-liquid state joining process where base metal heated
but it remains in solid state while filler in form of brazing material
is melted and placed at the faying surfaces by capillary action.
• For proper flow of molten metal by capillary action gap between
plates being joined is crucial.
• Melting point of brazing materials is greater than 450 0C and less
than base metal.
• Less heat input related with brazing (wrt to fusion welding) results
in many advantages like reduced size of HAZ, residual stresses,
Base Material Filler Material Brazing
Filler for Temp
(0C)
brazing
• Capillary action Aluminum and its Aluminum-Silicon 570-620
depends on Alloys Magnesium- 580-625
cleanliness of surface Magnesium Alloys Aluminum 700-925
and gap. An optimum Copper and its Copper- 620-
gap from 0.025 mm to Alloys Phosphorus 1150
0.2 mm is maintained Ferrous and Silver and Copper
depending upon the Nonferrous Alloys Alloys
(except Al & Mg) Copper- 900-
metals involved,
lron-, Nickel-, and Phosphorus 1100
cleanliness and Cobalt-Based Gold
surface finish. Alloys 925-
• Most of fillers are Stainless Steel, Ni 1200
available in form of and Co Base Nickel-Silver
wire, strip, rings, Alloys
shims, preforms, or
powder.
•
Brazing methods and fluxes
• Depending upon the methods used • Brazing flux used for:
for heating the base metal brazing – Preventing oxidation of
can be terms as: melt
– Torch brazing: filler melted by – Removing oxides by
flame heat to apply at place forming slag
Following methods use pre-placed – Improve wetting for
filler followed by heating of effective capillary action
assembly using
• Common fluxes are: borax,
– Furnace (Furnace brazing) boric acid, borates,
– Induction effect (Induction fluorides, and chlorides
brazing) and are available as paste,
– I2Rt (Resistance brazing) slurry, or powder.
– Dipping in hot salt bath or molten
filler bat (Dip brazing)
FLUXES AFTER BRAZING MUST BE REMOVED TO AVOID CORROSION
Joint Designs Commonly Used in Brazing Operations.

SOLDERING
 Basic principle and methodology of soldering is similar
to that of brazing except the filler material.
 In soldering, the filler material called solder, melts below
450°C.
 Heat sources for soldering is applied using soldering
irons, torches, or ovens.
Solders and fluxes
• Solders are usually tin-lead (Sn-Pb) alloys.
• For better joint strength tin-zinc, lead-silver, cadmium-
silver, zinc-aluminum alloys are also used.
• To overcome toxicity of lead, lead-free solders have been
developed such as tin-based solders, typical compositions
being 96.5% sn + 3.5% ag, and 42% sn + 58% bi.
• Soldering Fluxes are of Two Types:
– Inorganic Acids or Salts, such as Zinc Ammonium
Chloride Solutions, which Clean the Surface Rapidly.
(these are cleaned after soldering)
– Non-Corrosive Resin-based Fluxes, Used in Electrical
Applications
Types of Solders Applications
Tin-Lead (Sn-Pb) General Purpose
Tin-Zinc (Sn-Zn) Aluminum
Tin-Silver (Sn-Ag) Electronics
Tin-Bismuth (Sn-Sb) Electronics
Lead-Silver (Pb-Ag) Strength at Higher
Temperatures
Cadmium-Silver (Cd-Ag)
Strength at Higher
Zinc-Aluminum (Zn-Al)
Temperatures
Aluminum; Corrosion resistance

Types of Soldering Methods
 Torch Soldering (TS)
 Furnace Soldering (FS)
 Iron soldering (INS) Using Solder Iron
 Induction Soldering (IS)
 Resistance Soldering (RS)
 Dip Soldering (DS)
 Infrared Soldering (IRS)
 Ultrasonic Soldering
 Reflow or Paste Soldering (RS)
 Wave Soldering (WS)
Wave and Reflow/Paste Soldering are Mostly Used
for Electronics Applications
[4.8.1] Filler Materials Used in Brazing
 Brazing Filler Materials Generally Melt above 450°C (840°F), but
Below the Melting Point (or Solidus Temperature) of the
Materials to be joined.
 Difficulties Associated with Heat Affected Zones (HAZ), Warping,
and Residual Stresses are Reduced in Brazing as Compared to
Fusion Welding
 Strength of the Brazed Joint Depends on Design of the Joint
and Adhesion at the Interfaces of the Workpiece and Filler
Material.
 Therefore the Surfaces to be Brazed should be Chemically or
Mechanically Cleaned to Ensure Full Capillary Action and Flux
should be Used.
 Clearance between Mating Surfaces is an Important Parameter,
as it Directly Affects the Strength of the Brazed Joint. Smaller
the Gap, Higher is the Shear Strength of the Joint (there is an
Optimum Gap to Achieve Maximum Tensile Strength)
 Typical Joint Clearance Ranges from 0.025 mm to 0.2 mm

 Several Brazing Filler Materials are Available with a Range of
Brazing Temperatures in a Variety of Shapes such as Wire, Strip,
Rings, Shims, Preforms, or Powder.
 Choice of Filler Material and its Composition is Important to
 Avoid Embrittlement of the Joint,
 Formation of Brittle Inter-Metallic Compounds at the Joint
 Galvanic Corrosion in the Joint.
Base Material Filler Material Brazing
Temp (0C)
Aluminum and its Alloys Aluminum-Silicon 570-620
Magnesium Alloys Magnesium-Aluminum 580-625
Copper and its Alloys Copper-Phosphorus 700-925
Ferrous and Nonferrous Silver and Copper Alloys 620-1150
Alloys (except Al & Mg) Copper-Phosphorus
lron-, Nickel-, and Cobalt- Gold 900-1100
Based Alloys
Stainless Steel, Ni and Co Nickel-Silver 925-1200
Base Alloys

[4.8.2] Fluxes Used in Brazing
 Use of a Flux is Essential in Brazing
 To Prevent Oxidation
 To Remove Oxide Films from Workpiece Surfaces.
 Brazing Fluxes are Generally Made of Borax, Boric Acid, Borates,
Fluorides, and Chlorides and are Available as Paste, Slurry, or
Powder.
 Wetting Agents may Also be Added to Improve both the Wetting
Characteristics of the Molten Filler Material and Capillary Action.
 Surfaces to be Brazed must be Clean and Free from Rust, Oil,
Lubricants, and other Contaminants
 Clean Surfaces are Essential to Obtain the Proper Wetting
and Spreading Characteristics of the Molten Filler Material in
the Joint, as Well as Maximum Bond Strength.
 Sand Blasting may also Used to Improve Surface Finish of the
Surfaces.
 Since Fluxes are Corrosive, they Should be Removed After
Brazing Usually by Washing Vigorously with Hot Water.

[4.8.3] Brazing Methods
According to the Heating Methods Used in Brazing:
A. Torch Brazing (TB):
 Heat source is Oxy-Fuel Gas with a Carburizing Flame.
 Brazing is Performed by First Heating the Joint with the Torch, and
then Depositing the Brazing Rod or Wire in the Joint.
B. Furnace Brazing (FB):
 Carried out in a Furnace.
 Parts are Pre-cleaned and Preloaded with Brazing Metal in
Appropriate Configurations before being Placed in the Furnace and
the whole Assembly is Heated Uniformly in the Furnace.
 Vacuum Furnaces or Neutral Atmospheres are Used for
Materials that React with the Environment.
Furnace
brazing
(a) before and
(b) after.
Filler Metal is a
Shaped Wire.

C. Induction Brazing (IB):
 Source of Heat is Induction Heating by High-Frequency Arc
Current.
 Unless a Protective Atmosphere is Used, Fluxes are Generally
Needed.
 Part Thicknesses are Usually Less than 3 mm
 Induction Brazing is Particularly Suitable for Brazing Parts
Continuously.
D. Resistance Brazing (RB):
 Source of Heat is through Electrical Resistance of the
Components to be Brazed. Electrodes are Used for this Purpose.
 Either Parts are Preloaded with Filler Material or the Filler
Material is Supplied Externally during Brazing.
 Parts that are Commonly Brazed by this Process have a Thickness of
0.1-12 mm
 Process is Rapid, can be Automated, Heating Zones can be
Confined to Very Small Areas.
E. Dip Brazing (DB):
 Carried Out by Dipping the Assemblies to be Brazed either in a
Molten Filler Material Bath or a Molten Salt Bath at a
Temperature just Above the Melting Point of the Filler
Material, which Serves as the Heat Source

Joint Designs Commonly Used in Brazing Operations.
[4.9] SOLDERING
 In Soldering, the Filler Material (i. e. Solder) Melts Below 450°C
(840°F); the Solder Fills the Joint by Capillary Action Between
Closely Fitting or Closely Placed Components.
 Heat Sources for Soldering: Soldering Irons, Torches, or Ovens.
 Soldering is Used to Join Various Metals and Part Thicknesses.
[4.9.1] Types of Solders and Fluxes:

 Solders are Usually Tin-Lead (Sn-Pb) Alloys in Various
Proportions.
 For Better Joint Strength and Special Applications, Tin-Zinc
(Sn-Zn), Lead-Silver (Pb-Ag), Cadmium-Silver (Cd-Ag), Zinc-
Aluminum (Zn-Al) Alloys are Also Used.
 Because of the Toxicity of Lead, Lead-Free Solders have been
Developed such as Tin-based Solders, Typical Compositions
being 96.5% Sn + 3.5% Ag, and 42% Sn + 58% Bi.

 Soldering Fluxes are Generally of Two Types:
 Inorganic Acids or Salts, such as Zinc Ammonium Chloride
Solutions, which Clean the Surface Rapidly.
(After Soldering, Flux Residues should be Removed by
Washing thoroughly with Water to Avoid Corrosion)
 Non-Corrosive Resin-based Fluxes, Used in Electrical
Applications
Types of Solders Applications

Tin-Lead (Sn-Pb) General Purpose
Tin-Zinc (Sn-Zn) Aluminum
Tin-Silver (Sn-Ag) Electronics
Tin-Bismuth (Sn-Sb) Electronics
Lead-Silver (Pb-Ag) Strength at Higher Temperatures
Cadmium-Silver (Cd-Ag) Strength at Higher Temperatures
Zinc-Aluminum (Zn-Al) Aluminum; Corrosion resistance

[4.9.2] Types of Soldering Methods
 Torch Soldering (TS)
 Furnace Soldering (FS)
 Iron soldering (INS) Using Solder Iron
 Induction Soldering (IS)
 Resistance Soldering (RS)
 Dip Soldering (DS)
 Infrared Soldering (IRS)
 Ultrasonic Soldering
 Reflow or Paste Soldering (RS)
 Wave Soldering (WS)
Wave and Reflow/Paste Soldering are Mostly Used
for Electronics Applications

[4.9.3] Reflow or Paste Soldering
 Solder Pastes (Solder Material Particles Bound Together by
Flux and by Binding and Wetting Agents) are Semi-Solid having
High Viscosity and are Able to Maintain a Solid Shape for
Relatively Long Periods of Time like Greases and Cake Frostings.
 Paste is Placed Directly onto the Joint, or on Flat Objects for
Finer Detail.
 Once the Paste has been Placed and the Joint is Assembled, the
Paste is Heated in a Furnace in a Controlled Manner, and
Reflow Soldering Takes Place.
 Sequence of Events in Reflow Soldering
 Solvents Present in the Paste are Evaporated.
 Flux in the Paste is Activated, and Fluxing Action Occurs.
 Components are Carefully Preheated.
 Solder Particles are Melted and Wet the Joint.
 Assembly is Cooled at a Low Rate to Prevent Thermal Shock to
and Fracture of the Solder Joint.

[4.9.4] Wave Soldering
 Wave Soldering a Large-Scale Soldering Method by which
Electronic Components are Soldered to a Printed Circuit Board
(PCB) to Form an Electronic Assembly.
 Its Name is Derived from the Fact that the Process Uses a Tank to
Hold a Quantity of Molten Solder
 Components are Inserted into or Placed on the PCB
 Loaded PCB is Passed Across a Pumped Wave or Cascade of

Solder.
 Solder Wets the Exposed Metallic Areas of the Board (those

NOT Protected with Solder Mask), But it does NOT Stay
Attached to the Polymer Package of ICs, and it does NOT
Stick to the Polymer Coated Circuit Boards
 An Air Knife (basically a High Velocity Jet of Hot Air) Blows

Excess Solder from the Joint, to Prevent Bridging Between
Adjacent Leads.

 Process is much Faster and can Create a Higher Quality Product
than Manual Soldering of Components.
 Wave Soldering Create a Reliable Mechanical and Electrical
Connection.
 Wave Soldering is Used for both Through Hole PCB Assemblies,
and Surface Mount.
 Following is the Sequence of Events, when Surface Mount
Packages are to be Wave Soldered
 Components are First Adhesively Bonded to the Circuit
Board before the Soldering can Commence.
 This Bonding is Usually Accomplished by Screening or
Stenciling Epoxy onto the Boards
 Placing the Components in their Proper Locations
 Curing the Epoxy
 Inverting the Board
 Performing Wave Soldering

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• A positive (addition) process used for

ADHESIVE SPOT WELD

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

• SOLDERING (Pb-Sb alloy with mp< 450 0C)

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

Thermosetting Adhesives: Epoxies

[4.2.2] Various Advanced Joining or Fabrication Processes

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Reactions in First Stage (Produce Inner White Cone ~31000C)

Reactions in Second Stage (Combining with Atmospheric Oxygen

[4.5.2] Types of Flames: Three Types

(A) Neutral Flame

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

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 Forehand: for hardening ferrous metal system

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

Backhand welding: torch

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

• Excessive gap can extinguish the arc due

(A) Alternating Current (AC) Machines

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

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 Tensile Strength of the Required Joint.

 Thickness of the Base Metal. For Thinner Metals the Current

 Required Metal Deposition Rate.

 Type of Arc Welding Equipment Used: DC Arc Welding

 Weld Position: Flat, Horizontal, Vertical Or Overhead. A Flat

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

Electrode, Arc and

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

 A Lot of Electrode Material is Wasted in the Form of Unused End,

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MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

 CAUSE: poor escaping of gases like O2, N2, H2, CO2 or

Why does it occur

Mainly due to high welding

Effect of RS on performance of weld:

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE