EC&Sus - Module 7 - Cost Building 2019-2020

13/11/2019
ECONOMIC AND SUSTAINABILITY ASPECTS

OF ARCHITECTURAL AND URBAN DESIGN
MODULE 7: COST @ BUILDING LEVEL
Prof. Karen Allacker

Prof. Frank De Troyer
Structure of the course

Module 1 (26/09): Module 6: (08/11)
Introduction Presentation and discussion results
Module 2: (04/10) Module 7: (15/11)

Climate and comfort – part 1 Cost calculation @ building level
(+ assignment 1)
Module 8: (22/11)
Module 3: (11/10) Cost calculation @ neighbourhood level
Climate and comfort – Part 2 (+ assignment 4)
(+ assignment 2)
Module 9: (29/11)
Module 4: (18/10) Presentation and discussion results
Presentation and discussion results
Module 10: (06/12)
Module 5: (25/10) Sustainability in a broader context
Solar Analysis
(+ assignment 3)
Evaluation (January 2019): paper + oral

Econ. and sustain. aspects of architectural & urban design | cost @ building level Academic year 2018 - 2019 2
Prof. Allacker & Prof. De Troyer 1

13/11/2019
Module 7: cost calculation @ building level

 Hierarchical decomposition of the building: element method for cost
control
 Concept of ratios
 Cost calculation tool for estimation of the investment cost of buildings
 Investment cost versus life cycle cost
• Learning goal: Based on this module you should gain insight in the
influence of design decisions on the investment cost of a building. You
should be able to calculate the investment cost. Finally, you should
gain insight in the parameters that influence the life cycle cost of a
building.
Building layout and costs

13/11/2019
Module 7: cost @ building level

1. Hierarchical decomposition: element method for cost control
2. Concept of ratios
3. Abstraction of building to equivalent box building
4. Cost calculation tool for estimation of the investment cost of buildings
5. Investment cost versus life cycle cost
6. Conclusions

6. Conclusions

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Element method for cost control

- Start of the design process:
fast approach needed for the
evaluation of the costs
- Added value: approach

which can gradually evolve
to a more detailed analysis at
the later design stages
=> Element method for cost

control is very well suited to
respond to these requirements

• Established in Great Britain
• In Europe, the Netherlands occupied the pioneering role [a.a., 1991]
• Used by:
• architectural offices, e.g. OSAR (BE) (osar architects nv)
• quantity surveyors, e.g. Spon’s (UK)
• engineering offices, e.g. Berenschot Osborne (The Netherlands)
Two main aims form the basis of the element method:

• useful from the first design phase and permits estimation of the cost more
precisely during the design process
• not only a cost-estimation-technique, but also a cost-control-technique

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• Divides the building into independent building elements
• Elements = building parts based on function the designer is accustomed to

work with
Building- Processed Building
materials materials
Functional
building-
elements
Neighbourhood
Functional
building- Building
elements
Examples of building elements

(function: separating spaces vertically)
Internal walls
H = 14 cm H = 19 cm 1 x gypsum board 2 x gypsum board
External walls

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Hierarchical subdivision – Macro- elements
Macro-elements: openings + layered parts

(example external wall)

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Hierarchical subdivision:
macro-elements  elements
Space delimiting macro-elements

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Hierarchical subdivision:
macro-elements  elements (example roof)
Design: growing like a tree

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Design: growing like a tree
From spaces via functional elements to work sections

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Data structured into tables in a hierarchical structure:
• Highest level: each building is summarised in a table whereof each row

represents one Macro-element
• Second level: each element is summarised in a table whereof each row

represents one element
• sub-element
• Lowest level: each work section is summarised in a table whereof each row
represents a material/process

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6. Conclusions
Concept of ratios
Element Unit rate "ratio" price/m²fl

€/ m found/ unit rate x ratio =
m foundation m²floor €/m²floor
€/ m² ext. unit rate x ratio =

m² external wall/
wall m²floor
€/m²floor
€/ m² int. unit rate x ratio =
m² internal wall/
wall m²floor
€/m²floor
etc
Quality Layout

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Concept of ratios
Influence of geometry on ratio => example external wall

Floor area = 10 x 10 = 100 m²
Wall area = 10 x 3 x 4 = 120 m²
=> Ratio wall = 120/100 = 1,2
Floor area = 20 x 5 = 100 m²

Wall area = 20 x 3 x 2 + 5 x 3 x 2 = 150 m²
=> Ratio wall = 150/100 = 1,5
Floorarea
Floor area==55xx10
10xx33x=5150 m² m²
= 750
Wallarea
Wall area==55xx10
10xx22x=5100 m²x 10 x 2 = 700 m²
+ 10
=>Ratio
=> Ratiowall
wall==700/750
100/150==0,93
0,67
Concept of ratios
Price /unit Price/m²fl

element
price1 Price1 x r1
price2 Price2 x r1
price3 Price3 x r1
price4 Price4 x r1

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Concept of ratios

6. Conclusions

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Concept of ratios
Influence of geometry on ratio => example external wall

Floor area = 10 x 10 = 100 m²
Wall area = 10 x 3 x 4 = 120 m²
=> Ratio wall = 120/100 = 1,2
Floor area = 20 x 5 = 100 m²

Wall area = 20 x 3 x 2 + 5 x 3 x 2 = 150 m²
=> Ratio wall = 150/100 = 1,5
Floor area = 5 x 10 x 3 x= 5150

= 750
m² m²
Wall area = 5 x 10 x 2 x= 5100
+ 10
m²x 10 x 2 = 700 m²
=> Ratio wall = 700/750
100/150 = 0,93
0,67
Concept of ratios - graphically presented

Examples to illustrate the concept and clarify the aim
R oo f a nd Floors Exte rna l W a lls: R = 1,20 Inte rna l wa lls: 0,90
R oo f a nd Floors Exte rna l W a lls: R = 1,50 Inte rna l wa lls: 0,75

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Concept of ratios - graphically presented

Elements:
0,25 0,50 0,75 0,75 0,25
0,50 0,38 0,81 0,50 0,50

Mass-plans: 5
buildings
consisting of
64 units 0,50 0,56 0,72 0,50 0,50
0,25 0,88 0,56 0,75 0,25

[Febelcem, Bouwen
met prefab beton,
ontwerpgids: p. 5]
0,25 1,00 0,50 0,75 0,25
Abstraction of building to equivalent box building
Aim:
• Easy comparison of the various case studies
• Graphical representation for easy interpretation/comparison
How:
• Translate specific case to a box building with the same ratio’s for:
• Roof
• Floor
• External walls
• Internal walls

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5m
10m 10m
20m
10m 25m
Grid: 3 x 3 m
Input required: IN PU T PAR AMET ER S

Name of
student
Country
Brief description of project
Total floor area = m²
nbr of floors = -
Area/floor #DIV/0! m²
height = 3
m1 perimeter/floor = m
m1 internal wall/floor m
for building-plot
width of plot = m
area of plot = m²
for ne ighbourhood fra gme nt
buildings / row = -
width of street // W= m
width of street // D= m

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Calculations
building-
IN T ER IM R E SU LT S plot fra gme nt
building
Equivalent Width 10,0 m 12,0 m width = 140,0 m
Equivalent Depth 6,0 m 20,0 m depth = 50,0 m
Eq. Width/Depth -ratio 1,67 Area= 240,0 m² Total fragment area= 0,70 ha
ESRS 3,2 m built-up= 1 200 m² Total floor area= 2 400 m²
ESRA 10,0 m² Circulation/tot.area= 31%
street // W = 1 200 m² 120 m Residential/tot.area= 69%
street // D = 1 000 m² 50 m Builtup/residential= 25%
resid.area = 4 800 m² Circulation density = 243 m/ha
total area = 7 000 m² Net population density = 343inh/ha
Equivalent width (w)

Equivalent depth (d) A d
w
A = floor area of ONE floor (m²)
p = perimeter of ONE floor (m)
 w? d?
Equation 1:
Equation 2: 2
1) Eq 2 =>
2) In eq1 => => => 0

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AND
Equivalent width/depth ratio = w/d

Internal walls
Input:
i = running meter (length) of internal wall of ONE floor (m)
Output:
• ESRS = equivalent length of the side of the square room (m)
• ESRA = equivalent area of 1 square room (m²)

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Internal walls
Calculation: ESRA
Number of square rooms = A/ESRA
Summed perimeter of the square rooms =

perimeter of building + 2 x i
Number of rooms x 4 (sides) x ESRS =

perimeter of building + 2 x i ESRA
 4 2
 4 2
²
 4 2
 4 ESRS

Inner wall length = 30 m Inner wall length = 25 m Inner wall length = 150 m
 ESRS = 4 m  ESRS = 4 m  ESRS = 2.7 m

 ESRA = 16 m²  ESRA = 16 m²  ESRA = 7.3 m²
Grid: 3 x 3 m

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Abstract analysis: small – big, square - rectangular

Perimeter/area
8/4 = 2
A
1
B 4/1 =4
C 10/4 = 2,5
And internal wall Perimeter/rea Internal wall/area
B
4/1 = 4 0/4 =0
10/4 = 2,5 3/4 = 0,75

D
8/4 = 2 4/4 = 1
E
12/9 = 1.333 12/9 = 1.333

G

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Internal spaces: also “more rectangular”
B
C
side x 1,5
Same surface, more
surface x (1,5 x 1,5) = 2,25
rectangular => +50%
Internal wall X 1/2
B C
smaller (1/4 1/6 )
Less elongated rectangles
Same amount of internal

wall
D

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A D
E F F
Also all square, Same width/dept ratio,

Same average size, Same average size,
But … But …

4. Cost calculation tool for estimation of the investment cost of
buildings
6. Conclusions

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Building cost calculation tool
Excel file developed which graphically represents the calculated values of:
- Equivalent box building
- Ratio floor and roof
- Ratio external walls
- Ratio internal walls
- Population density
- Circulation density
From these:
• A list of ratios is deducted for the various building elements
• These are combined with prices/unit element (see next slide)
Assumptions on cost data (equal for all cases for easy comparison)
Element Price (€) /

unit unit
(0-) Residential land 400 m²
(0-) infrastr.W incl.land 5000 m
(0-) infrastr.D incl.land 20000 m
(0-) access infrastr.
(13) Floor on grade + 200 m²
(16) Foundation W 500 m
(16) Foundation D 500 m
(21) External walls W 800 m²
(21) External walls D 800 m²
(22) Internal walls 200 m²
(23) Suspended floors 600 m²
(27) Roofs 1100 m²

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Assignment 4 – part A
 Calculate the values and draw these manually on the file “3GrafRepr”
Aim of assignment on building level
Being able to
• Apply calculation of ratio’s

• Apply visual representation of ratio’s
• Apply calculation of equivalent width and depth
• Apply visualisation of equivalent box building
• Apply calculation of equivalent square rooms
• Ally visualisation of equivalent square rooms
• Elaborate element table on “macro-element level”

13/11/2019
Assignment 4 – part A
 Fill in the Excel file “Input and calculation on building level.xlsx“:

grey cells
 calculate green cells
+ sketch plan (perimeter and internal walls on appropriate scale)
+ sketch ratio’s
 Save as “LL_building_XXX_City_YourName“
 Load the (manual) drawings & excel file in discussion board
 Fill in your results in: “Cost Building 2019-2020.xlsx”

6. Conclusions

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Investment cost versus life cycle cost
Investment cost
Maintenance,
replacements
Insurance,
taxes
EoL
Energy
[Vrijders, 2015]
Life Cycle Costing (LCC)
LCC of buildings is defined in ISO 15686 (2006, p. 20) as:

‘the total cost of a building or its parts throughout its life, including the
costs of planning, design, acquisition, operations, maintenance and
disposal, less any residual value’
 economic accounting tool typically used to rank different investment

alternatives in terms of cost reductions during life time [Sterner, 2000]
 introduced in the British building industry during the 1950s, using the
term ‘cost-in-use’ and replaced by the term LCC through the work of
Flanagan and Norman in 1983
 Handbook “Life Cycle Costing: Theory and Practice” [Flanagan, Norman,
Meadows, & Robinson, 1989]

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Macro-economic versus micro-economic perspective
‘Definition of a cost depends on who the decision maker is’
Energy and environmental policy

Household or company government
Market prices, taxes, subsidies Environmental costs, taxes and financial

incentives
Incomes and expenses for households

and companies Incomes and expenses for the
government
Micro-economic perspective
Macro-economic perspective
Macro-economic examples
1.Obligation to construct energy efficient and environmentally
friendly cars :
→ less energy consumption → less income for the government →
compensation by increasing taxes elsewhere
2.Higher taxes on fuel prices:

→ less energy consumption → income loss through reduced consumption
is compensated by higher taxes per liter fuel
3.CO2 tax dependent of car emission:

→ less consumption → income loss through fuel tax, but income increase
through CO2 tax

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Micro-economic approach of life cycle costing
GENERAL:
• Base for decisions or evaluation process for a building or parts of it
during the whole life cycle
• Absolute: planning, budget control, contracts
• Relative: comparison of options, design support, alternative
technologies,…
Examples:
• Energy efficient building/renovation: investment vs energy(cost)savings
• Cost optimal building
• Choice of finishing materials
• Dynamic and adaptable design
Example 1: several options for renovation
Several scenarios:
- No intervention: further use without any adaptations
- Energetic renovation
- In-depth renovation
- Demolition and new-built – solid (bricks)
- Demolition and new-built – timber frame

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In-depth
renovation
Demolition
and new-
built (solid)
LCC (euro)
Energetic
renovation
Demolition
and new-
built
(timber)
No
intervention

Financial cost after 40 years
Operational energy cost

LCC (euro)
Renovation cost / cost

for demolition and new-
built
Acquisition cost building
Energetic In-depth Demolition Demolition and

No
renovation renovation and new-built new-built
intervention
(timber) (solid)

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Example 2: LCC of dynamic construction
[Trigaux, D., De Troyer, F., Allacker, K., Paduart, A., Debacker, W., De Temmerman, N. (2013). LCC and LCA of dynamic
construction in the context of social housing. SB13 Graz – Sustainable Buildings, Construction Products & Technologies – Full
papers: 437-447, Graz, Austria, 25-28 September 2013]
• Comparison of the LCC of different construction methods
Static versus dynamic assemblies

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• Transformation from a two-bedroom to a one-bedroom

apartment
• with an enlarged living room

Wall scenarios

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Composition of the analysed internal wall categories

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State-of-the-art: methodology, standards
• ISO 15686-5-Life Cycle Costing
State-of-the-art: methodology, standards
• CEN TC 350 - Sustainability of construction works
• Economic Performance Assessment of Buildings

• prEN16627 – final Draft
The following economic assessment indicators are described :

1) Cost: Economic performance expressed in cost terms over the life cycle
2) Financial value: Economic performance expressed in terms financial value over the life
cycle
This standard describes the methods and the rules for calculating the cash flows over the
life cycle of buildings, with an emphasis on the field of life cycle costing. Principles
developed in ISO 15686-5 are included, but have been adapted for sustainability
assessment in the European context.

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Current and future costs
[Habert, 2014]

By discounting, incoming and outgoing payments at different moments during the life span of a dwelling
become comparable and can be aggregated into a total present value.
With:
LF = life cycle financial cost (€)
IF = initial financial cost (€)
SPV(PF0) = sum of the present values of the periodic financial costs (€)
SPV(EOL F0) = sum of the present values of the EOL costs (€)
R0 = residual financial value (+) or costs (-) at the end of the life span of the building (€)

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Present value and total present value:
The present value of future costs can be defined as ‘the amount of money that would need to be saved
today, at a (nominal) interest rate r, in order to have the money available to meet the future cost (Ct) at
the time when it is predicted to occur (after t periods)’. It can therefore be calculated with the following
formula (ri = the interest rate during year i):
After selecting an appropriate discount rate ‘d’, the present value can be calculated as:
The above formula assumes that ‘d’ is constant over the considered period. It should be interpreted as
an average rate over the considered period.

Discount rate, d:
‘the factor reflecting the time value of money that is used to convert cash flows occurring at
different times to a common time’
 Discounting means costs and savings in future are less important than these at present
 If d = 0%, future costs are equally important as current costs
 the higher the discount rate, the more importance is given to the near-present and the
less importance is given to what happens in the distant future
 often assumed to be equal to the interest rate for bank loans, which is higher than the
interest rate for investments. By doing so, the present value of future revenues (and
expenditures) is underestimated and less risk is taken.

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Inflation rate, i:
The value of money inflates or deflates over time, reflected by ‘it’ during year t.
The cost in year t (pt) of the cost p0 now (year 0); can then be determined as:
The formula can be simplified if it is assumed that i1 = i2 = i3 =…= it = i, then:
In consequence, the purchasing power of currency changes over time. The purchasing
power of Xt is equal to:

Nominal versus real discount rate:
The present value of future costs, which are evolved with inflation rate i, can be calculated as
‘i’ represents the average yearly inflation rate over t periods and ‘d’ the nominal yearly discount rate
over t periods. To simplify the formula a real discount rate, d’, can be calculated over the same period.
The inflation rate is thus included in this real discount rate. The advantage of the use of a real discount
rate is the fact that one does not need to estimate the inflation rate explicitly

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Growth rate, g:
It is evident (from the past) that prices (of building materials, energy prices or labour) do not change at
the same rate as the general inflation rate. Therefore a growth rate, ‘g’, can be defined which reflects the
different evolution over time of specific products and/or services. This difference in evolution can,
amongst others, be due to a change in efficiency or technology of the production process for the
product and the more difficult access to depleting resources.
The growth rate can be either positive or negative. The growth rate of prices can fluctuate and therefore
change yearly. In the above formula ‘g’ represents the annual average growth rate over a period up to
year t. If a constant yearly growth rate ‘g’ is assumed, the price evolution is exponential.

Simplified formulae:
- Yearly cost:
- Periodic cost:
With g’ = real growth rate (on top of the general inflation)

And d’ = real discount rate (on top of the general inflation)

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Discount rate?
Rapid reduction of the present value of future costs, even for relatively low
discount rates
Discount rate?
The discount rate to be used depends on the context and little agreement is noticed among economists
what discount rates to use. The discount rate however influences the results to a great extent. The
discount rate in micro-economy analysis should reflect the private owner’s or building owner’s choice to
invest money in dwellings
Basic scenario: 4% (yearly nominal discount rate)
Economic parameters – inflation rate

The general inflation in Belgium is represented by the ‘index of consumer prices’, which represents the
average evolution of prices of the average consumption pattern of a Belgian citizen
assumed to be 2%, which is based on the prediction that the “Federal Planning bureau” has made for
the period 2007-2012 and is in line with an average over the period 1985 - 2007.
=> Yearly real discount rate = 2%

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Growth rate?
Growth rate?
• Economic parameters – growth rate energy:
 Predicting the long term evolution of energy costs is a complex task

 Evolution in the past shows periods of dramatic increase and sudden
ruptures in the evolution linked to social and political events
 High level of uncertainty

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Growth rate energy cost Belgium Financial

Evolutie
(households, taxes maximum prijs Huisbrandolie
included, >2000 l) (+2000 l) crisis 2008
1,200 OPEC
?
1985 Twin towers 9/11
1,000 Low demand,
Increases
€ /production
liter economic crisis
0,800
OPEC Invasion Iraq
in Koeweit
0,600 1979
1991 Desert
OPEC Iran storm
0,400 73/74
Ec. revival
0,200
2de Irak
High demand + war 2003
0,000
OPEC reduces
1/01/1970
1/01/1974
1/01/1978
1/01/1982
1/01/1986
1/01/1990
1/01/1994
1/01/1998
1/01/2002
1/01/2006
1/01/2010
production
Growth rate energy cost Belgium

Evolutie
(households, taxesmaximum prijs Huisbrandolie
included, >2000 l) (+2000 l)
1,200
1,000 € / liter
0,800
1970-2011: 3,48% /jaar
0,600
0,400
0,200
0,000
1/01/1970
1/01/1974
1/01/1978
1/01/1982
1/01/1986
1/01/1990
1/01/1994
1/01/1998
1/01/2002
1/01/2006
1/01/2010

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Evolutie
included, >2000 l) (+2000 l)
1,200
1,000 € / liter
1970-2011: 3,48% /jaar

0,800
'79-'82: 28,94% /jaar
0,600
0,400
0,200
0,000
1/01/1970
1/01/1974
1/01/1978
1/01/1982
1/01/1986
1/01/1990
1/01/1994
1/01/1998
1/01/2002
1/01/2006
1/01/2010

Evolutie
included, >2000 l) (+2000 l)
1,200
€ / liter
1,000
1970-2011: 3,48% /jaar
0,800 '79-'82: 28,94% /jaar
jan 99-juli 08: 11,53% /jaar

0,600
0,400
0,200
0,000
1/01/1970
1/01/1974
1/01/1978
1/01/1982
1/01/1986
1/01/1990
1/01/1994
1/01/1998
1/01/2002
1/01/2006
1/01/2010

13/11/2019

Evolutie
included, >2000 l) (+2000 l)
1,200
€ / liter
1,000
1970-2011: 3,48% /jaar
'79-'82: 28,94% /jaar
0,800
jan 99-juli 08: 11,53% /jaar
jan 09- mrt 11: 27,01% /jaar
0,600
0,400
0,200
0,000
1/01/1970
1/01/1974
1/01/1978
1/01/1982
1/01/1986
1/01/1990
1/01/1994
1/01/1998
1/01/2002
1/01/2006
1/01/2010
Growth rate?
Post-Kyoto scenario in % of CO2 Nuclear CCS (Carbon Capture

reduction 1990-2030 available and Storage) Total per year
0% (1990-2030) no no 63% 1.64%
15% (1990-2030) yes yes 71% 1.80%
yes no 79% 1.96%
no yes 110% 2.50%
no no 170% 3.37%
30% (1990-2030) yes yes 100% 2.34%
yes no 150% 3.10%
no yes 160% 3.24%
no no 420% 5.65%
Commission Energy 2030

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Growth rate?
Economic parameters – growth rate material and labour (nominal values):
ABEX: 2,5% (reflecting a systematic faster growth than the general inflation due to the specificity of the
sector)
S-index (labour): 3%
I-index (material): 2% 3000.00 ABEX
2500.00 CONS
I
2000.00
Smax
1500.00
ABEX 2.5% ;
R²=0.98
1000.00 CONS 2.1% ;

R²=0.99
I 1.7% ;
500.00 R²=0.62
Smax 3.1% ;
R²=0.98
0.00
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

6. Conclusions

13/11/2019
Conclusions
1. Building layout influences the ratios of the building elements to an
important extent
2. The investment and life cycle cost depend on the amount of elements
and unit cost per building element
3. Concept of ratios as a strong instrument to compare buildings/design
alternatives
4. Investment cost is only a fraction of the life cycle cost (due to the
relatively long life span of buildings)
Thank you
[email protected]
Division of Architectural Engineering
Department of Architecture - Faculty of Engineering Science
KU Leuven
Kasteelpark Arenberg 1 box 2431 | B-3OO1 Leuven
http://architectuur.kuleuven.be/architectural-engineering

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13/11/2019

ECONOMIC AND SUSTAINABILITY ASPECTS

MODULE 7: COST @ BUILDING LEVEL

Prof. Karen Allacker

Structure of the course

Module 2: (04/10) Module 7: (15/11)

Evaluation (January 2019): paper + oral

Prof. Allacker & Prof. De Troyer 1

Module 7: cost calculation @ building level

Building layout and costs

Prof. Allacker & Prof. De Troyer 2

Module 7: cost @ building level

Module 7: cost @ building level

Prof. Allacker & Prof. De Troyer 3

Element method for cost control

- Added value: approach

=> Element method for cost

Element method for cost control

• In Europe, the Netherlands occupied the pioneering role [a.a., 1991]

• architectural offices, e.g. OSAR (BE) (osar architects nv)

• quantity surveyors, e.g. Spon’s (UK)

• engineering offices, e.g. Berenschot Osborne (The Netherlands)

Two main aims form the basis of the element method:

• not only a cost-estimation-technique, but also a cost-control-technique

Prof. Allacker & Prof. De Troyer 4

Element method for cost control

• Elements = building parts based on function the designer is accustomed to

Examples of building elements

H = 14 cm H = 19 cm 1 x gypsum board 2 x gypsum board

Prof. Allacker & Prof. De Troyer 5

Hierarchical subdivision – Macro- elements

Macro-elements: openings + layered parts

Prof. Allacker & Prof. De Troyer 6

Space delimiting macro-elements

Prof. Allacker & Prof. De Troyer 7

Design: growing like a tree

Prof. Allacker & Prof. De Troyer 8

Design: growing like a tree

From spaces via functional elements to work sections

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Element method for cost control

• Highest level: each building is summarised in a table whereof each row

• Second level: each element is summarised in a table whereof each row

Element method for cost control

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Module 7: cost @ building level

Element Unit rate "ratio" price/m²fl

€/ m² ext. unit rate x ratio =

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Influence of geometry on ratio => example external wall

Floor area = 20 x 5 = 100 m²

Price /unit Price/m²fl

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Module 7: cost @ building level

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Influence of geometry on ratio => example external wall

Floor area = 20 x 5 = 100 m²

Floor area = 5 x 10 x 3 x= 5150

Concept of ratios - graphically presented