1 Chemical quantities Data sheet

The charges on common ions

Positive ions (cations) Negative ions (anions)
Charge Cation Symbol Charge Anion Symbol

1+ sodium Na+ 1 chloride Cl−

potassium K+ bromide Br−

silver Ag+ iodide I−

copper(I) Cu+ hydroxide OH−

hydrogen H+ nitrate NO3−

ammonium NH4+

2+ magnesium Mg2+ 2 oxide O2−

calcium Ca2+ sulfide S2−

zinc Zn2+ sulfate SO42−

copper(II) Cu2+ sulfite SO32−

iron(II) Fe2+ carbonate CO32−

3+ aluminium Al3+ 3 nitride N3−

iron(III) Fe3+ phosphate PO43−

Notice from the table that:

 metal ions are always positive
 non-metal ions are negative except hydrogen, H+, and ammonium, NH4+
 some metals can form more than one ion – this is characteristic of transition metals such as copper and iron
 some non-metal ions are compound ions containing more than one kind of atom.

© G. Hill and A. Hunt 2008 Edexcel Chemistry for AS CD-ROM

 1 Chemical quantities Data sheet

Solubilities of acids, bases and salts

Type of compound Soluble in water Insoluble in water
Acids All common acids
Bases Soluble bases are called alkalis. They include All other metal oxides and hydroxides.
the hydroxides of sodium and potassium and
also the carbonates of sodium and potassium.
Lithium, magnesium, calcium and barium
hydroxide are slightly soluble.
Ammonia is a soluble base.
Salts All nitrates.
All chlorides   except silver chloride and lead chloride.
All sulfates  except barium sulfate and lead sulfate.
(Calcium sulfate and silver sulfate are slightly
soluble.)
All sodium, potassium and ammonium salts. All other carbonates.

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 2 Energetics Data sheet

Mean bond enthalpies and bond lengths

Bond Mean bond enthalpy/kJ mol−1 Bond length/nm
H−H 436 0.074
Cl−Cl 243 0.199
Br−Br 193 0.228
I−I 151 0.267
O−H 464 0.096
C−H 413 0.108
C−C 347 0.154
C=C 612 0.134
C≡C 838 0.120
C−Cl 346 0.177
C−Br 290 0.194
C−I 228 0.214
N−N 158 0.145
NN 945 0.110
N−H 391 0.101
O=O 498 0.121
C=O 740 0.122
H−Cl 432 0.127
H−Br 366 0.141
H−I 298 0.161

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 3 Atomic and electronic structure Data sheet

Boiling temperatures of the chlorides of elements in periods 2 and 3 of

the periodic table
Period 2
Formula of
LiCl BeCl2 BCl3 CCl4 NCl3 OCl2 FCl
chloride
Boiling temp. of
1340 520 13 77 71 4 101
chloride /C

Period 3
Formula of
NaCl MgCl2 Al2Cl6 SiCl4 PCl3 S2Cl2 Cl2
chloride
Boiling temp. of
1413 1412 423 58 76 136 35
chloride/C

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 3 Atomic and electronic structure Data sheet

The first ionisation energies of successive elements in the periodic table

Element Atomic number First ionisation energy
/kJ mol–1
Hydrogen 1 1312
Helium 2 2372
Lithium 3 520
Beryllium 4 900
Boron 5 801
Carbon 6 1086
Nitrogen 7 1402
Oxygen 8 1314
Fluorine 9 1681
Neon 10 2081
Sodium 11 496
Magnesium 12 738
Aluminium 13 578
Silicon 14 789
Phosphorus 15 1012
Sulfur 16 1000
Chlorine 17 1251
Argon 18 1521
Potassium 19 419
Calcium 20 590

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 4 Bonding and structure Data sheet

Melting temperatures and boiling temperatures of selected elements

Element Melting temperature/K Boiling temperature/K
Group 1
Lithium 454 1615
Sodium 371 1156
Potassium 336 1033
Group 2
Beryllium 1551 3243
Magnesium 922 1380
Calcium 1112 1757
Strontium 1042 1657
Barium 998 1913
Group 3
Boron 2573 2823
Aluminium 933 2740
Group 4
Carbon (diamond) 3823 5100
Carbon (graphite) 3925 5100
Silicon 1683 2628
Germanium 1210 3103
Group 5
Nitrogen 63 77
Phosphorus (white) 317 553
Group 6
Oxygen 55 90
Sulfur 386 718
Group 7
Fluorine 53 85
Chlorine 172 238
Bromine 266 332
Iodine 387 457
Group 0
Helium 1 4
Neon 25 27
Argon 84 87
Krypton 116 121
Xenon 161 166
d-block elements
Titanium 1933 3560
Chromium 2130 2943
Manganese 1517 2235
Iron 1808 3023
Copper 1356 2840
Zinc 693 1180

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 6 Hydrocarbons: alkanes and alkenes Data sheet

Properties of selected organic compounds: Alkanes

Compound Molecular Melting Boiling H c H f
formula temperature/˚C temperature/˚C /kJ mol1 /kJ mol1
Methane CH4 –182 –161 0–890 0–75
Ethane C2H6 –183 0–88 –1560 0–85

Propane C3H8 –188 0–42 –2219 –104

Butane C4H10 –138 00–0.5 –2876 –126
Pentane C5H12 –130 –036 –3509 –173
Hexane C6H14 00–950 –069 –4163 –199

Heptane C7H16 00–900 –099 –4817 –224

Octane C8H18 00–570 –126 –5470 –250
Nonane C9H20 00–510 –151 –6125 –275
Decane C10H22 00–300 –174 –6778 –301

Eicosane C20H42 00–370 –344

2–Methylpropane C4H10 –159 0–12 –2868 –134
2–Methylbutane C5H12 –160 0–28 –3503 –179
2–Methylpentane C6H14 –154 0–60 –4157 –204

2,2–Dimethylpropane C5H12 00–160 0–10 –3492 –190

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 6 Hydrocarbons: alkanes and alkenes Data sheet

Properties of selected organic compounds: Alkenes

Compound Formula Melting Boiling H c /kJ mol1 H f /kJ mol1
temperature temperature
/C /C
Ethene CH2=CH2 169 104 1411 +52

Propene CH2=CHCH3 185 047 2058 +20

But-1-ene CH2=CHCH2CH3 185 006 2717 0
trans-but-2-ene CH3CH=CHCH3 105 001 2705 12
(E-but-2-ene)

cis-but-2-ene CH3CH=CHCH3 139 004 2709 8

(Z-but-2-ene)
Cyclohexene CH2(CH2)3CH=CH 103 084 3752 38

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 11 Groups in the periodic table Data sheet

Group 2
Properties of the elements
Element Density Molar mass Melting Boiling Ionisation Radii
/g cm–3 /g mol–1 temperature temperature energies/kJ mol–1
/˚C /˚C
1st 2nd 3rd atomic/pm ionic/pm
Beryllium, Be 1.85 009.0 1278 2970 900 1757 14 849 112 027

Magnesium, Mg 1.74 024.3 0649 1107 738 1451 07 733 160 072
Calcium, Ca 1.53 040.1 0839 1484 590 1145 04 912 197 100
Strontium, Sr 2.60 087.6 0769 1384 550 1064 04 210 215 113
Barium, Ba 3.59 137.3 0725 1640 503 0965 – 224 136

Properties of selected compounds

Compound Melting Boiling H f / Solubility in
temperature/C temperature/C kJ mol–1 mol/100 g water
Beryllium chloride, 0405 0520 –490 0.19
BeCl2

Beryllium oxide, BeO 2550 3900 –610 insoluble

Barium chloride, BaCl2 0963 1560 –859 0.15
Barium oxide, BaO 1917 2000 –554 0.023
Barium hydroxide, 0408 decomposes –945 0.015
Ba(OH)2
Barium sulfate, BaSO4 1580 decomposes –1473 insoluble
Calcium chloride, 0782 2000 –796 0.54
CaCl2

Calcium oxide, CaO 2614 2850 –635 reacts

Calcium hydroxide, decomposes — –986 0.0015
Ca(OH)2
Calcium sulfate, CaSO4 decomposes — –1434 0.0018
Magnesium chloride, 0714 1412 –641 0.56
MgCl2
Magnesium oxide, MgO 2852 3600 –602 reacts
Magnesium hydroxide, dehydrates — –924 0.000 02
Mg(OH)2
Magnesium sulfate, decomposes — –1285 0.21
MgSO4
Strontium chloride, 0911 1250 –829 0.01
SrCl2
Strontium oxide, SrO 2430 3000 –592 0.0008

Strontium hydroxide, 0375 decomposes –959 0.003

Sr(OH)2
Strontium sulfate, 1605 — –1453 0.0006
SrSO4

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 11 Groups in the periodic table Data sheet

Group 7
Properties of the elements
Element Density* Molar mass Melting Boiling Ionisation Radii
/g cm–3 /g mol–1 temperature temperature energies
/˚C /˚C
1st 2nd 3rd atomic/pm ionic/pm
Fluorine, F 0.001 58 019.0 –220 –188 1681 3374 6051 071 133

Chlorine, Cl 0.002 99 035.5 –101 0–35 1251 2297 3822 099 180
Bromine, Br 3.12 079.9 00–7 0–59 1140 2100 3500 114 195
Iodine, I 4.95 126.9 –114 –184 1008 1846 3200 133 215
* At room temperature and pressure.

Properties of selected compounds

Compound Melting Boiling H f / Solubility in
temperature/˚C temperature/˚C kJ mol–1 mol/100 g water
Aluminium chloride, AlCl3 sublimes — –704 0.52
Barium chloride, BaCl2 963 1560 –859 0.15

Caesium fluoride, CsF 682 1251 –554 3.84

Caesium chloride, CsCl 645 1290 –443 1.13
Calcium chloride, CaCl2 782 2000 –796 0.54
Hydrogen fluoride, HF –83 20 –271 0.043

Hydrogen chloride, HCl –115 –85 –92.3 5.97

Hydrogen bromide, HBr –88 –67 –36.4 2.39
Hydrogen iodide, HI –51 –35 +26.5 0.056
Lithium fluoride, LiF 845 1676 –616 0.005

Lithium chloride, LiCl 605 1340 –409 2.00

Lithium iodide, LiI 449 1171 –270 1.21
Magnesium chloride, MgCl2 714 1412 –641 0.56
Nickel(II) chloride, NiCl2 1001 sublimes –305 0.51

Phosphorus(III) chloride, PCl3 –112 76 –320 reacts

Phosphorus(V) chloride, PCl5 sublimes — –444 reacts
Potassium chloride, KCl 770 1500 –437 0.48
Potassium iodide, KI 686 1330 –328 0.89

Silicon(IV) chloride, SiCl4 –70 58 –687 reacts

(silicon tetrachloride)
Sodium fluoride, NaF 993 1695 –574 0.098
Sodium chloride, NaCl 801 1413 –411 0.62

Strontium chloride, SrCl2 911 1250 –829 0.01

Zinc chloride, ZnCl2 283 732 –415 3.0

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 12 Chemical analysis Data sheet

Preliminary tests and observations

Solubilities of acids, bases and salts
Type of compound Soluble in water Insoluble in water
Acids All common acids
Bases Soluble bases are called alkalis. They include All other metal oxides and hydroxides.
the hydroxides of sodium and potassium and
also the carbonates of sodium and potassium.
Lithium, magnesium, calcium and barium
hydroxide are slightly soluble.
Ammonia is a soluble base.
Salts All nitrates.
All chlorides   except silver chloride and lead chloride.
All sulfates  except barium sulfate and lead sulfate.
(Calcium sulfate and silver sulfate are slightly
soluble.)
All sodium, potassium and ammonium salts. All other carbonates.

Observations on heating and possible inferences

Observation on heating Possible inferences
Steamy vapour which turns blue cobalt chloride paper Crystals contain water of crystallisation or the solid is a
pink. The solid may turn to a solution. hydroxide which decomposes.
Colourless gas evolved which relights a glowing splint. Oxygen from the nitrate or halate of sodium or potassium
Brown gas evolved and a glowing splint relights. Nitrogen dioxide and oxygen from the decomposition of a
nitrate
Colourless gas given off which turns limewater milky. Carbon dioxide from a carbonate or hydrogencarbonate
Colourless acidic gas given off which turns paper soaked in Sulfur dioxide from a sulfite or sulfate
potassium dichromate(VI) solution from orange to green.
Sublimate forms on a cool part of the tube. Likely to be an ammonium salt.

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 12 Chemical analysis Data sheet

Tests for gases

Gas Test Observations

Hydrogen burning splint burns with a ‘pop’

Oxygen glowing splint splint bursts into flame (relights)
Carbon monoxide burning splint burns with a blue flame but does not
explode

Carbon dioxide limewater (aqueous calcium hydroxide) turns milky white as a precipitate forms
Hydrogen halides smell pungent
moist blue litmus paper turns red
ammonia vapour (from a drop of thick white smoke of particles of solid
concentrated ammonia solution on a glass ammonium halide
rod)
pass gas into silver nitrate solution solution turns cloudy: white if HCl, cream
if HBr and yellow if HI
Chlorine colour pale greenish-yellow
smell pungent – bleach-like
moist blue litmus paper turns red and then bleaches
moist starch–iodide paper turns blue-black
Bromine colour orange-brown
moist blue litmus paper turns red and then slowly bleaches
Iodine colour violet
moist starch (or starch iodide) paper turns blue-black
Sulfur dioxide smell pungent
moist blue litmus paper turns red
paper soaked in potassium dichromate(VI) turns from orange to green
solution

Ammonia smell pungent and eye-watering

moist red litmus paper turns blue
Nitrogen dioxide colour orange-brown
moist blue litmus paper turns red

Water vapour appearance ‘steams’ in the air

anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride paper turns from blue to pink

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 12 Chemical analysis Data sheet

Tests for negative ions (anions)

Test Observations Inferences
Test for carbonate or sulfite
Add dilute hydrochloric acid to gas which turns limewater milky carbon dioxide from a carbonate
the solid salt. Warm gently if gas which is acidic, has a pungent sulfur dioxide from a sulfite
there is no reaction at room smell and turns acid–dichromate
temperature. paper from orange to green
Test for halide ions
Make a solution of the salt. Acidify white precipitate soluble in dilute precipitate of AgCl from a chloride
with dilute nitric acid, then add ammonia solution
silver nitrate solution. Test the cream precipitate soluble in precipitate of AgBr from a bromide
solubility of any precipitate with concentrated ammonia solution
ammonia solution.
yellow precipitate insoluble in precipitate of AgI from an iodide
excess ammonia solution

Test for sulfate ions

Make a solution of the salt. Add a white precipitate which does not precipitate of BaSO4 from a sulfate
solution of barium nitrate or redissolve in acid
chloride. If a precipitate forms
add dilute nitric acid.
Test for nitrate ions
Make a solution of the salt. Add alkaline gas evolved which turns ammonia from the reduction of a nitrate
sodium hydroxide solution and damp red litmus paper blue and has (or nitrite)
then a small piece of aluminium a pungent smell
foil or some Devarda alloy.

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 12 Chemical analysis Data sheet

Tests for positive ions (cations)

Testing for metal ions with sodium hydroxide solution
Cation in solution 3 drops of NaOH(aq) added to 10 cm3 of NaOH(aq) added to 3 cm3 of solution
3 cm3 of solution of cation of cation

Potassium, K+ no precipitate no precipitate

Sodium, Na+ no precipitate no precipitate

Calcium, Ca2+ a white precipitate of Ca(OH)2 forms white precipitate remains

Ca2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) → Ca(OH)2(s)
Magnesium, Mg2+ a white precipitate of Mg(OH)2 forms white precipitate remains
Mg2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) → Mg(OH)2(s)

Aluminium, Al3+ a white precipitate of Al(OH)3 forms white precipitate dissolves to give a colourless
Al3+(aq) + 3OH(aq) → Al(OH)3(s) solution

Iron(II), Fe2+ a green precipitate of Fe(OH)2 forms green precipitate remains

Fe2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s)
Iron(III), Fe3+ a brown precipitate of Fe(OH)3 forms brown precipitate remains
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s)
Zinc, Zn2+ a white precipitate of Zn(OH)2 forms white precipitate dissolves to give a colourless
Zn2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) → Zn(OH)2(s) solution

Copper(II), Cu2+ a blue precipitate of Cu(OH)2 forms blue precipitate remains

Cu2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s)

Flame tests
Metal ion Flame colour
Lithium bright red

Sodium bright yellow

Potassium lilac
Calcium orange-red
Strontium red

Barium apple green

Copper(II) green with flashes of blue

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 15 Alcohols and halogenoalkanes Data sheet

Properties of alcohols and halogenoalkanes

Compound Formula Melting Boiling H c /kJ mol1 H f /kJ mol1
temperature/C temperature/C
Alcohols
Methanol CH3OH –94 65 –726 –239

Ethanol C2H5OH –117 78 –1367 –277

Propan-1-ol C3H7OH –126 97 –2021 –303
Propan-2-ol C3H7OH –89 82 –2006 –318
Butan-1-ol C4H9OH –89 117 –2676 –327

Halogenoalkanes
Chloromethane CH3Cl –98 –24 –764 –82
Tetrachloromethane CCl4 –23 77 –360 –130

Bromomethane CH3Br –93 4 –770 –37

1-Chlorobutane C4H9Cl –123 79 –2704 –188
1-Bromobutane C4H9Br –112 102 –2716 –144
2-Bromobutane C4H9Br –112 91 –2705 –155

2-Bromo-2- C4H9Br –17 73 –163

methylpropane
1-Iodobutane C4H9I –103 131

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 15 Alcohols and halogenoalkanes Data sheet

Characteristic reactions of organic functional groups

Alkanes
Functional group: alkanes do not have a functional group in the usual sense of the term. The reactions of alkanes
are characteristic of C−C and C−H bonds which are non-polar and inert to polar and ionic reagents.

Physical properties
C1 – C4 alkanes are gases. Common alkanes from C5 upwards are colourless liquids.

Solubility and acid–base character

Alkanes do not mix with water. They are inert to all aqueous reagents. They have no acid–base properties.

Functional group test

Test Observations Inferences

Ignite the alkane. Burns with a yellowish and slightly Not a definitive test but helps
smoky flame. distinguish alkanes from unsaturated
compounds which often burn with
much smokier flames.

Alkenes
Functional group:

Physical properties
Ethene, propene and the butenes are colourless gases. Common alkenes with more than four carbon atoms are
liquids.

Solubility and acid–base character

Alkenes, like other hydrocarbons, do not mix with or dissolve in water. They have no acid–base properties.

Functional group test

Test Observations Inferences

Shake with dilute, aqueous bromine. Bromine rapidly decolorised. (Note This test detects the presence of
that a hydrocarbon that is not an alkene double bonds but other
alkene will simply extract the compounds can decolorise bromine.
bromine colour from the aqueous
layer.)
Shake with a few drops of dilute, Purple colour quickly disappears. A compound that can reduce
acidified potassium managanate(VII). manganate(VII). Other organic
compounds gives this result.

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 15 Alcohols and halogenoalkanes Data sheet

Alcohols
Functional group:

Physical properties
All common alcohols are colourless liquids.

Solubility and acid–base character

Alcohols with relatively short hydrocarbon chains are soluble in water.
Alcohols are not acidic in aqueous solution.

Functional group tests

Test Observations Inferences

Add solid PCl5 to the anhydrous Mixture fizzes. A colourless, fuming, The gas is hydrogen chloride from the
compound. acidic gas forms. reaction of PCl5 with an −OH group.

Warm with an acidic solution of Orange solution turns green and the Primary and secondary (but not
potassium dichromate(VI). vapour given off has a stronger smell tertiary) alcohols are oxidised to
than the alcohol. more volatile aldehydes or ketones.

Halogenoalkanes
Functional group:

Physical properties
Most common halogenoalkanes are colourless liquids at room temperature.

Solubility and acid–base character

Halogenoalkanes do not mix with water. They have no acid–base properties.

Functional group tests

Test Observations Inferences

Add a drop of the halogenoalkane to Heavy yellow precipitate forms in Hydrolysis with water slowly
a little ethanol. Mix with silver seconds. produces halide ions from covalent
nitrate solution. Stand in a warm Cream precipite forms after 2–5 molecules. The silver ions form
water bath. minutes. precipitates: white AgCl forms very
slowly from a chloroalkane; creamy
Faint white precipitate after about
AgBr forms a little faster from a
10 minutes.
bromoalkane and yellow AgI forms
rapidly from an iodoalkane.
Warm with a solution of sodium A white, creamy-yellow or yellow Hydrolysis with alkali produces
hydroxide, acidify with nitric acid precipitate on adding silver nitrate. halide ions from covalent molecules.
and then add silver nitrate. Hydrolysis is fastest with In acid solution the silver ions form
iodoalkanes and slowest with precipitates: white AgCl from a
chloroalkanes. chloroalkane; creamy AgBr from a
bromoalkane and yellow AgI from an
iodoalkane.

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 15 Alcohols and halogenoalkanes Data sheet

Aldehydes
Functional group:

Physical properties
Methanal is a gas at room temperature. Ethanal boils at 21 C. All other common aldehydes are colourless liquids.

Solubility and acid–base character

The simpler aldehyes such as methanal and ethanal are freely soluble in water. They have no acid or base properties
in aqueous solution.

Functional group tests

Test Observations Inferences

Warm with freshly prepared Fehling’s Mixture turns green, then the blue Aldehydes reduce copper(II) ions in
solution or Benedict’s reagent. colour goes and an orange-red the reagent to copper(I) oxide.
precipitate forms.

Ketones
Functional group:

Physical properties
All common ketones are colourless liquids at room temperature.

Solubility and acid–base character

The simpler ketones such as propanone mix freely with water but have no acid or base properties in aqueous
solution.

Functional group tests

Test Observations Inferences

Warm with freshly prepared Fehling’s No reaction. Ketones do not reduce Fehling’s
solution or Benedict’s reagent. solution.

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 15 Alcohols and halogenoalkanes Data sheet

Carboxylic acids
Functional group:

Physical properties
The simplest carboxylic acids, such as methanoic and ethanoic acid, are colourless liquids.

Solubility and acid–base character

The simpler acids dissolve in water. They are weak acids. They give a solution with a pH below 7.

Functional group tests

Test Observations Inferences

Warm a little solid with dilute Smell of vapour. Ethanoates give a strong smell of
hydrochloric acid. vinegar.

Add a solution of sodium carbonate. The mixture fizzes and gives off a Carbon dioxide given off by an acid.
colourless gas that turns limewater
cloudy white.

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 17 Instrumental analysis Data sheet

Infrared spectroscopy data

Bonds Range of wavenumbers/cm1
C−H stretching in alkanes 2962–2853
C−H stretching in alkenes 3095–3010

C−H stretching in the CHO of aldehydes 2900–2820 and 2775–2700

O−H stretching in alcohols 3750–3200
O−H stretching in carboxylic acids 3300–2500
N−H stretching amines 3500–3300

C=O stretching in aldehydes 1740–1720

C=O stretching in ketones 1700–1680
C−Cl stretching in chloroalkanes 800–600
C−Br stretching in bromoalkanes 600–500

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