SPRINGS

The use of springs is common within many engineering applications. They provide a
controlled force that will assist sealing (in clutches, and safety valves), limit movement
(in governors), and can be easily adjustable. Springs are also able to store energy, and
return it to the system (in engine cylinder valves).
The types of springs that will be studied with this section are closed coiled helical
springs.

extension or deflection = 

LOAD = W

As the coils are closely pitched, then the axial load will produce a twist on the spring
material that equates to the moment applied by the load. Thus the load W will apply a
twist or torque of (W × R), where R is the radius of the spring.

From the standard torsion equation T =  = G

J r L

J for the spring = J for any solid bar = π d4

32

r = the radius of the coil wire, not the spring, as we are examining the stress caused at
the wire by an external torque, so r = d
2

Note the notation we are using, the small letters relate to the wire and the larger or
capital letters refer to the coil or spring.

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Rearranging the torsion equation gives  = T r = W × R × d/2 = 16 W R
J π × d4 π d3
32

The deflection of the spring under load will be . We shall investigate the work done
on the spring by the external load, with the work done to twist the spring.

So external work applied by the load W = internal work required to twist the coil

So average force × distance = Average torque × twist

1 (W + 0)  = 1 (T + 0)  or W  = T 
2 2

From the torsion equation T = G  so TL = 

J L JG

 = WRL
JG
The length of the spring will be approximately the circumference of each coil times the
number of coils. So L = 2RN, where N is the number of coils.

Equating the work done and substituting gives

 = T = WR × WRL and L = 2RN

W W × JG

 = W2R22πRN = 64WR3N
W πd4G Gd4
32

Finally we also need to know the equation for the stiffness of a spring, as this parameter
is widely used in calculations.

From Load = stiffness × deflection, so stiffness k = W


k = WGd4 = Gd4
64WR3N 64R3N

(recall Force on a spring P (or F) = kx)

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Student example

A closed coiled spring is made with the following dimensions:

Spring diameter = 80mm

Wire diameter = 6mm
No of coils = 7

When subjected to a load of 66N, calculate

a) the deflection of the spring

b) the shear stress in the spring

Take the Modulus of Rigidity of the spring as 80GN/m2

From  = 64WR3N then  = 64 × 66 × 0.043 × 7 = 18.25 mm

Gd4 80 × 109 × 0.0064

From  = 16 W R = 16 × 66 × 0.04 = 62.25 MN/m2

πd3 π × 0.0063

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Springs in parallel

What happens when springs are connected in parallel, which would be the standard case
for the support of most diesel engine cylinder head valves?
Each spring will support part of the load, so Wtotal = W1 + W2

If we simplify the analysis by assumed in the

deflection of both springs are equal then
from Wtotal = W1 + W2 and as W = k

then ktotal  = k1 + k2. Cancelling the

common  factor, then ktotal = k1 + k2

Thus the spring arrangement will be stiffer by

the addition of both individual springs.

All other relationships that were shown in the

basic single spring hold for the combined
springs. We shall now analyse a problem on
springs to demonstrate the application of this
theory.

Parallel Springs
Student example

A compound spring has 2 closed coiled helical springs having exactly the same length
when unloaded. The outer spring has 16 coils of 12mm diameter bar coiled to a mean
diameter of 125mm. The inner spring has 24 coils with a mean diameter of 75mm. The
working stress in each spring is to be the same.
Calculate
a) The diameter of the wire bar for the inner spring
b) the stiffness of the compound bar

Take G = 70GN/m2

The question states that the shear stress in each spring is the same, so we will equate
these.

 = 16 W1 R1 = 16 W2 R2
πd13 πd23
so
W1 × 0.0625 = W2 × 0.0375
0.012 3 d23

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 W1 = W2 × 1.037 ×10-6
d2 3

Also from  = 64WR3N

Gd4

we also know that the deflection of each spring must be the same, as they were the same
lengths before being compressed.

So equating the deflection for each spring gives 64W1R13N1 = 64W2R23N2

Gd14 Gd24
so
W1 × 0.06253 × 16 = W2 × 0.03753 × 24
G0.0124 G × d2 4

so
W1 = W2 × 6.718 × 10-9
d24

Combining the two equations with W1 gives

W2 × 6.718 × 10-9 = W2 × 1.037 ×10-6

d24 d23

6.718 × 10-9 = d24 = d2

1.037 ×10-6 d23

d = 6.48 mm

Now that the wire diameter has been found we can find the stiffness of each spring, so

stiffness k1 = Gd4 = 70 × 109 × 0.0124 = 5.81 kN/m

64R3N 64 × 0.06253 × 16

stiffness k2 = Gd4 = 70 × 109 × 0.006484 = 1.52 kN/m

64R3N 64 × 0.03753 × 24

So the combined stiffness is k1 + k2 = ktotal = 5.81 + 1.52 = 7.33kN/m

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Typical examination question
Two closed coiled helical springs are concentrically fitted in parallel to vertically
support an engine exhaust valve of mass 100 kg.

Wire diameter No of coils Mean coil diameter

Outer spring coil 16mm 8 350mm
Inner spring coil 16mm 10 250mm

The outer spring is compressed 5mm more than the inner spring.

Calculate EACH of the following

b) The compression required on the springs to support the valve (8)
b) The stress in each spring when they are opened by the application of a 400N
force (8)

Take the modulus of rigidity of the spring material as 80 GN/m2

For this question we will again quote the formulas we derived earlier, and use the
information in the question stem to assist us.

deflection  = 64WR3N We have also been informed that o = i + 0.005

Gd4

So equating the deflection for each spring gives

o = 64WoRo3No = 64Wo × 0.1753 × 8 = Wo × 0.523 × 10-3 m

Gdo4 80 × 109 × 0.0164

and
i = 64WiRi3Ni = 64Wi × 0.1253 × 10 = Wi × 0.238 × 10-3 m
Gdi4 80 × 109 × 0.0164

So equating these two deflection gives 0.523Wo = 0.238Wi + 5

Wo = 0.238Wi + 5
0.523 0.523
I have omitted the term 10-3 on all terms for clarity and to make the calculation slightly
easier. You are advised to simplify equations if possible, as that will reduce the number
of calculations required, and hence you should make fewer mistakes.

We also know the load both springs have to support which is 100kg or 981N

So Wo + WI = 981, thus Wo = 981 – Wi

981 – Wi = 0.238Wi + 5
0.523 0.523

so 981 - WI = 0.455WI + 9.56

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So Wi (1 + 0.455) = 981 – 9.56

thus Wi = 667.7N, and therefore Wo = 313.3N

From o = Wo × 0.523 × 10-3 thus o = 163.9mm

i = Wi × 0. 238 × 10-3 thus i = 158.9mm

The check of course is that o is 5mm larger than i which is correct

The springs are now loaded by an additional 400N force. BUT this force must be split
between the two springs. The only thing we know is that the additional deflection of the
two springs must be equal.

I will use the relationship that we used earlier

So o = Wo × 0.523 × 10-3 and i = Wi × 0. 238 × 10-3 where o now equals i
therefore
Wo = Wi × 0. 238 × 10-3
0.523 × 10-3
From the question Wo + Wi = 400, thus Wo = 400 – Wi =0.238 Wi
0.523

So 400 = Wi (1 + 0.455), thus the additional force placed on the inner spring is 274.9N,
and the additional load placed on the outer spring is 125.1N

Hence the total load carried by the inner spring is the initial load + additional load =
667.7 + 274.9 = 942.6N

Total load carried by the outer spring is the initial + additional load
= 313.3 + 125.1 = 438.4N
From the formula shear stress  = 16 W R
πd3

outer = 16 W R = 16 × 438.4 × 0.175 = 95.4 MN/m2

πd3 π 0.0163

inner = 16 W R = 16 × 942.6 × 0.125 = 146.5 MN/m2

πd3 π 0.0163

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Springs in series

In this configuration, springs are connected in series so that the springs are connected
end to end. Hence the load on each spring is common
so Wtotal = W1 = W2

However the deflection on each spring must be added to find the total deflection
so total = 1 + 2 = W + W = W(k1 + k2)
k1 k2 (k1 × k2)

Thus the composite stiffness of the spring arranged in series is (k1 × k2)
(k1 + k2)

Alternately we can show that the

combined stiffness k can be found from

` 1=1+1
k k1 k2

Series Springs
Student example

A composite spring has two closed coiled helical springs connected in series. Each
spring has 12 coils at a mean diameter of 25mm. If the diameter of the wire in one
spring is 2.5mm, and the combined stiffness is 700N/m, then calculate the diameter of
wire of the second spring. Take G = 70GN/m2

Calculate the load that can be carried by the composite spring, and the total extension
when the maximum shear stress is 180MN/m2

The stiffness of the first spring can be calculated from

stiffness k = W = WGd4 = Gd4

 64WR3N 64R3N.

Note how the standard formula for individual springs can be applied.
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so k1 = 70 × 109 × 0.0254 = 1823N/m
64 × 0.01253 × 12

As the combined stiffness k can be found from

1 = 1 + 1,
k k1 k2
then 1 = 1 + 1, so k2 = 1136.3N/m
700 1823 k2
Thus stiffness k2 = 1136.3 = GD4 = 70 × 109 × d4.
64R3N 64 × 0.01253 × 12
Hence d2 = 2.22mm

From  = 16WR then for the given maximum shear stress, the load can be
πd3
found for either spring. For this application the radius R (of the spring) and the shear
stress is common, but the spring diameters are different. Hence it would be wise to
calculate both spring possible loads for the maximum shear stress criteria to ensure that
the correct solution is found.

So for the first spring  = 180 × 106 = 16WR = 16W1 × 0.125

πd3 π0.00253

Hence limiting load W1 = 44.2N

For the second spring  = 180 × 106 = 16WR = 16W1 × 0.125

πd3 π0.002223

Hence limiting load W2 = 30.9N

So the highest load that can be carried is 30.9N

The extension of the combined spring is W = 30.9 = 44.1 mm

k 700

The extension can also be found from the individual extensions of each spring, so as
 = 64WR3N then 1 = 64 × 30.9 × 0.01253 × 12 = 16.95 mm
Gd4 70 × 109 × 0.00254

Then 2 = 64 × 30.9 × 0.01253 × 12 = 27.26 mm

70 × 109 × 0.002224

So total extension is 16.95 + 27.26 = 44.21mm, which is similar to that found from the
combined stiffness.

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Student Questions
SAQ
The mean diameter of a close coiled helical spring is 8 times the wire diameter and the
energy expended in stretching the spring 250 mm is 2 kJ. If the maximum shear stress
is not to exceed 200 MN/m2 determine (a) the wire diameter (b) the mean coil diameter
(c) the number of free or active coils.
G = 80 GN/m2

Ans: (a) 40.4 mm (b) 323.2 mm (c) 12.3

SAQ
A close coiled helical spring is deflected 20 mm when subjected to an axial force F.
The mean coil diameter is 40 mm and the wire diameter 5 mm. If the shear stress in the
spring material is not to exceed 240 MN/m2 determine the deflecting force F and the
number of coils in the spring.
G = 100 GN/m2

Ans: 295 N and 8.25 free coils

SAQ
A close coiled helical spring with a wire diameter of 10 mm and mean coil diameter of
100 mm with 12 effective coils is not to carry a shear stress greater than 250 MN/m2
when subjected to an axial force. For these conditions determine (a) the maximum axial
force that can be exerted on the spring (b) the corresponding deflection (c) the strain
energy stored when the maximum force is applied.
G = 80 GN/m2

Ans: (a) 982 N (b) 117.5 mm (c) 57.5 J

SAQ
The control spring for a relief valve is required to have a stiffness of 90 kN/m and not
more than 6 free coils in its length. If the mean coil diameter is five times the wire
diameter determine the wire diameter.
G = 90 GN/m2

Ans: 6 mm

SAQ
A pair of governor springs is placed co-axially and concentric with each other, the
details of the two springs being as follows:
N d R
Spring A: 6 3 mm 18 mm
Spring B : 10 5 mm 25 mm

In the free position Spring B is 12 mm longer than Spring A.

Determine
(i) the axial force applied to Spring B if Spring A is just on the point of being
compressed
(ii) the deflection of Spring B when an axial force of 120 N is applied to the springs.
G = 100 GN/m2 (both springs) Ans: (a) 75 N (b) 16.5 mm

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OPEN COILED SPRINGS WITH AXIAL LOAD W

When the coils are relatively far apart we must consider the helix angle , and
this increases the degree of difficulty of the calculations.

We now find that axial LOAD and axial TORQUE each produce both SHEAR
stress and BENDING (or Direct) stress.

Helix angle = α
Number of coils = n
Wire length = L = 2πRn
cos α

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For the spring wire:

For Torsion J =  d4
32

For Bending I =  d4
64

where d = wire diameter

And so it can be shown that:

effective Torque
T = W R cos α

effective Bending Moment

M = W R sin α

It can easily be shown that for a shaft undergoing torsion:

Strain energy UT = ½ T θ = T2 L
2JG

and for a beam undergoing bending:

Strain energy UB = ½ M θ = M2 L
2EI

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So for the spring which is undergoing both torsion and bending:

Total strain energy

U = UT + UB

So U = ½ T θ + ½ M θ

Total U = T2 L + M2 L
2JG 2EI

For a Axial load W

Or U = (W R cos α)2 L + (W R sin α)2 L

2 JG 2 EI

So U = L W2 R2 (cos2 α + sin2 α)
2 ( JG EI )

But for any spring:

Strain energy U = ½W

So W = L W2 R2 (cos2 α + sin2 α)
2 2 ( JG EI )

Or  = L W R2 (cos2 α + sin2 α)
( JG EI )

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But the wire length is:

L = 2πRn
cos α

So  = 2 π n W R3 (cos2 α + sin2 α)
cos α ( JG EI )

The angular deflection (angle of twist) is given by:

θ = W R L cosα sinα ( 1 - 1)
JG EI

Stresses in the Wire

Bending stress: (direct)

σ = My
I

M = W R sin α
y = r

Torsional stress: (shear)

τ = Tr
J

T = W R cos α

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AXIAL TORQUE -- WIND UP ANGLE θ

Applied torque = T
Wind up angle = θ

It can be shown that strain energy in spring is:

U = Tθ
2

U = Tθ = L T2 (sin2 α + cos2 α)
2 2 ( JG EI )

Hence find θ

Wahl correction factor

Limitations of the simple theory

Whilst the simple torsion theory can be applied successfully to bars with
small curvature without significant error the theory becomes progressively
more inappropriate as the curvature increases and become high as in most
helical springs. The stress and deflection equations derived previously are
therefore, slightly inaccurate in practice and particularly for small D/d
ratios. For accurate assessment of stress and deflection account should be
taken of the influence of curvature and slope by applying factors due to
Wahl.
Wahl proposes the introduction of a correction factors which are related to
the so-called spring index
C = D/d
Thus for a central load W

Maximum stress τ = K Tr
J

With K = (4C-1) + 0.651

(4C – 4) C

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OPEN COILED SPRINGS

1. An open coiled helical spring has 10 coils and must produce an extension of
8 mm under maximum load. The helix angle is 20O and mean diameter is 76
mm. If the wire diameter is 6 mm determine:

i) the max axial load [20 N]

ii) the max bending stress [12.3 MN/m2]
iii) the max shear stress [16.8 MN/m2]
iv) the spring stiffness [2.5 kN/m]
v) the angle of twist between the ends if the axial load is replaced with a
torque of 1.5 Nm [0.302 radians]

Assume E = 210 GN/m2 and G = 70 GN/m2

2. An open coiled spring with a helix angle of 30O must produce a

displacement of 23 mm when carrying its maximum axial load of 40 N. If the
spring material is 6 mm diameter rod, and the angular displacement between
its ends is 1.15O under load, determine its mean radius.
[182 mm]

Assume E = 210 GN/m2 and G = 70 GN/m2

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