Meteorological Technology International Abril 2015

THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF WEATHER, CLIMATE AND HYDROLOGY TECHNOLOGIES AND SERVICES
Meteorological
Meteorological
T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N A T I O N A L
TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL
SEPTEMBER 2015
PLUS:
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SOLAR IMPULSE 2
ION RTAN
HAS E THE INDUS T
FULL M VER SEEN? TRY
TECHNETEOROLOG
EXPO OLOGY WO ICAL
The meteorological specialists at Si2’s Mission Control PREVIE R
W INS LD
MORE IDE
PUBLISHED BY UKIP MEDIA & EVENTS LTD
Center in Monaco predict the best possible conditions TH

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RADAR The lowdown on
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and lower costs Science laboratories
6
66 14
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CONTENTS
COVER STORY: 44 METEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY
SOLAR IMPULSE 2 WORLD EXPO 2015
The combined efforts of the met and simulation experts on A comprehensive roundup of what you can expect to see in
the ground give Solar Impulse 2’s pilots the vital back-up they Brussels this October
need to navigate the safest route possible
62 RADAR DATA
14 RADAR TECHNOLOGY Processing of radar data in various weather conditions
Dramatically improved performance, faster updates, higher
reliability and lower lifetime costs are all possible in the future 66 OZONE MAPPING AND PROFILER
for radars with the adoption of certain key technologies SUITE
An instrument on the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership
20 REMOTELY PILOTED AIRCRAFT weather satellite is yielding new information
SYSTEMS
Remotely piloted aircraft systems can be used to predict 72 THUNDERSTORM WARNING
and evaluate volcanic ash using proximal remote-sensing SYSTEMS
monitoring technology Ensuring minimal disruption at airports is vital – thunderstorm
warning systems can determine the development of a storm
26 NASA ER-2 and ensure that key personnel are prepared
Two Lockheed ER-2s are used as flying laboratories in NASA’s
Sub-Orbital Science Program. Meteorological Technology 78 PRECIPITATION SENSORS
International talks to the program’s pilots about the challenges Lambrecht Meteo has taken over and extended Wilhelm
of flying these unique aircraft, and the meteorological Lambrecht’s operations and is launching new products, with
equipment installed on board special focus on the novel precipitation sensor, rain[e]
32 WIND ENERGY 82 INTERVIEW: ITaRS

Cédric Arbez, project manager at Canada’s TechnoCentre Susanne Crewell coordinates EU-funded project Initial Training
Éolien, discusses the development of sensors for the wind for atmospheric Remote Sensing. Here, she and one of her
energy industry in cold climates students talk about the training of a new wave of scientists
38 UK MET OFFICE 88 VOLCANIC ASH SENSORS

The UK government has given the UK Met Office the go-ahead To help ensure the safety of aircraft in flight, the need for
to buy a new high-performance computer that is set to deliver real-time observation of volcanic ash cloud is critical. But
huge socioeconomic benefits what is the industry doing?
ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SEPTEMBER 2015 • 1

92 COMPACT WEATHER RADAR 122 DATALOGGERS
A compact X-band weather radar for wide application fields Keller AG has been supplying maintenance-free, battery-
operated level probes with remote datalogging for
96 S-BAND TECHNOLOGY observations
Designing and manufacturing the world’s most powerful and
advanced S-band weather radars 124 MICROWAVE RADIOMETERS
Microwave radiometers hold the key to identifying supercooled
100 NET RADIATION liquid water
Four-component instruments provide accuracy over a wide
range of environmental surfaces 126 COMET
Geosciences training for the global community
104 LIGHTNING DETECTION
Lightning detection systems need to be able to measure the 130 WEATHER WORKSTATIONS
electrical charge per flash, as well as track the rise time of the Integrating multiple application solutions in a single weather
current discharge workstation
108 HAZARD MODELING PROGRAM 132 OBSERVING SYSTEMS

The ALOHA hazard modeling program provides real-time Conventional observing systems can be complemented with
meteorological information to emergency personnel lidar measurements to better understand and forecast the
hazards of severe storms
110 RADIOSONDE MEASUREMENTS
Radiosondes measure critical atmospheric variables with 136 X-BAND TECHNOLOGY
accuracy and precision that cannot be obtained with other There is resurgent interest in X-band radars for
meteorological observations hydrometeorology
116 RAIN GAUGES 140 ROAD VISIBILITY

Tougher requirements are coming into place to maximize the New smart sensing and analytics technology delivers real-time
accuracy of commercially available instruments for measuring visibility change notifications, data and visualization
rainfall
144 AIRCRAFT OBSERVATIONS
118 AIR NAVIGATION Improved weather prediction using high-resolution aircraft data
ENAV has invested in technology and education in order to
fulfill WMO standards and guarantee high levels of safety within 150 METROLOGY SYSTEMS
the air navigation sector Customized metrology systems for automatic weather stations
120 SOLAR PARKS 152 RAIN FORECASTING

Utility scale solar plants are growing, both in the number being A new weather forecasting model developed by Chinese
constructed and their size, using two main types of researchers purports to detect heavy rainstorms weeks before
technology: photovoltaic panels and concentrated solar power they take place
88
150
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SER VICE
NOL OGIE S AND
cal
ROL OGY TECH
AND HYD
Meteorologi
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OF WEATHE
AL REV IEW
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THE INTE
Meteorolog
LEARN MORE ABOUT

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OUR ADVERTISERS
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gical spec itions for
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orld solar
PUBLISHED
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The Netherlands • France • United States of America • Singapore

The forecast
Acting editor
Bunny Richards
([email protected])
Production editor Alex Bradley

Chief sub editor Andrew Pickering
Deputy production editor
Nick Shepherd
Senior sub editor
Christine Velarde
Welcome to Meteorological Technology International, Sub editor Alasdair Morton
the only review of weather, oceanic prediction, Art director James Sutcliffe
measurement and analysis technology Art Editor Louise Adams,

Design team Andy Bass,
Anna Davie, Andrew Locke,
Craig Marshall, Nicola Turner,
am no forecasting expert, however I have Council for Global Initiatives, will investigate the
I
Julie Welby, Ben White
every confidence in predicting that this climate impacts of non-fossil fuel alternatives.
year’s Meteorological Technology Expo To further whet your appetite, this issue Head of production & logistics
will be bigger and better than ever before! And includes exclusive features sourced from yet more Ian Donovan
you don’t need a degree in meteorology to of our leading speakers at this year’s conference. Deputy production manager
Lewis Hopkins
understand why. With more than 165 exhibitors Turn to page 14 to read the thoughts of Robert
Production team Carole Doran,
under one roof, plus the industry’s most important Palmer, executive director of the Advanced Radar Cassie Inns, Frank Millard,
conference of the year, Meteorological Technology Research Center at the University of Oklahoma, Robyn Skalsky
World Expo is quite simply a ‘must-attend’ event on the future of weather radar. Meanwhile, the
for anyone looking to enhance their weather, UK Met Office’s executive head of observations, Publication & sales directors
climate and hydrology technologies and services. Jonathan Taylor, examines how the need for Simon Willard, Sandy Greenway
The show takes place from October 13-15, more accurate environmental modeling will
Editorial director
in Brussels, Belgium – for just a small sample impact the requirements for observations (page Anthony James
of what’s on offer, please turn to page 44 where 38). And the University of Bologna’s Alberto Managing director
our preview for this year’s event starts. As our Bernabeo writes on the latest advances in remotely Graham Johnson
preview makes clear, Meteorological Technology piloted aircraft systems (RPAS) for weather CEO
World Expo will host more weather forecasting monitoring (page 20). Tony Robinson
technologies and climate change measurement Finally, I would like to draw your attention to
technologies and services than anywhere else our cover story – an exclusive interview with the
in the world, not to mention a free-to-attend meteorological team based at the Mission Control
conference, with 60+ leading speakers Center in Monaco for the breathtaking Solar
discussing the hottest topics of the year. There’s Impulse 2 – the world’s first around-the-world
even a free-to-attend drinks party, sponsored by flight using only solar power. As you’d expect,
Earth Networks. forecasting technology and analysis have a vital ISSN 2042-7190
Conference speakers include Rodica Nitu from role to play; as the article makes clear, it is published by
UKIP Media & Events Ltd
Meteorological Service of Canada, who will be ultimately down to the human skills of the
discussing the WMO project ‘Solid Precipitation two-man met team to correctly analyze the Contact us at:
Meteorological Technology
Intercomparison Experiment’ (WMO SPICE). models and plot the best route. I wonder if it’s International
Bruce Baker, director of NOAA’s Atmospheric too late for them to include a stopover this Abinger House, Church Street,
Turbulence and Diffusion division, will examine October in Brussels? Dorking, Surrey, RH4 1DF, UK
the needs of future climate observing systems, tel.: +44 1306 743744
email: [email protected]
while Tom Blees, president of the USA’s Science Anthony James, editorial director
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Solar Impulse 2
by Thomas Newdick
ROUTE MASTERS
Weather forecasting
technology and analysis are
key to safe navigation on
around-the-world solar flight
Solar Impulse 2 preparing to land in Hawaii on

July 3, having taken off from Nagoya, Japan on
June 29 this year
(Photo: Solar Impulse/Jean Revillard/Rezo.ch)

Solar Impulse 2
The combined efforts of

the met and simulation
experts on the ground give
Solar Impulse 2’s pilots
the vital back-up they
need to navigate the safest
route possible
t’s the final night of Solar Impulse

I 2’s record-breaking transpacific
flight. This, the longest and most
difficult leg of a unique around-the-world
attempt, will take it from Nagoya, Japan, to
Hawaii. At the controls of the pioneering
solar-powered aircraft is André Borschberg,
Solar Impulse CEO and project co-founder.
With batteries charged and night falling, it
is time for the pilot to bring the aircraft –
with a wingspan of 72m, greater than that
of a Boeing 747-8 jumbo jet – down to an
altitude of around 3,000ft. At this level the
aircraft is more energy-efficient due to the
increased air density, but remains above
low-level clouds, thus avoiding turbulence
and allowing the pilot to rest. But at this
time of the year, the clouds can reach
9,000ft and Borschberg’s challenge now is to
find a hole in the clouds, with only the light
of the moon to guide him down to 3,000ft.
But all he can see is a wall of clouds
over the Pacific Ocean, and he has no
onboard avionics to help him find his way
through. Borschberg eventually overcame
this ‘hairy moment’ – finding a hole in
the clouds before landing in Hawaii the
following morning after a flight of
117 hours and 52 minutes – but it is
indicative of the importance of weather to
the Solar Impulse 2 (Si2) project, which
began its around-the-world mission in
March. The aircraft, the result of a project
led by Swiss explorers Bertrand Piccard and
André Borschberg, uses 17,000 solar cells
built into its wing to generate energy for four
electric motors.
The Si2 flight profile includes a climb
to an altitude of around 28,000ft during
daylight hours, where the aircraft’s solar
cells work to charge the batteries. This is
followed by a glide down to lower altitude
– typically around 5,000ft – at night, when
the pilot will get some rest while the engines
run on stored battery power.
Big, light and underpowered, the Si2 is
not happy flying in turbulent air, and its
flight path not only needs to factor in
charging the solar cells, but also the impact
of wind on an aircraft that weighs only as
much as a small van: 2,300kg.

Solar Impulse 2
System model supplements this. Finally, a

fine-mesh non-hydrostatic mesoscale model,
also from the USA, is used. The different
models are compared in order to find the
optimum route. In particular, careful
attention is paid to the location of cirrus
clouds. Here, the American model is
considered rather pessimistic and its readings
need to be confirmed using the fine-mesh
The Solar Impulse 2
team make their final data. Ultimately, says Si2 media relations
plans for the Muscat manager Alexandra Gindroz, it is down to
to Ahmedabad stage the human skills of the two-man met team
of the around-the- to correctly analyze the models and plot
world flight the best route.
(Photo: Solar Impulse/
Pizzolante/Rezo.ch)
Simulation
Simulation plays a key role in decision
The demands of flying under solar power by Wim de Troyer, works closely with the making, and related tools were developed
mean that weather forecasting technology simulation team of three, all of whom specifically for the Si2. On the simulation
and analysis have to be harnessed to ensure have backgrounds in mathematics and side, European high-tech specialist Altran
the best possible chance of success. Each engineering. Trullemans himself has serves as an on-hand engineering
stage of the around-the-world flight has to be been involved in the Solar Impulse project consultancy, embedded within the Solar
meticulously planned in advance – and for around a decade, during which time Impulse project team at the MCC. All
meteorological conditions, as well as the a considerable amount of theory has available data has been used in simulations
performance of the aircraft, then have to be been developed. that began as long ago as 2005, in
closely monitored throughout the duration of As a result, the Si2 mission-planning anticipation of the around-the-world attempt.
each leg – of which eight from a planned total team is capable of predicting (as far as is The demands of Si2 mission planning are
of 13 have been completed to date. possible) the most suitable routes for their described as a “3D chess game” – finding a
It was weather that put paid to a previous solar-powered airplane. However, the flight suitable corridor needs to take into account
attempt to reach Hawaii in May. Forty-four path cannot just be based around the unique flight profile of the solar flier, with
hours after taking off from Nanjing, China, meteorological parameters: the MCC uses its requirement to operate at different
the weather team noted the development of a software to bring together data relating to altitudes at different times of day.
cold front that would be too difficult to cross. aircraft performance, weather (clouds, wind For each flight scenario, the number of
After assuming a holding position above the and sun all play a critical role) and the possible routes explored by the simulation
Japanese Sea, it was decided that Borschberg various rules and restrictions issued by the software may run into the thousands. While
should divert to Nagoya. relevant air traffic control (ATC) authorities. the weather may appear good, it might not
The met cell within the MCC makes use match the exacting demands of the aircraft.
Mission control of different planning models. The first of Particular attention has to be paid to
The Si2’s mission control center (MCC) is these is the European Centre for headwind, especially at night. A tailwind is
located in Monaco, France, where a team of Medium-Range Weather Forecasts preferred, but a cross tailwind exceeding 45°
around 20 specialists is responsible for (ECMWF). The American Global Forecast means the aircraft will start to head on a
planning and managing the flights, bringing
together data from experts in weather,
simulation, engineering and air traffic
control. All this is coordinated by mission
engineers and supervised by a flight director.
The mission engineers (five of whom are
permanent) have the responsibility of
tracking the performance of the Si2 during
each flight and adapting flight tactics; their
areas of expertise include electrical
components, autopilot and oxygen supply.
While the Si2 is airborne, the flight
parameters are recalculated every 6 to 12
hours, with particular focus on the prevailing
weather situation and the amount of available
sunlight. If the mission engineers judge
appropriate, the flight altitude and route will
be modified to make best use of the available
stored energy.
The weather team at the MCC comprises
two specialists from the Belgian Royal
Institute of Meteorology, led by Luc Team preparations for the Pacific crossing (Photo: Solar Impulse/Pizzolante/Rezo.ch)
Trullemans. The duo, which is completed

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Solar Impulse 2
LUC TRULLEMANS
AND WIM DE TROYER
The head of the weather Piccard’s around-the- support for the first
team at the MCC in world hot-air balloon solo hot-air balloon
Monaco, Luc Trullemans, mission. Trullemans flight to the North Pole,
joined the Belgian Royal was also ‘on board’ completed by David
Institute of Meteorology, for another successful Hempleman-Adams
in 1974 after completing around-the-world hot- in 2000.
a degree in weather air balloon flight, In 2013 Wim de Troyer,
forecasting with the undertaken by Steve also from the Belgian
Belgian Air Force. Fossett, in the southern Royal Institute, joined
Trullemans is a hemisphere. Involved in Trullemans on the Solar
specialist in routing 10 victorious campaigns Impulse team. De
different types of aircraft by different teams in the Troyer’s first input was
on long-duration flights, Gordon Bennett Cup for during the project’s flight
having previously ballooning, Trullemans across the USA that took
worked on Bertrand also provided weather place in the same year.
Flight route for

the second flight,
the flight, the pilot entered a ‘holding area’
from Muscat to for a period of several hours, avoiding clouds
Ahmedabad and ensuring that the Si2 was not traveling
(Photo: Solar too fast: the aim is to follow the clouds,
Impulse/ without passing through them. If the aircraft
Pizzolante) finds itself behind the clouds, it then
becomes necessary to ensure they don’t
catch up with the Si2.
For longer flights – such as the eighth leg
from Nagoya to Hawaii – the challenge of
finding a weather-appropriate window
becomes trickier. “For shorter, one-day
flights, you will know the landing
conditions in advance,” explains Gindroz.
The flight plan is
studied carefully
“If something changes, you can respond to
(Photo: Solar Impulse/ it.” However, once flights extend to five
Revillard/Rezo.ch) days, then it becomes very difficult to
establish the landing conditions with
accuracy. This aspect, as far as Gindroz
sideways course. Other times, the demands simulation teams were working hand in hand is concerned, has been the single most
of ATC restrictions come into play, as was the before the definitive Si2 had even achieved its challenging when it comes to planning the
case when leaving Japan to begin the maiden flight. Si2’s route. Gindroz notes that further
transpacific leg. A further constraint is the challenges have been presented by ATC
availability of a landing slot at the end of each Cross-checking demands in certain regions, since these
flight: due to the effect of thermals, landings With no meteorological sensors on board the have to be woven in with the technical and
have to be made in the early evening, or later, aircraft, the pilot’s relationship with the MCC meteorological parameters.
depending on local conditions. team on the ground is critical. However, as in After the successful completion of the
The Solar Impulse team embarked on the the example at the start of this article, the transpacific leg on July 3, the Solar Impulse
around-the-world flight with the confidence pilot also has a role to play in visually team announced that irreversible damage to
of having prepared using simulations, in the monitoring the weather and any the batteries would postpone further flights
course of which several thousand ‘flights’ discrepancies with the MCC’s data. While the by the Si2 until spring 2016. The damage
were completed in a range of weather MCC sends the pilot a radar picture, he in was sustained during the first ascent on day
conditions. As well as providing invaluable turn provides the met team on the ground one of the record-breaking flight, when
data, the simulations also put all aspects of with up-to-date observations relating to battery temperature increased to excessive
the Si2 team through their paces during a full anything missing from this picture. In levels due to over-insulation of the gondolas.
simulation of the around-the-world flight particular, the pilot fills in data on the However, with eight legs now complete, and
with real weather data. This was conducted presence of cirrus clouds, and if necessary, almost half the journey flown, Si2 shows
from March to August 2014, during which the MCC will adapt the route accordingly. every sign of completing the first-ever
the (piloted) aircraft did not leave the ground. An example of this exchange between around-the-world solar flight in 2016. z
Throughout this test run, the met and pilot and MCC was seen during the
simulation teams proved their approach and transpacific flight, where, in the words of Thomas Newdick is a writer and editor specializing in
models for future cooperation. Thanks to Alexandra Gindroz, Borschberg’s flying aerospace and defense subjects. He is the author of
simulations such as this, the met and became “really tactical”. At different stages of several books and lives in Berlin

DO YOU NEED
BETTER FORECASTING
AND MEASUREMENT
TECHNOLOGIES?
More than 165 exhibitors are expected to participate in the
world’s largest fair dedicated to meteorological forecasting
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THE WORLD’S LARGES T

FORECASTING AND ME A
TECHNOLOGY EXHIBITI O
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2015 EXHIBITOR LIST updated April 27, 2015 E X P EC T
3a srl • Adolf Thies GmbH & Co. KG • AKIM Elektronik Ltd • All Weather Inc • Antenna Research Associates Inc • Apogee Instruments • Association of
Hydro-Meteorological Equipment Industry • ATRAD Pty Ltd • BARANI DESIGN s.r.o. • Baron Services • Beijing Airda Electronic Equipment Company •
Beijing Institute of Radio Measurement • Beijing Metstar Radar Co • Beijing Santel Technology & Trading Corp • Biral • Boschung Mecatronic • Bruker Optik
• CAE • Campbell Scientific • Cimel Electronique • Codar Ocean Sensors • Combitech • COMET / UCAR • Conel • Crystal Group • Daeyang Instrument Co.
LTD. • Data Quality Systems • Davis Instruments • Degreane Horizon • DELTA OHM • DeTect Inc • Disdrometrics • E+E Elektronik • Earth Networks •
ECObrain Co Ltd. • EKO Instruments Europe • ELDES • ENAV S.p.A. / TechnoSky • Enterprise Electronics Corporation • Eumetsat • Eurelettronica ICAS •
EWR Weather Radar • FT Technologies • Furuno Electric Co • GAMIC • GEONICA • Gill Instruments • GRAW Radiosondes • Hilase • Hukseflux • IBL
Software Engineering • ITARS – Marie Curie Network • Japan Radio Co • Jinyang industrial Co Ltd • Joanneum Research • Junghan Electronics Inc •
Jungsang Lidar Co Ltd. • KELLER Meettechniek • Kipp & Zonen • Kisters • KMIPA – Korean Meteorological Industry Promotion Agency • Komoline
Aerospace • Kongsberg Spacetec • Korea Digital Co Ltd • L-3 Essco Collins • Lambrecht Meteo • LCJ Capteurs • Leosphere • LSI Lastem • Lufft Mess
– Und Regeltechnik • MBW Calibration • Meisei Electric • Metasensing • Metek • Meteo France International • Meteomodem • Meteorage • Meteorological
Technology International • Meteorological Technology World Expo 2016 • Metsense • Metspec • MicroStep-MIS • Mirae Climate Co Ltd. • MPS system •
Nesa • Netronix • Netsens • NOVIMET • nowcast • Observator Instruments • Onset Computer Corp • Optical Scientific • Panasonic Avionics • Panasonic
Weather Solutions • Pawan Weather Balloons • Pessl Instruments • Plair • QinetiQ North America • R.M Young Company • Radiometrics International •
Raymetrics • Remtech • Rotronic • RPG Radiometer Physics GmbH • Schneider Electric • Scintec • Selex ES • Servelec Technologies • Shaanxi Xing Yuan
Electronic Equipment Co • Shindong Digitech Co Ltd • Siap+Micros • South Midlands Communications • Sparv Embedded AB • Sterela • Sutron Corporation
• Tempus Global Data • Theodor Friedrichs and Co • Toshiba Corporation • Vaisala Oyj • Verne Global • VP Delta • Weather Decision Technologies •
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ZOGLAB Microsystem Inc
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Radar technology
by Robert Palmer and James Kurdzo
FAST FACTS
The future of weather
radar technology
Dramatically improved performance, faster updates,
higher reliability and lower lifetime costs are all possible
with the adoption of certain key technologies
Figure 1: The University of Oklahoma

Radar Innovations Laboratory – home of
the Advanced Radar Research Center

Radar technology
he USA has a wider array of severe every 4.2 minutes, even with the fastest designing the next-generation weather radar
T weather than any other country on
Earth, including floods, droughts,
volume coverage pattern.
With an aging fleet of weather radars
systems that will scan faster, farther and
more accurately.
hurricanes, blizzards, tornadoes, hail, wind and the strong desire for rapid updates
and intense lightning. With a large land and observations of severe weather, the USA Rapid updates with phased
mass stretching from nearly subtropical has begun investigating the weather radar array radar
regimes to mid-latitude marine and technology that will eventually replace the The future of weather radars lies with
continental-based climates, many areas of WSR-88D network. One of the focal points phased array technology due to the ability
the country can experience nearly all these of this research and development is the to scan in a fully electronic manner,
severe weather types in any year, resulting weather radar community in Norman, negating the need to mechanically steer a
in hundreds of deaths and hundreds of Oklahoma, home to the National Severe dish. This is critical to a future weather
billions of dollars of loss to the economy Storms Laboratory (NSSL), the NWS Radar radar network because of the rapidity with
each year. In order to mitigate these risks Operations Center, and the University of which severe weather can evolve. Tornadoes,
and provide forecasts, watches and Oklahoma’s Advanced Radar Research for example, can develop from a rotating
warnings, the National Weather Service Center (OU ARRC), which recently moved mesocyclone to tornadogenesis in a matter
(NWS) employs 159 WSR-88D Doppler into the new state-of-the-art Radar of seconds, and in many cases last only one
polarimetric weather radars. However, these Innovations Laboratory (Figure 1). This to two minutes, so a radar volume could
radars provide volumetric updates only consortium of weather radar expertise is miss the entire event. Phenomena such as

Radar technology
tornadoes have driven the need for high in a planar array is a high-quality Figure 2: The
temporal resolution, which is the most polarimetric capability. The polarimetric Cylindrical
commonly desired update requested by upgrade to the WSR-88Ds that was Polarimetric
NWS forecasters. completed in 2013 has led to advances Phased Array
Radar (CPPAR)
The NSSL and OU began investigating in rainfall estimation, hydrometeor at OU
the use of phased array technology for classification and tornado detection, making
weather observations 15 years ago. This it a necessary feature in future weather radar
partnership led to the development of the networks. Unfortunately, as a planar array
ARRC as well as numerous experimental scans off broadside, the horizontal and All-digital architectures
platforms for demonstrating the capabilities vertical polarizations become skewed and As phased array panels move through
of phased arrays, especially for severe storm lose their orthogonality. the research and development phases for
observations. The pinnacle of these This has proved to be a difficult problem meteorological use, advances have taken
developments was the conversion of a Navy to solve due to the complex calibration and hold of the design methodologies. The most
SPY-1A phased array antenna for weather correction needed, although some potential advanced phased array radars use solid-state
observations, led by NSSL in the early solutions have been proposed. One of these electronics to create an all-digital design,
2000s. Numerous observations of tornadoes, is the use of a cylindrical array that forms resulting in individual transmit/receive
microbursts, and even a redeveloping beams that are always pointed broadside. modules and individual digitized signals
tropical cyclone led to the understanding A demonstrator of this technology has at every element. This element-level
that phased arrays could provide the update been developed at the ARRC, named the architecture gives the maximum in
rates desired by forecasters and research Cylindrical Polarimetric Phased Array flexibility, creating the ability for advanced
scientists. The Multifunction Phased Array Radar (CPPAR) (Figure 2).2 It consists of waveforms, adaptive beamforming and
Radar (MPAR) project was born out of this a cylindrical array of patch antennas that clutter suppression. Most importantly, an
idea, with the desire to replace not only the use 90° in azimuth to form an inherently all-digital design makes possible the most
WSR-88D systems, but also the Terminal broadside beam. Azimuth steering is accurate polarimetric calibration, helping
Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), Airport accomplished by commutation of the ease concerns regarding polarimetric purity
Surveillance Radar (ASR), and Air Route array columns. In the S-band, the CPPAR with phased arrays.3
Surveillance Radar (ARSR) networks with serves as a technology demonstrator for All-digital designs are thought to be
one multipurpose radar network.1 polarimetric array calibration, but it can expensive, complex and lead to many
also collect meteorological data for analysis. channels of raw time-series data that need
Polarimetric phased array radars Mounted on a trailer-based platform, the to be processed. At the ARRC, research is
As the research and development for MPAR CPPAR can be moved to areas of underway to discover ways of integrating
ramped up in the late 2000s, the notional meteorological interest for scanning. Racks multiple subsystems of an all-digital array
functional requirements for the future of RF/digital electronics, and computer for simplified design, construction and
network were developed. In addition to servers for beamforming and moment operation. This project seeks to leverage
the desire to increase capabilities over the processing, are inside the trailer. Calibration several recent breakthroughs in commercial
WSR-88D network was the need to retain of the CPPAR antennas and extensive field single-chip RF transceivers, GaN-based
any current features. One of the most measurements are currently underway at transmit/receive modules and increasing
intellectually challenging features to include OU and NSSL. computational capabilities. By showing this

Radar technology
maintaining acceptable range resolution.

Instead of range resolution being dependent
on pulse length, a frequency modulated
pulse (or ‘chirp’) makes for range resolution
values that are dependent only on the
bandwidth of the chirp – decoupling pulse
length from bandwidth. Using this
technique, weather radars with peak
transmit powers as low as 100W can be
used to achieve acceptable sensitivity out to
over 50km in range. In future arrays made
up of thousands of 1-10W transmit/receive
elements, pulse compression will be a
critical tool to make up the nearly tenfold
loss in peak power compared with
traditional transmitters.
A testbed radar for pulse compression
research has been developed at the ARRC
and is known as PX-1000 (Figure 3).
PX-1000 is a polarimetric, X-band,
transportable radar system that operates
at a peak power of only 200W. Using the
Figure 3: The OU ARRC PX-1000 radar during the advanced waveform techniques detailed by
potential, it is hoped that the resulting PECAN project Kurdzo et al. (2014),4 PX-1000 is capable of
polarimetric data quality, rapid scanning
capability and simple technology refresh
will become the standard for future weather
radar platforms.
Solid-state power amplifiers and

low-cost radar
Typical weather radars use very high-power
transmitters such as magnetrons and
klystrons, and send a short burst of RF
energy to detect hydrometeors. In a modern
phased array radar, however, the use of
large, high-powered transmitters is
impossible from both a size and heat
dissipation standpoint. With element-level
control desired, the use of solid-state power
amplifiers (SSPAs) opens up a world of
possibilities. Unfortunately SSPAs are much
lower in peak transmit power than older
technology transmitters. However, due to
their ability to achieve high duty cycles,
much longer pulses can be used to regain
much of the lost power through integration
over a longer time. In addition SSPAs have
much longer lifetimes, resulting in lower
overall lifetime costs.
Pulse compression is a technique that
enables recovery of the lost sensitivity using Figure 4: The OU ARRC Atmospheric Imaging Radar (AIR)
a lower-powered transmitter while

Radar technology
MAY 20, 2013, MOORE, OKLAHOMA:

TORNADO OBSERVATIONS
On May 20, 2013, an EF-5 tornado struck the cities of Newcastle, Oklahoma City
and Moore, Oklahoma, taking 24 lives and costing millions of dollars in damage.
The OU ARRC PX-1000 radar was operating at the OU Westheimer airport, 10km
south of the tornado’s path. Operating in a single-PPI mode at 2.6° elevation,
polarimetric data was collected every 20 seconds, resulting in the highest temporal
resolution data set of the Moore tornado.
Using advanced pulse compression waveforms, high-quality data was collected
and used for analysis of tornadic debris ejections, leading to a new hypothesis
known as a failed occlusion.7
The data set shows excellent promise for the use of pulse compression
waveforms, making the future of weather radar with all-digital solid-state electronics
more appealing for radar designers.
using pulse compression waveforms with many severe storms. One solution is the use Advanced Radar Research Center and the School of
virtually no windowing, resulting in major of a fan beam, but they are typically not Meteorology at the University of Oklahoma in
sensitivity gains over most low-powered used in weather radars due to the vertical Norman, Oklahoma
radar systems. PX-1000 has taken part in composite formed by the beam. Imaging
numerous field campaigns, including a radar, however, uses a wide transmit beam References
winter precipitation project in South and digital beamforming with an array to 1) Zrnić, D S, Kimpel, J F, Forsyth, D E, Shapiro, A,
Korea (2014), a flash-flooding study in form pencil beams on receive. With this Crain, G, Ferek, R, Heimmer, J, Benner, W, McNellis, T
Colorado (2014 and 2015), and the Plains method, an entire Range Height Indicator J and Vogt, R J, 2007: Agile-beam phased array radar
Elevated Convection at Night (PECAN) (RHI) (all elevations at once) can be formed for weather observations. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 88,
project (2015). simultaneously, resulting in the necessity to 1753-1766
These simple and extremely reliable scan only in azimuth for volumetric updates. 2) Zhang, G, Doviak, R J, Zrnić, D S, Palmer, R, Lei, L
SSPA-based radars are becoming ubiquitous The ARRC at OU has developed the first and Al-Rashid, Y, 2011: Polarimetric phased-array
for many applications from gap-filling in mobile, tornado-scale imaging radar, named radar for weather measurement: A planar or cylindrical
terrain-blocked regions to high-profile event the Atmospheric Imaging Radar (AIR).6 The configuration? J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 28, 63-73
coordination. Although MPAR is an obvious AIR is an X-band platform on a vehicle that 3) Fulton, C and Chappell, W J, 2010: Calibration of a
candidate for SSPA on each element, can be driven to a storm of interest and digital phased array for polarimetric radar. Microwave
traditional dish-type radars like the PX-1000 deployed in under 60 seconds. By using a Symposium Digest, IEEE MTT-S Intl., 161-164
can benefit as well. As an example, the first vertical fan beam on transmit, a 36-element 4) Kurdzo, J M, Cheong, B L, Palmer, R D, Zhang, G
phase of the Collaborative Adaptive Sensing array on receive, and pulse compression and Meier, J, 2014: A pulse compression waveform for
of the Atmosphere (CASA) project placed waveforms, the AIR can collect 1° x 1° x improved-sensitivity weather radar observations. J.
inexpensive X-band radars in areas that 30m volumetric data in a 180° x 20° sector Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 31, 2713-2731
lacked low-level coverage.5 Data from the in under 10 seconds. Using smaller sectors, 5) McLaughlin, D and Co-authors, 2009: Short-
observation of low-level wind fields at high volumetric update rates on tornadoes and wavelength technology and the potential for distributed
temporal resolution could be fed into their parent supercells can be collected in networks of small radar systems. Bull. Amer. Meteor.
numerical models for enhanced capabilities under six seconds. The AIR currently Soc., 90, 1797-1817
to forecast and warn of storms with greater represents the ultimate in temporal 6) Isom, B, Palmer, R, Kelley, R, Meier, J, Bodine, D,
lead times. The ultimate goal of CASA is to resolution for meteorologists, but the next Yeary, M, Cheong, B-L, Zhang, Y, Yu, T-Y and
field X-band, polarimetric phased array phase of this type of technology will require Biggerstaff, M I, 2013: The atmospheric imaging radar:
radars, making use of SSPA technology. polarimetric capability and real-time Simultaneous volumetric observations using a phased
adaptive beamforming. z array weather radar. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 30,
Atmospheric imaging: the ideal radar 655-675
While all-digital phased arrays are a great Robert Palmer is executive director of the Advanced 7) Kurdzo, J M, Bodine, D J, Cheong, B L and Palmer,
step forward for the meteorological Radar Research Center, associate vice president for R D, 2015: High-temporal resolution polarimetric
community, the use of pencil-beam radars research and professor in the School of Meteorology at X-band Doppler radar observations of the 20 May
will still always require volumetric scan the University of Oklahoma in Norman, Oklahoma. 2013 Moore, Oklahoma tornado. Mon. Wea. Rev., 143,
times that are longer than the evolution of James Kurdzo is a PhD candidate in meteorology at the 2711-2735

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Remotely piloted aircraft systems
by Alberto Bernabeo
AIR SUPPORT
New technology to detect
volcanic ash in the atmosphere
Remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPAS) can be used to predict and evaluate
volcanic ash using proximal remote sensing monitoring technology
Visible image of the area selected for the first flight
2 0 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SEPTEMBER 2015

uring a volcanic eruption, huge

D quantities of material can be ejected
into the atmosphere, reaching great
heights and remaining a threat to aviation
for several months. Volcanic ash
accumulates at higher altitudes in clouds,
which then drift with the wind. Worldwide,
we have to consider that the ash does not
show up on aircraft weather radar or air
traffic control radars because of the small
size of the particles. Ash particles carry
electrical charges and, within a cloud of
volcanic ash, this can give rise to thunder
and lightning in the area immediately over
the eruption. Such flight environments can
be very dangerous to manned aircraft.
At the same time, we have to consider
the associated costs of air travel disruption
in Europe after a volcanic eruption such as
the one in 2010 which forced aircraft
manufacturers to specify limits on how
much ash they considered acceptable for a
jet engine to ingest without damage. In April
2010 the UK CAA, in conjunction with
engine manufacturers, set the safe upper
limit of ash density at 2mg/m 3 of air. From
May 2010, the CAA revised the safe limit
upward to 4mg. To minimize further
disruption that volcanic eruptions could
cause, the CAA created a new category of
restricted airspace called a Time Limited
Zone. Airspace categorized as TLZ is similar
to airspace under severe weather conditions,
in that restrictions should be of a short
duration. However, a key difference with
TLZ airspace is that airlines must produce
certificates of compliance for aircraft they
want to enter these areas. Any airspace
where ash density exceeds 4mg/m 3 is
prohibited airspace.
To penetrate such dangerous airspace,
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and
remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPASs),
especially those with electric engines that
ingest little contaminated air, are an
emerging and effective way to gather crucial
data about ash and gas concentrations and
their lateral and vertical distribution. RPASs
are able to operate at very high or low
altitudes at uniquely low air speeds,
enabling them to fly close to the object.
In addition, due to their highly flexible
mechanics of flight, they may be used at
various viewing/detecting directions for
high-resolution in situ observations and
image acquisition.
Even if the use of remote sensing
techniques in the past 20 years by satellite
and airborne platforms has proved their
capabilities in mapping and monitoring the
evolution of volcanic activity, it is still very
difficult to gather data from within volcanic
eruption columns and plumes, because
updraft wind speeds are very high and high

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EN.Mktg.ENT.SIP.MM25 20140717
kind of aircraft uses fixed-pitch blades

and a brushless motor rigidly fixed to the
structure. Control of the RPAS in terms of
attitude, position and movement, is
governed by modifying the power and
torque produced by the rotors, which
can be independently regulated.
Mount Eyjafjallajokull The multicopter in hexacopter
erupted in Iceland on configuration, used in our work, is the
May 12, 2010. An ash ESAFLY A2500 (www.salengeneering.it).
plume was ejected This model has been improved in rigidity
into the jet stream,
causing disruptions to and weight by using carbon fiber parts
international flights instead of aluminum. It has a diameter of
(Photo: Johann 100cm and a height, from ground to the
Helgason/ center plate, of 30cm. It is powered by two
Shutterstock.com) battery packs (5,000mAh each), giving an
autonomous flight time of 15-20 minutes
depending on the payload.
ash concentrations can quickly destroy subgroup of UAS – unmanned aircraft In our configuration the payload was
aircraft engines. Also, current methods of system – to indicate that in these systems a 1.7kg and the estimated maximum ceiling
manually obtaining fresh lava samples are person is in control of the remotely piloted 200m (but restricted to 70m due to Italian
dangerous for volcanologists due to the aircraft at all times. A UAS includes a aviation regulations). Also in accordance
extreme temperature and conditions. number of elements such as the ground- with national regulations for RPASs, the
Nonetheless a zero-age lava sample provides based control station, ground launch system flew in line of sight and by radio
critical information about a volcano’s origins system, the remotely piloted air vehicle control. For the experiment, the hexacopter
and future activity. (RPAV) and all associated flight safety- was equipped with a thermal EYE 3600 AS
Satellite imagery enables routine critical elements. For the time being, civil (TE 3600 AS) designed for OEMs.
observation of anomalies on Earth’s surface UAS operations are restricted to remotely The TE 3600 AS is microbolometer-
that may highlight an imminent or ongoing piloted systems. RPASs provide possibilities based and consists of 30μm pitch
volcanic eruption. One widely used for image capture at low altitude (reducing detectors, which make possible a light
technique for monitoring volcano activity is cloud problems), automated or semi- weight of 67g. The spectral response
remote sensing of thermal anomalies. The automated operation (reducing labor), is in the range 7-14μm, with a thermal
detected thermal anomalies are usually repeatable performance and cost-effective sensitivity less than 50mK and a
quantified by their temperature, area, use of technology. saturation temperature of 600°C. The
radiant power (RP) or lava discharge rate. SAL engineering has cooperated with the camera has a frame rate of 25Hz real time
Estimating the uncertainty of these University of Bologna, Italy, flying UAVs for and generates a PAL video output. The
parameters is, however, not trivial because various scientific/commercial remote camera has automatic contrast that is
of the lack of redundant observations. The sensing applications. The project’s goal is to decreased and increased according to the
uncertainties can be estimated through improve satellite maps of the direction and scene. For each thermogram acquired by
validation against independent datasets such content of volcanic plumes and the the camera, a calibrated temperature value
as field observations. However, the field concentration and distribution of volcanic is provided in correspondence of the
observations are often not available as they gases. Onboard satellite data could then be central spot, meaning the camera provides
should be acquired at the time of the compared with information collected via the different temperatures of the area
satellite’s overpass. Moreover, ground-based unmanned planes that have gathered data supervised, but the temperature that is
observations have a limited spatial coverage from within volcanic eruption columns and normally used is the one that is presented
in comparison with satellite measurements. plumes. This will improve models of on a central spot of the thermal image,
Another way of detecting volcanic ashes volcanic eruption plumes generated from while a color scale on the right of the
and gases is what both easyJet and Airbus satellite data. image shows the minimum and maximum
have tested at the speed and altitude of Information gathered on the ground from temperature range expressed in 0.1°C
commercial aircraft: an ash detection system RPASs with dedicated sensors would be increments. To integrate the camera with
named AVOID (Airborne Volcanic Object used to build an accurate image of the the system, an acquisition system has been
Identifier and Detector) from Nicarnica volcanic ash cloud using real-time data. developed based on the philosophy of
Aviation). This equipment has been tested at This would open up large areas of airspace using commercial components.
the altitudes where commercial aircraft fly. that would otherwise be closed during a The result is a cubic embedded solution
These can be as high as 38,000 feet, where it volcanic eruption, which would benefit (12 x 11 x 8cm, weight 600g) composed of
is very cold (<-55C°). AVOID was passengers by minimizing disruption. four PC-104 compliant stackable modules:
successfully tested in the skies over Mount Sensors such as lidar and multispectrum power supply, frame grabber, PC and wi-fi
Etna and Stromboli in November and line-scan devices, in addition to visual and module. To fix the camera and the
December 2011 on a Flight Design CT thermal cameras, are being used on board acquisition system on the hexacopter,
aircraft at altitudes up to 12,000ft. SAL engineering UAVs. MDV designed and realized a specific
setup. Aluminum was preferred for its low
The use of RPAS for predicting/ The multirotor system weight. A standard female USB connector
evaluating volcanic ashes The RPAS used for our purposes was a enabled GUI communication and a DB9
The term RPAS is used as a synonym/ rotorcraft with six rotors (hexacopter). This connector reported if all camera pins,
ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SEPTEMBER 2015 • 2 3

Fig 1: The hexacopter ESAFLY A2500x
including analog video output, were with dedicated sensors – should be system specifically designed for the test
properly configured. The final flight considered a valuable source of data was flown in the area of the mud volcano.
configuration, including payload and for weather and climate modeling and The experiment was performed in June
acquisition system, is shown in Figure 1. forecasting, mapping, 3D modeling, 2012 and two areas were mapped. One
inspection and surveillance. They are cost corresponded to the area usually mapped
Experimental setup and results efficient, available at short notice and easy by in situ measurements and the other was
The first experimentation was carried out to use for surveillance of development area never mapped before.
on June 26, 2012. The hexacopter was pre- areas, construction sites, mining areas, This second area was used to cross-
assembled and the payload and system disaster zones and waste disposal sites, validate images acquired by the hexacopter
were configured in situ. just to mention a few. with images acquired by a ground FLIR
The flights were planned for the early In the contest of meteorological camera. The thermal camera flew above
evening to reduce the effects of heat and dedicated missions, RPASs and VLAs the usually measured area and the
reflection from the ground. The autonomy with high-performance sensors should acquired temperature was compared
of the system was about 15 minutes, so be conceived as truly international with the temperature obtained by laser
only two flights were possible. cooperation efforts for an in-depth measurement time series (2009-2012),
To verify the suitability of the method understanding of the physics and showing a good correspondence.
in extreme environment conditions, we chemistry of Earth’s atmosphere in terms The experiment was a success from
tested the stability of the acquisition of processes, including volcanic ash. both technical and scientific points of view.
system and the transmission systems. Technically speaking, the flying system
Then we investigated the possibility of Conclusions worked properly. A thermal video was
obtaining both qualitative (mapping Thermal mapping of volcanoes at super- recorded and transmitted in real time
of the active degassing areas) and spatial resolution is important for during the whole flight time, despite
quantitative (temperature distribution) investigating thermal anomalies that can take-off and landing under extreme
thermal information. be related to upcoming volcanic eruptions. environmental conditions. Scientifically
To obtain a quantitative mapping of the Cutting-edge RPAS technology and speaking, we found a good agreement
volcano, a forward-looking infrared (FLIR) sophisticated lightweight thermal between temperatures acquired in-flight
thermal camera was used. It was a A310 cameras have been used in an experiment and those acquired in-situ with different
model consisting of a 320 x 240 conducted on the very active Salinelle field instruments. Thermal imaging on
microbolometer detector array operating mud volcanoes on the southwest boundary board unmanned systems therefore proves
in the 8-14μm waveband, with a dynamic of Mount Etna, Sicily. to be a promising technique for distinguish
range of 0-350°C and a reading accuracy The site was chosen for the flight test thermal gradients and temperature values
of ±2% (see www.flir.com for more details). for several reasons: it has easy access and in volcanic applications. In particular we
peculiar geological features that in certain would like to use the hexacopter in some
Present and future case are related to activity of Etna, making areas on the top of Mount Etna that exhibit
Today’s advanced technologies make it it a very interesting site. Furthermore, it is thermal anomalies and actually are very
possible to develop integrated approaches an example of an area that is difficult to hard to be measured at super resolution. z
to Earth sensing that encompass both monitor with in situ measurements because
remote and proximal remote sensing. of the muddy surface. Alberto Bernabeo is a professor – airline commander
Very light aircraft (VLA) and especially A hexacopter thermally equipped and and instructor, quality assurance, at the University of
RPAS platforms integrating other devices – connected with an embedded acquisition Bologna, Italy

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NASA ER-2
by Bunny Richards
SKY HIGH
NASA’s Sub-Orbital
Science Program
Two Lockheed ER-2s are used as flying laboratories in
NASA’s Sub-Orbital Science Program. Meteorological
Technology International talks to the program’s pilots
about the challenges of flying these unique aircraft,
and the meteorological equipment installed on board

NASA ER-2
ean Neeley is a research pilot at

D NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research
Center in Edwards, California. He
joined the NASA Dryden (now Armstrong)
Flight Operations Directorate in 2012 after
serving 25 years as an Air Force officer and
pilot, retiring with the rank of Colonel.
Neeley flies a diverse array of highly
modified airborne science, research and
mission support aircraft. These include the
single-seat Lockheed ER-2 high-altitude
science jet, the Boeing 747SP Stratospheric
Observatory for Infrared Astronomy
(SOFIA) airplane, the Gulfstream G-II
mission support aircraft, and C-20A (G-III)
science platform aircraft carrying NASA
Jet Propulsion Laboratory’s synthetic
aperture radar.
The four pilots chosen to fly the ER-2
came from various backgrounds flying
military fast jets and heavy aircraft. They
all have common interests in engineering,
science applications and the excitement
of flight in challenging environments.
New ER-2 pilots are required to have a minimum of 1,000 hours

flight time in its predecessor, the U-2, so they can cope with the
unique flying characteristics of the so-called Dragonlady

NASA ER-2
ER-2 Pilot Dean Neeley boards the aircraft

in his pressure suit as he prepares for flight
(Photo: NASA)
What is the purpose of the ER-2 and

where are the two aircraft based?
NASA operates two Lockheed ER-2 Earth
resources aircraft as flying laboratories in
the Sub-Orbital Science Program under
the Agency’s Science Mission Directorate.
The aircraft, based at NASA Armstrong’s
Building 703 in Palmdale, California, collect
information about our surroundings,
including Earth resources, celestial
observations, atmospheric chemistry and
dynamics, and oceanic processes. The
aircraft also are used for electronic sensor
research and development, satellite
calibration and satellite data validation.
At what altitude are the ER-2 aircraft

typically deployed?
Although the ER-2 aircraft is capable of
flying higher, we typically take science
payloads up to an altitude of 20km, or
65,000ft, for standardized data collection.
This requires the pilot of the single-seat
aircraft to wear a full pressure suit similar
to those worn by astronauts. Operating in
this configuration for several hours,
strapped to an ejection seat in a small
cockpit where the pilot can’t move, is very
fatiguing and requires endurance and
intense mental focus.
A DAY IN THE LIFE OF THE ER-2

Typically a campaign employing three hours prior to take-off. The during the rapid ascent to the gives a final ‘thumbs-up’, telling
an ER-2 loaded with a set of flight crew, consisting of the low-pressure environment. the pilot that everything looks
instruments supporting several pilot and mobile pilot (chase car Sometimes the effects manifest good outside the aircraft. The
agencies is planned and funded driver), move to life support and as much as 24 hours after a high take-off roll begins and the
months in advance. After the the aircraft 90 minutes prior to flight. When the life-support outrigger pogo wheels fall free
assets are deployed to the departure. While the pilot is crew deliver the pilot to the as the wings begin to produce
desired geographic location and integrated into the full pressure aircraft, much like astronauts lift. The jet becomes airborne
daily operations begin, the most suit and checks are recorded, moving to their space vehicle for in about 1,000ft. The pilot
dynamic aspects of an ER-2 the mobile pilot performs the launch, final integration into the accelerates for about two
mission are the changing aircraft preflight duties the pilot cockpit takes place and system seconds, then pulls the nose
weather patterns. This makes a cannot accomplish because of checks are made. Once the nearly straight up before the
day in the life of an ER-2 team the space suit. canopy is closed and external extreme acceleration causes
anything but routine. The pilot must be sealed in equipment removed, the engine the wings and tail to separate.
The ground crew normally the full pressure suit, breathing start procedure must happen The climb rate finally slows
arrives to meet the science 100% oxygen, one hour prior to quickly because the pilot and once above normal jet flight
experimenters four hours prior take-off to eliminate 95% of the some systems can overheat altitudes, as the air thins and
to scheduled take-off to prep nitrogen from his body. This waiting for cooling air to become available thrust is reduced.
the aircraft and payload. Then a mitigates the danger of available. Once the ER-2 is leveled off
weather briefing and final flight decompression sickness – the Once the aircraft is cleared at high altitude, the various
plan adjustments take place ‘bends’ – which can occur for take-off, the mobile pilot science instruments are

NASA ER-2
“The ER-2 is a
modular design
capable of changing
configurations and
payloads frequently
to support a
variety of sensor
types”
The ER-2’s high-altitude capability and long

endurance make it a prime platform to support
NASA’s Airborne Science program (Photo: NASA)
In what capacity is the ER-2 used with changing configurations and payloads campaigns. Following a series of airborne
regard to weather and atmospheric frequently to support a variety of sensor experiments with a set of instruments, the
prediction? types. These include optical sensors, data reduction and analysis period may take
Much of the annual ER-2 airborne science spectrometers, lasers and air sampling days or a few years to form conclusions that
workload is focused on evolving equipment. Several science experiments can are used to improve atmospheric prediction
experiments studying weather patterns from be carried aboard the ER-2 at the same time. and modeling. The advantage the ER-2
high above 95% of Earth’s atmosphere. The We have the ability to record data on board brings to weather study is its flexibility
typical atmospheric instruments we test or send real-time information to scientists to react in real time to changing weather
look at air moisture content and patterns on the ground via satellite communications. patterns in flight that are currently difficult
or aerosols using a variety of legacy and to predict hours or days prior to a mission.
leading-edge technology. The results are How is the information disseminated The manned ER-2 can overfly a specific
used to improve understanding of short- and to whom? What is its usefulness? atmospheric or surface objective in a few
term or localized weather patterns, as well Requests to carry science experiments minutes or hours, at much lower cost than
as long-range global atmospheric changes. on board the ER-2 typically come from a expensive satellite passes possibly requiring
variety of worldwide university programs several days.
What technology does it have or other NASA centers. These individual The ER-2 is sometimes referred to as the
on board? experiments usually come with mutual “satellite simulator” because it frequently
The ER-2 is a modular design capable of funding support in larger science carries the same instruments as are
switched to operational must be delayed until after as the ER-2 settles onto
collection mode. landing several hours later. the runway.
A typical ER-2 science The descent and landing for Then the second landing
mission lasts between three and the fatigued pilot are some of battle begins, as the pilot keeps
nine hours to maximize data the most dangerous phases of the wings level with the only
collection. The ground science flight. The ER-2 lands like an steering available via the small
team has the ability to old tail-dragger aircraft, with tail wheel connected to the
communicate issues or changes bicycle landing gear and 104ft rudder pedals, providing a
to the pilot via the mobile pilot wings waiting to drag the maximum wheel deflection of
who is monitoring local weather ground. With verbal cues from just over six degrees. After the
conditions and providing verbal the high-speed chase car aircraft is brought to a stop, the
assistance to the pilot as during the landing, the pilot ground crew meets it on the
required. While airborne, the keeps the aircraft over the runway to insert the same pogo
pilot faces the challenges of runway centerline while flying wheels under the wings that
staying hydrated and eating soft just above stall speed down were dropped during take-off.
food through a tube. Moving his to 18in above the runway. As Now the aircraft can be taxied
arms and legs, scratching an aerodynamic flight control back to the hangar to download
itch, standing up to get a cup authority fades away with the remaining science data.
of coffee, or walking to the speed reduction, the pilot The next day, the
restroom are privileges that wrestles the jet into a stall Dragonlady will fly high again.

NASA ER-2
Can you describe a particular recent

case study where the ER-2 proved
invaluable?
During the recent campaign ‘Studies of
The ER-2 safety chase Emissions, Atmospheric Composition,
vehicle is essential to Clouds and Climate Coupling by Regional
landing safety due to Surveys’ (SEAC4RS), the ER-2 was stacked
the aircraft’s above NASA’s DC-8 airborne laboratory
sensitivity to cross and an instrumented Learjet to study
winds and the pilot’s
weather phenomena lifecycles
limited mobility and
sight inside the simultaneously at low, medium and
pressure suit high altitudes. The ER-2 remains the
(Photo: NASA) only aircraft suited to perform this
dynamic mission at altitudes above
70,000ft when needed.
currently flying aboard airborne satellites, What problems does it face?
or new instruments going through a final The science community has shown an What is the ER-2’s future?
checkout in the high-altitude environment increased appetite for ER-2 service in The ER-2 remains a favorite with the
prior to first launch into Earth orbit. The recent years, although the challenges of airborne science community because of
ER-2 can maneuver to overfly the same operating this unique aircraft remain. its unique ability to react and maneuver
geographic point as our weather satellites, Because of the limited view from the single on demand above most of Earth’s
at the same time, to calibrate the orbital seat cockpit, a second ER-2 pilot acts as a atmosphere. Although the future of the
instrument. This exercise requires tight safety observer from a chase car during military U-2 comes into question during
timing, since the satellite is moving so fast. ground operations, including taxi, take-off defense budget talks every few years, the
‘Flying in formation’ with a satellite is a and landing. The bicycle landing gear value of the ER-2 continues to grow with
unique experience. Unfortunately, when system still employs removable underwing the appetite of the science community.
I describe it to my young children they pogo wheels that are designed to fall onto This ‘old technology’ airframe continues
remain unimpressed. the runway during take-off. Despite some to enjoy its role in employing leading-edge
of these oddities, NASA continues to technology in the pursuit of answers
Can you describe the aircraft and successfully operate this high-altitude to questions about Earth’s atmosphere
design? Is it not a bit antiquated? laboratory worldwide, year after year. and resources. z
The two ER-2s flown today are modified to
carry and control science instruments, but
the basic aircraft design hasn’t changed
since the U-2s and TR-1s came off the
Lockheed production line decades ago. The
ER-2s are based on the U-2S model, which
received a new engine in the mid-1990s and
changed designation from U-2R to U-2S.
The two NASA aircraft do not have the
avionics upgrades [glass cockpit] that the
US Air Force U-2S received in the early
2000s. The modified legacy cockpit
arrangement is more compatible with the
menu of airborne science instruments that
NASA typically employs.
Crew adjust a pogo wheel on the right wing. Pogo Multiple science instruments and sensors are loaded in an equipment bay behind the cockpit, where the
equipment is similar to landing gear but detaches older, bulky wet-film cameras were installed. Other instruments are loaded in the left and right wing
from the aircraft on take-off (Photo: NASA) pods, as well as the removable nose compartment

Wind energy
by Cédric Arbez
THE ICE EFFECT

Icing of meteorological sensors
is a formidable challenge
Cédric Arbez, project manager at Canada’s TechnoCentre Éolien, examines the
development of sensors for the wind energy industry in cold climates
eteorological sensors are at the heart of 25%. Icing can have different effects on cup anemometer was affected by icing for
M of today’s wind energy industry.
They are necessary in both the
meteorological sensors. Indeed, it can create
a statistical bias in data, cause sensor failure,
413 hours in the winter of 2013-2014 and by
441 hours in the winter of 2014-2015,
development phase and the operational and disturb the aerodynamic flow around during which time it either underestimated
phase of wind projects. During the the support on which the sensor is mounted. or overestimated wind speeds (Figure 1).
development phase, such sensors are used to All these conditions have the same end Over the course of a year, more than 5% of
verify and better characterize the quality of result – a reduction in the amount of data was affected by this phenomenon.
the wind resource. Loss of data during this data available to control the wind turbine Over the years, the meteorological
phase is a direct cause of higher uncertainty or validate the on-site wind regime industry has developed a number of heated
in energy yield assessment during the (whether the sensor is affected by icing sensors designed for cold climate
operational phase. Once the wind farm measurement error). environments. Several models of ultrasonic
enters into operation, meteorological sensors Likewise, lack of experience and measurement sensors exist – some entirely
are used for turbine performance control empirical data on the behavior of heated and others where only the base is
and verification. meteorological sensors during icing events heated. Certain cup anemometers are
In northern countries, and more leads to a bias when attempting to accurately equipped with a heating system that only
specifically in eastern Canada, icing can assess the impact of icing. At TechnoCentre heats the ball bearing, while others have a
cause annual production losses in the order Éolien’s Murdochville, Canada, site, a heated complete 50W or even 70W heating system.
Figure 1: Heated cup anemometer experiencing

an artificial extension of its cups during an icing
event (Photo: TechnoCentre Éolien)
Figure 2: Definitions of icing climate compared with extreme cold temperatures (Image: Expert Report,
IEA Wind Task 19)

Wind energy
Figure 3: Diagram of quality control system used to qualify data in cold Figure 4: Sensors recommended for cold climates according to analyses
climates (Image: TechnoCentre Éolien) conducted at TechnoCentre Éolien (Image: IWAIS 2013)
Furthermore, each sensor has its own climate is defined as a combination of compared with other phenomena or
heating algorithm, with some using a linear extremely low temperatures and an operational issues of the infrastructure on
approach as a function of temperature and icing climate. It is imperative that a which the sensor is installed? It is important
others using pulsation. In sum, how can meteorological sensor be designed that to develop tools to adequately process the
the combination of an icephobic coating, is resistant to both of these conditions. data and to verify the source of the problem
a heating system and a heating algorithm Moreover, certain regions in cold climates associated with the suspect data.
be truly adequate for the majority of icing do not experience icing, but register Several meteorological companies and
events (as a function of their type, severity very low temperatures, while other centers have developed systems to handle
and duration)? At the present time there sites are subject to substantial ice dubious data. For a non-heated cup
are no common standards that can be accumulation without necessarily observing anemometer, an icing period can be treated
used to verify the performance of these extreme cold. Since an icing climate in a similar manner as with a broken sensor
elements in icing conditions. Further, just manifests itself only between 0°C (since there is loss of data). Likewise, it is
because a sensor is heated does not mean and -10°C (Figure 2), developing important to apply data quality control
that it is necessarily suitable for all meteorological sensors for extremely low algorithms to determine precisely at what
icing-prone climates. temperatures is not necessarily essential for moment the data became suspect. The
icing-prone climates. TechnoCentre Éolien has developed a data
Cold climate issue quality control process based on an
For the purposes of wind energy, a cold How can data availability be eight-step methodology (Figure 3). For this
climate is defined as an average annual determined in cold climates? type of quality control it is important to
temperature of below 0°C, or whenever nine A number of phenomena can arise that can verify/perform the following: functionality
or more days with temperatures below affect a meteorological sensor during icing of infrastructure; range of values; trend;
-20°C are recorded annually over a period of climate conditions. These effects can result cross-comparison between sensors on
at least 10 years (GL Wind Technical: Note in loss of data, missing data or biased data. the same infrastructure; particular
67). In all cases, low temperatures can lead But to what degree is the problem meteorological conditions (e.g. ice, low
to the formation of ice. In this regard, a cold attributable to the icing climate per se, winds); sorting and filtering of codes;

Wind energy
Figure 6: Example
of instrument
classification during
many icing events, as
proposed in COST-727
(Image: COST-727)
Figure 7: Example of recovery rate linked with Figure 6 (Source: COST-727)
Moreover, this measurement is taken mainly made by comparing the ice accumulation
when ice accumulates on a cylinder or on a from one picture to another (Figure 5).
static structure. Three problems arise, however: what is
Figure 5: Icing event from October 27, 2014, to Instrumental icing is defined as icing the reference for measuring ice thickness
October 28, 2014 (Photos: TechnoCentre Éolien) that includes a period of accretion and (especially when the sensor is heated);
persistence on a measuring instrument. This at what frequency should the images be
type of icing is measured by the marked recorded; and what is the required
difference between a non-heated sensor and resolution? In all cases, using video
professional analysis; and attribution of a heated sensor for the same meteorological cameras is one of the most reliable
status codes. parameter (e.g. heated versus non-heated methods, as it helps to ensure that the
wind vane). This difference is perceptible sensor is ice-free when it is recording data
How are icing events detected? in the data analysis based on different and to accurately calculate the thickness
To properly assess atmospheric icing on an filters. However, the relationships between of the ice. It is also important that ice does
instrument, it is necessary to detect the a heated and non-heated anemometer not accumulate on the camera’s lens during
beginning and end of icing events. In the (instrumental icing) exhibit similar image acquisition (Figure 5).
wind industry two main definitions of behavior to that of wind turbines operating For this visual approach, a framework
icing are used – meteorological icing and under atmospheric icing conditions. Figure for characterizing ice accumulation exists,
instrumental icing. These can be determined 4 illustrates the importance of selecting the namely ISO 12494: Atmospheric icing of
based on the combination of a number of type of instrument heating according to the structures. This standard details the ice as a
meteorological parameters or detected type of icing climate (instrumental or function of four established types: glaze, wet
directly by a sensor. Meteorological icing is meteorological) that it will face. snow, rime (hard and soft) and hoar frost.
defined as icing characterized by conditions For each type, the standard defines an icing
conducive to the formation of ice on Ice measurement class, determined by installing standard
structures. It is generally determined by The other step consists of evaluating the tubes (30mm in diameter, minimum length
visibility and air temperature; cloud height; impact of the ice directly on the 0.5m), quantifying the accumulation of ice
air temperature and relative humidity; the meteorological sensor. Severity is and calculating their mass. Further, the use
ice rate meter; the ice detector; and the determined by measuring the ice in each of a standard tube enables ice intensity and
ice accumulation scale or multicylinder. picture. For intensity, the measurement is severity to be categorized. For our case, the

ITaRS brings together a group of
European universities, research
organizations and high-tech companies
from different disciplines to foster
training, research and development
in remote sensing of the atmosphere.
We educate the next generation of
atmospheric engineers and scientists.
Contact:
Prof. Susanne Crewel
[email protected]
url: http://itars.uni-koeln.de/index.php/about-itars
ITARS is funded by European Union.
Wind energy
phase, wind turbines require a sampling

frequency in the order of one second, while
during the prospecting phase, current
standards call for a frequency of 10 minutes.
In sum, the answer lies in what the data is
used for and the frequency of data collection
from the sensor. However, a sensitivity
analysis will be necessary to properly assess
the influence of frequency in this
methodology (Figure 6).
To date, algorithms have only been tested
and validated for rime ice. Substantial work
will be necessary to enable the
determination of the type of ice. Until then,
this algorithm will be completely tested in
collaboration with Université Laval in
Quebec City, Canada, and Professor André
Bégin-Drolet Eng., PhD, by means of the ice
Figure 8: Icing detection platform (PDCM). Using a visual
accretion image approach, this testing will be achieved
analysis (Image: through analysis of the behavior and
TechnoCentre Éolien) evaluation of the performance of several
measuring instruments operating in icing
conditions. The results are expected in
summer 2016. z
ice accretion classes range from R1 to R10 as study. Data from this sensor should also
a function of the ice mass per meter that has be compared with other sensors on the Cédric Arbez has been a project manager at the
accumulated on the standard cylinder. The infrastructure. Finally, the proportion of TechnoCentre Éolien since 2009. His areas of work
higher the class, the higher the severity of reliable data versus suspect data (known include evaluating wind resources and verifying the
the event. In this manner it is possible to as the recovery rate) for the period should power curves of wind turbines. Backed by this
define ice accretion profiles, either by using be determined. expertise he has tested 100 different sensors in
a structure defined in the standard or by cold climates. Analysis of these sensors led to the
using the standard cylinder. Future developments development of a quality control system for cold
With regard to the frequency of image Despite this detailed methodology, one climate data. He notably serves as Canada’s
acquisition, it should be borne in mind that question remains: how often should data be representative on IEA Wind Task 32 studying the
icing events are generally associated with controlled? During a wind farm’s operational use of lidar in the wind energy sector.
low visibility. It is therefore difficult to
obtain a high-quality image in every
photograph so it is important to increase
the acquisition frequency according to the
METEOROLOGICAL SENSORS
intensity of the phenomenon. ARE NOT THE ONLY INSTRUMENTS
PRONE TO ICING
Sensor performance in cold climates
Now that we have determined the ice When meteorological sensors ice up,
detection period as well as the means of there is a good chance that the wind
controlling data and categorizing ice turbine will also incur icing (Figure 7).
thickness using a visual approach, all the In this context, the turbine shows
elements are present to assess sensor reduced performance or shuts down,
performance in an icing climate. In this since its aerodynamic profile is
regard it is important to determine a affected. Icing affects the wind
common means of assessing a sensor’s industry in three ways – extra loading
performance, regardless of the parameter on the blades; a health and safety risk
measured (e.g. wind speed, wind direction) related to the shedding of ice Figure 9: Icing on turbine blade
and heating type. First, the meteorological fragments; and the loss of energy (Photo: TechnoCentre Éolien)
and instrumental icing periods will have to production. The ice mass
be determined. Depending on the accumulated on a single blade can Deployment), with the objective of
correlation between the various reach up to 220kg. advancing knowledge in the areas
meteorological and instrumental icing The TechnoCentre Éolien works of icing, complex terrain issues and
events, image analysis should be conducted with colleges, universities, industry off-grid systems. TechnoCentre Éolien
on a fixed reference structure (Figure 8). The and the International Energy Agency draws from its expertise and its
objective of this analysis will be to evaluate (IEA) Task 19 (Wind Energy in Cold infrastructures, including two 2MW
the icing class of this event. Subsequently, Climates) and Task 32 (Wind Lidar turbines, four meteorological masts,
quality control of the meteorological data Systems for Wind Energy a lidar and a micro-grid.
should be conducted on the sensor under

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UK Met Office
by Jonathan Taylor
Jonathan Taylor is the executive head of observations at the Met Office, managing
a team of 180 staff responsible for the timely delivery of all the observational data
that the Met Office requires for its operational weather prediction services

UK Met Office
CALLING
ALL DATA
How the future of
environmental modeling
will impact the
requirements for
observations
The UK government has given the UK Met
Office the go-ahead to buy a new high-
performance computer that is set to deliver
huge socioeconomic benefits
hen you combine increased atmosphere, ocean, river system and air
W complexity in environmental
forecast models with rapid
quality model. At the same time, a new
Earth System Model is being developed to
developments in supercomputer power you enhance prediction of the global climate.
get a valuable cocktail that has the potential Such model developments will transform
to greatly improve the forecasting of not the services that the Met Office can offer.
only the weather and the climate, but also However, such developments create more
their impacts on individuals, infrastructure challenges, the major one being how to
and society as a whole. provide the critical observations required
The UK Met Office has been awarded a for the initialization and validation of the
£97m (US$151m) government grant to invest models. After all, behind every weather,
in a new high-performance computer that is water and climate condition forecast, every
expected to deliver £3bn (US$4.7bn) of disaster mitigated, and every prediction
socioeconomic benefits over its lifetime. At debated, are the observational data.
the same time, the Met Office is embarking Modern forecast models require vast
on an ambitious program of model amounts of data. The systems providing
development. In partnership with the Natural the data need to be able to adapt at a pace
Environment Research Council, the Met of change that matches model and super
Office is developing the UK Environmental computer development. The models need
Prediction System – a fully coupled 1.5km to assimilate the data in their purest form
resolution model covering a large part of the and require a wider range of measurements
Atlantic Ocean, the UK and the North Sea, than ever before, and at higher spatial and
which for the first time has a fully coupled temporal resolutions.

UK Met Office
Numerical weather prediction models

simulate the atmosphere through explicit
representation of the physics that drives the
atmosphere and oceans. The models are
coded to explicitly solve the equations of
fluid dynamics and increasingly to explicitly
represent the processes involved in
convection, cloud formation and
precipitation. The models ingest the
observational data through a process called
variational data assimilation. A key part of
this process is that the model predicts what
the observation would look like and
compares the prediction to the real
observation. By altering the initial state, the
model solves the mathematical equations of
motion backward and forward in time to get
to the representation of the atmosphere that
best matches all the observations available.
To do this, the error characteristics of every Figure 1: The coverage of wind data in 10 days from a network of five Mode-S receivers in the UK. The
observation must be understood in detail. colors depict the lowest altitude data received at that position over the 10-day period (altitudes in ft)
Since the model is trying to predict
observations, they must be simple and urbanization and city living, novel a dedicated Raspberry Pi device that will
not the end product of a manufacturer’s techniques to measure the weather and air manage the communications (through
neural net programming or retrieval quality in the urban environment on a fine selectable wi-fi, phone, Bluetooth or satellite).
scheme based on assumptions that the scale will be required for the future. The data stream will consist of the raw data
model cannot represent. The Met Office observations strategy sets and a unique electronic identifier for the
Environmental prediction models out a roadmap of how it plans to address instrument. With the addition of a GPS chip
represent not only the atmosphere, but also these challenges. The Met Office has started on the Raspberry Pi, time and location
the oceans, coastal zones, rivers, land use a project called SurfaceNet that will stamping will be achieved. Using the digital
and air quality. In the future the models will transform how it gathers data. In the future, identifier, the raw data will be translated to
require more observations of the littoral in addition to its core baseline network the calibrated data at the Met Office HQ in
Exeter, where the calibration coefficients
“For its own networks, the Met will be kept. The instruments will have the
potential to be controlled centrally, with the
Office has started a project called system receiving data or polling for data as
SurfaceNet that will transform required. In this way the frequency of
observations will be adaptable, depending
how it gathers data” on the environmental conditions.
This technology will allow the rapid and
domain, where traditional moored buoys Met Office needs to be able to place flexible deployment of new sensors, as it will
are not suitable. They will also require individual instruments in to a wide variety not be dependent on complex central data
enhanced observations of the weather of environments in a quick and effective logging and processing at the site. For
and air quality in the urban environment. way whilst maintaining the integrity and example this system would enable the Met
Traditionally, standard weather observations reliability of the data. The Met Office will Office to deploy an extensive network of
are made in large enclosures in the rural adopt industry standard data protocols low-cost air-quality sensors in the urban
environment. While these will still be and use the internet of things approach environment. If instrument manufacturers
required to act as high-quality anchor points to collect the data. Each instrument will can develop this type of functionality in
and provide valuable data for long-term have the potential to operate in a standalone their future systems, then deployment will
climate monitoring, with the growth in environment. It will be connected to be even easier.

UK Met Office
The Met Office provides forecasts for the

entire globe and relies on many international
partnerships to gain access to the required
data. It also maintains many partnerships
with agencies around the UK that monitor
the weather as part of their business (e.g.
Highways England, the Environment Agency).
In addition to these vital partnerships, the
Met Office is increasingly seeking to make Figure 2: Environmental impact data submitted to the Weather Observation Website by members of the
use of opportunistic data and this will be a public over a three-month period (May to July 2015)
growth area as a means of providing the
high-resolution observations required to fill environmental parameters that can be addition to providing valuable access to data
the gaps in our core networks. uploaded onto the site and also allow data for the Met Office, the concept brings
An example of opportunistic data already from moving platforms to be gathered. Data physics and math into the classroom and
being gathered is Mode-S transmissions on WOW is already used in model offers a multitude of opportunities for
from commercial aircraft (Figure 1). Air validation and by Met Office operational children to gain insight into the
traffic control systems interrogate aircraft for meteorologists to provide more local detail environment. Through WOW they not only
their position data, and the signal sent from on weather phenomena. This is a potential get to see their own observations but others
the aircraft is easily received and provides growth area, with the increase of citizen in their locality and further afield. The
temperature and wind observations. Modern observations through enhanced connectivity concept of a weather station in every high
communications systems can also provide of cell phones and cars, both of which school offers huge potential.
valuable environmental data and the Met routinely record potentially useful It is evident that increasing
supercomputer power and intellectual
“Another important source of advances in our understanding of the
atmosphere, and indeed the whole
opportunistic data that the Met environmental system, will transform the
Office is trialling this year is the ability of national meteorological services,
such as the Met Office, to provide valuable
‘weather station in a school’” services to society that will enhance
prosperity and save lives. The delivery of
Office is conducting research into the environmental data. The use and these advances will require major changes
potential use of cell phone backhaul data interpretation of such data will be a subject in the type of observational data gathered
and digital radio transmission data, which of some considerable research and has the and its density. Traditional observations will
both contain information on water vapor in potential to offer the higher-resolution data continue, but will be supplemented by a
the atmosphere. that future forecast models will need. Indeed plethora of innovations in monitoring the
Another group of data that can be the operation of future autonomous vehicles environment, covering not only sensor
considered opportunistic is citizen science will be very weather dependent and they are design but network and communication
data. The Met Office operates the Weather likely to make high-quality observations of system design as well. z
Observation Website (wow.metoffice.gov.uk). their local environment, which could be
Through this web service it has already harvested for weather prediction and as a Dr Jonathan Taylor studied physics and meteorology
gathered millions of observations from means of enhancing the operation of at the University of Reading and then joined the Met
amateur weather observers, along with networks of autonomous vehicles. Office. The Met Office sponsored him through his PhD,
details of environmental impact data (Figure Another important source of also at the University of Reading, on the remote sensing
2). The Australian, New Zealand and Dutch opportunistic data that the Met Office is of cloud properties. He is now the executive head of
national meteorological services have trialling this year is the ‘weather station observations at the Met Office, managing a team of
collaborated with the Met Office in setting in a school’. It is working with education 180 staff responsible for the timely delivery of all the
up WOW sites for their countries. Over the specialists to provide educational material, observational data that the Met Office requires for its
coming year the WOW system will be class lesson information and technical operational weather prediction services. He has just
upgraded to adopt an API-based approach guidance on how to connect off-the-shelf completed writing a strategy for the future of
that will allow greater flexibility in the commercial weather stations to WOW. In observations at the Met Office
42 •ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SEPTEMBER 2015

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www.meteorologicaltechnologyworldexpo.
technology show! More than 165 companies anyone for whom the weather is com for the most up-to-date conference
are showcasing the latest meteorological a critical factor in day-to-day operations. program, and register online now to
developments and enhanced products and More than 3,000 attendees are expected at receive your free pass for this year’s
services. And this year there is an array of this year’s show. Last year’s event attracted must-attend event.
first-time exhibitors, so attendees can be professionals from more than 70 countries. Earth Networks, sponsor of the World
sure to discover a wide range of new The World Expo will host two fantastic Expo, will host an unmissable networking
solutions. Specialists in every type of free-to-attend conferences, running drinks party from 17:00-19:00 on Day 2.
environmental, meteorological and simultaneously on the expo floor, allowing Everyone is invited – we look forward to
hydrometeorological forecasting, you to find sessions and solutions specific seeing you there!
measurement, analysis and technology to your industry or area of research and still Browse through the following pages for
will be participating in the show. leaving you free to see the wealth of a taste of just a few of the exciting new
Hall 3 at Brussels Expo, from October technology on show in the exhibition. This products to be launched at this year’s
13-15, gives you the chance to network with year the conference features more than 70 Meteorological Technology World Expo.
The newest systems, technologies and solutions will be presented for the first time at Meteorological Technology World Expo 2015

HAIL AND RAIN TECHNOLOGY

TWO L
The inNET Hail Sensor will be PRODUAUNCH Hydrological Services Pty
showcased on Kisters’ stand. CTS Ltd) for total rainfall
This is the first device to measurement. The unit
measure hail online, and consists of a tipping bucket rain
records the time and period gauge mounted on a 2in BSP
of any hailstorm. The sensor pipe and a stainless-steel
determines hail intensity and enclosure that holds a
pellet sizes. It also uses datalogger, a GSM, 3G or
real-time data to close PTSN modem and a 12V DC
shutters and issue alerts battery. Battery charging is via
even before the hailstorm hits a 5W solar panel.
people sensitive infrastructure The company will also host
or. The sensor does not need Esri as a co-exhibitor on its
to be replaced after a stand. Kisters and Esri have
hail event. As well as this, teamed up on several
Kisters will exhibit its Rain innovative projects over
Track devices. The Rain Track the years, working on
is the latest innovation from time-enabled GIS solutions
Kisters’ HyQuest Monitoring for the environmental market.
Business Unit (formerly STAND: 6050
REGISTER FREE ONLINE NOW!

REASONS
TO ATTEND
I VE
EXCLUSCH
1
See 165+ of the top LAUN
weather innovators
ULTRASONIC
WIND SENSORS
Find weather LCJ Capteurs will be launching a range
2
of ultrasonic anemometers/wind vanes
decision-support tools – the CV7-V with RS422/RS232
for every industry interface, the CV7-V-USB powered by
a USB port, and the new SONIC-SDI.
3
A specific version of the CV7-V, which
Hear expert speakers connects directly to the wind sensor
from around the world input that Davis Instruments
manufactures, will be available to view.
This sensor will allow the replacement of
More brand-new mechanical anemometers/wind vanes
4
with no need for anything other than a
product launches than power supply. The CV7 is compact and
ever before! discreet; responsive; has a wide power
supply range and low consumption; has
high accuracy and 2Hz rate, with an
The networking option for 4Hz.
LCJ Capteurs’ sensors have proved
opportunities of the year their build quality, reliability and
are at Meteorological accuracy in the harsh marine
Technology World Expo, environment and are now widely used in
other fields, such as weather stations,
with a free drinks party on
5
industrial applications, security and
Wednesday, taking place in agriculture, to name a few.
STAND: 6000
the exhibition hall

CONFERENCE SPEAKER
IN FOCUS
ROBERT PALMER
Executive director, Advanced Radar Research Center,
professor, School of Meteorology, University of
Oklahoma, USA
HEAR ROBERT SPEAK ON
WEDNESDAY, OCTOBER 14, 11:30
The future of weather radar technology
This truly global
exhibition attracts
Tell us about your presentation What work/research have you been doing more than
I will cover recent advances in weather radar technology, in the radar sector over the past year?
including phased array, solid-state transmitters, and The Advanced Radar Research Center (ARRC) at the 150 exhibiting
advanced algorithms. The ultimate goal is high-quality University of Oklahoma is concentrating on combining companies and
rapid updates to polarimetric radar measurements with advanced phased-array technology with high-quality
superior maintenance performance. dual-polarization capability. We are also working on 3,000+ attendees
Do you have any advice on how to choose
lowering the cost of more traditional dish-based systems. from more than
a weather radar? How do you see radars developing over the 70 countries
The first step is choosing the frequency, which depends next 20 years?
on weather climatology, platform and required Higher reliability, more rapid updates and more precise
resolution. Then flexibility, upgradeability and reliability precipitation measurements. In addition, more
are major factors. automation in algorithms is likely to make weather radars
easier for non-experts to use.
PRODUC
!
E
M
DEBUT T
E
O
C
EL
E
W
JOINT
R
S
EE
DEVELOPMENT
D
F
EN
T
AT
Luciad and Lufthansa First-time exhibitor

LL
A
Systems have developed a Luciad’s software has also

demonstrator to analyze the served as the geospatial
impact of weather events and engine for another SAP
JOIN US FOR OUR

reroute affected flights. project that aims to help
Showcased at the World optimize agricultural
FREE DRINKS PARTY!

Expo, this device takes into operations. The technology
account live and forecast is helping to shape the future
weather data, and also of farming by collecting and
considers cost-related analyzing data such as field
COURTESY OF EARTH NETWORKS
parameters such as samples, aerial imagery and
estimated fuel consumption weather predictions.
and expected delays. STAND: 1080
WEDNESDAY, OCTOBER 14
17:00-19:00
Come and join Earth Networks and your colleagues
from the weather business. Free, unlimited beer,
wine and soft drinks will be served in the exhibition
hall, open to everyone!
This is a great opportunity to meet your
hosts, network and relax with colleagues.
We look forward to seeing you there!

PRODUCT
LAUNCH
HYPERSPECTRAL IMAGING SYSTEM

Germany-based exhibitor transformation and contains its broad remote sensing
Bruker will be showcasing the infrared signature of the product line, including the
its new high-performance image at each point. The high-performance remote
hyperspectral imaging system, HI 90 system enables fast sensing spectrometer EM 27;
the HI 90. The HI 90 is an identification, quantification the scanning infrared gas
imaging remote chemical and visualization of potentially imaging system SIGIS 2 for
sensing system based on the hazardous gases remotely at homeland security, industrial
combination of a Michelson long distances. and scientific applications; the
interferometer with a focal- Due to its array detector, mil-spec scanning stand-off
plane array detector. Each the HI 90 hyperspectral detector RAPID; as well as the
pixel of the array records an imager can measure all ultra-high spectral resolution
interferogram from the pixels simultaneously up to FT-IR spectrometer IFS 125
corresponding field of view. 1,000 times more quickly than for scientific applications in
A spectrum at each pixel traditional scanning systems. atmospheric research.
is obtained by Fourier The company will be showing STAND: 6110
ROAD WEATHER DUAL-CAMERA VIDEO

MEASUREMENTS DISTROMETERS
Teconer will be showing its The performance and the
The new 2D-Video-
wide array of innovative design of the road condition PRODUC
solutions, focusing on monitoring system have Distrometer (2DVD) will be
launched by exhibitor
LAUNCHT
special applications in been optimized for mobile
road weather and material use, and the system offers Joanneum. The 2DVD is
moisture measurements. high performance proven by designed for accurate
In addition, the company several tests. The sensor quantitative determination of
will be taking part in the system is compact, has low precipitation phase shares.
lifetime costs and requires The 2DVD measures all
very little maintenance. precipitation particles and
The valuable data on road types, allowing automated
conditions, layer thickness and permanent
and friction complements measurements to be taken, it is also able to capture
the information provided by usable across a range of the higher fall velocities
fixed weather stations and applications in meteorology, of hailstones.
provides tools for improved telecommunications and The company will also
road weather forecasts. The wave propagation. It is based showcase its 1D-Video-
Meteorological Technology measurement data is on two high-speed line-scan Distrometer (1DVD), which
World Expo Conference. available for review in the cameras, recording front and uses just one high-speed line
Teconer’s technology measurement vehicle, such side views, along with fall scan camera. The 1DVD and
provides road and runway as a road maintenance patrol velocity of each single 2DVD both provide unique
winter maintenance staff with car, and will be further particle. Rain rate and drop data, yielding details even on
reliable mobile information on transmitted to winter size distribution are given mixed phase precipitation,
the surface conditions along maintenance centers for as well. which can enable
the road network to help in display on the client’s The equipment can enhancements across many
decision making, in learning system, or to Teconer’s measure the contours of applications, for example
to use the anti-ice agents in server for review in the snowflakes and their fall improving algorithms for
an optimal way and in the Mobile Road Condition Map. velocities. And because it weather radar data inversion.
quality control of operations. STAND: 7070 has a large measuring area STAND: 1240

Be resilient with
NOVIMET solutions
From weather radar to your application running on a
web-oriented service platform
• Accurate high resolution precipitation estimates
• Precipitation classification: rain, snow or hail
• Rain, flash flood and inundation forecast
• Alert with up to 2 hours advanced notice via sms or email
› Civil protection
› Rural and urban hydrology
› Agriculture
› Civil engineering
› Transport
› Outdoor events…
NOVIMET S.A. Meet us at Meteorological

11, boulevard d’Alembert - 78280 – Guyancourt (France)
Technology Word Expo 2015
Tel: +33 (0)1 80 28 53 16 | Fax: +33 (0)1 80 28 53 31 | Email: [email protected]
2 0 15 Booth# 1140
www.novimet.com
NEW
IMPROVLY
ED
CONFERENCE SPEAKER
IN FOCUS
JONATHAN TAYLOR
Executive head of observations,
UK Met Office
HEAR JONATHAN SPEAK ON
THURSDAY, OCTOBER 15, 12:00
REMOTE
How the future of environmental modeling will TOWER
impact the requirements for observations OPERATING
Tell us about your presentation What work/research have you been SYSTEM
I hope to provide insight for people working in doing in the environmental modeling Combitech will use its Meteorological
environmental observations about how the services sector over the past year? Technology World Expo presence to
provided by national meteorological services, such as A key task this past year has been to review the future display the Aviation Weather
the UK Met Office, will be transformed in the future. requirement for observations, to develop the future Observation System (AWOS) solution
I will explain how these changes will require new observations strategy for the Met Office. that contributed to the operational
developments in what we observe and how we gather approval of the world’s first
those observations. How do you see environmental modeling operational remote tower system.
changing over the next 20 years? The latest version of the integrated
What is your part in working with Environmental models will become more complex with AWOS7/ATIS7, from the Saab Group,
observations? fully coupled atmosphere, ocean and biosphere systems. includes VOLMET, seamless
I have been involved in observations of the atmosphere They will operate at higher spatial resolution and will integration of breaking action
throughout my career. For more than 20 years I flew provide guidance not only on the future state of the measurements end-to-end, weather
around the world in state-of-the-art research aircraft environment but also on the impacts of the environment radar, cameras and satellite imagery.
studying how the atmosphere works. Now I am executive on society. The models will be run more frequently The equipment is able to interface
head of observations at the Met Office, responsible through the day with hourly update cycles; increasing as well as integrate, so all sensors
for all the Met Office observing networks and for numbers of ensembles of models will be used to deliver and external systems can be
gathering observational data from around the world for probabilistic forecasts. All of this will pose major monitored and controlled through
our forecast models. challenges for the requirements for observations its enhanced administrative tool,
– without which the models are of little use. available both locally and through
remote support.
Its enhanced simulation tool
facilitates swift and foolproof testing,
as well as using the AWOS7 suite in
training situations and simulators.
As part of the Saab Remote Tower
PRODUCT System and at the leading edge of
DEBUT technical know-how, the system
enables the controllers to focus
on their main tasks by automating
NEW SMART as much as possible, so as not to
waste the controller’s attention with
PYRANOMETERS routine tasks.
Despite these new features, the
Since the introduction of its information, body predecessors, SMP21 Combitech AWOS7 suite maintains
low-maintenance SMP10 temperature, power supply pyranometers have internal the low system requirements of its
secondary standard voltage and calibration temperature sensors and are predecessor, enabling advanced
pyranometer at Meteorological information are also available. individually temperature functionality at a low lifetime cost.
Technology World Expo last All smart radiometers from the tested and optimized. STAND: 5200
year, Kipp & Zonen says that company are now supplied Directional response
its smart range has been with free SmartExplorer is also measured and
increasingly adopted by the software that enables setup, provided, and the internal
meteorological community. monitoring and logging of microprocessor automatically
The company’s smart all relevant parameters by corrects for temperature over
pyranometers SMP3 and a computer. a wide range, from -40°C to More than
SMP11, on show again at this Kipp & Zonen has now +70°C. Together with the
year’s expo, have a standard combined the research-grade faster response of <2s 70 world-class
RS485 Modbus interface CMP 21, with its smart (95%), the SMP21 is a speakers at the
combined with an amplified
analog output. In addition to
features, in the new SMP21,
to provide even better
more accurate and easier-to-
use pyranometer.
free-to-attend
the output of radiation performance. Like their STAND: 5100 conference

A new dawn
for all-in-one
weather stations
Compact weather stations
MaxiMet advanced compact weather stations, designed

and manufactured by Gill Instruments using proven
technology to measure meteorological parameters to
international standards.
MaxiMet incorporates all the measurement

parameters that meet the requirements of users
in demanding applications where cost, quality
and performance are essential.
 Wide range of MaxiMet

measurement parameters
 GPS/compass/Bluetooth
 Easy to use software
 Low maintenance
Come and visit us on Stand 4070
gillinstruments.com
Met Tech-Sept.indd 1 8/14/2015 2:19:13 PM

NE
PRODUWC
T
METSET AND
METVIEW SOFTWARE
APPLICATIONS BRAND
Visit stand 4070 to see Gill NEW
launch its brand new MetSet
and MetView software
RELATIVE HUMIDITY applications. Fully smart
SENSOR device compatible, these
software applications allow
E+E Elektronik comes to applications. Its revolutionary users to configure and view
Meteorological Technology heated, monolithic RH and results from Gill installations
World Expo to showcase its T sensor and its additional from anywhere. The
relative humidity sensors. probe heating mean EE33-J new-generation software
The company’s product is highly accurate, close also features Bluetooth and
range includes sensing to 100% RH and able to wi-fi connectivity when
elements, transmitters, recover extremely quickly partnered with MetStream,
dataloggers and handheld after condensation. Gill’s Intelligent latest advancements in the
devices. E+E operates an The chemical purge mode Communications Hub. The technology used to prevent
accredited calibration of EE33-J can be used for new-generation software ice and snow accretions
laboratory and maintains the recovery of the sensor when will be available to view at from forming and how
national standards for exposed to chemical the show, including the new intelligent signal processing
humidity and air velocity in pollution, with calculated three-axis anemometer can help improve
Austria. values such as dew point, range and the next- performance in cold weather
The company’s EE33-J is frost point and web bulb generation MetSet and conditions. These new
designed for reliable and temperature, absolute MetView software. developments overcome
long-term stable humidity and enthalpy Visitors will be able to many of the known issues
measurement of relative adding to the specifications discuss results obtained which exist in current cold
humidity (RH) and of EE33-J. from trials over the past weather solutions.
temperature (T) in demanding STAND: 5010 winter and learn about the STAND: 4070
APPLE WATCH-COMPATIBLE
HYPER-LOCAL WEATHER APP
LATEST
Digital weather monitoring
specialist Weather
APP
Underground will present
its latest live weather app
at this year’s Meteorological
There’s a
Technology World Expo. free-to-attend
Weather Underground, which
created one of the world’s first drinks party from
weather websites, is furthering 17:00 to 19:00
its mobile-led technologies with
the launch of its redesigned on Day 2. Taking
popular mobile weather
product. The newly redesigned
place within the
WunderStation app includes an exhibition hall
Apple Watch extension, giving
users access to more than
itself, the party is
100,000 personal weather the networking
stations across the globe.
This network of hyper-local
opportunity of
weather information enables the year!
users to see accurate customize a variety of weather WunderStation will be available
conditions and forecasts to layers to access the most for visitors to try at the expo
pinpoint accuracy. It can also relevant weather information. in October.
track storms in real time, and Examples of the new STAND: 5020

previous generation, and this undoubtedly raises

EXHIBITOR challenges for the ground segments. But in
SPOTLIGHT essence, this is not so different from what we
experienced already when moving from the first to
the second generation of Meteosat.
But the new development challenge for MTG
SEAN BURNS and EPS-SG is that they are both based on two
Head of real-time services and system different satellites (MTG-I and -S, Metop SG-A and
operations, EUMETSAT, Germany -B) to be exploited simultaneously and launched in
sequence, two years apart. This means we will
What are you launching/displaying bandwidth management and high flexibility on data have to test, verify and validate two successive,
at the Meteorological Technology content and volume, delivered to individual users. very different versions of highly complex
World Expo 2015? The system is fully scalable to accommodate processing systems, optimizing the allocation of
EUMETSAT has issued the first certification for a additional users and has no dependence on local our scientific and engineering resources. The
high data rate (1,200bps) Meteosat data collection network bandwidth. The migration to the DVBS-2 generation of representative test data will also be,
platform (DCP) radio transmitter to Signal standard has cut costs by 50% and increased as usual, a significant challenge, in particular for
Engineering’s OmniSat-3. The DCP offers capacity through the procurement of the capacities the innovative sensors that have no inflight
significant improvements in throughput and of two full transponders from service industry. heritage, like the MTG Lightning Imager and the
reliability of DCP messages transmitted through Metop SG-B Ice Cloud Imager.
the Meteosat satellites. The new generation of How will the industry benefit from For data distribution, we have set up a new
DCP transmitters apply forward error correction this launch? multi-mission dissemination system capable of
(FEC) coding technology to reduce interference Given our upstream position in the value-adding handling a variety of channels. The architecture
and, thereby, give a substantial system chain, we have a keen interest in information on of EUMETCast-Europe is fully scalable to
improvement. This new DCP is now available to the new products and services derived from our data, accommodate MTG and EPS-SG data streams
user community for meteorological and by the public and the private sectors. Our user in the future. Our new archiving system also
hydrological applications. conferences and other professional events, such has a scalable architecture to accommodate
EUMETSAT delivers satellite data and products as the MTWE, offer opportunities for relevant up to 200PBytes, a level that we will not reach
in real time to users worldwide through discussions aimed at understanding the data before 2027.
EUMETCast. EUMETCast delivers to Europe, Africa requirements of companies. The way we deliver data services will certainly
and the Americas, and we also deliver to the change in the future. We will respond to the Big Data
Asia-Pacific region through interoperability with Within your area, what do you see as challenge and offer more opportunities to a variety
China’s CMACast service. Today we deliver data, the next technological step forward of value-adding chains. But we need to secure
products and information from our satellite towards greater weather prediction? continuity of our critical data services to our
systems and other sources to 4,250 low-cost VSAT The Meteosat Third Generation (MTG) and Metop member states, and this operational requirement,
stations owned by more than 3,300 registered Second Generation (Metop-SG) satellites will together with IT security, cannot be underestimated.
users worldwide, with 99.9% availability, optimum deliver one order of magnitude more data than the STAND: 5110
ATMOSPHERIC
REGISTER FREE ONLINE NOW! SOUNDING KITS
www.meteorologicaltechnologyworldexpo.com NEW
QinetiQ North America (QNA), PRODUC
exhibiting at this year’s
T
Meteorological Technology World
CONFERENCE SPEAKER Expo, plans to showcase its
IN FOCUS new TASK Tactical Atmospheric
Sounding Kit.
SUSANNE The company develops and
delivers small, lightweight, innovative
CREWELL meteorological sensors and solutions
University of Cologne, for military, civilian, research and
Germany commercial markets, and will also
HEAR SUSANNE SPEAK ON showcase its full suite of
TUESDAY, OCTOBER 13, 12:30 meteorological and atmospheric wind profiler for military and
systems and products at the event. commercial needs.
ITaRS (Initial Training for atmospheric Remote Sensing) joins a group of The TASK Tactical Atmospheric Next on the product list is QNA’s
universities, research institutes and high-tech companies from various Sounding Kit is the smallest Riverine Drifter, designed to make
disciplines (meteorology, geosciences, physics, electrical engineering and radiosonde self-contained kit on the gathering riverine and littoral
mathematics) to foster training, research and development in remote market, boasting a 38g radiosonde. parameters easier. This equipment is
sensing of the atmosphere. ITaRS prepares young scientists for a career in QNA will also highlight its WiPPR a 15cm, free-floating orb that collects
the industry and academia. Wind Profiling Portable Radar – depth, temperature and currents.
the world’s smallest portable radar STAND: 1330

Automated sky coverage observatory needed?
a passion for precision · passion pour la précision · pasión por la precisión · passione per la precisione · a passion
1500m
1300m
Lufft CHM 15k

Cloud Height
up to 15km/50.000feet
-Aerosol Height Profiles

-Cloud Base Height
-Penetration Depths
-Mixing Layer Height
-Vertical Visibility
-Cloud Amount
www.lufft.com
MeteoTechnoInternational260315.indd 1 25.03.15 11:18

REGISTER FR
EE ONLINE N
w w w.meteoro
logicaltechno OW!
logy worldexpo
.com
DATALOGGING WEATHER STATION

Onset will be showcasing the NEW weather-tight sensor ports
new HOBO RX3000, which is PRODUCT keep moisture out.
a research-grade datalogging Simply plug in up to 10
weather station that combines plug-and-play smart sensors
greater measurement flexibility and the RX3000 station will
and an onboard LCD display recognize them and begin
in a rugged, easy-to-deploy taking measurements. No
package. The onboard LCD need for programming or
display helps users confirm complicated wiring!
system operation, sensor The HOBO RX3000 station
connections, cellular signal transmits data to HOBOlink –
strength, and other Onset’s cloud-based software
parameters, before leaving platform. HOBOlink makes it
the deployment site. easy to access current and
With the RX3000 station, historical weather data,
users can configure up to manage and control RX3000
15 channels of plug-and-play with three relay outputs to enclosure designed for stations remotely, and set
smart sensors, and add up control devices based on long-term use – even in harsh alarm notifications. Automatic
to two modules. Modules are alarm conditions. environments. Critical delivery of data files can also
available for connecting up The HOBO RX3000 features electronics are sealed in a be scheduled.
to four analog sensors or a double-weatherproof secondary enclosure, and STAND: 2051
THE EVOLUTION
EXHIBITOR
OF PRECIPITATION
SPOTLIGHT
SENSORS
LORI NEW PR
O
ARMSTRONG At the beginning of the year, RANGEDUCT
Lambrecht Meteo took over
Global atmospheric, climate
the operational business of
and weather industry
Wilh. Lambrecht, and will be
manager, Esri
introducing itself, its products
As a company, what is your sources; how to detect and quantify and its new company design
part in enhancing weather patterns in data, such as finding hot at Meteorological Technology
predictions? spots and outliers, natural data World Expo 2015.
Esri’s ArcGIS platform helps users clusters, and analysing changes in Lambrecht Meteo’s
create, organize and share patterns over time; how to manage product line-up consists of
geographic information and tools and serve massive collections of the complete range of Wilh.
with anyone using intelligent online climate and weather data; and how Lambrecht products, along
maps and useful apps. Esri’s to combine authoritative maps with with a range of new products
software helps atmospheric narrative text, images and that will be introduced at the
scientists download, process, multimedia content to communicate exhibition.
analyse and display general climatic modelling and analysis results. Topping this list is the new storage vessel that helps to
data, specific weather conditions weighing precipitation sensor, make the unit compact and
and forecast data. Why is this important? rain[e], which has unique allows for easy maintenance,
Weather forecasting and climate measuring principles. The calibration and installation. It
What are you launching/ change analyses require the measuring effects of this new also has an outstanding
displaying? acquisition, management, analysis, equipment, and how easily its price-performance ratio.
At Meteorological Technology World visualization and dissemination of self-emptying system works, Lambrecht Meteo also plans
Expo 2015, we will be showing huge amounts of data. The ArcGIS will be fully demonstrated to introduce a wide range of
attendees an array of solutions, platform provides support for all during the exhibition via rain OEM products, including a new
including: how to create high- aspects of the forecasting process, simulations on the stand. meteorological sensor and an
quality weather forecast maps serving as a scientific workbench. The new rain[e] comes with a overview of its customization
using standard forecast data STAND: 6050 resolution of 0.001mm/m², high adaptabilities.
accuracy, and a self-emptying STAND: 1220

EXHIBITOR NEW T
SPOTLIGHT PRODUC
PROFESSOR NICK
VAN DE GIESEN
Professor at the Faculty of Civil Engineering and
Geosciences, holding the chair of Water Resources
Management, Delft University of Technology
Can you explain the service What recent projects have infrastructure to monitor dynamic
that you offer your clients? you undertaken? deformations anywhere. SkyGeo
The Valorisation Program Some successful examples of our deploys InSAR as a new technique to
Deltatechnology & Water (VPdelta) start-ups are Disdro, with a measure terrain deformations based
was set up by the Dutch region of maintenance-free rain gauge against on radar reflections from infrastructure.
Rotterdam/Delft/Drechtsteden to competitive prices; and TAHMO, Traditional geodetic methods to
increase entrepreneurship and
innovative solutions to the
which produces low-maintenance
hydrometeorological monitoring
determine ground movement differ
greatly from radar interferometry.
SNOW
challenge of remaining safe in stations specifically designed to With InSAR, measurements are not SENSOR
delta areas. A changing climate, provide rainfall, temperature and related to pre-determined physical
other critical data with robust points on the ground. The new Lufft SHM 50 snow sensor
global population growth and
redundant sensors and real-time cell will be showcased in Brussels this
increasing urbanization call for
phone uplink. SkyDowser develops How do you see the October. It is an upgrade of the
creative innovations. Knowledge
autonomous drones that map the industry changing in the current SHM 30. Major improvements
institutes, companies and
contents of the subsoil. Consequently next 20 years? have been made in the measurement
governmental organizations
it is able to detect and measure Sensors and new technologies will principle, the measurement setup,
collaborate in VPdelta. We have
groundwater levels, and the create and offer opportunities for communication options and housing.
a large network with start-up
SkyDowser can be used for dyke and cheap, sustainable and reliable data The SHM 30 uses phase
companies working on sensor
dune surveillance. SkyGeo offers an and information. comparison, but the SHM 50 is
development and weather and
operational system for managers of designed to combine phase
climate information systems. STAND: 2030
comparison and time of flight
principles in order to obtain the
highest precision, with a reduced size
and an enhanced background light
suppression for the incorporated
EARLY-WARNING SOFTWARE laser and detection technology.
A second major improvement is
Vaisala will be presenting the laser setup. The SHM 50 comes
several new software with three independent laser beams,
products, which help which increases the measurement
surface on the ground.
customers track approaching NE
storms and monitor weather SOFTWWA These changes have triggered
station networks. One of RE improvements in the controller unit,
those products is the new too. The processor capacity has been
Vaisala Thunderstorm increased to ensure the appropriate
Manager, which is a cutting- handling of the new parameters.
edge professional, web- The sensor is now able to continue
based application for tracking working, even in the case of the
approaching storms and failure of one laser beam. The
warning of imminent threats With many thousands of Thunderstorm Manager algorithm to measure the signal
from lightning, for any deaths and tens of thousands supports a broad range of intensity (important for discrimination
location on earth, in real time. of injuries each year applications, from global between different surfaces, tracking
Thunderstorm Manager attributed to lightning or national scale lightning temperature and snow depth
combines data from Vaisala’s globally, the situational surveillance, down to changes) has been improved.
US National Lightning awareness delivered by local-scale warning And an average measuring mode
Detection Network (NLDN) Thunderstorm Manager notices that can be used is now possible, too, allowing for
and Vaisala’s GLD360, the provides considerable value for community safety, comparison of average results
network that delivers for the protection of the keeping local ground and of all three laser beams. From a
high-quality, truly global public, such as at open-air maintenance crews safe, communications perspective, the
lightning coverage, to deliver arenas, parks, playgrounds and keeping operational RS485 interface, the Lufft UMB
comprehensive lightning or beaches, or for outdoor downtime at a minimum. protocol, and ASCII and SDI-12,
information at your fingertips. workers in the private sector. STAND: 4000 have been added.
STAND: 1210

THERE’S SO MUCH TO SEE AT METEOROLOGICAL

TECHNOLOGY WORLD EXPO THAT IT’S WORTH SETTING
ASIDE AT LEAST TWO DAYS TO TAKE IT ALL IN. THERE
ARE MORE WEATHER FORECASTING TECHNOLOGIES
AND CLIMATE-CHANGE MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGIES
AND SERVICES ON SHOW THAN ANYWHERE ELSE IN
THE WORLD, NOT TO MENTION THE FREE-TO-ATTEND
CONFERENCE, WITH 60+ LEADING SPEAKERS DISCUSSING
THE HOTTEST TOPICS OF THE YEAR. THE SHOW IS OPEN
TUESDAY TO THURSDAY, OCTOBER 13-15.
DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 3

Tuesday, October 13 Wednesday, October 14 Thursday, October 15
HIGHLIGHTS HIGHLIGHTS HIGHLIGHTS
Exhibition opens at 10:30 The exhibition opens at 10:00, The last day of the exhibition and
with 165 exhibitors. running until 19:00. conference. Doors opens at 10:00
and close at 16:00.
At the free-to-attend conference, This year’s free-to-attend drinks
don’t miss Rodica Nitu from party is sponsored by Earth Thursday’s conference paper
Meteorological Service of Canada, Networks, and will take place from highlights are numerous. Must-
who will be discussing The WMO 17:00-19:00, within the exhibition hall see papers include:
project Solid Precipitation itself. Don’t miss the networking • How the future of environmental
Intercomparison Experiment, opportunity of the year. modeling will impact the
WMO SPICE. requirements for observations,
Wednesday conference highlights with Jonathan Taylor, executive head
include: of observations, Met Office, UK
• The future of weather radar
• Advances in remotely piloted
technology, with Robert Palmer,
aircraft system (RPAS) proximal
executive director, Advanced Radar
PLEASE SEE THE FULL remote sensing technology for
Research Center, University of
weather monitoring, including
CONFERENCE PROGRAM Oklahoma, USA
predicting/evaluating volcanic
TO PLAN YOUR ITINERARY: • Climate observing systems: ashes, with Alberto Bernabeo,
where are we and where do we professor, airline commander and
THERE ARE SO MANY
need to be in the future? with instructor, quality assurance,
UNMISSABLE, EXCLUSIVE Bruce Baker, director - Atmospheric University of Bologna, Italy
PAPERS BEING PRESENTED Turbulence and Diffusion Division,
• Radiosonde observations,
THROUGHOUT THE SHOW NOAA, USA
hydrogen generators and safety
• Climate impacts of non-fossil rules, with Mustafa Erdem,
fuel alternatives, with Tom Blees, radiosonde expert, Turkish State
A FULL EXHIBITOR LIST CAN president, Science Council for Global Meteorological Service Observing
BE SEEN ON OUR WEBSITE. Initiatives, USA Systems Division Radiosonde Unit,
WITH 165 EXHIBITORS, YOU Turkey
ARE SURE TO DISCOVER • Another must-see paper on
NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND Wednesday comes from Kuo-Ying
Wang, Department of Atmospheric
MAKE NEW CONTACTS Science, National Central University,
Taiwan, who will discuss the Pacific
Greenhouse Gases Measurement
www.meteorologicaltechnologyworldexpo.com project

ith two constant conference streams and your time in the exhibition searching for new technologies or
W 70+ speakers covering aviation applications, modeling
and simulation technologies, agriculture applications,
services. Both conferences really are a truly international affair,
including speakers from Taiwan, USA, Europe, Canada, India
shipping and marine applications, case studies, radar, and Australia.
measurement technologies and instruments, energy As always, the conferences will be free to attend for anyone
applications and thunderstorm detection, this year’s visiting the exhibition, which is also free.
conference in Brussels is set to be the best yet! To make sure you don’t miss out on this exclusive
The Mainstream Conference and Breakout Conference will conference dedicated to the meteorological technology
be located inside the exhibition hall, and will be running industry, please visit the website for a detailed conference
throughout the three days, meaning you can pick and choose program and a simple registration form you will need to
which sessions you need to attend, and then spend the rest of complete for your free exhibition and conference entry badge.
F REE TO
AT TEND
!
MAINSTREAM CONFERENCE
DAY 1 13:00 - Global 30-year hourly weather
history: validation and use case DAY 2
Karl Gutbrod, CEO, Meteoblue, Germany
October 13, 2015 October 14, 2015
13:30 - 16:00
10:30 - 11:30 Radar Measurement and 10:00 - 12:00
Moderator: Karl Gutbrod, CEO, Meteoblue,
technology Radar
Germany
Moderator: Kuo-Ying Wang, Department of
10:30 - Solid-state polarimetric weather Moderator: Kuo-Ying Wang, Department of Atmospheric Science, National Central
Atmospheric Science, National Central
radar: EEC’s next-generation radar University, Taiwan
University, Taiwan
technique
Qing Cao, research scientist, and Michael Knight,
10:00 - A novel physical consistency-based
13:30 - Using meteorological measurements calibration tool for polarimetric weather
vice president, Enterprise Electronics Corporation from different sources to evaluate the human
(EEC) radar
comfort in urban areas
Qing Cao, research scientist, EEC, USA
11:00 - Examples of using the X-band Alessandro Pezzoli, Investigador Prometeo-senior
compact weather radar lecturer, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, 10:30 - MARG – low-cost C-band FMCW
Ken Okajima, senior engineer, Japan Radio Co
Guayaquil – Ecuador and DIST - Politecnico di Doppler microwave areal rain gauge
Torino & Università di Torino, Italy Dombai Ferenc, Pessl, Austria
14:00 - Challenges of measuring air 11:00 - On the resurgent interest of X-band
11:30 - 13:30 temperature radars for hydrometeorology
Modeling and simulation Bruce Bugbee, president, Apogee Instruments,
USA
Gael Brute de Remur, vice president marketing
& sales, Novimet, France
Moderator: Karl Gutbrod, CEO, Meteoblue, 14:30 - Combined wind and aerosol/cloud 11:30 - The future of weather radar
Switzerland measurements using coherent Doppler lidar technology
11:30 - Evaluation of the main climatic Philippe Royer, Leosphere, France Robert Palmer, executive director, Advanced
characteristics of the Moscow region and 15:00 - Innovations in the field of laser-based Radar Research Center, professor, School of
Meteorology, University of Oklahoma, USA
simulation of possible scenarios of their optical sensors
variations Holger Wille, head of business unit optical
Irina Asaulyak, Russian State Agrarian University, sensors, Lufft, Germany 12:00 - 14:30
Russia
12:00 - Training for atmospheric remote
15:30 - Multi-instrumental platform for fog
process understanding Modeling and simulation
sensing: the ITaRS programme Gaëlle Clain, research engineer, MeteoModem, Moderator: Tom Blees, president, The Science
Susanne Crewell, University of Cologne, Germany France Council for Global Initiatives, USA
12:30 - WMO SPICE: project status and 12:00 - Climate observing systems: where
* Yet more speakers to be added!
early results are we and where do we need to be in the
Rodica Nitu, manager, observing systems and future?
engineering, atmospheric monitoring - weather
Bruce Baker, director - Atmospheric Turbulence
and environmental monitoring, Meteorological
and Diffusion Division (ATDD), NOAA, USA
Service of Canada

12:30 - Barcelona Dust Forecast Center: the 15:30 - Challenges of measuring net radiation 12:30 - Integrated systems requiring
first WMO regional meteorological center Mark Blonquist, chief scientist, Apogee Instruments, dataloggers are not necessary in the smart
specializing in atmospheric sand and dust USA sensor era
Jose Baldasano, ex-director Earth Sciences 16:00 - Present weather and visibility Jan Dutton, Schneider Electric, France
Department, Barcelona Supercomputing Center, instruments – telling users what they want and
Spain
13:00 - National weather observation network
need to know
Mike Brettle, optical products manager, Campbell
13:00 - 15:00
at your fingertips: software solution for Scientific, UK Measurement and
monitoring, management and control
Olli Ojanperä, product manager, Vaisala Oyj, Finland
technology
13:30 - Optimizing usage of anti-icing Moderator: Kuo-Ying Wang, Department of
chemicals by road condition monitoring
Taisto Haavasoja, CEO, Teconer, Finland
DAY 3 Atmospheric Science, National Central University,
Taiwan
14:00 - HPC within the meteorological sector –
tackling the power challenge October 15, 2015 13:00 - Improving customer service through
education and training
Jorge Balcells, director of technical services, Verne Richard Jeffries, director, the COMET program,
Global, UK 11:00 - 13:00 University Corporation for Atmospheric Research,
USA
Modeling and simulation
14:30 - 16:30 Moderator: Kuo-Ying Wang, Department of
13:30 - Expanded site monitoring flexibility
through web-enabled dataloggers
Measurement and Atmospheric Science, National Central University, Robert Zeijlemaker, international channel manager,
Taiwan Onset, USA
technology 14:00 - Video Distrometers – the perfect
11:00 - The cloud base is just the beginning:
Moderator: Tom Blees, president, The Science modern-day use of the laser ceilometer devices for quantitative determination of
Council for Global Initiatives, USA
Christoph Münkel, senior scientist, Vaisala Oyj, precipitation phase shares
Germany Michael Schoenhuber, head of the research group
14:30 - The Pacific Greenhouse Gases Space and Communication Technology, Joanneum
Measurement Project: the 2009-2014 results 11:30 - Radiosonde observations, hydrogen Research Forschungsgesellschaft, Austria
Kuo-Ying Wang, Department of Atmospheric generators and safety rules
Science, National Central University 14:30 - Smart way of sensor calibration
Mustafa Erdem, engineer; radiosonde expert, Turkish
State Meteorological Service Observing Systems Adam Krovina, head of sensor development
15:00 - Innovative measurement technologies department, MicroStep, Slovakia
for met-ocean conditions Division Radiosonde Unit, Turkey
Claudia Rudolph, group manager offshore site 12:00 - How the future of environmental
assessment, Fraunhofer Institute for Wind Energy modelling will impact the requirements for
and Energy System Technology IWES, Germany observations
Jonathan Taylor, executive head of observations, Met
Office, UK
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Come and join Earth Networks and your colleagues from the weather business.
Free, unlimited beer, wine and soft drinks will be served in the exhibition hall,
open to everyone!
This is a great opportunity to meet your hosts, and network and relax with colleagues.
We look forward to seeing you there!

BREAKOUT CONFERENCE
DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 3
October 13, 2015 October 14, 2015 October 15, 2015
11:00 - 13:00 11:00 - 13:00 11:00 - 14:00
Agriculture Energy Aviation
Moderator: Nancy Vermeulen, science Moderator: Nancy Vermeulen, science Moderator: Nancy Vermeulen, science
communicator/flight instructor, Royal communicator/flight instructor, Royal communicator/flight instructor, Royal
Meteorological Institute of Belgium Meteorological Institute of Belgium Meteorological Institute of Belgium
11:00 - Advances in agricultural data to the 11:00 - Climate impacts of non-fossil fuel 11:00 - Application of laser-based (lidar)
farmer’s advantage alternatives systems to climate and aviation industry
Russell Heilig, vice president of business Tom Blees, president, The Science Council for George Avdikos, R&D engineer, Raymetrics,
development, Davis instruments, USA Global Initiatives, USA Greece
11:30 - Weather stations for a better world 11:30 - The wind energy applications of lidar 11:30 - System integration in theory
Sumit Dave, firmware manager, Komoline Peter Clive, senior scientist, SgurrEnergy and reality – a case study on supplier
Aerospace, India
12:00 - How to assess sensors during icing independent solutions
12:00 - Dielectric measurement of soil-water performance for wind energy purpose? Magnus Johansson, head of business unit ATM
content services, Combitech, Sweden
Cédric Arbez, engineer, TechnoCentre éolien /
Paolo Castiglione, research scientist, Decagon Wind Energy TechnoCentre 12:00 - The use of new technologies in the
Devices, USA ENAV’s training system
12:30 - Seasonal forecasting of water
demand for irrigation in Emilia-Romagna
14:00 - 16:00 Gian Luca Tisselli, meteorological technician and
trainer, ENAV, Italy
Vittorio Marletto, agrometeorologist, Servizio Lightning and 12:30 - The Weather-Light: a severe weather
Idro-Meteo-Clima, Italy alert system for air traffic control centers in
thunderstorms Italy
14:00 - 16:00 Moderator: Nancy Vermeulen, science
communicator/flight instructor, Royal
Isabella Riva, meteorologist, ENAV, Italy
13:00 - Measuring wind conditions and
Marine Meteorological Institute of Belgium wind hazards with new-generation lidars for
improving air traffic management
Moderator: Nancy Vermeulen, science 14:00 - Humidity mapping and high-impact
communicator/flight instructor, Royal Ludovic Thobois, scientific studies manager,
local weather prediction
Meteorological Institute of Belgium Leosphere, France
Randolph Ware, founder, chief scientist,
Radiometrics, USA 13:30 - Advances in remotely piloted aircraft
14:00 - The COSMO numerical weather system (RPAS) proximal remote sensing
prediction model’s application in Nigerian 14:30 - Applications of lightning data in
technology for weather monitoring, including
marine weather forecasting meteorology
predicting/evaluating volcanic ashes
Adalikwu Richard Ushie, senior meteorologist, Marc Bonnet, vice president international,
Météorage, UK Alberto Bernabeo, professor - airline commander
Nigerian Meteorological Agency, National and instructor, quality assurance, University of
Weather Forecast & Climate Research Centre, 15:00 - The importance of total lightning in Bologna, Italy
Nigeria meteorology and aviation
14:30 - Surface currents remote sensing James Anderson, vice president, international * Yet more speakers to be added!
by high-frequency radar in the Iberian network and business development, Earth
Peninsula: the TRADE project Networks, USA
Jorge Sánchez Musulin, international business 15:30 - Recognition of hail-producing
development manager, Qualitas Remos, Spain thunderstorms using high-resolution 3D
lightning data
* Yet more speakers to be added! Matthias Möhrlein, meteorology - research & data
quality, Nowcast, Germany

Radar data
by Kevin Nugent
MEASURE
AND PREDICT
Processing of radar data in
various weather conditions
The use of value-added data processing from Baron, applied to
US National Weather Service NEXRAD radar data, is explained
and evaluated using several meteorological scenarios
hen comparing conventional On May 6, 2015, in the Oklahoma City May 6 storm also produced several tornadoes.
W methods with new dual-polarimetric
techniques, far more accurate
area, several super cell thunderstorms
traveled over the same locations over a four-
The strongest, an EF-3, was on the ground for
10 miles and nearly 50 minutes, affecting the
rainfall amounts can be calculated. to six-hour period, producing record-setting Bridge Creek and Newcastle areas of the
Conventional rainfall measurement is rainfall and tornadoes. Life-threatening flash southwestern Oklahoma City metropolitan
determined by rainfall rate, measuring the flooding began occurring in the evening and area. The tornado paralleled Interstate 44
energy returned from a precipitation target. overnight hours, with gauge-recorded rainfall during much of its life. Several Baron-
A radar equation expressing the relationship amounts of 12.7-25.4cm common across automated meteorological and radar tools
between the returned energy and reflectivity these sections of the city. were used to determine the severity of the
of a precipitation target is then used to In this example from the event, the Baron tornado in real time; these have also been
determine the number of raindrops. 24-hour rainfall amounts using conventional used in many other tornado events this past
Dual-pol derived rainfall rates, however, accumulations (Figure 1) did not exceed spring season across the entire USA.
provide added accuracy, as Baron algorithms 15.2cm, while dual-pol amounts (Figure 2) The first image at 5:15pm (Figure 3)
incorporate several dual-pol variables. were in the 15.2-22.8cm range. In both shows several Baron-patented value-added
Specific differential phase (KDP) is used to images, the radar-estimated amounts are tools to help forecasters determine the
help determine the number of raindrops shown in white and rain gauge reports are location and severity of a potential tornado.
falling in a specific column. Differential shown in black. The first are circular shear markers, which
reflectivity (ZDR) determines the size of the Using the dual-pol accumulation products represent the location where wind shear
drops falling in that column, while the along with reported rainfall gauge amounts, (specifically, rotating winds) is present. In
correlation coefficient (RHO) identifies customers using the Baron rainfall this case, 185km/h (115mph) of shear was
uniformity of precipitation, which is used to accumulation products could better detected. The second are the shear SCIT
rule out hail, graupel and non-meteorological determine in real time the severity of (storm cell identification and tracking)
returns within the column. Incorporating all potential flash flooding, and as a result warn attributes, used to automatically identify the
these dual-pol fields allows the rain rate the public of the potential flooding dangers. direction and speed of a severe or
occurring within the column to be more shear-producing storm.
accurately measured, in turn improving the Case study: Tornadoes The Baron Tornado Debris Signature
accuracy of overall rainfall amounts. Along with record-setting flash floods, the (TDS) Indicator (shown as a gray icon) marks
Figure 1: Conventional radar analysis of Oklahoma City flooding Figure 2: Dual-pol radar analysis of Oklahoma City flooding

Radar data
Figure 3: Value-added data processing reveals wind shear and lofted debris Figure 4: Tornado debris is monitored and tracked over a one-hour period
Figure 5: Examination of Baron Shear Rate data clearly reveals the tornado Figure 6: A one-hour mosaic of Baron Shear Rate data
the location where dual-pol data, combined dual-polarization, have made short-term
with velocity data, has detected potential forecasting of hail cores easier and more
debris lofted by a tornado on the ground, accurate. Through use of dual-pol
allowing the forecaster to view the areal hydrometeor classification algorithms to
coverage of that debris. In this case, specifically determine areas of a
the extent of debris detected is 5.44km thunderstorm that are producing hail,
(3.8 miles) wide. locations likely to receive hail are clearly
The Baron TDS swath (Figure 4) indicated on the map.
represents the swath or total coverage of In this example, from June 2, 2015, a
tornado debris that has been detected. The severe thunderstorm was moving west to east
presence of TDS indicators and TDS swath across Pigeon Forge, Tennessee. Immediately
will give a forecaster real-time confidence south of the town is a region with white
that a tornado is likely on the ground and returns (Figure 8), which signals an area
producing damage. In this case, the swath of Figure 7: An NWS site survey of the Bridge where Baron Hydrometeor Classification
tornado debris is parallel and directly on top Creek/Newcastle tornado algorithms have confirmed the presence
of Interstate 44. of hail. In fact, 2.5-3.8cm amounts of hail
Figure 5 depicts a graphical gives the forecaster critical guidance on the were reported with this particular
representation of the amount of Baron Shear storm’s general direction, and whether its thunderstorm.
Rate, obtained by comparing shear with intensity is increasing, from over the past Figure 9 shows an entire Baron Hail
individual radial bins next to each other. In several minutes to during the past hour. Swath, generated from the Reflectivity with
many tornado cases, high amounts of shear Figure 7 depicts the actual damage path of Hail product to determine individual radial
rate will actually take on a spiral-like the Bridge Creek/Newcastle tornado, as bins that are producing hail, producing a
graphical representation of the tornado itself, indicated by the NWS storm survey, one-hour mosaic of the number of times each
and this is true in this case, where the shear confirming the accuracy of the value-added bin was triggered, and indicating the
rate is circular in nature and is also directly data products. likelihood that a specific area received hail
over I-44 to the southwest of Newcastle. from a thunderstorm. Because it is a one-hour
Shear measurements can be also integrated Case study: Hail mosaic of hail potential, the Hail Swath gives
into a one-hour mosaic (Figure 6), which New advances in hail detection, enabled by a forecaster added confidence in short-term

Radar data
forecasting of hail, and the overall potential for returned from a precipitation target, but
damage to residents’ property. Hail Swath data using snowfall rate as a basis for calculation.
is combined with webcam imagery and a local A radar equation is then used to measure the
storm report from affected sites in Figure 10, relationship between the returned energy and
providing data verification. reflectivity of the precipitation target, and a
snowfall amount is determined.
Case study: Winter weather In the Buffalo case, there are 12-hour
On November 18-19, 2014, a historic snowfall accumulation amounts (Figure 12)
lake-effect snow event produced 1.2-2.1m of that range from 10-20cm, although it is likely
snow across southern sections of Buffalo, that within a narrow corridor of the heaviest
New York. This event was a classic lake-effect Figure 8: Locating hail pockets within a storm convective bands, 12-hour snow amounts of
snow setup – an arctic front had passed up to 30cm were likely occurring.
through the region days before. Being early
in the winter season, Lake Erie was still winds, and producing extremely heavy snow Future advances
relatively warm, especially when compared in the same locations for 36+ hours. Naturally New developments will continue to occur,
with the surrounding arctic air mass. this resulted in very high snowfall amounts. with full nationwide composites for shear
Uniform southwesterly winds were in place By identifying the dBZ values of the rate, shear swath and hail products.
from the surface through 4.6km (15,000ft), precipitation returns, and correlating them to Additionally, work is underway on deriving
and traveling across the entire length of the the snow rate, better accuracy is obtained. In snow accumulation and snow rate products
lake. As the arctic air moved across the lake, this event, a large area of snowfall rates of based on new dual-pol techniques. With
the warm lake water heated the bottom layer between 2.5cm per hour and 12.7cm per these advances and others, forecasters will be
of air and lake moisture evaporated into the hour – and higher – was detected in the most able to receive more accurate information for
cold air. The warm air rose and began to cool, intense part of the band (Figure 11). Snowfall their areas of responsibility, leading to
forming convective clouds, from which snow rates this high are extremely rare in the USA, improved situational awareness and decision
began to fall. but here were indicative of activity within making during critical weather situations,
As is always the case with Buffalo this intense band. and reducing loss of life and property as a
lake-effect snow events, a single convective Baron snow accumulation products are result of these events. z
band of snow developed and remained nearly produced in a way similar to rainfall
stationary, parallel to the southwesterly accumulations – measuring the energy Kevin Nugent is a forecast meteorologist at Baron Services
Figure 9: A one-hour mosaic of the path of hail Figure 10: Verification of the Baron Hail Swath, using webcam imagery
Figure 11: Snowfall rates during the snowstorm in Buffalo, New York Figure 12: 12-hour snow accumulations during the Buffalo snowstorm

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Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite
by Sarah Lipscy
UNEXPECTED
BONUS
An instrument on
the Suomi National
Polar-orbiting
Partnership weather
satellite is yielding
new information
Scientists have discovered that an imager designed

to map ozone successfully measures dust, volcanic
ash and wind events
he Ozone Mapping and Profiler to fully meeting its primary ozone mission,
T Suite (OMPS), currently orbiting
Earth aboard NASA’s Suomi
OMPS is also delivering additional data.
Scientists are developing unexpected
National Polar-orbiting Partnership capabilities that are providing new insights
(Suomi-NPP) spacecraft, was designed into upper atmosphere weather patterns, air
to measure ozone and how ozone quality and aviation hazard mitigation.
concentration varies with altitude. These OMPS is a three-part hyperspectral
critical measurements from OMPS are used instrument, consisting of two downward-
to monitor the atmosphere’s ability to looking or nadir spectrometers, one for total
protect all living things from the sun’s column measurements and one for profile
deadly ultraviolet radiation. In addition measurements, and a limb profiler

spectrometer. The nadir total column the aerosol index, which detects fine
instrument maps global ozone and the airborne particles that absorb ultraviolet
nadir profiler measures the vertical light. In this way, OMPS tracked the dust
distribution of ozone in the stratosphere at and smoke from California’s Rim Fire near
the center of the total column field of view. Yosemite National Park in August 2013 and
The limb profiler measures ozone in the mapped migration patterns that impacted
lower stratosphere and troposphere with air quality hundreds of miles away. Through
high vertical resolution to characterize correlation with other data on atmospheric
more subtle spatial features. dynamics, OMPS data helps improve air
quality models.
Up in the air Formaldehyde is a link in ozone
OMPS’s downward-looking nadir creation and destruction and is a sign
spectrometers identify and track smoke that ozone chemistry is occurring. OMPS
and pollution at altitudes above about 12km detects formaldehyde in much the same
(7.5 miles). This type of mapping measures way as it senses the presence of nitrogen and
Above: The Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite Instrument built by Ball Aerospace (Photo: Ball Aerospace)
Background: Polar Mesospheric Clouds as seen from the International Space Station. Photo: NASA

Atmospheric SO2 loading data from

volcanoes observed by OMPS correlates
well with the SO2 data from the Ozone
Monitoring Instrument (OMI) aboard
NASA’s Aura satellite. OMI crosses the
equator in a morning orbit and OMPS
delivers data from an afternoon orbit, so
scientists can combine data sets from both
instruments to track the movement of
aerosols and other particulates.
OMPS improves on OMI by providing
full daily global coverage and delivering
A Ball Aerospace technician inspects the OMPS instrument before integration on the spacecraft high spatial resolution data. OMPS’s data
(Photo: Ball Aerospace)
has also been validated with ground-based
measurements and provides near-real-time
sulfur dioxides – certain wavelengths absorb detection and monitoring of volcanic plumes
these gases and create a signature in the for aviation hazard mitigation. OMPS data
data stream. also improves air-quality models because it
OMPS ozone data could be used to correlates with data from other sources on
predict extreme, non-storm-related wind global particulates in the atmosphere.
events that are linked to stratospheric Volcanic eruptions eject large amounts
intrusions. They are identified by dry, of ash and SO2 into the atmosphere, which
warm, ozone-rich air that is indicated reach the cruising altitude of commercial
by increased total column ozone. These aircraft. If a jet flies through a volcanic ash
ozone intrusions occur when high altitude cloud, it can severely damage the aircraft,
ozone-rich air plunges down to the ground clog sensors, limit visibility and severely
from high in the stratosphere. scratch – or ‘sandblast’ – cockpit windows,
Ozone intrusion data can help predict landing light covers and parts of the tail and
weather that is not part of a storm and wings. Ash particles that enter jet engines
provide forecasters with critical information can cause engine failure.
about how air moves between the OMPS limb data showing how the Chelyabinsk Every year there are about 60 volcanic
stratosphere and troposphere. NASA’s meteor debris circumnavigated the globe in four eruptions. Since ground-based monitoring
Short-term Prediction Research and days (Image: NOAA/NASA) is carried out on only a limited number of
Transition Center facilitates the use of volcanoes, observations of SO2 and aerosols
near-real-time satellite data to support from satellite measurements in near-real
operational weather forecasting. The fuel sources. These gases are characterized time can provide useful complementary
addition of OMPS data could broaden the with high precision and low bias by OMPS’s information by which to assess the global
impact of this application at this and other total column readings. Column density impacts of volcanic eruptions on air traffic
operational national weather centers. correlates with the concentration of control operations and public safety.
pollutants from fossil fuel combustion OMPS is now part of the European
Erupting fire and ash and daily maps chart the evolution of air Space Agency’s Support for Aviation Control
OMPS’s nadir spectrometers also track pollution. When the Joint Polar-orbiting Service, which delivers SO2 alerts to air
sulfur dioxide (SO2) generated from Satellite System-1 spacecraft launches in traffic controllers, volcano observatories,
volcanoes and man-made sources and 2017, the OMPS instrument onboard will health care organizations and scientists,
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) emitted from be able to deliver higher spatial resolution among others. OMPS data is currently
coal-fired power plants and other fossil of total column data. being used to complement OMI/Aura data

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to make UV index forecasts much more

accurate. The UV index measures the
amount of radiation reaching the surface
at a particular location and depends on the
latitude, altitude, time of year, time of day,
OMPS data indicating Polar Mesospheric Clouds weather conditions, surface conditions and
The OMPS instrument is integrated on the Suomi-NPP and the light or bolide emitted by the large the thickness of the stratospheric ozone
satellite prior to launch (Photo: Ball Aerospace) meteor that exploded near Chelyabinsk, Russia
(Image: NOAA/NASA)
layer. UV index forecasts based on ozone
forecasts will be improved by OMPS’s higher
spatial resolution. The current instrument
in software used to determine flight routes. the impact, he discovered that it showed can indicate the amount of ozone in the
Aviation forecasters also rely on direct above-normal levels of meteor debris at atmosphere within a 50km (31 mile) square
readouts from OMPS passes during high altitudes of 30-45km (18-30 miles). area, accounting for UV index differences for
Suomi-NPP’s orbit. They gather a swath OMPS data showed that the plume had cities just 112km (70 miles) apart. With the
of raw data every 1.5 hours and process circumnavigated the globe, and a month new OMPS instrument due to launch on the
it to access near-real-time information. later a new dust structure appeared at lower Joint Polar Satellite System-1 (JPSS-1) in
latitudes, allowing the tracking of meteor 2017, the index will be measured over a
Raining sand and dust debris on a scale never before carried out. 12km (7.4 mile) square area, so areas north
OMPS’s total column aerosol index maps OMPS data can also be used to monitor and south of the same city may have
also showed a moving layer of sand dust that polar mesospheric clouds (PMCs), which different UV indexes due to the improved
settled in the London and Cornwall areas of consist of water vapor frozen into ice instrument resolution.
the UK in March 2014 after winds moved crystals lit by the setting or rising sun. The OMPS instrument has proved to
dust from the Sahara. This type of OMPS PMCs show up on OMPS limb data as have capabilities far beyond the ozone
data can help forecasters by providing artifacts, which ozone scientists usually measurements it was designed to collect.
information about the properties and remove. However, climate scientists and These types of tracking data were not part
make-up of the upper atmosphere. In meteorologists welcome this data because of the algorithms originally designed for
particular, aerosols in the atmosphere it allows them to characterize, catalog and OMPS. However, it is not surprising that
provide nuclei around which water can observe PMC trends year on year. scientists continue to discover innovative
condense to build raindrops, so OMPS is giving us a more detailed applications using information from this
understanding the amount of particulate understanding of the interactions that take highly sensitive and capable instrument.
dust in the upper atmosphere is an place between the stratosphere and the OMPS data may prove to be key to
important element when predicting cloud troposphere. These have been largely the future of weather forecasts and
formation and precipitation. ignored in the numerical weather prediction understanding of air pollution patterns.
(NWP) models used by meteorologists. Out of the 51 scientific papers published on
Higher altitude dynamics NWP models are tropospheric, focusing on OMPS data since Suomi-NPP launched in
The OMPS limb profiler provides tracking weather from the ground up to 17km (10.5 2011, more than half focused on unplanned
data for upper atmosphere dynamics, giving miles), since that is where the majority of data collected by the instrument. OMPS’s
forecasters insight into the behavior of weather patterns operate and have the most spatial resolution and stability of calibration
winds at high altitudes, where they can effect on life and property. By helping us has enabled it to track new data and
indicate future weather patterns. A new better understand the relationship between contribute to weather forecasts and air
capability for OMPS was discovered by a stratospheric and tropospheric interactions, quality assessments the world over. z
scientist at NASA Goddard Space Flight OMPS may be able to refine NWP models
Center whose hometown was Chelyabinsk, and PMCs may be a good place to start. Sarah Lipscy, PhD, is the OMPS deputy program
Russia, which was hit by a meteor on manager and instrument scientist at Ball
February 15, 2013. Looking to see if the Targeted UV indexes Aerospace & Technologies Corporation, Boulder,
OMPS limb profiler picked up debris from OMPS measurements have the ability Colorado, USA

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Thunderstorm warning systems
by Alec Bennett
DO NOT
DISTURB
Thunderstorm
development
can count for a
high percentage
of flight disruption

Ensuring minimal disruption at airports is vital.

Thunderstorm warning systems can determine
the development of a storm and ensure that key
personnel are prepared
ad weather is the main cause of Thunderstorm warning systems can
B flight delays worldwide, with
thunderstorms playing a major part
be either individual, standalone units
positioned at the airport or helipad, or
in this disruption, both on the ground and in formed from a network of sensors spread
the air. Knowledge of nearby thunderstorm out over hundreds of kilometers and
development is vital to ensure airport and operated by national weather services or
helipad safety and minimize downtime. private companies. Single site detectors
While no one can prevent the arrival of have the advantage of being dedicated to
a thunderstorm, early warning of its the area around the site, and so usually
development and location ensures that key offer the greatest chance of detecting all
personnel are prepared for the possibility of local lightning activity compared with a
a quick change to their activities. Since third-party network, which needs to reach
overhead lightning usually spells an end to a compromise between lightning detection
ground operations, early warning enables efficiency and broad geographical coverage,
weather-sensitive tasks to be prioritized ahead especially for offshore sites. Being owned
of the approaching storm and all personnel by the customer, standalone detectors have
and equipment are kept safe, reducing the no ongoing data subscription costs, delays
risk of injuries. Equally as important for or reliance on internet access. While
minimizing downtime, thunderstorm regional networks typically provide greater
warning systems ensure that airport activities individual lightning location accuracy,
can restart as soon as possible after a storm standalone sensors are designed to have
passes, maximizing operational efficiency. sufficient accuracy to reliably identify
In addition to disruption of ground which reporting zones around the site a
operations, thunderstorms represent a real thunderstorm occupies (distant, vicinity
hazard for aircraft on take-off and approach, or overhead) and report the direction of
when the normal inflight procedure of the storm.
avoidance cannot be achieved. In this While most thunderstorms drift into
instance it is not usually lightning that the user’s area of interest, some will form
represents the danger, but the severe directly over the site. If only lightning
turbulence, wind shear, icing and damaging detection is used, the site will have no
hail that makes the air above the airport warning of this overhead threat until the
a dangerous place. Early detection and first lightning flash occurs – which may
location of thunderstorms enables air traffic strike the site itself or nearby aircraft. With
to be managed appropriately, ensuring the this in mind, UK-based meteorological
greatest safety and comfort for passengers instrumentation design company Biral
and crew. recently developed the BTD-300, a
For example, thunderstorms are noted standalone thunderstorm warning system
as a major cause of offshore helicopter tailored for airport and helipad use. An
accidents, as demonstrated by the Oil & important feature of the BTD-300 is its
Gas UK Health and Safety Report 2013 (for unique ability to detect the presence of
1992-2012): “For accidents caused by strong electric charge in the air or on falling
external factors, 86% of them were because raindrops, both of which can warn of the
of weather-related events, including five potential for overhead lightning activity
lightning strikes and an encounter with before the first lightning flash is produced.
a water spout.” Even if no lightning results, this warning is

Warning flag graph: Thunderstorm alerts issued by a BTD-300 during Distance to lightning flashes with time on May 19, 2015, detected by a BTD-300
May 19, 2015 with a direction finder module, in relation to FAA thunderstorm reporting sectors
used to infer that a cumulonimbus cloud is generated by their brief but strong electrical
over the site. This is a major weather event currents. Since lightning is not the only
in its own right and one that is very difficult source of radio pulses, the benefits of
to detect by any other means during the standalone sensors have previously been
night when no lightning is produced. outweighed by interference and false alarms
Cumulonimbus clouds in themselves due to man-made radio signals within the
are a threat to all aircraft due to severe sensor’s frequency band. A key feature of the
turbulence, wind shear and airframe BTD-300 is its immunity to all man-made
icing. This warning greatly aids the duty radio interference, since it uses electrostatic
met observer. detection instead of radio signals to
automatically detect and range lightning.
Offshore wind farm – Belgian By continually monitoring the atmospheric
North Sea electrostatic field 100 times per second,
To prove the performance at an offshore signals unique to lightning are identified
facility, Cofely Fabricom – GDF Suez (Engie) by the unit’s three electrostatic antennas.
installed a BTD-300 on a substation for the The maximum detection range is 83km,
wind farm C-Power (Thortonbank, Belgian comfortably exceeding the 56km limit
North Sea). required for airport thunderstorm reporting,
The installation of the BTD-300 on the as given by the US FAA. An optional module
C-Power substation was used to evaluate its provides lightning direction, which does
ability to provide the wind farm operator operate at radio frequencies (low frequency
with advanced real-time information about band) but is only triggered by the
thunderstorm activity within a 56km electrostatic detection from the main
radius. During the evaluation period the unit, thereby avoiding false alarms.
operator maintained its existing lightning The electrostatic technique monitors the
warning contract with a large and charging rate in the cloud itself, irrespective
internationally renowned provider of of the type of lightning produced. It is
thunderstorm information to verify the first strike was detected by the BTD-300, therefore sensitive to all forms of lightning,
data from the BTD-300. the report was received from the existing detecting and ranging both cloud-to-ground
After several weeks of no thunderstorm lightning location network provider and and intra-cloud lightning activity. Weak
activity (and no false alarms!) the system the strike was recorded by the network intra-cloud lightning is often the first
was fully tested by a major storm on as being 2.3km from the substation, a indication of a developing storm but is
February 3, 2015. On this day there was no range in accordance with the BTD-300 particularly difficult to detect using sensors
visible lightning to give the operator an overhead alert. relying on low-frequency radio signals
indication of an approaching storm. The Denis Renson of Cofely Fabricom – GDF alone. Due to the ability of the BTD-300
reporting timeline was as follows. The Suez reports, “This clearly demonstrated to detect these weak but informative
BTD-300 software screen alerted the why the BTD-300 is such a useful tool for intra-cloud lightning flashes, the system
operator to a strong electric field at the site; the offshore industries, by giving advanced can detect over twice as many flashes as
within 15 minutes a strike was recorded warning of the possibility of a thunderstorm. conventional low-frequency networks. This
<37km away, bearing 0.90 degrees; This warning enabled our customer to make extremely high lightning detection efficiency
personnel were told to implement the risk an informed risk assessment and maintain provides maximum early warning and
assessment protocol; within a further two the safe operation of the platform.” intensity assessment of an approaching
minutes a strike was recorded overhead – Nearly all thunderstorm detectors locate storm as well as confidence that the
the first of this storm; 10 minutes after the lightning using the powerful radio signals lightning threat is over.

Lightning flash locations for May 19, 2015, detected by a BTD-300 with a direction finder module,
in relation to FAA thunderstorm reporting sectors
Early warning before destructive the BTD-300 site, causing a fire and threatening offshore platforms and their
lightning strike (Bristol, UK) extensive damage to the building and a helicopter operations.
A BTD-300 is installed in an urban area strong local power surge that damaged The ability to detect potential overhead
of Bristol, UK. This site has overground electrical equipment in the neighborhood. storms and locate all subsequent lightning
power and telephone wires nearby and is Another example of how the BTD-300 flashes in the area is unique to the BTD-300,
close to buildings, making it a potentially saved potential fatalities, was on June 28, representing a major change in early
challenging environment for a thunderstorm 2014, when a thunderstorm cell rapidly warning of an impending storm as well
warning system. developed over Biral HQ, with its first as in giving a much higher confidence that
On February 23, 2015, the region lightning flash occurring within 8km of the the threat has passed. The BTD-300 is
experienced scattered rain and hail showers site. As the cell approached, the rainfall was a powerful and complete thunderstorm
resulting from an area of low pressure initially quite heavy, at ~20mm/hr, but warning system suitable for airport and
centered on the north of Scotland that nothing too unusual for a summer shower. offshore use.
dragged cold air over the relatively warm However, the BTD-300 detected that the Further details of the main scientific
sea. A band of moderately heavy rainfall rain was highly charged and issued a techniques used by the BTD-300 can be
approached the site during the evening, caution of potential overhead lightning found in the following journal publication:
which did not produce any lightning within activity. Nearly three minutes later, a A J Bennett, Identification and ranging of
50km of the site and did not appear to be powerful lightning flash occurred within lightning flashes using co-located antennas
especially severe on the rainfall radar. 8km. Since this was the first flash of the of different geometry, 2013, Measurement
Darkness and a lack of lightning activity storm, the charged rainfall provided the Science & Technology, 24 (12), 125801.
prevented visual recognition of the vital few minutes of early warning that the Downloadable white papers can be
approaching storm. The first rainfall from site was at an increased risk of lightning. found at www.biral.com/product/
this shower arrived over Bristol at 20:58 A thunderstorm warning system relying btd-300-thunderstorm-detector. z
UTC. Although the cloud was not producing only on lightning detection would have
any lightning activity, the BTD-300 detected given no prior warning of this destructive Dr Alec Bennett is the meteorological products
the potential for overhead lightning activity. strike, since it was the first lightning flash manager for Biral, UK. He has a PhD in atmospheric
Four minutes later the BTD-300 detected a of the storm. With its unique overhead electricity and 10 years’ experience in research and
high electric field variability at the site, so electrostatic monitoring, the BTD-300 gave development of lightning detection systems, including
upgraded the threat of potential overhead an alert of the potential for such a strike 19 working at the UK Met Office, and is a visiting
lightning activity to the highest level for minutes before its occurrence. These often Research Fellow at the University of Bath. He has
non-lightning signals (‘warning’). Then at unexpected and strong lightning flashes are written more than 20 papers on atmospheric electricity,
21:17 the first lightning flash of the storm typical of winter storm activity over the which have been published in peer-reviewed
was produced, striking a house 1km from northwest Atlantic and the North Sea, international journals

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Precipitation sensor
by Björn Mosdzien and Matthias Müller
SPECIAL
MEASURES
The next step in the evolution
of precipitation sensors
Lambrecht Meteo has taken over and extended Wilhelm Lambrecht’s operations. It
is launching new products, with special focus on the novel precipitation sensor, rain[e],
and its unique measurement principle
he rain[e] sensor from Lambrecht Ecological: The rain[e] is fully functional
T Meteo is a new kind of precipitation
sensor. Its development was born
throughout the year under even the harshest
winter conditions. As it works completely
from the idea to combine a tipping bucket without any antifreeze, there is no extra cost
with a weighing cell – with the objective to or maintenance required.
weigh every single drop of rain that has The sensor has automatically controlled
been collected by the bucket and instantly heating, enabling low energy consumption.
provide the data. It has the benefit of taking For example, it uses only 25% of the
the weight increase into consideration, thus available heating power at -20°C. Therefore
avoiding evaporation or emptying effects. the total cost of heating for five months at
The result is a precipitation sensor that temperatures constantly below freezing is
combines the numerous advantages of only around €30 (US$33) – calculation
weighing sensors with those of a tipping based on the high electricity prices in
bucket. These benefits are to be found in the The precipitation sensor rain[e] with its unique Germany – as opposed to €50 to €100
measurement principle will be showcased at
‘e’ of rain[e]: ecological, exact, efficient, Meteorological Technology World Expo 2015
(US$55 to US$111) for antifreeze in
economical and easy. precipitation collection sensors. Additionally
EVOLUTION OF RAIN[E]
In meteorology and hydrology, around 1662 by Sir Christopher
a precipitation sensor is applied Wren. Most of the tipping
to monitor and document buckets used today function
precipitation per time unit. with two shovels or containers,
Occasionally a differentiation is symmetrically assembled like a
made between rain gauges for seesaw around an axis. These
liquid precipitation and snow tipping buckets are designed
gauges for frozen precipitation. so that either of the buckets is
Precipitation sensors that are below a funnel. The
equipped with (adjustable) precipitation is captured by the
heating can monitor both funnel and falls into the bucket.
liquid and frozen precipitation Once a defined volume is
(after melting). exceeded, the seesaw tips and
Rain gauges have existed the second bucket goes below
for many centuries. In ancient the funnel. Through a magnet,
Greece, precipitation was this movement transmits a
monitored as early as 500 BC. pulse to a switch, which in
The first standardized return provides the signal for
precipitation sensors were and his son. The device was the country. The first the measurement. For the
introduced in Jeonju, the basically a standardized precipitation sensor with a standardization of the signal,
present-day South Korea, in the container, deployed as an mechanical self-emptying the collecting area of the funnel
mid-15th century by King Sejong official instrument throughout tipping bucket was developed and the bucket volume are

rain[e] installed in north Norway
the antifreeze usually requires costly highly efficient and intelligent heating sensors – and has comparable or even
disposal as a hazardous waste. consumes less than 0.84kWh on a normal superior functionality.
Exact: The high-precision self-emptying winter day and minimizes evaporation. No Easy: rain[e] is easy to handle. At 2.5kg it
collecting device has two chambers that fill negative measuring effect by the funnel is lightweight among precipitation sensors.
alternately with the collected precipitation. could be detected in field tests when It is also easy to lift, transport and install.
At a certain volume the collector tips over and meteorological services and institutes Adjustment and calibration of the weighing
empties. Each drop entering the collecting directly compared the rain[e] with collecting system is performed simply by using a
device is monitored at the remarkable weighing sensors. The rain[e] regularly precise calibration ball. For this purpose,
resolution of 0.001mm/m², enabled by a high- tests its heating functionality, even in the collecting device is manufactured in
precision weighing cell with a measurement warm weather, to detect failure before such a way that the ball automatically rolls
accuracy of ±0.01g. heating is required. to the center for reproducible measurements.
Efficient: rain[e] combines the highest Economic: rain[e]’s small dimensions and
functionality with a very compact design. low weight enable an 80% lower logistic rain[e] operation
A total of six analogous, digital and serial cost than the larger collecting weighing The chart in Figure 1 depicts how rain[e]
interfaces enable data output of precipitation sensors. rain[e] is approximately 50% less functions. The precipitation is collected by
volume, intensity, event and status. Its expensive than other weighing precipitation the funnel with its standardized collecting
adjusted to each other so that applied. Generally, tipping require maintenance, for example, by insects or
one seesaw tip corresponds to buckets are prone to intensity specifically during as well as seeds. However they are a
a precipitation height of 0.1mm dependent measurement shortly before and after the good choice for monitoring
per 1m² (mm/m²) or 0.2mm/m². errors. These can be minimized, winter months, by adding and precipitation intensity.
Sometimes (in countries using but not fully eliminated, by replacing antifreeze liquids. Acoustic systems basically
the metric system) the mechanical methods. Other devices employ hear the impact of the
precipitation height is scaled in Consequently, intensity-based optical or even acoustic precipitation and can thus
0.01in but still per m². deviations of the measured methods for precipitation differentiate between
A connected datalogger precipitation can be measurement. intensities. However, they are
monitors, saves and compensated for electronically, Optical methods are based limited when it comes to
accumulates the triggered either directly in the sensor or in on building a light band. monitoring fine drizzle, snow or
pulses, which are depicted as a connected datalogger. Precipitation drops falling generally fine precipitation.
total precipitation per time. The A further measurement through this band are counted Fairly recently, precipitation
usual units for the intensity are technique is to weigh the and their size is measured to sensors based on radar
millimeters of precipitation per precipitation that is collected in calculate the precipitation. technology have entered the
minute (mm/min), per hour a large container. While these These optical precipitation market. As with acoustic
(mm/h) or per day (mm/d), systems measure the sensors are known as systems, the radar based
while the precipitation amount precipitation quantity very disdrometers. Typically they devices are mostly suitable
in millimeters relates to 1m² accurately and at the high are expensive, less suitable for precipitation intensity
(1mm/m2 corresponds to 1 liter/ resolution of 0.01mm or for volume measurements rather than quantity and
m2). Thus the additional 0.001mm, they often are bulky and prone to erroneous have the same limits in the
indication ‘/m2’ is usually not and expensive. They also precipitation events caused, measurement of fine snow.

shows the step signal following a one-

minute precipitation of 3mm/min (red).
The measured precipitation (blue) is in
accordance with the ideal step signal of a
sliding one-minute intensity (green), and
demonstrates rain[e]’s fast reaction. The step
response of most other collecting weighing
sensors shows a time delay of several
minutes. The step signal has been confirmed
by several meteorological services.
rain[e] calculates precipitation intensity,
rated over time, based on the volume
increase. The intensity is available as
precipitation intensity during the latest
measured minute in millimeters per minute
and millimeters per hour, as intensity since
the last measurement, or as precipitation
intensity during a time, t, with average,
minimum and maximum values.
For intensity measurements, it is best to
Figure 1: Function
chart for rain[e] use the rain[e] calculated values rather than
– note the internal manually calculating intensity based on
heater for melting counted pulses. rain[e]’s pulse output is
snow merely intended for amount measurement,
as depending on the precipitation intensity,
pulse output can be delayed.
The serial interfaces RS485 and SDI-12
provide the best measurement results as
well as the widest functionalities. As well as
transmitting measurement data, the serial
interfaces provide housekeeping data as well
as error messages. Examples include
information on heating (on/off) and heating
Figure 2: rain[e] step energy consumption as a percentage of the
response after a maximum possible energy consumption.
one-minute This value shows how much of the available
precipitation of 3mm/ heating power is really in use. To analyze
min (see red line)
measurement quality, variance in the
measurement data is available.
area of 200cm². Solid precipitation, such as Subsequent filter stages compensate for Precipitation amount data can also be
snow, is melted by the intelligent heating. wind, shock and vibration. The funnel, generated as an analogous value. This is a
The collected precipitation travels from combined with the filter stages, gives a close short term for the available analogue signals:
the funnel through the drop shaper and ends to zero sensitivity to wind. Due to their 0 up to 20mA, 4 up to 20mA, 0 up to 2.5V
in the self-emptying collecting bucket, where bigger surface, collection weighing and 0 up to 5V or as pulse via the
the drop is immediately weighed. precipitation sensors are much more Open-Collector. The latter can also provide
However it is not the absolute weight that susceptible to wind, which affects status information such as precipitation
is measured, but the weight increase over the measurement results. event or heating on/off.
former measurement. Based on the high After the filtration, the monitored weight Lambrecht Meteo will present rain[e] at
sampling rate, the long-term drift of the increase is analyzed and – in the simplest Meteorological Technology World Expo
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evaporation are almost automatically With the correlation of 0.02g = 0.001mm, Belgium. Come and visit Booth 1220 to see
compensated for. Once one of the measure- the precipitation amount is calculated. The how rain[e] measurements are done, and
ment chambers is filled, the collecting device measured precipitation amount is provided how efficiently and easily the self-emptying
tips over and empties, and measurement as accumulated sum since the last data recall bucket operates. z
continues in the second chamber. During or total amount since start of the system
the tipping process, the rain[e] sensor with a resolution of 0.001mm. Björn Mosdzien MEng is a developer at Lambrecht
compensates for possible deviations through The depicted step signal was monitored Meteo. Matthias Müller is a product manager at
an in-built algorithm. using rain[e]’s serial interface. Figure 2 Lambrecht meteo.

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Interview: ITaRS
by Sarah Henkel
NEXT GENERATION
ITaRS prepares future
atmospheric remote
sensing scientists
Susanne Crewell coordinates EU-funded project Initial Training for atmospheric
Remote Sensing (ITaRS). Here, she and one of her students talk about the training
of a new wave of scientists
Susanne Crewell is professor of meteorology

at the University of Cologne and leader of the
Remote Sensing working group

Interview: ITaRS
usanne Crewell is professor of Five companies are associated successful that it has been adapted by the
S meteorology at the University of
Cologne and leader of the Remote
partners of ITaRS. What is that
cooperation like in practice?
Atmospheric Radiation Measurement
program of the US Department of Energy,
Sensing working group. Since 2012 she has Verdejo: We have their support when we are with its first summer workshop of 2015.
coordinated the EU-funded Initial Training using the instruments and most of the
for atmospheric Remote Sensing (ITaRS). fellows have been seconded to the industry ITaRS claims that it is training a new
Nine European partners from academia and for two to four weeks. Our industrial generation of scientists, able to close
five associated partners, who partners explain to us how the instrument the gap between the development
manufacture remote sensing equipment, works, how measurement modes can be of instruments and atmospheric
combined their expertise to train young improved and how we can interpret the applications. Can you really keep
researchers – known as fellows – for a career measurements. This is really useful that promise?
in industry and academia. The fellows are because it helps us to get the best out of Crewell: Naturally it is a long-term vision.
now finishing their PhD or postdoc and are the measurements. Our fellows tackle scientific questions and
presenting themselves at the Meteorological Crewell: Also, the companies lend us know what they need from instruments in
Technology World Expo. Sarah Henkel from instruments for our field campaigns. They terms of specifications, uncertainties,
University of Cologne met Crewell, together participate at all network events, giving operability, etc, to solve these questions. Via
with her PhD student and ITaRS fellow María lectures on their instrumentation. A good network training and secondments they get
Barrera Verdejo from Granada. example of how scientific analysis benefits together with companies that develop these
from the direct interaction is the instruments. Through this practical
What is the purpose of ITaRS? implementation of a special measurement exchange of scientific needs and
Crewell: It has several objectives. First of all, mode for polarimetric cloud radar technological possibilities, a much more
our purpose is to educate PhD students in measurements, suggested by an ITaRS focused approach from basic science to
atmospheric remote sensing, a strongly fellow, to learn more about ice clouds. meteorological applications is stimulated.
expanding research topic for future
meteorological and climate applications. María, what is so special about doing How did you structure cooperation
Currently there is no single discipline that your PhD in a Marie Skłodowska-Curie within the consortium?
covers all necessary ingredients and therefore Initial Training Network (ITN)? Crewell: ITaRS is a good example of how
ITaRS combines methods from engineering, Verdejo: We have many advantages over the European projects can optimize the
atmospheric sciences, physics and regular PhD students at the university. We interaction of researchers in the long run.
mathematical concepts. have this important ITaRS network, with Some of the ITaRS partners had already
Today’s university curricula don’t cover all other universities and industrial partners.
these interdisciplinary aspects. Therefore we The 16 ITaRS fellows are a really strong
bring together the expertise of our various group; we grow together. We have many
European partners to train PhD students in opportunities to go to conferences and to
ITaRS. With our joint work on developing a organize our own meetings, and I feel
variety of training programs, including that we are lucky to have this position.
lectures, e-seminars and online tutorials, Thinking economically, I would say it is
ITaRS will have an impact on the European also an advantage.
system of PhD training in atmospheric Crewell: I think the two ITaRS summer
sciences, uniting it through the exchange schools have been important milestones in
of good practice and the definition of ITaRS. We planned them, of course, for our
common standards. own fellows, but we wanted to expand the
Another goal is to advance our network and bring in people from outside.
understanding of the single largest The two summer schools were in Bucharest
uncertainty in today’s climate models (Romania) and Jülich (Germany), where half
– aerosol-cloud interaction. In fact ITaRS the participants came from ITaRS and the
is exploiting advanced remote sensing other half from the rest of the world – and
instrumentation to observe aerosols and similarly for the lecturers. In this way we
clouds and study their effects. The brought together a very nice spectrum of
capabilities of such instruments are rapidly people working jointly on small research
growing and nearly all ITaRS fellows work projects. Many remain in contact with us.
with industrial partners on improving The summer school concept was so
instrumentation even further. The expanding
role of ground-based networks is also
recognized by the recent WMO report
Seamless Prediction of the Earth System: from María Barrera Verdejo (right) is one of Crewell’s
PhD students and ITaRS fellows
minutes to months. It provides a reference for
the current state and future challenges.

Interview: ITaRS
The most important

thing is a good
consortium. Synergies
between the ITaRS
partners and
secondments of their
fellows can be seen
here
begun cooperating under FP5 in the homogeneous data and synergetic products
CLIW-NET and Cloudnet projects. The that we liaise with the ACTRIS and ARM
infrastructure network ACTRIS then started community.
to connect aerosol and cloud observations.
When we built the ITaRS strategy we started Why have you, as a graduate network,
with a core of people tackling aerosols and decided to take a display stand at
clouds using different instrumentation from Meteorological Technology World Expo?
lidar, radar and microwave radiometry and Crewell: Because our products are our
then looked for people to fill the gaps, for fellows, who have received excellent training
example in inversion theory, engineering and are now eager to enter the job market.
and the manufacture of instrumentation. They have many possibilities and it is by
no means certain that they will all stay in
What is the role of ITaRS now within academia to do research. They have worked
the community of atmospheric closely with our industrial partners and
research? know the instruments from the basics
Crewell: The European Cooperation in on. Meteorological instrumentation
Science and Technology (COST) action Microwave radiometer (MWR) from RPG, technology is rapidly developing and job
towards operational ground-based profiling located in the Barbados Cloud Observatory, opportunities are emerging. Therefore we
with ceilometers, doppler lidars and Barbados (Photo: María Barrera Verdejo) want to bring our fellows together with
microwave radiometers for improving people from private enterprises and other
weather forecasts (TOPROF; http://www. meteorological applications and needs meteorological organizations, which are
toprof.imaa.cnr.it/) mentioned ITaRS in its improved initial conditions on small potential employers.
proposal, because we are helping shape the spatial and temporal scales – meaning
instrumental development for the future incorporating high-resolution observations. María, what is your research project
observation network. It really helps to That’s why ITaRS worked with scientists about and what did you find out?
connect and organize ourselves within the from the European Centre for Verdejo: My research project is about the
community to bring together partners for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting synergy of two instruments, each of which
future research projects and to solve the [ECMWF] to organize a workshop on how gives a different vision of the atmosphere,
long-standing problems we have in climate active remote sensing with radar and lidar so we can combine them to obtain better
science. For future work two important can be treated in data assimilation. Second, estimate of the state of the atmosphere. The
topics immediately come to mind. understanding climate-relevant processes two instruments are the Raman lidar and
First, the improvement of numerical and monitoring the state of the climate the passive microwave radiometer. In my
weather prediction is key to many requires long-term observatories with first application of this synergy I worked

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Interview: ITaRS
with measurements from the HOPE fellows worked at NOAA as an operational

campaign HD(CP)2 Observational Prototype forecaster and then decided to go back to
Experiment (HOPE) http://www.hdcp2.eu/ university in Europe to do a PhD.
Campaign-HOPE.2306.0.html, which took
place here in Germany two years ago. I ITNs foster a new type of structured
developed and applied an algorithm to get PhD training in a network with
better humidity and temperature profiles predefined work plans for each
and so far it has been very successful. I student. What are the differences
Raman lidar (RL) from Max Planck Institute in
discovered that it is much more useful than the same observatory (Photo: María Barrera
compared with classical PhDs in the
I thought in the beginning and we published Verdejo) working group of a home university?
a paper about this work. I think it can be Crewell: The structure of the doctorate is
very helpful for many people who use these strongly developing across Europe. Nearly
two instruments. The next step is to apply all EU countries aim for a stronger structure
the algorithm to instruments on an aircraft with a more projectable path to a doctorate.
flying over the Caribbean. That changes the Key elements are the introduction of
whole perspective of the problem. doctoral committees to reduce dependence
on a single advisor and get more input
What do you and the other fellows from other perspectives, regular meetings
plan to do after leaving the program? with those committees, well-defined rights
Verdejo: Every fellow has different and responsibilities via supervision
expectations. Some of them want to enter agreements, early introduction to
the private sector, but most would like to international research, etc.
stay in academia. Personally I am not sure, It was very interesting in ITaRS to see
because I love academia but I have never how different regulations for PhD students
worked in the private sector, so I don’t know can be. For example, in the Netherlands a
if I would love it as much. But every person PhD generally takes four years, while ITNs
is different. allow working contracts for a maximum
Crewell: This is not only a choice between of three years – as it is common in most
academia and private enterprize. There are Results of the application of the algorithm countries. So we are just at the beginning of
also organizations like space agencies, developed by María Barrera Verdejo. The graph this process of harmonization. Projects like
presents a comparison between the humidity
national and international meteorological ITaRS help to develop the standards for PhD
profiles provided by different instruments
services and so on. In fact one of the ITaRS training and spread them around Europe.
What stage is the network at now?

What is the next challenge?
Crewell: Unfortunately the meeting at
Meteorological Technology World Expo will
be the last ITaRS-meeting, but I am sure I
will see many of the fellows again. In fact,
we are now in the really interesting phase,
where the results of the fellows’ doctoral
studies are compiled and theses are written.
We expect several disputations within the
next year. Then we will establish an alumni
network and also apply for a second training
network – within the EU Framework
Programme for Research and Innovation
(Horizon 2020) ITNs are now called
European Training Network. Here we want
to achieve further integration following our
successful cooperation with various partners
from academia and the private sector, who
are also likely to be tackling further
meteorological applications. z
María Barrera Verdejo from Spain and Xinxin Busch-Li from China are two of the 16 young researchers
Sarah Henkel is general program coordinator at the
in the ITaRS network (Photo: Sebastian Knoth)
University of Cologne

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Volcanic ash sensors
by Georg Heinemann
RISKY BUSINESS
A growing network
of optical sensor
measurement stations
To ensure the safety of aircraft in flight, the need for
real-time observation of volcanic ash clouds and other
critical events is vital. What is the industry doing?
short while ago the German weather Mount Redoubt in the largely volcanic
A and the KNMI (Royal Netherlands
Meteorological Institute) started to
Aleutian range in Alaska was highly active
and sprayed ash into the sky. The flight was
build a bigger and denser ceilometer already descending to land at the airport
network. They decided to use the Lufft CHM when all four engines stopped as a result
15k and more than 100 new stations will be of the ash. The crew restarted the engines
installed in the upcoming few years. One several times before they were able to
intention was to enhance ash cloud detection land safely. The aircraft was less than six
and to improve the information regarding months old.
cloud height, direction and layers. From the These instances show that volcano ash
DWD’s online Ceilomap, which uses data occurrences mustn’t be taken lightly, which
from already installed cloud height sensors, is why entire areas can be closed to air
it is obvious that the measurement network traffic. The problem is that researchers and
is much denser in the Netherlands and the the general public have no reliable figures
UK – aligned toward Iceland. The trigger on how dangerous and harmful this kind of
for the network enhancement was an event ash really is. It is still a very unexplored
caused major consequences for the air field. They can’t tell at what concentration
traffic industry. and at what height such events can really
influence aircraft.
Volcano ash cloud in European skies The local spreading of Eyjafjallajökull’s
In April 2010 the whole European airspace cloud in April 2010 was one of the biggest
was closed due to the volcanic ash cloud events and a major crisis for the European
originating from Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland. airspace. Airports closed, resulting in a huge
It caused over 100,000 flight cancellations loss of money to the airport operators,
and affected seven million passengers. This without solid facts, computer simulations or
kind of ash means a risk for air traffic, as evidence. The Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre
shown by related accidents. One example is (VAAC) in London was responsible for the
the failure of all four engines of a British examination of the incident, and
Airways Boeing 747 in 1982. On a flight measurements from stations all over the
from London to Auckland, New Zealand, it continent were considered. Additionally, a
flew over the erupting Mount Galunggung, research aircraft from the German
southeast of Jakarta, Indonesia. The pilots
were able to restart the engines and made a
successful emergency landing at Jakarta The Lufft CHM 15k series is prepared to work
airport. Another example demonstrating the throughout the year and in any climate. Due to its
double case structure combined with a window
danger of volcanic ash is the emergency blower and an automatic heating system, the
landing of the KLM Boeing 747 from ceilometers are not interfered with fog,
Amsterdam at Anchorage International precipitation, freezing or overheating
Airport, Alaska, in 1989. The stratovolcano

Aerospace Center (DLR) had to take off to The idea was to introduce safety level sky after volcanic eruptions. It has
verify the questionable measurements. But categories during a volcanic eruption. The observation stations in the UK, Argentina,
experts are still debating the exact results were additional instructions for safe Australia, Canada, Japan, France, the USA
conditions of ash density and quantity that flight operations in the event of a volcanic including Alaska, and New Zealand. These
causes the failure of aircraft turbines. After eruption. They also determined sites are in line with the corresponding
the Iceland phenomenon, research was recommendations for using ground-based flight information regions (FIRs) and
intensified and airlines have started to carry lidars, ground-based radars, airborne managed by the task force in order to create
out trial-and-error test flights with a sensors and satellite sensors for volcanic a defined and well-distributed airspace for
passenger aircraft to gather further data ash observation. In 1987 the International flight information and alert services.
from the field. Airways Volcano Watch system was created
As another reaction to this incident, the as a warning center as well as to explore the The role of the Lufft CHM 15k during
WMO, ICAO (International Civil Aviation the volcano eruption in Iceland
Organization) and WOVO (World The cloud height measuring device CHM
The CHM 15k being used for rare gas and
Organization of Volcano Observatories) have aerosol measurements in Birmingham, Alabama
15k – a former Jenoptik product – was
built a task force to put improved emergency USA (Photo: Atmospheric Research & Analysis, fortunately in use at several observation
measurements for future incidents in place. Inc) offices during the volcanic eruption in 2010
– for example at the Met Office in London
and the DWD site in Germany. The
ceilometers in place were able to detect the
ash and to issue information about its
vertical distribution in the troposphere – but
in the form of a delayed evaluation, not in
real time. If there had been a denser network
of lidar cloud height sensors and an
automatic interlinkage and exchange of
obtained backscatter profiles, the movement
of the ash plume could have been followed
in real time and the controversial European
air traffic management could have been
more effective.
Such a real-time monitoring network
would also help to overcome the continuing
challenge of determining the correct ash
concentration during volcano eruptions.
The existing models are still unsatisfactory.
A recent study (AMT, 8-2069, 19/5/2015)
of the eruptions of the volcanoes
Eyjafjallajökull and Grímsvötn (2011)
led by John Stevenson, University of
Edinburgh, found that regarding the size
of ash particles ejected into the atmosphere,
there are large discrepancies between
satellite remote sensing measurements
and actual measurements on the ground.
Furthermore, they found that volcanic
ash, with its highly diverse shapes and
properties, can travel farther than had
been thought.
The study offers new results that help to
understand the uncertainties on current

Accurate results day and night are obtained by a

solid state laser source with long lifetime, small
bandwidth filters and a highly sensitive photo
receiver (Photo: Atmospheric Research & Analysis,
Inc)
volcano monitoring maps. But it also called TOPROF was formed. It stands for
confirms the 2012 decision of the VAAC ‘Towards operational ground-based profiling
that current ash concentration models with ceilometers, Doppler lidars and
are too unreliable and should not be microwave radiometers for improving
considered for future advisory work. weather forecasts.’
In relation to this rather unsatisfactory National weather services are
situation for meteorologists and increasingly in the attractive position of
aviation authorities, the further relying on new high-resolution (1km)
exploitation of the use of ceilometers forecast models, which substantially
offers remarkable opportunities. improve weather forecasts, especially
Single instruments can provide aerosol in regard to major weather events such
and cloud layer detection as well as a rough as windstorms, flash floods and poor
classification in the troposphere. It includes air quality.
mixing layer height, ceiling and cloud Nevertheless such prediction models
height. Very interesting differentiations have to be verified by appropriate in situ
may be obtained by depolarization and measurements with special focus on the
improved calibration. Within a network lower few kilometers of the atmosphere and
structure, the dispersal and propagation including parameters such as water vapor,
of aerosols can be monitored and further temperature, wind and aerosols. Next to a
classifications pursued, for example the number of Doppler lidars and microwave
detection and monitoring of long-range profilers, a dense network of several
dust layers coming from forest fires, hundred automatic lidars and ceilometers
desert storms or, as already described, throughout Europe may contribute by
volcanic eruptions. providing much needed backscatter
profiles associated with aerosol and
European initiative for ceilometer cloud properties.
networking Assimilation and harmonization of the
To pursue these ambitious advances it is also data, interlinking all instruments as well
advantageous that a European initiative as establishing comparable calibration
Vertical distribution of volcanic ash during the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull, backscatter profile from CHM
15k, Exeter, Met Office UK

“The project concerns the

whole of Europe and the
data will go to national
meteorological and
hydrological services
in near real time”
Types and size distribution of atmospheric

particulate matter
methods are urgently needed and targeted.

For instance, TOPROF wants to evaluate
the backscatter profiles predicted by the
prognostic aerosol schemes in the next
generation of European forecast models
for forecasting air quality, as exemplified
by the EU-FP7 MACC model at ECMWF.
Aerosols, volcanic ash and other kinds
of ash material and pollutants are of
particular interest and do matter for
the accurate detection of the spatial
distribution, height and density of
aerosol plumes.
Considering these circumstances, the
future of ceilometers looks more than
interesting. Not only is demand increasing
for research tasks related to volcanic ash,
aerosol properties and so on, but the
instrument is also part of a greater
European meteorological initiative to
provide the public with highly advanced
weather forecasts and prediction models for
the lower atmosphere, which includes a
special focus on air quality during
hazardous events such as the volcanic
eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in 2010. z
Georg Heinemann is area sales manager for Optical

Sensors at G Lufft GmbH

Compact weather radar
by Michael R Rasmussen
SMALL
WONDER
A compact X-band weather
radar for wide application fields
As a development from its marine radar experience, Japanese company
Furuno has produced a compact weather radar
he term ‘weather radar’ conveys an already been installed worldwide, for

T image of devices reserved for the
intellectual elite for applications
purposes including aviation (Wakkanai
airport, Japan), volcanic ash monitoring
mainly designed for meteorology. With (Jogjakarta, Indonesia), sewerage
huge, heavy installations and high prices, installation improvement (Ghent,
most research institutes and private Belgium), and even dam management
companies can’t afford such products. (Kumamoto, Japan).
Developed by Furuno, the WR-2100 Understanding the opportunities offered
overcomes previous issues and enables new by this new radar, the University of Aalborg
types of applications. With a diameter of deployed a unit for urban drainage, an area
only 1m and weighing 65kg, there is a wider in which weather radar has become a very
choice of installation location. The very low valuable tool. Although rain gauges are still
cost of this unit makes it an excellent choice the primary source of precipitation data,
for many institutes – but low cost does not weather radars have proved their worth. The
mean low quality. The performance of the primary reason is their ability to measure
WR-2100 is equivalent to its bigger brothers rain intensities in all parts of a city instead
and even surpasses them in some cases. of just a few selected locations. Due to the
small horizontal size of some convective
A weather radar for new applications events, the density of the rain gauges within
Small size helps a lot when planning new a city is not enough to measure the rain
fields of application. Many units have intensity satisfactorily.

the low beam height are necessary to resolve

Figure 1: The Furuno the complex hydrology in a city.
WR-2100 mounted on
a 15m lattice mast,
8km east of the city
WR-2100 in Aalborg
of Aalborg, Denmark In 2014 the research group on weather
radar applications at Aalborg University,
Denmark, got the opportunity to install a
Furuno WR-2100 for evaluation. The group
has worked with the application of X-band
weather radar in urban drainage for more
than 10 years. The objective of the research
group is to use weather radar to protect the
environment and to avoid flooding in cities.
The idea was to test the radar for a couple of
months and compare it to other weather
radars. However, it was found to be so
useful that it was retained as the primary
research weather radar.
Figure 2: High-intensity hailstorm over Aalborg.
The combination of high-resolution Resolution is 300 x 300m. Background map,
volume scanning X-band with Doppler and Google Maps, 2015
dual polarization capabilities makes the
radar attractive both as an operational tool
and for research. ground observations. The company has
An interesting case was in May 2015, previously had good experience comparing
when a string of highly convective radar observations with disdrometers. The
hailstorms tracked over the city of Aalborg. disdrometers are capable of measuring the
drop size distribution and convert it to
reflectivity. The radars can be evaluated
“The objective of the research group directly against ground measurements,
thereby avoiding the potential errors of Z-R
is to use weather radar to protect conversion. In addition the disdrometers
the environment and to avoid flooding can be programmed to average the
measurement over the same period as the
in cities” radars (in this case, one-minute resolution)
where the temporal resolution of ordinary
tipping-bucket rain gauges varies with the
The second reason for the popularity of As seen in Figure 2, the horizontal extent of rain intensity.
weather radars in urban drainage is their the core of the hail cells was less than As seen in Figure 3, the radar and the
ability to detect incoming rain long before it 1.5km. This event actually caused seven disdrometer measure the same dynamics
falls over a city. This gives time to optimize road traffic accidents due to slippery road in the rain event. The one-minute temporal
the drainage system and wastewater conditions. The Danish Road Directorate has resolution has proved to be essential.
treatment plants for an increased load. This now decided to look into using weather Evaluating the rain depth of an event over
can improve the effectiveness of wastewater radars to improve transportation safety and a city is done by accumulating the radar
treatment plants and thereby reduces the highway operations. images. Many larger weather radars operate
effect on the environment. with a 5- or 10-minute temporal resolution.
Medium-range X-band radars placed Accuracy In some cases, the result is that the radars
close to the city are especially suitable for As part of the evaluation of the WR-2100, observe a rain cell on one side of the city
these applications. The high resolution and the weather radar data was compared with and 10 minutes later on the other side –

affect the design principles of the storm

drainage system, intelligent solutions – such
as weather radars – will fill part of the gap.
For Aalborg, this plan reaches all the way to
the end of the century.
Figure 3: Comparison between Furuno WR-2100 and an OTT Parsivel
disdrometer Advanced software for urban
drainage
and the conclusion is that it did not rain A software package that can be used directly
over the city! This is clearly wrong and with the WR-2100 is under development at
needs to be corrected. Aalborg University. The intention is to
This is not an issue for the WR-2100. customize the software to urban drainage
The radar has a high scan rate and can applications. Although weather radars have
provide an updated scan every 4-6 seconds. great potential, most urban drainage
Getting the correct rain depth is essential in specialists have limited knowledge of
urban drainage. Peak intensities and weather radars and how to analyze the data.
accumulated rain depth have to be Their expertise is in rain gauge data and not
compared with the design criteria for the complex spatial-temporal data.
storm drainage system. If the drainage The software will perform all the
system fails at statistical return periods a necessary analysis. The main components
measure of how rare a rain event is lower are:
than the design criteria, the drainage system • Automatic adjustment against rain gauges
has to be expanded or improved. Figure 4 to correct for bias;
illustrates the hourly accumulated rain • Conversion of data into common data
depth for two disdrometers. The first is formats used in urban drainage, including
2.25km from the radar and the second is at hydraulic models and GIS formats;
10.15km. Performance at the two distances Figure 4: Hourly accumulated rain depth for 1.5 • Statistical analysis of rain characteristics,
is very similar. months of observation. Two disdrometers are to give a risk assessment map of potential
The high scanning rate has improved the analyzed flooding;
rain depth estimate considerably. In the near • An ensemble nowcaster for predicting rain
future it will try to increase the temporal transports both rainwater and sewage. In intensities and associate relevant
resolution even more to see if it can improve extreme rain, the system overflows into the uncertainty to the estimate.
the quality of the rain depth estimate. harbor. The rain measured by the WR-2100 The objective is to automate as much as
is used as input to an advanced hydrological possible so that hydraulic engineers can use
Protecting the city of Aalborg model. The model predicts the overflow weather radar data without having to be
The evaluation of the radar has now been from the drainage system into the fjord. This atmospheric research scientists.
completed and it will be put to work. In the overflow will potentially pollute the pool
fall of 2015 it will be used to produce a real- water. By issuing a warning by SMS to the Conclusion
time nowcast for precipitation over the city harbor bath, swimmers can avoid coming Compact radars accommodate many needs
of Aalborg in cooperation with the local into contact with waterborne diseases. for local urban areas, increase safety and
water company (Aalborg Forsyning, Kloak The weather radar fulfills the needs of give useful information for resource
A/S). The range of 50km will be enough to the citizens of Aalborg and protects them management. The size, performance and
warn against potential increased runoff into against the worst consequences of extreme cost are three qualities that gives a new
the wastewater treatment plant. This will rain. Although climate change will slowly dimension to weather monitoring.
yield a lead time of approximately 1.5 hours The Japanese government made recently
before the water reaches plant. This time can a tender for a system to mitigate the effect of
be used to reconfigure the biological process urban floods. The selected solution, which
tanks in the plant to clean to a higher optimizes the sewer resources to the reduce
effluent quality, reducing the load on the flood impact, implements WR-2100 units.
nearby fjord. This system is currently in demonstration
The radar measurements will also be in the cities of Toyama and Fukui in Japan.
used to predict the water quality at the The WR-2100 shows again its flexibility and
nearby harbor swimming pool. This pool it never ceases to amaze Furuno. z
was opened in 2011 to demonstrate that it
was possible to swim in the middle of the Michael R Rasmussen is an associate professor in
harbor. This requires excellent water quality. Figure 5: The harbor bath in Aalborg, Denmark the department of civil engineering at Aalborg
However, the existing storm drainage system University, Denmark

EUMETSAT CERTIFIES FIRST HIGH RATE DCP TRANSMITTER
EUMETSAT has recently issued the first certification About EUMETSAT

for a high data rate (1200 bps) Meteosat Data collection
platform (DCP) transmitter to Signal Engineering’s EUMETSAT is the European operational satellite
OmniSat-3. agency for monitoring weather, climate and
the environment. We operate a system of
The new HRDCP transmitter offers significant improvements meteorological satellites that observe the
in throughput and reliability of data collection platform messages atmosphere, oceans and land surfaces –
transmitted through the Meteosat satellites, and it is now available 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.
to the user community for meteorological and hydrological
applications.
MSG-4 launched
on 15 July 2015
www.eumetsat.int
Weather radar
by Richard Stedronsky
POWER TO PREDICT
Designing and manufacturing the
world’s most powerful and
advanced S-band weather radars
EEC continues to set the pace for innovations in S-band weather radar technology
as worldwide market demand increases
Figure 1: Top-down view of EEC’s dual-polarization S-band Doppler weather radar system during installation in Brazil

Weather radar
monitoring of the transmitter, pulse power,

voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)
and other pulse characteristics to ensure
peak performance.
Figure 2: Projected coverage map for the KMA S-band radar network (when completed in 2018) • Digital direct synthesis (DDS) STALO
technology. Ensures exceptionally low
phase noise, producing the best, most
nterprise Electronics Corporation In addition to the local geographic and accurate dual-polarization measurements
E (EEC) established itself as a world
leader in S-band weather radar
climate challenges, EEC also faced the
challenge of designing, manufacturing and
in the industry.
Using these new technologies and
design and manufacture in 1974 when it delivering the world’s first dual-polarization innovations, EEC has already delivered
first delivered a network of WSR-74S S-band Klystron radar network. The three systems to the KMA, with the rest on
systems to the US National Weather Service network, once complete, will provide 11 schedule for delivery through 2018.
(NWS). Since that time EEC has delivered operational systems and one test bed
over 140 S-band weather radars to system. Furthermore, EEC was challenged S-band customer stories: University
customers around the globe. Even with to deliver an antenna designed to meet of Louisiana at Monroe
lower costs and advances in X- and C-band higher performance requirements than the Earlier this year EEC secured a contract to
weather radar technologies, the demand for currently accepted standard set by the NWS
S-band solutions continues to expand, NEXRAD network. To this end, and in
given the system’s high performance keeping with a tradition of defining the
characteristics in a variety of weather industry, EEC designed and implemented
conditions. a number of key innovations to ensure
project success.
S-band customer stories: Korean • EEC’s I-Series heavy-duty pedestal.
Meteorological Administration Designed with a genuine oil bath for the
In 2012, EEC and partner STX Engine azimuth main bearing, providing extended
Co. of Korea secured the contract to performance, no man-lift equipment for
deliver 11 dual-polarization S-band maintenance, and fewer overall maintenance
Klystron systems to the Korean cycles. The I-Series pedestal is also 25%
Meteorological Administration (KMA) lighter than a full production NEXRAD
over the course of six years. The pedestal, leading to an added margin for
Republic of Korea has been involved in performance based on comparative analysis
weather monitoring and forecasting against known NEXRAD matrixes.
for over 60 years, and the KMA has a • Integrated drive motor. Manufactured so
legacy of staying on the cutting edge of that it does not require an external gearbox
industry technology. and encoder, thus reducing component
Korea is located in a transitional zone quantity and increasing mean time between
between the continental landmass of failure (MTBF).
northeast Asia and the island arc rimming • Integrated digital clinometer. Enables
the western Pacific Ocean. The west coast the I-Series pedestal to level to 0.01° with
is vulnerable to the influence of the winter continuous monitoring.
continental climate, while the east coast is • New 8.5m composite antenna. Designed
sheltered from the winter monsoon by the with industry-leading side lobes, which not
Taebaek mountains. Although Korea has only provide a focused beam width, but also
the general characteristics of a temperate deliver better overall performance in Figure 3: I-Series pedestal (top-half) undergoing
monsoon climate, there is geographic high-clutter environments. final assembly at the EEC factory in Enterprise,
diversity, particularly during the cold • High-precision pulse profilers. Forward Alabama, USA
winter season. and reverse pulse profilers enable

Weather radar
deliver another large dual-polarization

S-band system, this time to the University of
Louisiana at Monroe (ULM). The university
boasts the state’s only atmospheric science
program, making this project a natural fit.
Much like the KMA, ULM faced key
geographic challenges in the selection of
radar system type and siting. Although
terrain was not an issue, location with
respect to the current NWS NEXRAD
network was. Currently Monroe sits in what
is considered a coverage gap between the
two closest NEXRAD radars, in Shreveport,
Louisiana and Jackson, Mississippi. As
Anne Case-Hanks, ULM’s atmospheric
science program coordinator, explains, “By
the time the NWS NEXRAD beams from
Shreveport and Jackson reach Monroe, we’re
looking at the upper part of the atmosphere.
Putting this S-band radar in the Monroe
area will enable us to see what’s happening
closer to the surface, which means better
coverage, better data and, hopefully,
better lead and warning times for severe
weather events.”
In addition to NEXRAD coverage gap
challenges, overall funding for the project
was also a major concern. ULM began
discussions with the US Department of
Homeland Security to secure funds for this
project as far back as 2008. The focus of
Figure 4: 5.8m antenna for a KMA S-band system undergoing outdoor testing prior to shipment
these efforts was to show the value the radar
data would have not only for the nearby
NWS forecast offices, which would be able
to fill the gap in current coverage, but also developed for the KMA into the ULM the-art services like no other.” With civil
for local and state emergency managers. system, including the accurate 8.5m works underway and the radar system
Thanks to a US$3m grant provided to antenna, high-precision pulse profilers and undergoing final testing, EEC is scheduled
ULM via the Louisiana Governor’s Office the DDS STALO technology. to complete delivery later this fall.
of Homeland Security and Emergency During a recent groundbreaking
Preparedness, ULM was able to move ceremony for the project, ULM president S-band versus C-band
forward with its plans to procure an S-band Nick J Bruno explained just how important As alluded to earlier, numerous advances in
radar to meet the challenges facing the this EEC S-band radar system is for the weather radar technologies and algorithms
region. After winning a competitive tender university and the region. “This is a big day have aided in addressing some of the key
process based on both technical prowess for ULM and all northeast Louisiana,” he limitations of C-band weather radar
and breadth of experience in the market, noted. “We worked with those in Homeland systems. Specifically, polarimetric radar has
EEC was contracted to deliver one of its Security, and those within the university, improved the performance of C-band (and
dual-polarization S-band radars. EEC also and today we are celebrating the beginning X-band) radar with respect to one of the key
integrated many of the innovations of this process. It will provide state-of- limitations – signal attenuation. These

Weather radar
Figure 5: Delivered
and operational EEC
S-band weather radar
on Baengnyeongdo
Island in Korea
advances in attenuation correction are

especially useful in cases where the echo is
not entirely extinguished. However, recent
studies continue to support the science that
not only will S-band radars always suffer
from less attenuation than C-band systems,
but in cases of mixed precipitation types and
large hydrometeors, C-band systems continue
to struggle. A recent joint publication by the
University of Oklahoma and the University of
Bonn, Germany, noted that relatively stable
attenuation corrections for C-band systems
can be made if the precipitation being
measured is all liquid (rain). However, in
cases where the hydrometeors were either
hail or rain mixed with hail, there appears to
be no standard, firm correction algorithm
available. Additionally, another study
undertaken by the University of Oklahoma,
Kyungpook National University, Korea, and
Environment Canada demonstrates that
when hydrometeors (specifically raindrops)
exceed 4.5mm in diameter, the effects of Figure 6: ULM S-band weather radar undergoing Figure 7: EEC S-band weather radar system in
resonance scattering, causing the droplets to testing at the EEC factory Guaratiba, Brazil
behave like Mie scatterers, result in noticeably
inaccurate (higher) C-band reflectivity values.
Finally, unambiguous velocity measurements offer a high-frequency (3.5-3.6GHz) system. radars to Tanzania, and has expanded its
at longer wavelengths are higher (up to twice This new model delivers better deconflicting presence in Brazil by installing numerous
that of C-band) on S-band systems. of frequency spectrum use in the USA, where S-band radars to support the 2014 FIFA
Among traditional media radar operations most NEXRAD, military and marine weather World Cup and the upcoming 2016 Summer
in the USA, the vast majority of current radars operate in the traditional 2.7-3.0GHz Olympics. With the ultimate long-range
systems are C-band. This stems primarily range. EEC is already on contract to deliver view, maximum penetration of severe
from the limited requirements of such multiple standard and high-frequency S-band storms and minimum attenuation, S-band
organizations, a heavy reliance on NEXRAD systems to TV stations in the USA over the weather radars continue to be the leading
data, and a need to provide an economical next 15 months. choice for covering huge expanses of land
solution. However, recent interest in the US Although new attenuation correction and water, all while providing the most
TV station market has begun to lean toward procedures, along with traditional up-front accurate analysis of severe weather
S-band solutions. The marketability of an cost benefits, have somewhat increased phenomena. No product line offering
S-band system is almost limitless for a media support for C-band systems, demand is complete without a powerful,
outlet, and thanks to a strong domestic continues to rise for S-band solutions. This professional, state-of-the-art S-band
economy and increased advertising revenue, escalation has been especially noticeable in weather radar solution. z
TV stations are now acquiring S-band radars. cases of national weather radar networks
To provide even more solution offerings to and in areas exposed to various widespread Richard Stedronsky is director, strategic business
this flourishing sector, EEC has expanded its severe weather threats. In addition to the development and partnerships/meteorologist at
standard S-band product offering, (which case studies presented above, EEC has also Enterprise Electronics Corporation, Enterprise,
typically operates in the 2.7-3.0GHz range) to recently delivered a network of S-band Alabama, USA

Net radiation
by Mark Blonquist and Bruce Bugbee
NOTHING BUT NET

Recent advances in the
measurement of net radiation
Four-component instruments provide accuracy over a wide
Typical Radiation Fluxes
at Solar Noonrange of environmental surfaces
for Clear Sky Conditions
Summer Over Vegetation Winter Over Snow
ubtle changes in net radiation drive
S climate change and determine the
agricultural water requirement of R n = +650 W per m2 R n = 0 W per m2
the world’s food supply. Net radiation has Typical Radiation Fluxes
at Solar Noon for Clear Sky Conditions
long been among the most challenging
meteorological measurements because it is Summer OverLongwave
Shortwave Vegetation Winter Over Longwave
Snow
the sum of four distinct variables (Figure 1).
Surface energy balance controls R n = +650 W per m2 R n = 0 W per m2
atmospheric and ocean circulation, and, ~1000 ~300 ~250
ultimately, Earth’s climate. In a recent
Shortwave
MTI issue, Hardy (2014) emphasized the Shortwave Longwave Longwave
importance of accurately measuring net
~400
radiation in energy balance studies on top ~1000 ~250
of Mount Kilimanjaro (High level research – Net +800 Net ~300
-150 Shortwave
climate measurements on the roof of Africa,
Net +50 Net -50
~400
April 2014 issue, p40-43).
Net +800 Net -150
Measuring net radiation Net +50 Net -50
Net radiometers are made by several
manufacturers and vary greatly in cost and
accuracy. Improvements are continuously ~450 ~300
being made and numerous comparative ~200 ~350
studies have been conducted. In a ~200 ~450 ~300
~350
comprehensive study, Blonquist, Tanner
and Bugbee1 analyzed the five major net
radiometer models available at the time.
The study compared three replicates of
each instrument. Measurements were
made over several weeks above irrigated
turfgrass at Utah State University in Logan,
Utah (Figure 2).
It was found that accuracy increased Figure 1: Net radiation (Rn) is the sum of the four components shown above (incoming shortwave,
with cost. The two instruments that outgoing shortwave, incoming longwave, outgoing longwave). Incoming shortwave incident on the
independently measured the four surface is either reflected or absorbed by the surface material, and longwave radiation is emitted from
the surface and emitted from the molecules of air in the atmosphere. Typical clear sky summer fluxes
components of net radiation (R n) (Kipp & over grass and clear sky winter fluxes over snow are shown. A typical summer flux at solar noon would
Zonen model CNR 1 and Hukseflux model be +650W/m2 ; in winter it would be 0W/m2
NR01, Figure 3) were the most accurate. In
addition to comparison of R n measurements
from the four component radiometers,
incoming shortwave measurements were and the Hukseflux four-component all-wave radiometers included the Kipp &
compared with a reference pyranometer radiometers. This is likely due to differences Zonen model NR-Lite and the Radiation
(Kipp & Zonen, model CM11), and outgoing in the calibration reference standards and Energy Balance Systems (REBS) model
longwave measurements were compared between the manufacturers. This Q*7.1 (Figure 3). These instruments were
with infrared measurements of surface emphasizes the need for standardization the least accurate. Both instruments had
temperature. The differences from the of longwave calibration methods and offsetting day and night errors that reduced
reference pyranometer and surface establishment of a world reference for daily total R n errors. The fourth type of
temperature were generally 2% or less longwave radiation. radiometer was the Kipp & Zonen model
for all replicates. There was a difference of The two instruments that did not CNR 2 (Figure 3), which separately
approximately 5% in incoming longwave separate shortwave and longwave radiation measured net shortwave and net longwave,
measurements between the Kipp & Zonen into component measurements called net and was thus an intermediate between a

Net radiation
Figure 2: Three four-component net radiometers. From left to right: Hukseflux NR01, Apogee Instruments SN-500 and Kipp & Zonen CNR 4
four-component instrument and a net equation states: “Net radiation is difficult radiometers), the modeled R n was high during
all-wave instrument. The R n measurement to measure because net radiometers are the day by 8.6% and high in magnitude
accuracy of the CNR 2 was generally problematic to maintain and calibrate. (more negative) at night by 13.4%. Daily
intermediate between four-way radiometers There is good likelihood of systematic total R n, calculated by summing the hourly
and net all-wave radiometers, but it was biases in R n measurements. Therefore, R n model predictions, was higher than the
discontinued in February of 2012. is often predicted from observed shortwave reference measurements by an average of
Overall, absolute errors tended to be (solar) radiation, vapor pressure and air 8.1%. Most of the model R n error was due to
greatest in the shortwave component and temperature. This prediction is routine and the prediction of net longwave radiation,
percentage errors tended to be greatest in generally highly accurate. If R n is measured, where the empirical equation in the model
the longwave component. Differences care and attention must be given to the typically yielded values that were too low in
among radiometers tended to be larger at calibration of the radiometer, the surface magnitude (less negative), by approximately
night than during the day, indicating higher over which it is located, maintenance of the 20% on average. These results indicate that
variability in longwave measurements. sensor domes, and level of the instrument.” measurements made with high-quality, four-
In a follow-up study,3 Blonquist, Allen component net radiometers are much more
Modeling net radiation and Bugbee compared R n predictions from accurate than the widely used ASCE model.
Net radiation (R n) has been expensive and the R n sub-model used in the American
difficult to measure accurately, so it is often Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Instrument advances
predicted with a model that assumes standardized reference ET equation, with Two new net radiometers have become
measurements over a vegetated surface. This measurements from four-component available since the Blonquist et al. study.1
model requires measurements of incoming reference net radiometers. The model is based Kipp & Zonen released the model CNR 4
shortwave radiation, air temperature and on a turfgrass surface, and the measurements and Apogee Instruments released
vapor pressure. were made over a turfgrass surface. the model SN-500. Both instruments
The FAO-56 manual2 detailing the ASCE Relative to the reference R n measurements separately measure the four components
standardized reference evapotranspiration (average of five four-component net of R n. A major part of the cost of measuring

Net radiation
Figure 3: Setup of the net radiometer study with an example of each model labeled. KZ denotes Kipp &
Zonen and REBS denotes Radiation and Energy Balance Systems TYPES OF NET
RADIOMETERS
net radiation with a four-component net A two-component, one-output
radiometer is the number of datalogger system, also called a net all-wave
channels required. Each of the four radiometer or net pyrradiometer, is
sensors requires a differential channel. the simplest type consisting of an
Additionally, each individual pyrgeometer upward- and a downward-looking
(longwave radiometer) has an internal detector combined into a single
temperature sensor (thermistor or PRT) output. These unfiltered detectors
that requires at least a single-ended are sensitive to both shortwave and
datalogger channel. To reduce the number longwave radiation.
of channels required, Apogee Instruments A two-component, two-output
incorporated an SDI-12 output on its system separates the upward-
four-component radiometer. This Figure 4: Mark Blonquist checking the level of and downward-looking
improvement eliminates the need for each of the five types of radiometers used in the pyrradiometers to output both
multiple analog datalogger channels and 2009 study incoming and outgoing radiation.
still provides separate measurement of A four-component, two-output
each of the separate R n variables. system includes four individual
Measurements made from July 2014 References radiometers (upward- and downward-
through March 2015 with replicate 1) Blonquist, M; Tanner, B; and Bugbee, B. Evaluation looking pyranometers and upward-
instruments indicate that prototype versions of Measurement Accuracy and Comparison of Two and downward-looking pyrgeometers).
of the Apogee net radiometer were typically New and Three Traditional Net Radiometers. Ag. and These sensors separately measure
within 5% of the reference value of net Forest Meteorology 149:1709-1721 (2009) the four components of Rn but the
radiation calculated from component 2) Allen, R G; Pereira, L S; Raes, D; and Smith, M. system remains limited to net
measurements with Kipp & Zonen Crop Evapotranspiration: Guidelines for Computing shortwave and net longwave outputs.
pyranometers and pyrgeometers. This Crop Water Requirements. FAO Irrigation and A four-component, four-output
accuracy is typically only achievable with Drainage Paper no. 56, Rome, Italy (1998) system includes the same four
four-component net radiometers. z 3) Blonquist, M; Allen, R; and Bugbee B. An Evaluation individual radiometers and provides
of the Net Radiation Sub-model in the ASCE separate outputs of each of the
Mark Blonquist is chief scientist at Apogee Instruments. Standardized Reference Evapotranspiration Equation: net radiation components for
Bruce Bugbee is a professor of crop physiology at Utah Implications for Evapotranspiration Prediction. Ag. maximum functionality.
State University, USA Water Management 97:1026-1038 (2010)

Lightning detection
by Marc Bonnet
FLASH FORECAST
Achieving a better understanding
of lightning detection data
Lightning detection systems need to be able to

measure the electrical charge per flash, as well
as track the rise time of the current discharge
ightning is a complex natural (LDN) of various kind and brands are studies, NOx emission, hail or windshear
L phenomenon that is dangerous
although rare, known by everyone
installed in many countries. They have
been providing data over large areas for
hazard warning.
Lightning is still one of the major causes
but not always understood, randomly many years, with some specific of outages on the power distribution
distributed yet easy to detect. There is characteristics such as real-time capacity, networks, driving the need for decision
actually no single physical event called long-range capability and the absence of support tools for the management of the
lightning; rather it is a collection of events artifacts having led to the development assets. Finally, it a threat for any outdoor
that are grouped under this denomination. of a number of applications. activity, from farming to golfing, from
Lightning is the consequence of an Lightning data is used for research flying to mining, and early threat warning
electrical discharge process. It occurs purposes to gain a better understanding to end users is now part of the risk
mainly in thunder clouds (cumulo nimbus of the global electric circuit, to better mitigation approach.
or CBs) but also happens during volcanic understand the electrical discharge
eruptions and sand storms. process and as part of meteorological The need for a better evaluation
campaigns on severe weather. Such data All these applications benefit from available
Use of lightning data is also used as a proxy in many lightning information but they push the
Nowadays lightning detection networks applications such as climate change requirements beyond the mere delivery of

Lightning detection
a datapoint representing the existence those parameters is the next milestone for
of a flash. lightning sensors.
For climatological applications, when Lightning data is used as a proxy for
mid- to long-term trends are analyzed, the hail and windshear, but it is also used
enhancement of the measurement device for derived products such as precipitation
introduces a bias. Today’s technology can estimation and thunderstorm nowcasting.
detect probably three times as many ground Knowing the spatial availability for
events as its ancestor 30 years ago. each type of information provided by
Researchers in atmospheric physics want LDNs is key to producing meaningful
to know the electrical charge transferred by value-added products.
a flash, and electrical engineers are The assimilation of lightning data
interested in the rise time of the current in numerical weather forecasts can be
discharge, because steeper discharges developed using sophisticated models
induce more dangerous surges, with higher combining large amount of meteorological
frequency harmonics in their electricity data and running on supercomputers. In
networks. The ability to properly measure this context, the quality of the incoming

Lightning detection
data is driving the quality of the result, and Self-assessment exclusively uses the
a precise knowledge of the uncertainty and data measured by the network. It thus
limitation of the data set is required before requires that the network first be optimized
any ingestion can be performed. (eventually using an initial self-assessment
process) to correct for site-installation
Key parameters issues such as sensor rotation and local
When dealing with lightning detection noise, and to introduce propagation and
networks, the main parameters that define angle correction factors. Once these steps
their delivery are: detection capability of are realized it becomes possible to work out
different type of events – cloud-to-ground the coverage and detection efficiency of the
flashes (CG), subsequent strokes, intra-cloud network and to estimate the location
(IC) discharges; ability to classify different accuracy. This is relatively easy to
events; detection efficiency for a given class implement, needing no additional data.
of events; coverage – the area where detection The main limitations of the methods
efficiency is ‘nominal’; location accuracy for derived from self-assessment are that they
CG flashes and strokes; 2D or 3D do not take into account the limited
localization; and real-time capability and detection of the network (what is not
delivery delay. measured cannot be evaluated) and
that they provide no absolute measure
Evaluating lightning measurement of any parameter.
There is no such thing as a reference flash A basic use of self-assessment is the
or a repeatable event that can be used to computation of the location accuracy for
calibrate an LDN. Although there are each flash, this is based on the
different ways to assess the performance supplementary information available when
of such a system, none of them gives an many sensors detect the same event. A
undisputed truth or one-size-fits-all solution. more advanced example consists of
Upward flashes from

tall buildings in Vienna
(Photo: Hannes
Pichler)
identifying strokes falling within the same

channel and using this information to
compute the relative localization error.
Such a study was done with the French
data set in 2013 and 2014; with more
than 1.2 million flashes all over the
country, the mean relative location
error was below 100m. Interestingly
the algorithm used to identify those
co-located flashes in the database has
been validated using high-speed videos
as a reference.
Intercomparisons can be used, for
example, to check a new network against
an existing one or to spot obvious
discrepancies between a radar image and
LDN data when outliers are located far
from the convective area. But obtaining
quantitative results when using different
systems always assumes the definition of
a common model that allows comparison
between data from two observation devices.
The more different those devices, the more
difficult it becomes to define such a model
Locations where detection efficiency could be measured (in red) or location and draw practical conclusions.
accuracy could be evaluated (in yellow) Those methods provide only a relative
assessment and not an absolute measure.

Lightning detection
Lightning over Würzburg, Germany
Collecting data from triggered lightning Using high-speed cameras (up to 7,000
requires a costly setup and experience frames per second) that record all
shows that each campaign provides a subsequent strokes leads to a measure of
limited amount of data, but this technique the stroke detection efficiency. It also brings
enables the assessment of the peak current a validation of the IC/CG classification.
amplitude and polarity as well as the Adding an electric field antenna to the
location accuracy of a detection network. measurement setup enables the polarity
Campaigns in the USA and China show the event to be checked.
that the technology reaches 15% accuracy Météorage used such a high-speed
for peak current measurement. camera in 2013 and 2014, collecting 261
flashes and 724 return strokes in various
Instrumented towers locations in France, Luxembourg and the
High towers such as radio transmitters on UK. The measured detection efficiency was
hilltops are known to attract lightning; in 97% for the flashes and 94% for the strokes.
fact they produce more upward flashes than
they receive downward flashes (natural Forensic files
Unless one system can be trusted as discharges). Attaching a current Using newspaper reports, insurance claims
a reference, the results are not easily measurement device to the lightning rod and maintenance logs, it is possible to
interpreted. But using a short range enables the capture of the current waveform. compare the position of known damage
3D-VHF network such as the Lightning Siting a video camera so that it captures the with the nearest lightning. The accurate
Mapping Array enables the evaluation of tower enables recording of all the flashes localization of the damage may be difficult
a larger scale LF network, and using a and therefore computation of the efficiency to obtain and the cause of the failure must
well-known LF network in turn enables the of a detection network. Although the setup be clearly identified before any correlation is
evaluation of a long-range VLF network. for such project is costly and only provides attempted. Such analysis is therefore mostly
The benefit of this method is that it can use data for one location, it can produce enough manual and time consuming, but this
large data sets over wide areas. Météorage data to measure the random and systematic method provides a simple means by which
used an LMA network during the last location errors. to gather evidence from many places and
Hymex campaign to benchmark its own ALDIS, operator of the Austrian lightning evaluate the performance of a network over
network, and participated in the SAETTA detection network, has recorded 469 return all the covered area.
project with a similar setup in Corsica. strokes at the Gaisberg tower since 2005. A study performed with 101 reports
The use of ‘ground truth’ information The median random location accuracy is from throughout Météorage’s network
relies on gathering third-party information now 90m, with no systematic error. between 2011 and 2014 shows that in all
that enables verification of the localized cases a lightning flash was detected close
data. It comes in different flavors: High-speed videos to the damage. The distance between the
Triggered lightning requires the Cameras have been used for decades to nearest flash and the reported place was
installation of a rocket launcher in a capture lightning events. As they record found to be less than 200m in most cases.
lightning-prone area. When a thunderstorm visible light, they do not depend on the Taking into account the fact that not only
approaches, a rocket with a metallic wire current or waveform of the electrical direct strokes produce damage, but also
is launched with the expectation that it discharge, but they are limited to their field nearby flashes, those values confirm the
will attract the lightning discharge. When of view. Scrutinizing the flashes from the estimated accuracy. z
this happens, the current flows through video capture and comparing them to the
the wire and can be measured with a records from a detection network provides Marc Bonnet is vice president international at
dedicated ammeter. a good measure of the flash detection. Météorage, France

Hazard modeling program
by Wil Marsh
SENSE OF SAFETY
Using the latest analytical tools
to deal with hazardous incidents
The ALOHA hazard modeling program provides real-time meteorological
information to emergency personnel to enable them to react quickly and
effectively to life-threatening incidents such as chemical spillages
Train derailments may result in catastrophic fires or

the release of toxic chemicals. Inset: HAZMet100
Station for Atmospheric Measurement
reight trains around the world are incidents involving hazardous materials
F often used to transport large
quantities of dangerous goods. In
being transported by rail.
Railroad accidents and
admitted for care. When
train derailments and
the USA, there are 225,000km of rail derailments are not as uncommon incidents occur, there is a
operated by seven Class 1 railroads, 21 as people may think. Most recently, at high potential for catastrophic
regional railroads and 510 local railroads. the time this article was being written, was loss of life and property. What
Rail transportation of large amounts of the July 2, 2015, derailment of a CSX train if there was a train incident in
material can be very cost-competitive with near Maryville, Tennessee. ABC News your area? Are your first
other modes of transportation. According to reported that the CSX train included 27 cars responders prepared to deal
the US Department of Transportation carrying hazardous chemicals. Nine cars with all aspects of the incident?
Federal Railroad Administration, “Rail carried acrylonitrile, 16 cars carried The maximum size railcar designed for
transportation of hazardous materials in the propane, and two carried asphalt. One of US transportation of chlorine can hold up to
United States is recognized to be the safest the acrylonitrile cars leaked and caught fire 82 metric tons of liquid chlorine. What if
method of moving large quantities of – as a result 5,000 people within 2,500m of one of these railcars derailed? That is exactly
chemicals over long distances.” However, the derailment were evacuated, 87 people what happened on January 6, 2005, at
that does not mean that there are never were treated at local hospital, and 36 were around 02:40 local time in Graniteville,

Hazard modeling program
measurement (SAM). The advantage of using

a SAM is that it takes the guesswork out of
the atmospheric data.
Portable weather station

Typically, a SAM is a portable weather
station that can be quickly deployed and is
self-powered. One such SAM designed to be
used with ALOHA, and which is used by the
US Army, is the OSi HazMET100.
The HazMET100 is built around the OSi
2100-138 multisensor, which measures
wind speed, wind direction, temperature,
and additional meteorological parameters
not required by ALOHA. Specifically
designed to be plug and play with EPA’s
ALOHA dispersion modeling program, the
HazMET100 can be deployed at a dangerous
spill site within minutes without tools, and
can transmit atmospheric data to a safe
monitoring base site. The 2100-138 includes
Example threat assessment plot of simulated chlorine release generated by EPA hazard modeling a built-in electronic 3D compass and GPS,
program ALOHA and overlaid on satellite imagery map meaning that a physical orientation of the
sensor to North is not required. The
South Carolina. A collision between a 2100-138’s small 75 x 75 x 150mm size,
northbound Norfolk Southern Railway and its weight of less than 500g, makes it
freight train and a parked train caused the ideal for portable applications. The
derailment of both locomotives and 16 of 2100-138 is mounted on a rugged, quickly
the 42 freight cars of the northbound train. deployable, tripod. To facilitate installation
Three of the tank cars were transporting on uneven terrain, one tripod leg has
chlorine. One of the three chlorine tanks telescoping capabilities.
was breached, releasing an estimated 54 Normally, the HazMET100 is set up in
metric tons of chlorine. the vicinity of the hazardous material
According to one report, the Graniteville release. The included battery will power the
derailment resulted in nine fatalities, 72 HazMET100 for four days without
hospitalizations, and 525 victims being seen recharging. If a disaster lasts longer than
in outpatient care. There are reports of four days, then the battery is easily replaced.
First responders transport a citizen to a safe
people in the vicinity of the derailment who, Solar power options are also available. The
area for medical evaluation and treatment
to this day, suffer from lung ailments HazMET100 uses a long-range 902-928MHz
attributed to their exposure to the chlorine spread spectrum radio to automatically
gas more than a decade ago. one used by the US Army called ALOHA broadcast real-time wind speed and
(Aerial Locations of Hazardous direction, as well as air temperature data to
Chemical spill disaster Atmospheres). ALOHA is a hazard modeling a paired RF modem connected to a remote
When a toxic chemical spill occurs, it is program that is part of CAMEO PC running the ALOHA program. The
imperative to know where the toxic plume is (Computer-Aided Management of RF line-of-sight range is up to 15km with
and where it is going. Evacuation areas can Emergency Operations). The CAMEO the included 2.1dB omnidirectional
then be targeted and critical manpower software suite was developed by the antennas (up to 45km with the high gain
employed where most needed to save lives. Environmental Protection Agency and antenna option).
Imagine there is a large release of chlorine the National Oceanic and Atmospheric For ease of installation and storage, the
600m south of where you are right now. If Administration. The CAMEO software suite, 2100-138 multisensor, and the HazMET100
the wind is blowing north to south, then including ALOHA, can be downloaded at no control box with battery and radio, are
you are safe – barring a change in wind cost and used by anyone (for more info, go stored in a rugged carrying case with
direction. If, instead, you are 600m south to http://www2.epa.gov/cameo). die-cut foam. The tripod has its own
of the release, you would need to evacuate to Threat assessment plots are generated by convenient carry bag.
a safe area immediately. But what if you are ALOHA. To aid in disaster management, the The HazMET100 SAM gives first
600m southeast of chlorine release? What threat assessment plot is easily overlaid on responders the ability to provide real-time
if the wind is blowing at 30km/h versus maps in MARPLOT, Esri’s ArcMap, Google meteorological information to ALOHA,
virtually no wind? There are a lot of things Earth, and Google Maps. To generate a plot, allowing emergency personnel to see where
to be considered to keep the public and first the user must enter site data, released the threat is highest. This enables response
responders out of harm’s way. chemical data, and source strength. The teams to best manage resources, protect the
atmospheric data must also be provided. public, and save lives. z
Hazard modeling program The atmospheric data may be estimated and
There are analytical tools available to help input by the user or may be provided in real Wil Marsh is the director of systems engineering at
manage a chemical spill disaster, including time by a station for atmospheric Optical Scientific Inc, USA

Radiosonde measurements
by Raisa Lehtinen
BE PREPARED
Accuracy matters in
radiosonde measurements
Radiosondes measure critical atmospheric variables with accuracy and precision
that cannot be obtained with other meteorological observations, and provide
continuous profiles from the ground to altitudes of 30km and above

he need for accurate weather

T forecasts is growing in modern
society. Traffic, infrastructure,
agriculture and many other areas are
sensitive to weather. Increasing occurrences
of extreme weather due to climate change
demand correct and timely warnings. The
consequences of being unprepared can have
a high price.
Accurate weather forecasts are not
possible without observations. The better we
know the state of the atmosphere, the better
the forecast will be. Knowing the vertical
structure of the atmosphere is essential.
Radiosonde measurements are important
input for medium- and long-range
computer-based forecasts. Numerical
models are increasingly better able to
benefit from the high spatial and temporal
resolution data provided by a radiosonde.
To a meteorologist, good-quality radiosonde
profiles are the reference against which the
validity of numerical weather models is
evaluated. This helps create accurate
predictions of storms – thunderstorms,
lightning, wind gusts, heavy rain and hail.
Inspection of the profile establishes
initial conditions and helps analyze how
weather will be changing. Numerical
weather models are less capable of
predicting small-scale phenomena in the
atmospheric boundary layer (0-3km), while
a radiosonde observation in the upstream
direction of the weather system may give
a good basis of estimating the evolution
of the air mass.
Quality of measurements is critical

The balloon-launched radiosonde rises at
around 5m/s and transmits continuous
observations of temperature, humidity,
pressure and wind as it travels through the
atmosphere. Meteorologists are interested in
several phenomena that are visible in the
radiosonde profile, including cloud layers,
dry layers, temperature inversions, jet
streams and wind shear.
The radiosonde measurement must be
accurate and of high precision to be useful.
It is important that radiosonde sensors work
reliably in changing conditions throughout

the harsh environment of the upper

atmosphere. Erroneous measurements
could entirely change the initial state
of the atmospheric analysis that drives
the forecast. For example, the following
challenging conditions could occur in
convective weather situations.
As the radiosonde emerges from a cloud,
the temperature sensor is in danger of
experiencing a ‘wet bulb’ error, generated as
water or ice evaporates from the surface of
the sensor. This may lead to incorrectly
measuring the strength of the temperature
inversion. Such erroneous observations can
reduce the magnitude of the detected layer
or even entirely mask the feature in the
profile. This may lead the meteorologist to
conclude that convection will start earlier
in the day with less energy released into
Accurate weather forecasts play an important role at sports events
convection, or to predict that rain will start
earlier and cool the land surface, with
thunderstorms unlikely to form.
If the humidity sensor freezes while without electricity. Despite fans’ shows that thunderclouds will reach heights
passing through clouds, the radiosonde may disappointment, everyone was able to feel of around 10km.
not correctly detect 100% relative humidity safe and in good hands. The authorities had There is a capping temperature inversion
later on. Multiple cloud layers are then been working hard since the early morning. – a layer of warmer air – at above 700hPa.
incorrectly detected. The upper cloud layers The Finnish Meteorological Institute had This stable layer is difficult for an ascending
can block solar radiation from reaching the issued several thunder alerts and kept the air parcel to penetrate. Correct observation
ground and inhibit convection. emergency organizations up-to-date as to of the strength of the inversion is important:
the changing weather. in this case it is not going to stop the
Case study: convective weather convection.
A real-world example can show how even What does the profile tell us? Humid and dry layers in the profile
small details in the radiosonde profile can In a convective situation the analysis of the indicate the energy available in the
be critical for understanding convective latest radiosonde profiles in the region is an atmosphere. A deep dry layer can eat
weather. During convection, warm air near essential step in forecasting. At noon on moisture from lower layers and thus
the ground starts rising until it cools and August 9, 2005, the Jokioinen sounding prevent deep convection.
becomes balanced with its surroundings. station in southwest Finland provided the Cloud layers affect the amount of solar
Strong convection in very humid observation depicted on the thermodynamic warming on the surface. The stability index
atmosphere can lead to thunderstorms. diagram (Figure 1). The graph summarizes CAPE (convective available potential energy)
On Tuesday, August 9, 2005, a weather the state of the atmosphere and gives the of 1,121 J/kg in this case indicates an
front approached the Helsinki capital area basis for understanding how the weather unstable atmosphere with a potential
from southeast Finland and caused one of will evolve in the next hours. This graph for moderate to strong convection in a
the most dramatic moments during the gives clear indication of potentially strong cold climate.
course of the 2005 World Championships convection. The convective condensation level (CCL)
in Athletics. The historic open-air Helsinki The most interesting details in the graph represents the height as which a lifting air
Olympic Stadium was hit by an intense show how temperature and humidity packet becomes saturated. It can be used in
thunderstorm with pouring rain and severe (described by the dew point) behave estimating the CAPE.
wind gusts. Emergency services issued an through the atmosphere. The radiosonde profile shows clear
evacuation of the stadium and electrical The moist adiabatic lapse rate reveals evidence of the possibility of thunderstorms
power was interrupted. there will be free convection, or updraft of forming during the day. It is an important
The storm also caused over 200 air, starting from 925hPa and speeding up to source of information for the meteorologist,
emergency incidents near the capital area, 250hPa to the equilibrium level (EL), where especially when used with other
including fires, traffic accidents and injuries the temperature of the ascending parcel observations and numerical weather models.
from fallen trees. Railway services and ship reaches the air mass temperature. The deep
traffic from Helsinki harbor were affected, convective layer indicates a strong chance What if the profile cannot be trusted?
and thousands of households were left for thunderstorms, and the top of convection The correct interpretation of convective

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Figure 2: A detail of the temperature inversion.

The red curve depicts an incorrect
measurement
Figure 3: A detail of the dew point profile
Figure 4: A detail of the temperature inversion,

Figure 1: Radiosonde observation shown on a thermodynamic diagram
depicting a capping inversion
weather requires precise and accurate freezes while passing through clouds, or weather conditions, it is important to
observations. The previous example is not fast enough, the radiosonde may not measure accurately the temperature
radiosonde measurement has several details correctly detect 100% relative humidity in and especially the humidity in the
where a low-quality radiosonde providing the upper cloud layers. These cloud layers lowest kilometer.
erroneous profile details could have may be relevant in blocking solar radiation
changed the forecast entirely: from reaching the ground and preventing Summary
• Incorrectly measuring the depth of the the start of the convection process. Profiles like these are an essential part of
temperature inversion (Figure 2). An • Failing to predict the convection (Figure a meteorologist’s decision-making process
evaporative cooling error of 1.0°C when 4). A one-degree error in the dew point in convective weather cases. During the
the radiosonde emerges from a cloud measurement near the surface turns the World Championships in Athletics, the
reduces the depth of the observed inversion inversion layer at 925hPa into a capping prediction of the severe thunderstorm event
layer. The temperature sensor is measuring inversion. A similar effect could occur if was successfully forecast and the needed
too low values (red curve) while water the temperature profile has a negative bias measures were taken by the authorities.
is evaporating from the surface of the due to incorrect calibration. The resulting However, details of the sounding could
sensor. The estimated weak inversion thermodynamic diagram (figure 4) have changed the forecast considerably.
layer may lead the forecaster to predict indicates that solar warming of the surface The decision of whether to issue a
the start of convection earlier in the will not create enough lift and energy to thunderstorm warning and at what
day, with less energy and without break the air parcel through the warmer time depends on accurately capturing
forming thunderstorms. inversion. This prevents the release of these details.
• Incorrectly detecting multiple cloud convective energy in upward drafts and
layers (Figure 3). If the humidity sensor the formation of thunderstorms. In these Raisa Lehtinen is a senior scientist at Vaisala Oyj

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Rain gauges
by Luca G Lanza and Matteo Colli
TIPPING POINT
Recommendations on the
standardization of rain gauges
Tougher requirements are coming into place to maximize the accuracy of commercially
available instruments for measuring rainfall
easurement accuracy requirements
M for rain gauges are becoming tighter
after the Field Intercomparison of
Rainfall Intensity Gauges (FI-RI) promoted
by the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO) demonstrated the achievable
accuracy of a number of commercially
available instruments1 (Figures 1 and 2). It
appears quite unreasonable, indeed, that
one of the most relevant atmospheric
variables, whose quantification is essential
to the understanding of the land phase
processes of the hydrological cycle and Figure 1: The FI-RI intercomparison testbed at the Italian Met Service field site in Vigna di Valle, Italy
many other weather- and climate-related
processes – that is, rainfall intensity – is still
widely measured today at a much lower
accuracy than the present knowledge and
technology would permit.2
Although the liquid cumulative
precipitation is traditionally the basic
information for many practices, the intensity
of precipitation has become a variable of
almost equal significance. Rainfall intensity
RI (mm/hr) data is extremely relevant in
cases of severe weather, which is sometimes
responsible for property damage and the
failure of man-made drainage systems.
The WMO Commission for Instruments
and Methods of Observation (CIMO)
fostered noticeable advancements in this
field by providing recommendations on the
standardization of equipment and exposure,
instrument calibration, and data correction. Figure 2: The pit-installed reference system for rainfall intensity at Vigna di Valle. This is composed
of a set of working reference gauges employing a selection of measuring principles tested during the
The CIMO Guide to Instruments and WMO Laboratory and Field Intercomparison of Rainfall Intensity.4 Two tipping bucket gauges were part
Methods of Observation (2006) of the reference
recommended a measurement relative
uncertainty of ±5% in the laboratory for RI 0.1, 0.2 or 0.5mm of precipitation) has been optimize the measurements at various
indications at a one-minute time resolution. filled into one of the two containers. Each tip precipitation rates.
Such indications provided the technical moves the filled bucket in the emptying
background for recent standardization position, while the second bucket is moved Rainfall observations
efforts in some European countries (the underneath the filling nozzle. Each tip TBGs are generally employed for rainfall
Italian UNI 11452:2012, and the British BS produces an electrical impulse as signal observations even if their application under
7843-3:2011) and the ongoing regulation output and is recorded by the data mixed liquid/solid and low precipitation
process within CEN (see the TR acquisition system. This mechanism provides conditions is still possible by heating the
16469:2012). a continuous measurement without manual collector and the sensor mechanics. These
Traditional tipping-bucket gauges (TBGs) interaction. The rainfall intensity can be catching-type instruments are widely
are characterized by a gravitational calculated best over the period of time adopted by the national meteorological
measurement principle. A TBG uses a between two tips. Therefore, the temporal services and demonstrate a high level of
tipping balance with two buckets as the resolution depends on the size of the bucket accuracy, as long as calibration and
measuring element. The balance tips and the catching area of the funnel, and correction techniques are applied. The
whenever a fixed depth of water (typically specifications such as these can be used to accuracy of operational rain gauges can be

Rain gauges
Residual error under RI1min

Final prototype unit with applied correction
Figure 3: Residual percentage

relative errors eres (%) of one-minute
rainfall intensity measurements
assessed for a sample TBG from
LSI Lastem (photo on the right)
under various reference rates
RIref (mm/h) after dynamic
calibration performed at the LC
laboratory. The two red lines indicate
the current CIMO limits showing that
commercial TBGs can easily fulfill
tight accuracy requirements on
a wide range of rainfall rates
when proper calibration and RI
computation algorithms are used
easily reduced far beyond the CIMO of the inter-tip time interval, recorded weighing (WG) type gauges, and the
requirements and contained in the limits of between two subsequent tips under a combined effects of their dynamic response
±1% after proper calibration and correction constant reference flow rate. Assuming that and sampling limitations.3 One-minute
is applied. the two buckets are volumetrically adjusted resolution real-world rainfall events were
Quantifying the accuracy of any liquid/ in the vicinity of the nominal rainfall depth selected for the laboratory simulations. It
solid precipitation measurement generally value, the recording of a series of inter-tip was shown that the low range of rainfall
requires separating of the instrumental time intervals allows for estimating the intensities – namely below 12mm/hr –
sources of uncertainty from influences due mechanical precision of the bucket. heavily impact on the performance of both
to environmental conditions. Instrumental the investigated TBG and WG gauges,
errors are related to the individual sensor Tipping-bucket rain gauges notwithstanding the high degree of accuracy
design and specifications; their nature is The sampling issue in tipping-bucket rain preliminarily assessed for the latest during
often systematic, allowing for the application gauges lies in the discrete nature of the tests performed at various constant flow
of correction algorithms based on laboratory measurement principle. The recording of rates.4 On the other hand, the average errors
calibration tests. The ‘counting’ performance one tip when the bucket gets full, and the and the precision of the traditional TBG
of catching-type gauges (in other words, consequent total count of tips within a gauge show better performance than a more
their capability of correctly quantifying the chosen time period (for example, five modern WG when addressing medium and
amount of precipitation once this has been minutes), is not able to represent properly high rainfall rates (above 12mm/hr). z
collected into the bucket) is generally some typical behavior of the continuous
affected by instrumental factors. rainfall phenomenon. For instance, the Luca G Lanza and Matteo Colli are from the
Environmental factors can impact on the sampling errors are strongly influential in University of Genoa, Italy – WMO/CIMO Lead
measurement accuracy as well, depending the assessment of light rain events, which Centre ‘B Castelli’ on Precipitation Intensity
on the atmospheric conditions at the commonly results in recording lots of (http://www.precipitation-intensity.it)
collector, the siting characteristics, and isolated tips associated with remarkable
other factors. Most of them affect the overestimation of the actual rainfall rate at References
so-called ‘catching performance’ of the the corresponding time step and 1) E Vuerich, C Monesi, L G Lanza, L Stagi and E
instrument (its ability to collect the precise underestimation in the contiguous steps. Lanzinger, ‘WMO Field Intercomparison of Rainfall
amount of precipitation that would Results of numerical simulations and Intensity Gauges’. World Meteorological Organization
ultimately reach the surface of the ground laboratory tests show that smart algorithms – Instruments and Observing Methods Rep. No. 99,
over the associated footprint area). Typical for the interpretation of the TBG output WMO/TD No. 1504, p286 (2009). Also available at:
environmental factors are the gradients of signal (such as distributing the tip volume http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/IMOP/
atmospheric temperature, wind speed and over the inter-tip time window at a constant publications/IOM-99_FI-RI.pdf
solar radiation. rain rate) are generally sufficient to 2) M Colli, L G Lanza, and P W Chan, ‘Co-located
Suitable dynamic calibration of TBGs considerably improve the performance of a tipping-bucket and optical drop counter RI
is performed at the laboratory of the tipping-bucket rain gauge with low sampling measurements and a simulated correction algorithm’,
WMO/CIMO Lead Centre ‘B Castelli’ on resolution at the lower intensities. Use of Atmos. Res., 119, 3-12 (2013)
Precipitation Intensity (LC-PrIN) in order to such algorithms improves the precision of 3) M Colli, L G Lanza, P La Barbera, and P W Chan,
account for systematic mechanical errors. rain intensity measurements by reducing the ‘Measurement accuracy of weighing and tipping-bucket
The calibration procedure is based on the variance of the deviations.2 The influence of rainfall intensity gauges under dynamic laboratory
direct comparison between a generated this type of correction at the higher testing’, Atmos. Res., 144, 186-194 (2014)
constant flow rate and the measured rainfall intensities is less significant, as expected. 4) L G Lanza, M Leroy, C Alexandropoulos, L Stagi and
intensity at various RI levels covering the Recent efforts to accurately reproduce the W Wauben, Laboratory Intercomparison of Rainfall
operational range of the instrument. The time-varying behavior of real precipitation Intensity Gauges. Instruments and Observing Methods
stability of the mechanics must be checked events in the laboratory enabled the LC-PrIn Rep. No. 84, WMO/TD No. 1304, World Meteorological
as well, therefore assessing the repeatability to quantify the accuracy of TBG and modern Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (2005)

Air navigation
by Claudia Faccani and Gianluca Tisselli
WEATHER SPOTTING
Weather simulator for
meteorological technicians
ENAV has invested in technology and education in order to fulfill WMO
standards and guarantee high levels of safety within the air navigation sector
ver the years ENAV, the main Italian

O provider for air navigation services,
has strongly invested in technology
and education in order to fulfill WMO
standards and guarantee a high degree of
safety. The new procedures and innovations
have to be delivered as soon as possible to
operational personnel, who have to be ready
to apply them. The best way to do this is
through practice.
The company’s extensive experience in
initial training suggested that meteorological
technicians often need extra practice in
cloud identification, visibility estimation
and weather identification. Unfortunately
the duration of the course and budget
limitations do not ease students’ learning.
A further limitation in their learning is the
weather itself. Each course lasts only a few
weeks and there is no chance that students Figure 1: Example of the three weather simulators developed by ENAV. 1, 2 and 3 indicate an increasing
can experience every kind of weather. The level of difficulty, from basic to advanced
situation is worst in summer, when the

Air navigation
Mediterranean climate has many weeks of possible to upload scenarios manually The three sets of buttons at the bottom,
sunny and dry weather. (1 in Figure 1), or automatically (2 and 3 F, G, and H, open specific tasks that
To overcome all these problems and in Figure 1), and practice the estimation of enable students to practice with routine
fulfill its initial and continuous training cloud cover, present weather and visibility message issuing (F), procedures (H), and
requirement, last year ENAV developed depending on the student’s expertise communication with the meteorological office
a weather simulator for meteorological (1 = basic level; 3 = advanced level). and ATS units (G), such as the control tower.
technicians. Simulators are largely used in Simulators enable fast dissemination Areas A and B report the last routine
ENAV for training of air traffic controllers. of the information over all the national messages issued, for the METAR/SPECI (A)
The application to the meteorological airports, greatly reducing the cost of moving and the local reports MET-REPORT/
environment enables the reproduction and teachers around the country. At the same SPECIAL (B). They are used as references for
analysis of specific cases that show a time, they guarantee standard conditions possible SPECI and SPECIAL messages
particular evolution of meteorological for learning and assessment. during each change of scenario.
variables. At the same time, the simulation The analysis of the results of previous
technique enables the creation of scenarios Advanced simulator courses and the positive reaction of students
that may be used for testing new operational In Figure 2, the area C displays the and operational personnel has proved that
procedures, both meteorological and automatic data from the E-AWOS system, the introduction of the weather simulator
otherwise, among the various air traffic while cloud cover, visibility and present can greatly ease and improve learning.
control units. weather have to be identified using picture Moreover, feedback from all users
Based on more than a year’s experience, D. The exercise is time dependent (E) and encouraged further developments –
ENAV has produced three types of weather the clock also controls the upload of procedures for automatic data upload
simulators (Figure 1), with an increasing different scenarios according to the and remote teacher settings will be soon
level of difficulty, all reproducing the new teacher’s settings. The clock speed can included in ENAV’s weather simulators. z
E-AWOS (ENAV AWOS) HMI. They differ also be modified and the exercise can
slightly in some features, but they have all be sped up. These choices are set Claudia Faccani is from the ENAV S.p.A. Academy
been developed to provide a specific level of according to the goal of the exercise and Gianluca Tisselli is from the ENAV S.p.A.
knowledge and skills. In this way it is and the student’s expertise. Meteorology Department
Figure 2: Example of a weather simulator frame

Solar parks
by Paul Palmer
SUN SPOTTING
Meteorological monitoring is
helping to optimize the efficiency
of solar plants
Utility scale solar plants are growing, both in the number being
constructed and their size. They use two main types of technology:
photovoltaic panels and concentrated solar power
he largest solar plants now have a

T capacity in excess of 550MW and
cost millions of dollars to install
and manage. Naturally, as the scale of these
investments increases, it becomes even more
important that the efficiency calculations
used as a basis to justify the finance for
these installations are realized and that
solar plants work at maximum efficiency
to generate the expected returns
on investment.
Additionally, monitoring of the expected
power yield is often necessary to meet Gill MetPak weather station installed in a solar
regulatory requirements as well as for farm
investment purposes. So what affects the

Solar parks
Some sensors are mounted at the same angle filters have a service interval of 12 months,
as the PV panels, to ensure that the angle of but aim for those with a 24-month period to
incidence is optimized between the panel halve the service labor and materials costs.
and the sunlight. Others are mounted Modbus outputs are essential as they
around the plant with an array of other provide easy and direct interfacing into
meteorological instrumentation, to provide SCADA systems. This makes it possible to
an overall picture of sunlight and collect data from any networked location in
atmospheric conditions. the plant, while also enabling instruments to
The average efficiency of solar panels be easily exchanged or relocated.
varies depending on the panel selected; Another important feature is an in-built
latitude and climate determine the annual service log, enabling operators to remotely
energy output of the system. However, most request and receive the last calibration date,
panels are less than 20% efficient and system up time and other status information,
therefore other factors such as the for quick assessment and diagnosis of any
cleanliness of the glass and the heat of the issues. In-field calibration and adjustment is
panels affect the efficiency. also important, and by temporarily installing
In some cases the heat of the panel can a reference sensor alongside the installed
reduce output by 10-25%, so panel device it is possible to check the difference
temperature sensors are an important between the two outputs and upload a new
consideration. Measurements are taken by calibration date, or alternatively upload any
attaching temperature sensors to the backs correction factors needed to bring the sensor
of panels, which are then connected direct back within specification. This can all be
to the local SCADA network or another done without removing the sensor or
instrument such as a weather station, if it sending it back to a third party. Ensure
has a temperature sensor input. that all sensors have suitable security
The use of meteorological instruments to controls for this option, to prevent any
provide beneficial information is critical to unauthorized tampering.
the management and security of solar
panels, and installed weather stations Comprehensive product range
should be able to measure at least wind Gill Instruments is a designer and
speed and direction, precipitation, manufacturer of a wide range of professional
temperature and humidity. compact weather stations and ultrasonic
For example, measuring the wind speed wind speed and direction sensors. Its
and direction can be used to determine the portfolio includes a range of meteorological
wind loading on large PV panels. For solar instrumentation suitable for use in
plants that have horizontal PV trackers solar plants to assist with managing
installed, wind speed and direction and maximizing the performance of solar
measurements can trigger changes in the panel installations.
angle of incidence, as high winds can Using either a MaxiMet compact weather
damage PV panels or their mechanisms. station, which measures meteorological and
environmental parameters to international
What to look for in solar met stations standards, or MetPak professional
performance of solar plants and what Meteorological instrumentation can help the multisensor weather stations, operators can
measures can operators take to monitor the bottom line of solar plants. What features access the majority of the measurement
efficiency of their installations? should you look for to make sure they work parameters essential to solar plant efficiency.
hard for you? These products also include zero
Keeping track of the weather With many installations being in remote maintenance sensors that assist in reducing
The most obvious parameter to monitor is locations, long service intervals and integration and long-term running costs,
solar radiation. The basic function of reliability are key, along with good combined with Modbus for easy networking.
pyranometers is to measure the amount of communications. Compact all-in-one This comprehensive range of products
sunlight that should be reaching the weather stations that incorporate an will make sourcing and specifying
photovoltaic (PV) panels, which is then ultrasonic anemometer not only provide easy while benefiting from Gill
compared with the designed energy output solid-state reliability but also continuous Instruments’ reputation for accuracy,
and the actual output. This efficiency levels of high accuracy combined with zero reliability and quality. z
monitoring is often done using ISO 9060 maintenance. Additionally, look for long
second class, first class and secondary service intervals for any serviceable parts, Paul Palmer is a market research analyst at
reference solar radiation pyranometers. such as filters for temperature sensors. Most Gill Instruments

Dataloggers
by Marcel Gautschi
ON THE LEVEL
Datalogger measures level,
conductivity and temperature
Keller AG has been supplying maintenance-free, battery-operated level probes with
remote datalogging for observations. How is the need for dataloggers changing?
ith the new CTD (conductivity,

W temperature, depth) versions of the
high-precision DCX level
The CTD versions of
the DCX-22 range
are autonomous
dataloggers for depths of up to 200m, Keller battery-operated
AG offers a highly integrated, complete data collectors
pressure measurement solution for water made of stainless
management. This datalogger for long-term steel. They record
the water level
monitoring stores over 50,000 time-stamped (pressure),
level measurements, as well as the temperature and
associated conductivity and temperature conductivity over
readings in each case. The multipurpose long periods
probes have a diameter of 22mm, making
them suitable for all sounding tubes with
a nominal diameter of 1in or greater.
Conductivity crucial as standard

process value
Water conductivity is a measure of purity,
making it an important standard process
measurement in the water and sewerage
sector as well as in the beverage and
pharmaceutical industries. Changes in
conductivity are a clear indicator of
contamination, for example by particles
or salts (chlorides, nitrates, etc). Typical
values lie between >50mS (salt water) and portfolio ranges from dataloggers with ±1%, can be used. Since water conductivity
<5µS (pure water). conventional relative pressure sensors to is highly temperature dependent, a Pt1000
Keller supplies conductivity probes level probes featuring two isolated absolute sensor measures the temperature of the
combined with level probes based on pressure sensors that compensate for medium directly between the electrodes
pressure sensors. These integrated ambient pressure deviations electrically to an accuracy of 0.1°C, ensuring that
measuring systems are ideal for checking or by using software. All Series DCX-22 the measured conductivity is accurately
the ingress of seawater, slurry or fertilizer products are now available as CTD level standardized to the reference temperature
into groundwater, rivers and lakes, or for probes with integrated conductivity and of 25°C.
performing observation tasks relating to temperature sensors. At a rate of one
building projects or localized water measurement per hour, the integrated Measuring software for long-term
pollution. The Series DCX-22 CTD level lithium battery has a life of up to eight years. monitoring
probes with integrated datalogger are Keller’s Logger 5.1 software is compatible
available with a robust 316L stainless-steel Conductivity probe with six with Windows XP or higher and is included
housing or other materials, if necessary, for electrodes free of charge. This sophisticated software
enhanced chemical compatibility. In line with Swiss quality standards enables configuration of logger instruments
for pressure sensors, the DCX-22 level and data download. Recorder values can be
Level measurement: a core measuring probes are equipped with displayed in tabular or graphical form and
competency high-precision conductivity sensors. Four easily sent to end users or authorities. A
Keller AG für Druckmesstechnik has long platinum electrodes on the outside supply particularly notable feature is the ability
been a leading supplier of maintenance free, a set alternating current, while two on the to graphically display air pressure
battery-operated level probes with remote inside detect voltage in order to measure the compensated level curves at the same time
datalogger for observations at depths of conductivity of the medium. For measuring as conductivity and temperature curves. z
up to 200m and optional GSM module conductivity, the four measuring ranges of
for remote access. With level measuring 0-200μS/cm, 0-2mS/cm, 0-20mS/cm and Marcel Gautschi is the technical expert at Keller AG für
tolerances of ±0.02%FS, Keller’s extensive 0-200mS/cm, with a measuring accuracy of Druckmesstechnik based in Winterthur, Switzerland

ISO17025
eko.co.jp eko-usa.com eko-eu.com

Microwave radiometers
by Marta Nelson, Derek Blestrud and David Patton
THE COOL FACTOR

Microwave radiometers hold key to
identifying supercooled liquid water
Idaho Power Company’s comprehensive weather modification
program delivers water for hydroelectric power generation
intertime orographic cloud seeding

W plays an increasingly important role
in meeting the demands for fresh
water in the western USA. Idaho Power
Company (IPC), headquartered in Boise,
Idaho, runs one of the largest, most
sophisticated and successful weather
modification programs in North America.
A key component of IPC’s program is
the use of microwave radiometers to
accurately identify supercooled liquid water,
essential to cloud seeding effectiveness, in
winter storms.
In the rugged mountains of northwest
Wyoming, snowfall in Yellowstone National Figure 1: The Radiometrics MP-3000A microwave radiometer, installed in wintertime cloud seeding
Park and the Teton Mountain Range gives program (photo: Marta Nelson, Radiometrics staff meteorologist)
birth to the headwaters of the Snake River.
The Snake River curves south, growing as severe-to-extreme drought conditions. To at the proper place and time during
snow-fed streams and the snowpack- ensure plentiful water – the fuel for the storm.
influenced Central Idaho Aquifer discharge hydroelectric generation – IPC conducts a Identifying the right storms to seed, and
into the river. In western Idaho, the Snake wintertime orographic cloud-seeding determining the optimum location and time
loops northward, through Hells Canyon, program in the Payette, Boise and Wood for seeding, is a complex task. To address this
gathering waters from numerous tributaries, River basins of Idaho’s Central Mountains, as challenge, IPC meteorologists use all publicly
including the Owyhee, Salmon, Boise, Payette well as the Upper Snake River region of available data sources, augmented with four
and Clearwater rivers. The Snake River is eastern Idaho and western Wyoming. rawinsonde launching facilities; real-time
central to the history of Idaho, from the atmospheric profiles from its four MP-3000A
Lewis and Clarke expedition to the IPC’s weather modification program radiometers; a network of 11 high-resolution
Oregon Trail, to its current role as a major A team of three full-time meteorologists precipitation gauge sites; two meteorological
water source for irrigation, residential oversees IPC’s weather modification program. towers; and numerous anemometer and
supply, recreation and hydroelectric They forecast winter storms, determine when thermometer locations. As shown in figure 2,
power generation. and where to activate ground-based and meteorological sensors and generators are
Harnessing the power of the Snake River aircraft seeding assets, and monitor often located in remote areas.
for electricity generation is the role of Idaho snowpack. This team is charged with This past winter, IPC’s weather
Power Company. Founded in 1916, IPC’s maximizing the effectiveness of the IPC modification program in Idaho’s Central
service area spans approximately 24,000 weather modification activities, and Mountains included 23 remote-controlled,
square miles (62,000km2), much of that in ensuring compliance with all relevant local, ground-based generators, two seeding
the rugged and remote terrain of southern state, and federal environmental and airplanes, and one Radiometrics MP-3000A
Idaho and eastern Oregon. Within this vast land-use guidelines. microwave radiometer (see Figure 1). The
area, IPC provides power to a population of A recent report published by the National program in the Upper Snake River Basin
approximately one million. IPC’s 17 Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) included 21 remote-controlled,
hydroelectric generation plants along the concluded that cloud seeding can increase ground-based generators; 25 manual
Snake River and its major tributaries are the snowpack by 5-15% in the winter storms ground generators owned and operated by
utility’s largest source of electricity that meet the criteria for seeding. Only the High Country Resource Conservation
production. Depending on snowpack, these about 30% of winter storms meet seeding and Development; and two MP-3000A
plants provide between 30% and 50% of criteria, and superfluous seeding is both microwave radiometers.
IPC’s total electrical power. costly and ineffective. For seeding to
Between 2010 and 2014, the population of produce good results, silver iodide (the Passive atmospheric remote sensor
Idaho increased by 4.3% (higher than the benign seeding agent) must be released The MP-3000A microwave radiometer is a
national average of 3.3%). During that same into a saturated environment rich in passive atmospheric remote sensor that
time period, much of the state experienced liquid water at temperatures below freezing, provides continuous, real-time profiles of

Microwave radiometers
aircraft is critical. Without the radiometer,

we wouldn’t have the ability to continually
monitor the atmosphere for supercooled
liquid water. The resolution of launching
rawinsondes can only give us a data
source every hour or two, whereas the
radiometer continuously monitors the
changing conditions.”
Radiometer data is also valuable for
improving the ability of weather models to
predict supercooled liquid during winter
storms. Blestrud explains, “As we continue to
push weather modeling, ‘ground truthing’ the
model is essential. Models sometimes have a
tough time determining the amount of liquid
water that is available in the atmosphere. If the
models aren’t handling the water correctly,
Figure 2: Ground-based seeding generator and meteorological tower (photo: Idaho Power Company)
precipitation forecasts are inaccurate. By
placing radiometers in our model domain, we
water vapor, temperature, liquid and relative by the MP-3000A as displayed by are able to understand how the model handles
humidity up to 10km above ground level. Its Radiometrics’ VizMet-B software, is shown in liquid water in a wide range of storms, and we
ability to detect supercooled liquid water, the Figure 3. In this example, the height of the use this insight to make the models better.”
atmospheric ingredient most necessary for liquid water between approximately 12:30 and As a result of its weather modification
effective wintertime cloud seeding, makes the 13:30 GMT corresponds to an atmospheric program, IPC’s analysis indicates the average
instrument a vital tool in IPC’s weather temperature near the activation range for silver annual snowpack in the Payette River Basin
modification program. iodide nucleation, indicating ideal cloud has increased by nearly 13% since 2003. This
IPC installed its first MP-3000A microwave seeding conditions. additional precipitation provides nearly
radiometer in Boise, ID, in the autumn of As described by Derek Blestrud, a 200,000 additional acre-feet of water for the
2008. The radiometer was later moved to a meteorologist at IPC, “Seeding the wrong Hells Canyon Complex each year, equal to
mountaintop site north of Emmett, ID, storms, or seeding too late or too early, is approximately 100,000MWh, or enough to
upwind of the target seeding area, to allow expensive and unproductive. Forecasting the power roughly 7,900 homes. Similar results,
better visibility of incoming supercooled water. optimum seeding conditions, and monitoring although not independently verified, are
IPC has since purchased three additional those conditions in real time during seeding realized in the upper Snake River Basin. z
radiometers. The second radiometer was operations, is critical for an effective weather
placed in Afton, Wyoming, to assess suitability modification program.” He continues, “Aircraft Marta Nelson is staff meteorologist at Radiometrics;
of the Salt and Wyoming ranges of the upper seeding, while expensive, is highly effective in Derek Blestrud is a meteorologist at Idaho Power
Snake River Basin for seeding, and it remains large, warmer storms. Determining the best Company; and David Patton is director of marketing
in Afton in an operational mode. NCAR uses times and locations to fly a cloud seeding and sales at Radiometrics
the radiometer data collected since the initial
study to support the State of Wyoming’s cloud
seeding research program.
Large areas of the upper Snake River Basin
are void of meteorological instruments, so a
third MP-3000A located near Mud Lake,
Idaho, is used to fill the gap in boundary layer
data in this area. This unit provides weather
data for cloud seeding operations as well as
model verifications.
A fourth unit will be deployed in late
summer 2015 to support cloud seeding
operations in the Boise and Wood River basins
of central Idaho.
The MP-3000A radiometers produce
real-time observations of liquid water needed
to direct aircraft flight paths during seeding
operations. The radiometer data also provides
insight into the amount of liquid water
transported into the target area, and
information on whether the atmospheric
conditions are warming, cooling, or changing.
The radiometers also provide accurate
integrated liquid water measurements that are Figure 3: Radiometric data visualization showing time-height cross sections of temperature, liquid water
used as ground verification of model data. An and vapor density during a winter storm near Mancos Colorado (VizMet-B software)
example of supercooled liquid water detected

COMET
by Lili Francklyn
TEAM EFFORT
COMET: geosciences training for
the global community
COMET was created within the University Corporation for Atmospheric
Research. What has it achieved in its 25-year history?
wenty-five years ago COMET was
T created within the University
Corporation for Atmospheric
Research (UCAR) – a nonprofit consortium
of more than 100 universities – to be a part
of a massive modernization program at the
US National Weather Service (NWS). A
10-year, multibillion-dollar effort, the NWS
modernization program ushered in new
technologies to improve weather forecasting,
particularly the prediction of extreme
weather events. The NWS built a new,
improved Doppler radar network around the
country, introduced a national system of
automated ground instruments, and greatly
increased computing power throughout the
agency. The upshot of these technical
improvements was a dramatic increase in
the quality and resolution of weather data,
which in turn ushered in a new focus on
mesoscale forecasting. COMET’s SKYWARN lesson trains severe weather spotters for the US National Weather Service. Nearly
Key to the modernization program at the 300,000 volunteer spotters provide information that enables the NWS to provide timely warnings of
tornadoes, severe thunderstorms and floods. Photo: The COMET Program
NWS was the expansion and reorganization
of its national network of field offices and
– perhaps most importantly for COMET – technological change increases, along technology for travel and personalized
a plan to provide new training for 7,000 with the amount of data it produces, teaching, COMET became a pioneer in the
forecasters from the NWS and the COMET’s role in teaching people how to delivery of training via distance learning
Department of Defense (DoD). The training take full advantage of new technologies has technologies, continuously researching and
program was a critical component of the become increasingly important. improving ways to provide complex
modernization plan because the primary information in a way that was optimized
byproduct of the technologies that the NWS COMET pioneers distance learning for comprehension and retention. COMET
introduced was an avalanche of new data. and instructional design now designs and delivers asynchronous
How would each meteorologist interpret all The manner in which the NWS learning, instructor-led virtual classes, and
of this new information and integrate it modernization effort evolved was fortuitous residential classes, all of which use the latest
successfully into his or her workflow? How for COMET in another way, and that was the multimedia and instructional technology to
would the NWS ensure that these new tools development of early expertise in distance convey difficult concepts.
led to concrete improvements in the quality learning. For practical reasons, neither the
of forecasting? NWS nor COMET’s early military customers MetEd: An online platform for
COMET’s creation in Boulder, Colorado, could transport thousands of weather worldwide geosciences training
was intended to address this problem professionals to Boulder to sit in classrooms, In 1996 COMET created MetEd, MetEd, a
precisely, and in the 1990s the organization so COMET developed methods of designing web platform for the delivery of self-paced
set about training thousands of forecasters and delivering course content that was online lessons – and began amassing world
to integrate new research and resources into optimized for self-paced learning. In the audiences. COMET lessons feature a
their understanding of meteorology. early 1990s, before the internet was an combination of multimedia content (with
This task of training highly educated option, COMET sent laserdiscs – and available text versions of all audio),
geoscience professionals to understand and eventually CDs – to DoD and NWS field infographics, animations and video
assimilate new technologies has become offices around the country, where they could production. COMET’s clients include
a hallmark of the work done by COMET be played on dedicated workstations. several branches of the US military,
over the past 25 years. As the pace of As a result of this pressure to substitute numerous US government agencies; national

COMET
The COMET Fire Behavior lesson is designed for

weather forecasters who support firefighters on
site. It covers the impacts of weather, fuel, and
topography on fire events, and provides case
studies for users to test their fire behavior
prediction skills
Meteorology for aviation and marine

applications
Since the development of its first COMAP
course, COMET has expanded the breadth
of geoscience course offerings into a wide
range of topics, including hydrometeorology,
oceanography, radar meteorology and
remote sensing, fire weather, climate
change, geodesy and mapping, winter
weather, and oil-spill tracking and other
types of incident response. COMET has
delivered dozens of programs on aviation
and marine meteorology, dissecting aviation
challenges such as ice formation on aircraft,
clear-air turbulence, fog and volcanic ash
plumes, and providing training on
worldwide aviation weather technology and
meteorological services from Canada, (COMAP) course. COMAP instructors were tools. COMET has also been participating
Australia and other countries; emergency leaders in their field, drawn from both the in a long-term project to improve aviation
management officials and first responders, research and operational domains of forecasting in Africa, producing numerous
state and local government officials, meteorology. This set an important training materials specific to the continent.
university faculty and students, volunteer precedent, and COMET continues to In the marine meteorology/oceanography
weather spotters, and private industry provide training programs that bridge the category, COMET has produced more than
sectors concerned with extreme weather and gap between research and operations. 70 lessons covering such diverse topics as
climate change risk. The MetEd learning With its extensive scientific and technical wind and wave modeling, ocean currents
platform provides a foundation for a community, and the fact that it is and acoustics, tropical storm forecasting and
combination of live and virtual learning functionally integrated with the National celestial navigation.
capabilities that enables COMET to tailor its Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR),
offerings to the needs and budgets of its COMET continues to have access to many of Satellite meteorology and space
clients, regardless of their location. the finest meteorologists and atmospheric weather
scientists in the world. COMET has also Over the past decade COMET has added an
COMET expands from meteorology to continued another tradition developed for extensive collection of materials on satellite
all geosciences COMAP – the creation of case studies using meteorology and has produced dozens of
COMET’s first course – a ‘train the trainers’ real data, often originating from the federal self-paced training lessons to facilitate the
program aimed at NWS science and agencies sponsoring the training programs. understanding and use of satellite products.
operations officers – was an eight-week This creates learning experiences that As a long-term partner of the National
residential class called the COMET translate to real on-the-job challenges, and Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Mesoscale Analysis and Prediction contributes to workforce competency. (NOAA) and the European Organization for
the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites
(EUMETSAT), COMET has a proven history
of providing training on operational
environmental satellites, including the
EUMETSAT Polar System and the JASON
satellite series. The newest COMET online
satellite training lessons prepare forecasters
and remote sensing professionals to use data
Many COMET training from the US geostationary and polar orbiting
lessons are aimed at
improving severe
systems, including the Suomi National
weather forecast Polar-orbiting Partnership (Suomi-NPP) and
accuracy. Over 1,000 the Geostationary Operational Environmental
tornadoes hit the US Satellites – R Series (GOES-R).
each year, causing Another important COMET contribution
injuries and fatalities, is an expanding series on space weather,
and costing in the
hundreds of millions of covering the fundamental science principles
dollars in damages. of space weather, in addition to detailed
analysis of its impacts on weather and aviation.

COMET
This illustration of the (EUMETSAT) Metop polar

orbiting satellite and instrument package is from
the training lesson Microwave Remote Sensing:
Land and Ocean Surface Applications. COMET
translates many lessons into French, Spanish and
other languages, depending on client needs
project – whether delivered in the classroom

or via the MetEd online learning platform
– incorporates effective instructional
methodology and is delivered using the latest
instructional technologies. COMET also
provides needs assessment and instructional
design services on a consulting basis. From
simple message design to comprehensive
competency-based training programs,
COMET services are a powerful resource for
sales force and customer education, as well as
for professionals and academic users.
Future trends in technical training

Although the original intention for COMET
was for it to be a training partner during the
first NWS modernization effort, the
organization has continued to grow in
Climate change – indications and COMET Professional Training response to demand. It is clear that the
impacts Services professional educational services provided by
Since its inception, COMET has produced With more than 20 specialists in scientific COMET are needed now more than ever. The
a range of training lessons and courses training and e-learning, COMET’s agile need to understand climate science and the
that examine climate science in a variety design team includes PhD scientists risks of extreme weather, and the ability to
of scientific contexts, including climate specializing in meteorology and other predict weather and climate events, has
variability; climate modeling; climate geosciences, instructional designers, graphic expanded the COMET audience base across
and weather; impacts on coastal regions, artists, editors and video producers. Highly many sectors of the workforce. The
rainforest ecosystems, hydrology, agriculture collaborative and skilled in the development technology associated with geosciences is
and crop production; and examinations of and presentation of professional training evolving to produce faster and larger data
storm surge and sea level rise. Among the materials, the COMET team is drawn streams, requiring more targeted training for
most popular COMET lessons are the ones from the very disciplines served by end users.
that deal with community responses to the organization. COMET continues to evolve, adjusting to
extreme weather events, such as flash All of COMET’s professional training is workforce demands and responding to major
flooding, storm surge and fires (including based on a thorough needs analysis and trends taking place in professional training
fire weather prediction and behavior). guided by subject matter experts. Each and distance education – including short,
focused, media-rich instruction; increased
access to informal learning resources such as
social media and peer-to-peer instruction;
and an increase in highly customized,
sophisticated simulations, scenarios and case
studies – to mention a few. These in turn are
designed to accommodate the shift toward
competency-based instruction with a focus
on decision-support services.
Throughout this evolution, COMET is
optimizing learning outcomes through work
on retention, memory and the application of
sound cognitive science in every step of the
learning process. z
Lili Francklyn is the media specialist at UCAR
This screenshot from an animation exploring wind

impacts of hurricanes is used
in several COMET lessons, including the popular
‘Community Hurricane Preparedness’. Photo: The
COMET Program

LIDAR for Meteorological Applications
LR111-D300
Volcanic Ash Detection

Humidity Profiling
Dust/Pollution/Clouds
PBL Height
KEY FEATURES
• High energy laser ~50 mJ per pulse at 355 nm
• Large 300 mm telescope
• Remotely controllable - 3 to 4 months unattended
• Double-walled enclosure with full climate control
• Hatch & rain sensor to protect windows
• UPS with automatic restart after power outage
• Software includes real-time display & measurement scheduling
• Options to upgrade including for water vapour (humidity)
• EARLINET compliant (European Lidar Network)
• Eye-safe (EU standard on laser safety 60825-1: 2007)
• Certified ISO 9001 standard
EFFECTIVE RANGE
Co-polar up to 14 km (night), 12 km (day)
Cross-polar up to 12 km (night), 11 km (day)
[email protected] Raman up to 12 km (night), 3 km (day)
www.raymetrics.com measured in general conditions with SNR > 10
Tel: +30 210 6655860
Fax: +30 210 2827217
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Weather workstation
by Muhamad Husaini Bin Aji, Sa’adiah Haji Tengah, Jeff Wisner and Hank Fallek
ONE FOR ALL

Integrating multiple
application solutions in a
single weather workstation
The Brunei Darussalam Meteorological Department uses the Sutron-MeteoStar
LEADS product suite for its weather hazards index system (WHIS)
he weather service in Brunei LEADS Automatic Product Generator (APG) First guess TAFs: LEADS provides a
T Darussalam began in the late-1950s,
primarily to serve aviation
and distributed through a web-based
LEADS online interface.
web-based application to create a first guess
TAF from one or more user-selected
activities. Over the years since, the demand The products are intended for Brunei numerical weather model(s). The TAF can
for meteorological services from other stakeholders such as offshore operations and be displayed and graphically edited by the
stakeholders grew, as did the demand from emergency managers. When requested by forecaster and compared to the previous
the general population. the users, BDMD meteorologists can also TAF or historical climate data, and then
The Brunei Darussalam Meteorological create forecasts on a manual basis specific published. Graphical changes are reflected
Department (BDMD) is the country’s to the user requirement. These special in the TAF text format.
national meteorological service and is products can be delivered as email
responsible for provision of meteorological attachments or delivered through a LEADS Fire weather application
and climate services. The BDMD has the web interface. Due to the changing land use within the
responsibility for not only forecasting the country of Brunei, areas of tropical
weather, but also providing specific forecasts Aviation applications rainforest have been removed and replaced
to support other stakeholders within Brunei. Message and bulletin generation: The concept with roads, housing and commercial
These include aviation (terminal area is to use the LEADS product suite to create enterprises. The changing land use has
forecasts – TAFs), fire weather (fire weather a 4D database (dimensions in space and created areas that are prone to forest fires
indices – FWI), TV weather reports, and time) of the operational aviation weather during the dry times of the year. The BDMD
hydrology (flood forecasting – planned). over Brunei. This ‘weather cube’ is then application solution integrates the Canadian
As Brunei Darussalam is a small country, used to create standard aviation forecasts, Fire Weather Indices (FWI) within the
the BDMD has very limited resources and messages and bulletins. LEADS System. The FWI application
recognizes that the same weather The application is web-based and provides ‘indices forecasting’ through the
information can be processed to support includes a user preview window along with use of a weather research and forecasting
multiple uses. The approach was to build the accuracy checks, to ensure the content numerical model, and ‘situation assessment’
BDMD weather support capabilities through format is correct for messaging. The app- of fire danger from a real-time Sutron Fire
applications around a common database and lication also provides seamless integration Weather Station surface network. A web
weather workstation. Through a competitive with the Aeronautical Telecommunications interface provides notification and
tender, the BDMD chose Rennovo Solutions Network message switch. collaboration tools with other stakeholders.
(RSSB) as the prime contractor to implement
the Sutron-MeteoStar LEADS product suite
for the BDMD’s weather hazards index
system (WHIS). The following are the FIRE WEATHER INDICES
current and future applications that the Fine Fuel Moisture Code (FFMC): An indicator of the relative ease of ignition
BDMD has implemented within the and flammability of fine fuel;
LEADS system.
Duff Moisture Code (DMC): An indication of fuel consumption in moderate duff
Integrating the weather database layers and medium-size woody material;
The following figures show the concept of Drought Code (DC): A useful indicator of seasonal drought effects on the forest
operations, as well as the data flow for the fuels, and the amount of smoldering in deep duff layers and large logs;
BDMD’s WHIS. Data is ingested through a
series of interface modules and stored in a Initial Spread Index (ISI): A numerical rating of the expected rate of fire spread;
gridded relational database for application
Build-up Index (BI): A numerical rating of the total amount of fuel that is
processing by the weather workstation.
available for combustion;
General weather forecasting Fire Weather Index (FWI): A numerical rating of fire intensity that combines the
General weather forecasting consists of a set Initial Spread Index and the Build-up Index.
of Brunei weather products created by the

Weather workstation
Operations concept for sharing a common Hydro-Met database
Hydrology application (planned) is a threshold of precipitation that, when Hydrologic and Hydraulic Model-based Flood
The Sutron LEADS-Hydro hydrologic exceeded for a short period of time such as Warning System with Flood Inundation Mapping
modeling and forecast application is a fully one, three or six hours, flash flooding is Module: LEADS-Hydro brings the hydrologic
integrated hydrologic and hydraulic likely to occur. LEADS-Hydro FFG uses the and hydraulic modeling components
modeling platform and flood forecast system concept of threshold frequency, developed together in a tightly integrated system that
based on the US NOAA/NWS Community by NOAA and the US National Weather makes seamless flood forecasting possible
Hydrologic Prediction System, and NCAR Service (NWS). across all timescales and climatic regimes.
WRF Hydro technologies. Hydrologic Model-based Flood Warning System Moreover, flood inundation mapping, which
LEADS-Hydro provides a coupled model Module: LEADS and LEADS-Hydro combine requires both hydrologic and hydraulic
solution for Brunei (atmospheric and surface all the hydro elements into a tightly modeling, can be carried out routinely, in
models). LEADS-Hydro is applicable to integrated system. The approach to the alert near-real-time mode, depending on the
any location in Brunei, due to its LEADS- and warning process is simply based on available computer hardware resources. z
Hydro Research Distributed Hydrologic hydrologic modeling, using the RDHM and
Model (RDHM) parameter estimation its internal streamflow routing capabilities. Muhamad Husaini Bin Aji is the director of the Brunei
capability. LEADS-Hydro consists of several This approach handles relatively Met Department; Sa’adiah Haji Tengah works in the
module components. free-flowing streams and rivers with Brunei Darussalam Meteorological Department; Jeff
Flash-flood Guidance (FFG) Module: This is minimal back-water effects. Flooding Wisner is an application specialist and Hank Fallek is
based on a relatively simple principle that predictions can be made at any RDHM grid VP of sales and marketing, both at Sutron Weather
for a given small area (4 x 4km or less), there cell (pixel) location. Solutions Division

Observing systems
by Ludovic Thobois and Joshua Soderholm
NOWCASTING
SEVERE STORMS
Observing clear air close proximity
environment of severe storms
Conventional observing systems can be complemented with lidar measurements to
better understand and forecast the hazards of severe storms
evere weather hazards such

S as storms, hurricanes and
thunderstorms, are one of the major
threats to both human activity and assets.
Human and economic impacts, evaluated
at US$485bn in the USA according to a study
by the US National Center for Atmospheric
Research (NCAR) published in the BAMS
Journal in 2011 (BAMS, Volume 92, Issue 6,
June 2011), justify the implementation of
avoidance and mitigation plans.
Detailed and accurate information on
severe weather such as location, intensity and Figure 1: Schematic representation of a dry microburst evolution, Wilson et al. (1984)
evolution are mandatory to develop efficient
and reliable hazard warning systems for
alerting the responsible authorities and
public. Major improvements have been strategies developed during NIMROD. meteorological centers. The accumulation
achieved to better understand Thanks to these results, schematic evolution of observations carried out over multiple
and forecast severe weather, thanks to of downbursts and gust fronts was decades, especially those from radar and
numerical weather models and to the established by Wakimoto in 1982 and the from geostationary orbiting satellites, has
continuous development of meteorological evolution of dry microbursts by Wilson et al. greatly improved understanding of severe
observations, from satellites, radars and more in 1984 (Figure 1). These results storms through statistical analyses of
recently lidars. demonstrated how new observational sensors frequency, intensity and impact. These
In the 1970s several projects led by the can greatly improve in-depth understanding long-term observations often reveal the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric and forecasting of severe storms. These existence of hotspot regions where severe
Administration (NOAA), the National Severe experiments motivated the development of storms are more frequent across many years,
Storms Laboratory (NSSL) and the National several nationwide C-band or S-band radar or more damaging than other regions. Such
Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) networks for measuring precipitation and analyses suggest that the evolution and
focused on the observation and wind, such as Nexrad WSR-80 in the USA. characteristics of severe storms are highly
understanding of severe weather phenomena. Since the 1990s new developments of dependent on the local environmental
In 1978 for the NIMROD (National Intensive C-band radars, such as the TDWR (Terminal interactions and circulations interacting with
Meteorological Research on Downburst) Doppler Weather Radar) and X-band radars storms through changes in buoyancy,
project led by the University of Chicago, the with a higher resolution (200m or less), have moisture and shear.
downburst and microburst concepts were been launched to improve severe storm
more specifically identified and developed monitoring. Technological advances in New lidar technology
thanks to the successful deployment of X-band radars allowed the Center for Severe For the past 20 years, great improvements
multiDoppler radars, enabling the Weather Research (CSWR) in Boulder, have been achieved in lidar techniques
measurement of the different components Colorado, to deploy this technology for the thanks to the implementation of the optical
of wind. mobile observation of smaller scale severe fiber technology widely used in the
In the early 1980s the JAWS (Joint Airport weather phenomena such as tornadoes. mainstream telecommunication industry.
Weather Studies) project further developed In the early 2000s the WMO established It enabled the development of industrial,
the methods to detect and recognize the guidelines for severe weather forecasting and compact, reliable and accurate atmospheric
pathway of downbursts and microbursts over promoted the development of a worldwide lidar sensors, such as the Windcube lidars
airports by building on the observational network of regionally specialized developed by Leosphere. The measurement

Observing systems
focus for operational meteorologists. The

complexity of local weather circulations and
orographic interactions are challenging to
understand from the existing observational
network and high-resolution modeling system,
motivating the development of an extensive
observational network for the experiment.
The existing network of C-band/S-band
weather radars has provided surveillance of
severe storms activity in the region for the past
60 years. A climatological analysis of a
continuous 17-year radar dataset reveals a
strong link on a meso-gamma scale (2-20km)
between localized maxima thunderstorms and
sea breeze activity. The complexity of shear
and buoyancy interactions of deep convection
with sea breezes is difficult to initialize and
simulate correctly for individual cases, so an
observational approach was developed. To
observe the initiation stage of severe storms
Figure 2: and monitor the small-scale processes of
Measurement the interaction between severe storms and
principle of a coherent
Doppler lidar
sea breezes, a two-season field campaign
was coordinated.
principle of lidars is similar to radar. The

laser source emits pulses of light into the
atmosphere (Figure 2). The moving particles
backscatter light, shifting its wavelength as
a result of the Doppler effect. This shift is
proportional to the particles’ radial wind
speed (projection of the wind vector along the
laser line of sight). The backscattered light is
detected and then processed to retrieve the
radial wind speed as well as other
atmospheric phenomena.
A scanning lidar enables observation of
the wind flow in a full hemisphere up to
10km in range with adjustable resolution
from 25m to 200m and accuracy better than
0.5m/s. Lidar sensors are, for example, being
used to better detect local wind hazards,
including fine scale low level wind shear
around airports under clear air conditions,
which conventional Doppler radars cannot
resolve effectively. As these sensors suffer
strong attenuation under heavy rain, they are
considered as complementary to radars,
which are less sensitive to clear air processes.
The Study and monitoring of severe weather Figure 3: Windcube 200S field deployment during CCIE by the University of Queensland
phenomena can benefit from the same lidar
sensors to complement already existing radar
networks. gust fronts, sea breeze fronts). The CCIE aims Campaign setup and description
to use these observations in combination The campaign ran from November 20, 2013,
Research at Queensland University with climatological analysis to quantify the to February 28, 2014. A network of
The Coastal Convective Interactions thunderstorm hotspots for the South East operational weather radars, a research
Experiment (CCIE) was launched in 2013 Queensland region and to better understand polarimetric dual wavelength radar,
in South East Queensland, Australia, by the the meteorological conditions that result in radiosondes, and a SODAR (Sonic Ranging
University of Queensland using a variety of this anomalous spatial behavior of and Detection) equipped with a RASS (Radio
sensors, including a Windcube scanning thunderstorms. In Australia, severe Acoustic Sounding System) was used. For the
lidar, to observe the severe storms and the thunderstorms account for the greatest first time in Australia, the UQ team mobilized
local conditions with which they interact insured losses among all natural disasters, so a Windcube scanning Doppler lidar (Figure
(e.g., meso/microscale frontal boundaries, improving forecasts and warnings are a major 3) to collect close proximity observations of

Observing systems
Figure 4: Downburst
and gust front
evolution at fine
spatial and temporal
scales measured with
the Windcube 200S
during CCIE by the
University of
Queensland
thunderstorms to complement conventional and 4d). Following this merger, a forecasting intense mesoscale convective
radar datasets. Lidar observations were comparatively dry downburst developed systems (MCS). In particular it provides
targeted using high-resolution temporal, behind the maturing gust front, which new observations for severe weather
spatial and data configurations during clear eventually led to a new gust front once it monitoring, which complements those from
air processes, which are difficult to resolve reached the surface (Figures 4e and 4f). existing radar networks.
with weather radar due to the lack of These observations qualitatively agree with Many recent studies, including the
precipitation and sufficient resolution. This the traditional principles for explaining the PECAN (Plains Elevated Convection at Night)
process involved monitoring the close evolution of a downburst and gust front as project in the USA coordinated by NOAA and
proximity environment around the storm for established by Wakimoto in the 1980s. NASA, the CCIE project in Australia from the
local circulation (e.g., convective rolls, sea Developing this understanding of vertical University of Queensland, and many others,
breezes) and studying gust fronts propagating structure and dynamics using lidar show that lidars can be used as a powerful
ahead of the storm. technology provides a basis for tool to observe the environment near severe
In particular this campaign observed a understanding subsequent interactions storms, which plays a major role in their
downburst and gust front evolution at fine between the sea breeze and gust fronts initiation and evolution. These new types of
spatial and temporal scales using a vertical during the CCIE. measurements will help modelers to refine
cross section scan strategy with the Doppler numerical weather models and thus their
lidar (Figure 4). Wind measurements Conclusions and perspectives forecasts. They will support researchers and
performed by the lidar revealed the evolution Severe weather prediction remains a hot topic operational forecasters in delivering better
of gust fronts and the properties of a for worldwide meteorologists and forecasters, warnings of severe storms. The next step is
developing downburst. Figure 4a shows the requiring further development of advanced a network of long-range scanning lidars for
lifted surface air and the detached outflow numerical models and observation methods surveillance over areas of interest such
ahead of the severe storm approaching from to improve the timeliness and accuracy of as big cities, small regions or hotspots
the right. The backscatter profile enables the forecasts, and the capabilities of operational where severe storms endanger human
location of the cloud layer at 1.5km (strong decisions guidance and warning systems. lives and infrastructure. z
backscatter) and the area with precipitation at Over the past decade, new lidar technology
the right (low backscatter). Complex has become increasingly widely implemented Dr Ludovic Thobois, scientific manager for Meteorology
interactions between a newly formed and for meteorological research, and lidar data & Aviation Weather, Leosphere, France, and Joshua
decaying gust front leading to a merger were assimilation has shown (e.g Kawabata et al. Soderholm, PhD candidate at the Climate Research
observed over four minutes (Figures 4b, 4c 2014) to be a valuable technique for improved Group, University of Queensland, Australia

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X-band radars
by Gaël Bruté de Rémur
BACK ON THE MAP

X-band radar design for
quantitative precipitation
estimation
There is resurgent interest in X-band radars for hydrometeorology
egacy weather radars in operation sole technology that enables correction for
L for national weather agencies are
mainly S-band and C-band radars.
attenuation by rain, and then QPE with
X-band radars.
Their main advantages are a long range rain • Effective range. Although X band waves
detection due to large antenna offering high have excellent reflectivity in rain, it
gain, a powerful transmitter and, thanks to strongly attenuates the signal. Therefore the
a dual-polarization technique, a major effective range is decreased in heavy rain.
improvement in quantitative precipitation The sensitivity of radar is expressed in dBZ
estimation (QPE). For a long time, using at a reference distance. It is the minimum
X-band frequency radars had not been an reflectivity detected by the radar. This
option, due to strong signal attenuation in value assumes that there is no signal loss
the presence of rain, which can lead to due to rain between the radar and the
signal extinction and loss of range. target range, which is obviously not the
However, X-band is the most appropriate case in adverse weather. For example an
band for the detection and measurement of X-band radar under radome can suffer
rain: reflectivity of the rain is a function of 10dB losses because of rain falling on the
1/λ 4 (where λ is the transmit wavelength). radome, and 25dB over a 50km range due
Thus, the higher the frequency, the higher to rain attenuation. As a result, the claimed
the signal to clutter ratio as the clutter sensitivity of an X-band radar can
reflectivity does not vary much with deteriorate by 35dB in rain. Sufficient
frequency. A higher frequency also means margin should be taken to ensure that light
better antenna gain and smaller beamwidth rain can still be detected at long range
for the same antenna size, which also despite heavy rain around the radar.
benefits rain detection. Furthermore, even if •Beamwidth. Some X-band radars offer
S-band and C-band radars claim a very long excellent range resolution around 100m,
range, the latter are not effective for accurate HYDRIX II, the new generation of NOVIMET radar which leads the user to expect a very high-
QPE but only for detection. Beyond resolution map. However, very small
60-80km, due to the curvature of Earth, X-band radars with sub-meter dish offer
the radar beam intercepts the targeted radars had been excluded from the radars beamwidth around 4°, which corresponds
precipitation at altitudes too high to make eligible for measuring rain quantities. The to a cross resolution of 3.5km at 50km.
the measurement representative of the main reason is that attenuation by rain (and Considering the azimuth beamwidth, the
precipitation at ground level. hail) increases with frequency band, so that rain echo will look like what old radar
So if precipitation measurement is X-band is more subject to this effect than engineers call a banana echo due to its
limited to 60-80km whatever the frequency C-band and S-band. As the absolute shape – not exactly the expected high-
of the radar, X-band radars are much calibration error is usually corrected by resolution map. Furthermore, this large
smaller and cheaper than legacy S-band comparison with the rain gauge network, beam in elevation jeopardizes the quality
or C-band radars. That is why they are negative bias induced by rain attenuation of measurement. Knowing that surface
becoming so popular. But to ensure varies spatially and temporally, depending rainfall differs from rain at altitude, the
accurate QPE, how far can these radars be on the rain intensity. However, the rise of measurement should not be done at an
used and miniaturized? dual-polarization technology within the past altitude higher than 1,000m. As a result,
two decades has enabled the consideration the range of such radar for QPE is limited
Required specifications of X-band radars as a candidate for to 15km.
Several issues must be addressed: operational QPE, as its increasing worldwide •Sidelobes. When used in urban or
• QPE capability. For a long time, X-band use shows. Today, dual-polarization is the mountainous areas, ground clutter is still

X-band radars
Radar targeting a rain system. The sample

volume increases with range due to beam
a concern as it causes blind cells. To cope broadening. Its altitude increase is enhanced by further ruggedized to cope with the most
with such difficult areas, the radar should the curvature of the earth, limiting the effective difficult environmental conditions. The
be carefully designed and manufactured to range beyond 80km (Photo: Wikipedia) radar sensor is hermetically sealed to avoid
ensure very low sidelobes. Without this any entry of dust, insects or salt fog, and
precaution, the radar can be a marvelous air conditioning enables operation in a
ground clutter measuring tool. Sidelobes beamwidth of around 1.5° offers an angular wide temperature range.
below -28dB should be mandatory. resolution of 1.5km at 60km, compatible Measuring rain accurately requires more
with standard map resolution (1km x 1km). than a good sensor. A sophisticated
The radar that fulfills the needs Waveform data enables the generation of algorithm able to estimate the reflectivity
Based on more than 20 years of cloud and maps at high resolutions such as 500m x attenuation and the size and distribution of
rain scientific studies, NOVIMET has 500m or even 150 x 150m. Radar range the raindrops is mandatory. NOVIMET has
designed radar suitable for high resolution resolution can be adapted by transmitting designed a software able to classify the
and high precision QPE. shorter pulses, but the angular resolution precipitation type (rain, snow and hail),
The HYDRIX radar looks quite different will remain the same. and perform accurate rainfall estimation,
from other X-band radars. Its size and In addition, its specific offset antenna based on the results of the patented work
transmitted power are quite large in the architecture offers sidelobes below -30dB, done by the French National Centre for
family of X-band radars. The antenna dish reducing the ground clutter effect to the Scientific Research (CNRS) in 2000.
diameter is larger than 1.5m and the minimum. The pedestal and antenna are Estimates of the precipitation given by
transmit peak power is more than 70kW. rugged and sealed, and can therefore be this software have been compared with
This design copes with strong rain operated without a radome. Loss of the those of existing algorithms and actual
attenuation and enables accurate QPE to a radome, depending on the water film from measurements given by a network of rain
60km range and rain detection to 150km local rainfall, is thus avoided. The latest gauges. The algorithm has demonstrated
range. Thanks to the size of the dish, the generation of NOVIMET radar has been accurate estimation for different kinds of
“Measuring rain accurately requires more than a good

sensor. A sophisticated algorithm able to estimate the
reflectivity attenuation and the size and distribution of
the raindrops is mandatory”

X-band radars
The Mont Vial site on the southeast French Mediterranean coast, at 1,550m. The radar (on the left-hand tower) operates from a telecom station and monitors flood
hazards threatening Nice, down the Var river (on the right-hand side of the photo)
rain – at least twice as good as reference maps with cloud motion vectors, virtual In summary
algorithms. There are joint papers rain gauges and rainfall-runoff models of Recent progress to measure the rain
published by NOVIMET and Météo France various rivers at risk. attenuation has put X-band radars back on
on this subject. Therefore it is suitable for The platform provides a one- to two- stage. Compact, easy to install and maintain,
applications needing high resolution and hour advance prediction of rain intensity they seem to be the perfect tool for hydro-
high accuracy, such as rural hydrology or rain accumulation, enabling users to meteorology, first as a gap filler and for
(flash floods), urban hydrology (waste water prepare and take appropriate measures specific use, and maybe later to replace
network) and agriculture. such as road closures, deployment of rescue legacy S-band and C-band radars. However,
teams at the appropriate locations, public such radars need to be carefully designed
Mont Vial’s operating radar warnings, evacuation, and so on. and users should not focus only on price
The first site has been in operation for more Over its eight years of operation, the and size, but also on the actual performance
than eight years on the Riviera coast in the system has demonstrated its ability to according to their needs. A properly
south east of France. The radar has been measure and nowcast precipitation as well designed X-band radar has proved to
installed on Mont Vial, a mountain 20km as river water flow. The users are satisfied be effective for rainfall measurement,
north of Nice, covering the Maritime Alps and the system meets their expectations. dangerous events management and the
area and the Mediterranean coast. A web This radar, mainly used for local feeding of hydrological models. z
oriented platform offers various services application, will now be integrated into the
based on the rain maps provided by the Météo France radar network, contributing Gaël Bruté de Rémur is VP of marketing and sales at
radar – present, past and predicted rain to the national precipitation map. NOVIMET, France

Combitech, with 1400 employees, is a company in the Saab-group. Combitech has more than
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Road visibility
by Eric Dixon and Lesley Marangola
IMAGE ANALYSIS
Advances in automated
road weather intelligence
New smart sensing and analytics technology delivers real-time
visibility change notifications, data and visualization
nclement weather is the cause of
I millions of accidents around the
globe, resulting in hundreds of
thousands of injuries and deaths, as well as
economic effects.
In Europe the key weather-induced
losses from infrastructure destruction,
transport logistics efficiency reduction, time
loss and accident damage exceed US$15m.
In the USA the figure exceeds US$40m.
Poor visibility is a major contributor to
accidents around the world and one of the
key factors is fog.
Fog produces a reduction in visibility
because light is diffused by the water
droplets in the air. When fog is present,
most people drive more slowly, yet also keep
closer to the vehicle ahead. In addition the
driver’s field of vision decreases in foggy
conditions. The net result of these variables
combined increases the risk of crashes.
Supporting data is overwhelming.
European research found that 30% of
pedestrian casualties had difficulty
seeing the vehicle that struck them, while
40% of drivers had difficulty seeing the
pedestrian. In the state of Victoria, Addressing poor visibility vehicle is becoming the newest connected
Australia, poor visibility was a factor in A key requirement for creating solutions to device. For cars, the operating system of the
65% of crashes between cars and motorized help address the impacts above is to improve vehicle delivers information for applications
two-wheelers, and the sole cause in 21% the ability of the weather community to ranging from assisting the driver with
of them. Research completed in the UK predict and report changing and poor optimizing fuel efficiency to providing
concluded that despite the decreased volume visibility. Traditional sources of weather insurance companies with information
of traffic in dense fog (estimated at 20%), data include radar and fixed observation to pro-rate policies based on driver
there was an increase of 16% in personal sources at airports and on roads. actions such as acceleration and braking
injury crashes. A study in Florida concluded When combined, forecasts generate a speed. Trucking companies are able to
that crashes occurring in the presence of fog good starting point. Yet a critical element for streamline routing to improve cost and
or smoke result in more severe injuries and success is to increase the volume of ground efficiency as well.
involve more vehicles. The consequences of datapoints, which in turn improves the These activities essentially create a
these incidents extend from injury and accuracy of forecasts and reports. Emerging mobile network of new datapoints for use
death to road and infrastructure damage, technology is equipping both cars and by the weather community, to assist in
resulting in reduced efficiencies and freight transport vehicles with sensors. With improving modeling and forecasting with
increased costs. the onset of the internet of things, the more ground datapoints than ever on

Road visibility
Once this ground-level work has been

completed, the algorithm learns image
regions, developing intelligence over time,
to discern between baseline content and
true changes due to visibility. Based on
standards used by the weather community,
visibility change thresholds are set. Image
analytics assess scene content to determine
when the delta has crossed a threshold,
therefore providing data that visibility has
increased, decreased or remains the same.
This data is then used as an input to logic
that determines when to provide a
Figure 1: Images from the same camera, taken one day apart notification of significant visibility change,
or poor visibility.

variables such as humidity, dew point and Analytics in action
temperature. The new challenge lies in As weather fronts move through local
ensuring the acquisition, aggregation and regions, radar tracking is a commonly
integrated analysis of this data. used tool. There is some correlation
To assist with overcoming this challenge, between atmospheric radar and what is
Harris Corporation has invested in new actually occurring on the ground, yet
technology that merges over 45 years of this relationship is not predictable or
domain expertise in both weather repeatedly accurate.
instruments and image analytics developed By applying advanced analytics to
for government applications to deliver image frames from video cameras on
Helios, a real-time road weather intelligence ground roadways, Helios provides
platform. The platform aggregates disparate automated notifications when visibility
groups of cameras, providing access to an Figure 2: An overlay of the images in Figure 1, changes, pinpointing the exact location
integrated network of >25,000 cameras in showing the extreme differences between the of poor visibility. In Figure 3, screenshots
the USA, the UK and Canada. two scenes show this progression as a storm front
By applying proprietary image analytics moves through Indianapolis, Indiana,
to this aggregated camera network, the traffic patterns. This makes temporal USA. As visibility decreases to a large
platform automatically detects ground comparisons difficult. Figures 1 and 2 show degree, the icons, associated with specific
visibility changes and provides notifications. how a slight shift in pointing direction camera locations, change from gray to blue.
For some, the best way to use this data is to introduces considerable differences from The Helios platform also enables the
pull it into existing weather platforms via an frame to frame. Figure 1 shows two image visualization of actual conditions associated
application programming interface (API). frames taken from the same camera, one day with these analytics. Figure 4 shows how a
For others, leveraging the capabilities via a apart. In Figure 2, the color fringes indicate series of frames from the same camera
web user interface (UI) is preferred. Either the misregistration. would be displayed. Below each image frame
scenario is available to optimize the toolset With proprietary technology, Harris are not only the location, date and time, but
on hand. performs edge detection and aligns the also the icon indicating whether the
edges to appropriately register the images. visibility has noticeably changed. This
Behind the scenes on visibility This is critical, as it ensures that when example is included to validate that the
analytics analytics are applied, the process is focused algorithm delivers notification that is
To provide visibility analytics, the algorithm on just the road, rather than a mix of other triggered when there is truly significant
computes across a sequence of images from types of scene content, so that algorithms visibility change.
a single camera. To do so effectively, the may deliver accurate results. The algorithm
image frames must first be assessed and may be used on cameras that change Beyond analytics
processed. As many of the cameras being position frequently, without knowledge of The technology platform also provides a
analyzed are monitoring traffic, there are a camera exposure or camera geometry. toolset that registers camera locations to a
number of variables that must be taken into Another occasional situation is when map and enables the overlay of any other
account. As Helios integrates many disparate cameras are taken offline for maintenance or input sources, such as radar, lightning data,
groups of cameras, they may have differing if there is a malfunction. In these instances, satellite imagery and weather watches,
characteristics, including resolution and valid data is not delivered. Harris warnings and advisories. This enables
refresh rate. technology enables automated detection of real-time validation and tracking of actual
In addition, some cameras may shift the invalid images and discards them from ground conditions in areas of interest, in the
position throughout the day to adjust to the process. proper context. For example, there may be a

Road visibility
winter storm warning in effect for a local

region. In this case the toolset could be used Figure 3: Helios automated visibility analytics show where visibility has deteriorated as a storm front
by the weather community to monitor roads advances through Indianapolis, Indiana
to assess safety for travelers, based on actual
visible ground conditions. Figure 5 depicts
an example of this scenario. The top frame
shows local radar registered to a map. Local
cameras are marked and shown below, so
that locations may be correlated to the map.
In this case, note that camera A, at the top
edge of the map, is clear, while camera B
shows considerable snow coverage and poor
visibility. Additional capabilities available
via API and UI include the ability to perform
advanced search and discovery based on Figure 4: Multiple frames from the same camera illustrate an example of the actual visual conditions that
location, time, metadata, text and geospatial constitute a large enough visibility change to trigger the icon to change
criteria, giving the flexibility to optimize
based on the situation being assessed. The
platform also offers the option to set up a
recording for a particular camera. For
instance there may be interest in monitoring
trends for a particular region, to determine
when rainfall begins and how long it takes
for visibility to degrade noticeably.
Moving forward
Efforts are underway on a series of
additional analytics that address other key
road weather challenges related to road
surface conditions and changes. Additional
technology has created a new type of highly
accurate data as well. This new analytics
data, combined with real-time ground truth
visualization, will help improve the
accuracy of existing weather modeling
and forecasting systems and tools.
The challenge to improve ground data
volume and accuracy remains one with
which many in the weather community
are concerned. Continued hardware and
software innovation will deliver results that
will enable better, more accurate forecasts,
to reduce costs, improve efficiencies and
lessen injuries and loss of life caused by
poor visibility on the road. z
Eric Dixon is product architect and Lesley

Marangola is senior product marketing manager
Figure 5: A depiction of visualization of actual ground conditions, correlated on the map to a regional
of environmental solutions at Harris Corporation, winter storm warning
based in the USA

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Aircraft data
by Neil A Jacobs and Jeffrey E Rex
PLANE
OBSERVATIONS
Improved weather prediction
through high-resolution
aircraft data
In early 2013 Panasonic Avionics Corporation acquired a unique and
proprietary combination of airborne weather sensing technology, data
assimilation and optimization techniques, and high-resolution modeling
capabilities. Panasonic Weather Solutions (PWS) was born
anasonic Weather Solutions (PWS)
P collects weather observations via a
multifunction in situ atmospheric
sensor called the Tropospheric Airborne
Meteorological Data Reporting (TAMDAR)
sensor. It is installed on commercial aircraft
and generates observations containing
measurements of humidity, pressure,
temperature, winds aloft, icing and
turbulence, along with the corresponding
location, time and altitude from built-in
GPS. The data is relayed via satellite in real
time to a ground-based network operations
center. A crucial component of NextGen and
SESAR initiatives is the integration of more
accurate observation platforms such as
TAMDAR as paradigms shift to more
probabilistic approaches. The network of
TAMDAR sensors and associated
Figure 1: The TAMDAR probe mounted on an Embraer ERJ-195 aircraft
technologies meets the future integration
enhancements and operational needs of
NextGen Weather Concept of Operations been reached with a large Southeast Asian Engineering development background
(CONOPS) and is operational today. airline. PWS has made the TAMDAR sensor In response to a US government aviation
The TAMDAR sensor was originally an integral part of a larger overall air safety initiative in the early 2000s, NASA, in
deployed in December 2004 on a fleet of 63 transport satellite communications solution partnership with the FAA and NOAA,
Saab SF340 aircraft operated by Mesaba called FlightLink, which leverages the global sponsored the early development and
Airlines in the Great Lakes region of the Iridium satellite network. evaluation of a proprietary multifunction in
USA as a part of the NASA-sponsored Great The system can be installed on fixed- situ atmospheric sensor for aircraft. The
Lakes Fleet Experiment (GLFE). Over the wing airframes ranging from small, predecessor to PWS was formed to develop
past 11 years, equipage of the sensors has unmanned aerial systems (UAS) to long- and deploy the TAMDAR system based on
expanded beyond the contiguous USA range wide-bodies such as the Boeing 777 requirements provided by the Global
(CONUS) to include Alaska, the Caribbean, and Airbus A380. Following completion of Systems Division (GSD) of NOAA, the FAA,
Mexico, Central America, Europe and Asia. the 2015 installations, more than 6,000 and the WMO.
Airlines flying the system include Icelandair, daily soundings will be taken in North Once installed on aircraft, TAMDAR
Horizon (Alaska Air Group), Chautauqua America, Europe and Asia at more than 400 sensors continuously transmit atmospheric
(Republic Airways), Piedmont (American locations.1 Emphasis has been placed on observations via a global satellite network in
Airlines), AeroMéxico, Ravn Alaska, equipping regional carriers as these flights real time as the aircraft climbs, cruises and
Hageland, PenAir, Silver Airways and Flybe, tend to fly into more remote and diverse descends. The climb and descent phases
as well as a few research aircraft including locations and be of shorter duration, thereby essentially create a high-resolution vertical
the UK Met Office BAe-146 FAAM aircraft. producing more daily vertical profiles while profile of the atmosphere. The TAMDAR
Recently an installation agreement has also remaining in the boundary layer for longer. sensor (pictured on an Embraer ERJ-195 in

Aircraft data
Figure 1) offers a broad range of airborne better geographic coverage and a more Turbulence observations
meteorological data collection capabilities, complete data set than sent over the The TAMDAR sensor provides objective
as well as icing and turbulence data that is Aircraft Communication Addressing and high-resolution eddy dissipation rate (EDR)
critical to both aviation safety and Reporting System (ACARS), which lacks RH, turbulence observations. This data is
operational efficiency. icing and turbulence. collected for both median and peak
In addition to atmospheric data Current upper-air observing systems are turbulence measurements and can be sorted
collection, the customizable system can also also subject to high latency based on on a much finer (seven-point) scale than
provide continuous aircraft tracking enabled obsolete communication networks and PIREPs, which simply use light, moderate or
by an autonomous internal GPS; a global quality assurance protocols. TAMDAR severe. The EDR turbulence algorithm is
satellite link for data, text and voice observations are typically received, aircraft-configuration and flight-condition
communication; real-time TAMDAR- processed, quality controlled and available independent, so it does not depend on the
augmented forecast products; mapping of for distribution or model assimilation in less type of plane or the load and flight capacity.
icing, turbulence and winds aloft; and the than a minute from the sampling time. The This high-density, real-time in situ
ability to integrate satellite communications sensor requires no flight crew involvement; turbulence data can be used to alter flight
with electronic flight bags (EFBs) for it operates automatically, and sampling rates arrival and departure routes. It can also be
potential display of weather on the flight and calibration constants can be adjusted by assimilated into models to improve
deck. Depending on the graphical demands remote command from the US-based predictions of threatening turbulence
of the weather products to be displayed on operations center. conditions, as well as being used as a
an EFB or tablet onboard the aircraft, verification tool for longer-range
different bandwidth options for the Icing observations NWP-based turbulence forecasts. As
communications system can be used – the TAMDAR icing data provides the first high- with the icing observations, the potential
low bandwidth but truly global option of the volume, objective icing data available to the use of this data in air traffic control
Iridium-based FlightLink system, or the airline industry. Ice reporting is currently decision making for avoidance and
broadband connectivity of the Ku-based performed via pilot reports (PIREPs), but mitigation of severe turbulence encounters
Global Communications System. though helpful, these subjective reports do is extremely important.
TAMDAR observations not only include not provide the accuracy and density
temperature, pressure, winds aloft, and required to effectively manage increasing Weather observations and airline
relative humidity (RH), but also icing and demands on finite airspace. High-density, operational support
turbulence. Additionally, each observation real-time TAMDAR icing reports fill this Figure 2 shows aircraft in the vicinity of
includes GPS-derived horizontal and information void, creating a much more New York City and their TAMDAR
vertical (altitude) coordinates, as well as a accurate spatial and temporal distribution observations. Selecting a flight on the
time stamp to the nearest second. With a of icing hazards, as well as real-time application produces a ‘call out’ of the most
continuous stream of observations, observations of where icing is not occurring. recent observations. The flight shown is
TAMDAR provides much higher spatial The icing data can be viewed in raw currently reporting no icing or turbulence at
and temporal resolution than the observation form or it can be used to a pressure altitude of 11,220ft and GPS
radiosonde (RAOB) network, as well as improve icing potential model forecasts. altitude of 11,920ft. The relative humidity is
100%, the temperature is 5.0°C, the wind
speed 22kts at 261° and the ground speed is
252kts. Other TAMDAR-equipped aircraft
can be seen lined up on the taxiway at
LaGuardia Airport, while approach and
take-off patterns are visible for both
LaGuardia and JFK.
The FlightLink system, including the
TAMDAR sensor, combines with the satellite
communications network, data center,
quality filtering algorithms and atmospheric
modeling to provide unique operational
benefits for airlines. Some of these benefits
include real-time global tracking and
reporting of aircraft position, real-time
delivery of aircraft systems monitoring
data, airline operational data, system-
generated information such as automated
out-off-on-in (OOOI) times and flight deck
voice communications.
The FlightLink installation includes a
multifunction antenna, which can be used
for receiving cockpit weather display
information, as well as transmitting and
receiving text messages, email, aircraft data
Figure 2: Example of a TAMDAR point observation from a flight departing LaGuardia. Other aircraft can be
and satellite voice communication between
seen on the taxiway, and approaches to LaGuardia and JFK are also visible the ground and the aircraft. Since the
satellite communication link is Iridium

Aircraft data
Figure 3: Eleven
consecutive forecast
cycles beginning
72 hours prior to
the event showing
predicted reflectivity
for 18Z on April 16,
2011. The actual radar
imagery of the event
is shown in the lower
right panel
based, the coverage is global and seamlessly study that was concluded in January 2009. 3D-Var configuration.13,14 Using the same
functional for any location and altitude, with The study was conducted by NOAA-GSD 30-day running mean verification statistics as
a sub-60 second latency. The independence under an FAA contract to ascertain the employed by NOAA, the TAMDAR impact
of the TAMDAR sensor from other aircraft potential benefits of including TAMDAR data using FDDA/4D-Var resulted in a reduction
systems offers additional layers of in the 3D-Var Rapid Update Cycle (RUC) in humidity forecast error of 74%, a reduction
redundancy as well as carrier-defined data model, which at that time was the operational in temperature forecast error of 58% and a
stream flexibility. aviation-centric model run by NCEP. Two reduction in wind forecast error of 63%.
parallel versions of the model were run, with To put this type of statistical improvement
Forecast models and validation the control withholding the TAMDAR data. into an operational forecast perspective,
Numerous third-party studies have been The results of this study concluded that major successive forecast run output is presented in
conducted by NOAA-GSD, NCAR and gains in forecast skill were achieved with the Figure 3. This convective frontal event
various universities and government agencies inclusion of the data, despite using 3D-Var produced a record number of tornadic cells
to verify the accuracy of TAMDAR data assimilation methods.5,8,11,12 The reduction in over southeast USA on April 16, 2011.
against that of weather balloons and aircraft 30-day running RMS error, averaged When using a forecast model as a
test instrumentation, as well as quantifying throughout the CONUS domain within the decision-making tool, the two most
TAMDAR-related effects on NWP.5,6,7,8,9 boundary layer for model state variables, was important aspects are consistency and
Ongoing data denial experiments show up to 50% reduction in RH error, 35% accuracy. In Figure 3 there are 11 consecutive
that the inclusion of TAMDAR data can reduction in temperature error and 15% forecast cycles, which all show predicted
greatly improve forecast model accuracy, with reduction in wind error. reflectivity for 18Z on April 16. The forecasts
the greatest gains realized during more This study was conducted using a 3D-Var begin 72 hours prior to the event, and each
dynamic and severe weather events.6 model on a 13km horizontal grid. Likewise, successive cycle (i.e., 66 hours, 60 hours, etc),
Upper-air observations are the single most the nature of the 30-day mean statistics valid at the same time, is shown up to the
important data set driving a forecast model. dilutes the actual impact provided by 12-hour forecast. The bottom right image is
Fine-scale regional forecast accuracy is TAMDAR’s higher-resolution data during the actual radar imagery of the event. From a
completely dependent on a skillful critical weather events. The forecast skill consistency perspective, the space-time
representation of the mid and upper-level gain during dynamic events is typically propagation, as well as the intensity, change
atmospheric flow, moisture and wave much greater than expressed in a CONUS- very little from run to run. From an accuracy
patterns. If these features are properly wide monthly average. In other words, the perspective, the model does very well
analyzed during model initialization, then an increase in model accuracy is greatest during resolving the frontal boundary and storm cell
accurate forecast will ensue. dynamic weather events where air traffic intensity, while the timing and position are
TAMDAR data has been shown to impacts are greatest. nearly perfect almost 60 hours prior to
increase forecast accuracy over the USA by The PWS RT-FDDA-WRF forecast runs on the event.
30-50% for a monthly average, even for a North America domain with 4km grid Forecast skill, like the example presented
3D-Var (GSI) models.9 For specific dynamic spacing and can include multiple nested 1km above, is made possible by having an
weather events, it is not uncommon to see domains. A four-year collaborative study with asynoptic in situ observing system like
an improvement in skill more than double NCAR using the same data as in the studies TAMDAR that streams continuous real-time
this value. referenced above has shown that the observations to a forecast model
FDDA/4D-Var assimilation methodology can (deterministic or probabilistic) that has
FAA validation summary nearly double the improvement in forecast the ability to assimilate asynoptic data in
The FAA funded a four-year TAMDAR impact skill over an identical model running a four dimensions.

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Aircraft data
Figure 4: A diagram of
the potential interface
options for the
installation of the
FlightLink satellite
communications and
TAMDAR weather
sensing system on
commercial aircraft
Skew-T profiles customizable communication solutions: Zhang and P Childs, 2012. Estimation of TAMDAR
The TAMDAR sensors are currently set to moisture observations; better spatial and Observational Error and Assimilation Experiments.
sample at 300ft intervals on ascent and temporal sampling; real-time (15-second Wea. Forecasting, 27, 856-877
descent. This resolution can be adjusted in versus two-hour latency); new safety-critical 7) N Jacobs, P Childs, M Croke, Y Liu, and X Y Huang,
real time to whatever is desired. The satellite data metrics not captured by RAOBs or 2009: The Optimization Between TAMDAR Data
connection to the sensor is a two-way otherwise available to the airspace Assimilation Methods and Model Configuration in
connection, so sampling rates; over 100 regulation authorities, including icing and WRF-ARW, IOAS-AOLS, AMS, Phoenix, AZ
calibration constants, variables and turbulence (measured by objective ICAO 8) W R Moninger, S G Benjamin, B D Jamison, T W
parameters; and reporting frequencies can standard EDR); independent GPS stamp Schlatter, T L Smith, and E J Szoke, 2009: TAMDAR
all be changed remotely from a ground- on each observation including latitude, jet fleets and their impact on Rapid Update Cycle
based location. The sampling rate in cruise longitude, altitude, date and time; and (RUC) forecasts, IOAS-AOLS, AMS, Phoenix, AZ
is time based. The soundings, or vertical additional winds aloft and temperature 9) W R Moninger, S G Benjamin, B D Jamison, T W
profiles, are built as each observation is data, which have been shown to improve Schlatter, T L Smith, E J Szoke, 2010: Evaluation of
received. All the profile-based variable situational awareness, forecast accuracy and Regional Aircraft Observations Using TAMDAR. Wea.
calculations (CAPE, CIN, etc) are calculated continuous descent approaches. z Forecasting, 25, 627-645
when the plane enters cruise or touches 10) X Huang, Q Xiao, D M Barker, X Zhang, J
down. When an airport is selected, Neil A Jacobs is chief atmospheric scientist at Michalakes, W Huang, T Henderson, J Bray, Y Chen, Z
successive soundings can be displayed Panasonic Weather Solutions. Jeffrey E Rex is director, Ma, J Dudhia, Y Guo, X Zhang, D Won, H Lin, Y Kuo,
within a certain time window. This enables engineering & business development, at Panasonic 2009: Four-dimensional variational data assimilation
the user to view the evolution of the profile. Weather Solutions for WRF: Formulation and preliminary results. Mon.
Wea. Rev., 137, 299-314
Summary References 11) S G Benjamin, W R Moninger, B D Jamison and S
Lower and middle-tropospheric 1) N A Jacobs, P Childs, M Croke, Y Liu, and X Y R Sahm, 2009: Relative short-range forecast impact in
observations are disproportionately sparse, Huang, 2010: An Update on the TAMDAR Sensor summer and winter from aircraft, profiler, rawinsonde,
both temporally and geographically, when Network Deployment, IOAS-AOLS, AMS, Atlanta, GA VAD, GPS-PW, METAR and mesonet observations for
compared with surface observations. The 2) C G Souders, and R C Showalter, 2006: Revolutionary hourly assimilation into the RUC, IOAS-AOLS, AMS,
limited density of observations is likely one transformation to Next Generation Air Transportation Phoenix, AZ
of the largest constraints in weather research System and impacts to Federal Aviation Administration’s 12) E J Szoke, S G Benjamin, R S Collander, B D
and forecasting. The increasingly global weather architecture, ARAM, AMS, 2.5 Jamison, W R Moninger, T W Schlatter, B Schwartz,
coverage provided by the TAMDAR system 3) Joint Planning and Development Office (JPDO) and T L Smith, 2008: Effect of TAMDAR on RUC
is changing this. Since December 2004 the Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) short-term forecasts of aviation-impact fields for
TAMDAR system has been certified, Weather Plan, Version 2.0, October 29, 2010 ceiling, visibility, reflectivity, and precipitation, ARAM,
operational and archiving observations from 4) Federal Aviation Administration National Airspace AMS, New Orleans, LA
commercial aircraft. This real-time data is System Capital Investment Plan (CIP) for Fiscal Years 13) P Childs, N A Jacobs, M Croke, Y Liu, W Wu, G
available for operational forecasting both in 2013-2017 Roux and M Ge, 2010: An Introduction to the NCAR-
forecast models and in raw sounding format 5) S G Benjamin, B D Jamison, W R Moninger, S R AirDat Operational TAMDAR-Enhanced RTFDDA-
that includes the additional metrics of icing Sahm, B E Schwartz, T W Schlatter, 2010: Relative WRF, IOAS-AOLS, AMS, Atlanta, GA
and turbulence. A FlightLink system Short-Range Forecast Impact from Aircraft, Profiler, 14) Y Liu, T Warner, S Swerdlin, W Yu, N Jacobs, and
overview, including the TAMDAR sensor Radiosonde, VAD, GPS-PW, METAR, and Mesonet M Anderson, 2007: Assimilation data from diverse
and additional data management Observations via the RUC Hourly Assimilation Cycle. sources for mesoscale NWP: TAMDAR-data impact.
capabilities, is shown in Figure 4 and Mon. Wea. Rev., 138, 1319-1343 Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol. 9,
provides the following along with 6) F Gao, X Y Zhang, N A Jacobs, X-Y Huang, X EGU2007-A-03109

The InTernaTIonal revIew of weaTher, ClImaTe, and hydrology TeChnologIes and servICes THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND HYDROLOGY TECHNOLOGIES AND SERVICES THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND HYDROLOGY TECHNOLOGIES AND SERVICES
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Meteorological
AUGUST 2012
T e c h n o l o g y i n t e r n a t i o n a l T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N A T I O N A L T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N A T I O N A L
HIGH AND
Technology international
SOLAR
MIGHTY
an exclusive look up the Zotino tall tower
POWER
As space weather activity gathers
observatory in Siberia pace, NASA forecasters get busy
SePteMBer 2011
AUGUST 2012
MAY 2012
CLEAR BUT
PRESENT
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The latest Earth observation satellite
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provides ultra-high-resolution images to
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PUBliSHeD BY UKiP MeDia & eVentS ltD
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predict potential weather catastrophe

Th
HIGH TIDE GOING DOWN TALKING SUPPORT

the British Met office has set up its first
dedicated operational Flood Forecasting Centre
Severe weather parachute-borne TORNADOES NETWORK
dropsondes are on the up following a Storm chaser High-precision road
ATC upGrADE major new upgrade initiative extraordinaire Josh weather forecasting using
the Belgian air traffic Control agency Wurman debates the models and observation
has modernized its communication and AIRPORT VIEW latest tornado research: goes worldwide
data processing systems KNMI looks at the challenges of automated ROTATE 2012
observations at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol
THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND HYDROLOGY TECHNOLOGIES AND SERVICES THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND HYDROLOGY TECHNOLOGIES AND SERVICES
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Meteorological
T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N A T I O N A L T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N A T I O N A L T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N A T I O N A L
HEAVENLY
NEW WAVE OF
Fu hn rev 15
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BODIES
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TH
TECHNOLOGY
eo W sid HI
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lo
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Satellite prediction
al po
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technology comes of age: The 2011 Japanese
read all about GOES-R, earthquake and
TO
polar orbiting, JPSS, tsunami has forced
R
S!
S-NPP and FY-3
organizations around
the Pacific Rim to
develop accurate
prediction methods
AUGUST 2013
APRIL 2014
APRIL 2013
PERFECT 10
EUMETSAT’s Metop-B is Europe’s first weather forecasting polar

satellite that can predict systems up to 10 days ahead
AIRCRAFT AS RIGHT TO
AIR ROOF OF KNOWING REACH FOR
SENSORS THE POINT
QUALITY AFRICA SNOW THE PEAK
Enhanced ATC David Grimes, WMO
Modeling of air Tracking mountain How ultra-high-speed Prediction models can
surveillance can extract president, on his big
pollutants can have climate change using cameras are used to reveal how much the
weather information vision and the forward
a huge impact on automatic weather study flake formation Himalayas can affect
directly from aircraft thinking behind it
local populations station installations and how snow falls atmospheric processes
THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF WEATHER, CLIMATE AND HYDROLOGY TECHNOLOGIES AND SERVICES THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF WEATHER, CLIMATE AND HYDROLOGY TECHNOLOGIES AND SERVICES
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T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N A T I O N A L T E C H N O L O G Y I N T E R N A T I O N A L
THE MO
ST
SPACE WEATHER
IMP
EXHIB ORTANT
ITIO
INDUS N THIS
TRY HA
SPECIAL!
EV ER SEE S
FULL ME N?
TECHN TEOROLO
EXPO OL OGY WOGICAL
PREVIEW RLD
MORE INSIDE
Exclusive interview with the UK Met Office Space TH
EXHIB AN 150
Weather Centre, plus the inside story on NOAA’s ITORS!

new GOES-R satellite that will help redefine both
Earth and space weather prediction
AUGUST 2014
APRIL 2015
WIND DIRECTION
How the revolutionary adaptation of sodar and

SEPTEMBER 2015
lidar are meeting the demands of taller turbines
ROYAL PUBLIC EYE

BRITISH AVIATION NAVY NOAA develops
ANTARCTIC SAFETY:
An expert team new educational
SURVEY CIRA
The meteorological Multisource aviation- provides full weather tool to make
capabilities and work critical weather operational support on environmental science
of the BAS explained information system board HMS Illustrious more accessible
PLUS:
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EXHIBI MOST IMPO
SOLAR IMPULSE 2
TION RTAN
Meteorological Technology International is the HAS EVTHE INDUST T

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The meteorological specialists at Si2’s Mission Control Center in PREVIEY WORLD

world’s first and only publication that is dedicated Monaco predict the best possible conditions for the world’s first MORE W INSI
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around-the-world solar flight TORS!
to the latest developments in climate, weather and

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Key technologies for
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The lowdown on
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Read online now at: and lower costs Science laboratories
www.ukipme.com/mti
Metrology systems
by James Zog
ALL ROUNDER
Customized metrology systems
for automatic weather stations
To guarantee that all automatic weather station data is accurate and reliable, it is
necessary to conduct measurement and calibration for each station’s many sensors
oglab Microsystem is not only technology information and integrated verification mission management system is
Z a professional manufacturer of
atmospheric and environmental
system control, improving measuring
efficiency and reducing human error.
partly based on the B/S (Browser/Server)
development mode and the automated
instruments, but also a meteorological 3MS systems apply automatic control verification system is partly based on the
metrology systems integrator specialized and information technology to establish a C/S (Client/Server) development mode.
in automatic measurement and calibration meteorological multi-element measuring The automatic verification system
of meteorological elements such as system with high automation, information covers verification systems for
temperature, humidity, pressure, wind technology and standardization in temperature, humidity, pressure, rainfall,
speed and direction, and rainfall. accordance with ISO17025 CNAS wind direction and wind speed. Each
At present more than 100,000 laboratory standards, combined with verification system consists of customized
automatic weather stations are sited in 31 temperature, humidity, pressure, wind and existing devices, wherein the system-
provinces for mission operations in China. speed/direction, rainfall and sensor level design mainly integrates into a
To guarantee that the data from every verification standards and regulations. It standard 32U 19in rack. Key customized
automatic weather station is accurate and is to change the current status, such as hardware device design includes:
reliable, it is necessary to measure and verification project independent operation, temperature verification with 16-channel
calibrate the stations’ many sensors to low efficiency and decentralized analog/digital signal scanning switch and
ensure the accuracy of weather forecast information; and to realize the 16-channel intelligent sensor interface
products. Zoglab began to establish a automation, information technology and unit; humidity verification with
complete set of provincial meteorological standardization for the sensor verification 16-channel analog/digital signal scanning
metrology management systems (3MS) for projects of the automatic weather station, switch and 16-channel intelligent power
the China Meteorological Administration while making the process management of distribution unit; 8-channel pressure
(CMA) in 2009. This system is a highly original data and verification certificates verification analog/digital signal scanning
automated measurement and calibration for the projects possible. The system switch and 8-channel intelligent power
system based on calibration laboratories consists of metrology mission management distribution unit; rainfall verification with
and greatly improved the provincial systems and an automated verification a single-channel analog/digital signal
measurement and calibration level for the system. All verification information shares scanning switch; and various sensors and
CMA in automation, a common database. The metrology connection units, etc.
The meteorology metrology management systems that Zoglab provides to the industry

Metrology systems
According to the verification features,

automated verification software designs
the functions of stable point judgment and
verification point management, etc.
Metrology verification mission

management system
The entire system adopts a hierarchical
and modular design and object-oriented
analysis technology on the basis of
massive database technology.
Developed using Microsoft’s C#
programming language, the application
software and WEB system (website/
internet/Browser system) are highly
compatible with and reliable under
32/64-bit Windows XP, WIN7, WIN8,
etc. The database technology was
also designed based on Microsoft SQL
2005, and reserves interface for
secondary development with other ERP
systems. The above design provides
convenience for system maintenance and
applications expansion. z
James Zog, CTO of Zoglab Microsystem Co. System topology diagram
Meteorology metrology management system

Rain forecasting
by Bunny Richards
ADVANCE WARNING
Chinese scientists claim their weather
predicting algorithm can forecast
heavy rain up to 30 days in advance
A new weather forecasting model developed by Chinese researchers purports to detect
heavy rainstorms weeks before they take place, challenging the ‘butterfly effect’
he accuracy of forecasting heavy
T rain on a 24-hour timescale is
currently about 20% on average. A heavy rain case
occurred in
Improving prediction accuracy is a Chongqing, China, on
challenge in heavy rain prediction July 21, 1996. The
studies, especially at the extended range prediction eigen-peak
scale (10-30 days). Extended range is in segment 11 and
forecasting exceeds the limit of two weeks heavy rain is in 21
proposed by US meteorologist Edward calculated by an NCPE
model based on phase
Lorenz in 1963. space reconstruction,
Recently, a paper describing the efforts so the forecasting
to overcome this, led by Xu Lisheng from validity period is 10
China’s Chengdu University of days (Xia et al. 2015)
Information Technology (CUIT) and Chen
Hongbin from Institute of Atmospheric
Physics (IAP) – Chinese Academy of
Sciences, has been accepted by Advances in received his PhD degree from IAP and days are 4, 22 and 74 cases respectively,
Atmospheric Sciences. currently teaches at CUIT. without error.
“A non-linear cross-prediction error The research team found that, compared The NCPE model enables accurate
(NCPE) model was built in this study. with global features analysis of traditional forecasting of heavy rain over a 10-30 day
Chaotic single-variable time series of chaos methods, the local features analysis period and it can provide new insights into
precipitable water was tested in 100 global is more effective in depicting the dynamic extended range forecasting and atmospheric
cases of heavy rain, based on non-linear change progress of the attractor, and shows predictability. It is also instrumental in the
science analysis methods including chaos, extended-range forecasting characteristics. development of multivariable chaotic
fractals and wavelets,” says Dr Xia Zhiye, a It is also revealed that the prediction extreme weather prediction models based
research team member, who has just periods for 1-2 days, 3-9 days and 10-30 on high spatio-temporal resolution data. z
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Campbell Scientific Inc........................................... 50 LAMBRECHT meteo GmbH.................................... 147 R.M. Young Company.............................................. 95
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Earth Networks – WeatherBug............................... 22 Leosphere ...................................Outside Back Cover Radiometrics Corp................................................. 139
EKO INSTRUMENTS Europe BV............................. 123 LSI-LASTEM Srl....................................................... 85 Raymetrics SA....................................................... 129
ENAV SpA........................................Inside Back Cover Metasensing BV....................................................... 43 REMTECH SA........................................................... 87
Enterprise Electronics Corporation (EEC).............. 77 Metek GmbH.......................................................... 135 Selex ES GmbH........................................................ 69
Eumetsat.................................................................. 95 Meteorage................................................................ 71 Sutron Corporation.................................................. 41
EWR Weather Radar...............................................113 MeteoStar – Sutron’s Weather Solutions Division .41 University Corporation for Atmospheric
Furuno Electric Co Ltd............................................. 87 Meteorological Technology International Online Research (UCAR).................................................. 65
G.Lufft Mess- und Regeltechnik GmbH.................. 55 Reader Inquiry Service.......................... 143, 147, 149 Vaisala Oyj............................................................... 19
Gill Instruments Ltd................................................. 52 Meteorological Technology World Expo 2015 ZOGLAB Microsystem Inc..................................... 123
Harris Corporation................................................... 37 ........................................................................9, 11, 12
ITARS – Marie Curie Network for NOVIMET.................................................................. 49
Atmospheric Remote Sensing.............................. 35 nowcast GmbH.......................................................115

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THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF WEATHER, CLIMATE AND HYDROLOGY TECHNOLOGIES AND SERVICES

Center in Monaco predict the best possible conditions TH

REVEALED: NASA ER-2

32 WIND ENERGY 82 INTERVIEW: ITaRS

38 UK MET OFFICE 88 VOLCANIC ASH SENSORS

ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SEPTEMBER 2015 • 1

108 HAZARD MODELING PROGRAM 132 OBSERVING SYSTEMS

116 RAIN GAUGES 140 ROAD VISIBILITY

120 SOLAR PARKS 152 RAIN FORECASTING

LEARN MORE ABOUT

THE MOST IMPORTAN

SOL ARialists at Si2’s Mission ConthetrolworlCend’sterfirstin

2 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SEPTEMBER 2015

Temperature range -50 °C to +60 °C

The Netherlands • France • United States of America • Singapore

Production editor Alex Bradley

measurement and analysis technology Art Editor Louise Adams,

The views expressed in the articles

4 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SEPTEMBER 2015

■ 14 channels (22 to 31 GHz, 51 to 58 GHz, 183 GHz optional)

FMCW Cloud Radars

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Solar Impulse 2 preparing to land in Hawaii on

6 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SEPTEMBER 2015

The combined efforts of

t’s the final night of Solar Impulse

ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SEPTEMBER 2015 • 7

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8 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SEPTEMBER 2015

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10 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SEPTEMBER 2015

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14 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SEPTEMBER 2015

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16 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SEPTEMBER 2015

maintaining acceptable range resolution.

Solid-state power amplifiers and

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MAY 20, 2013, MOORE, OKLAHOMA:

18 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SEPTEMBER 2015

Visible image of the area selected for the first flight

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uring a volcanic eruption, huge

ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SEPTEMBER 2015 • 21

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ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SEPTEMBER 2015 • 2 3

Fig 1: The hexacopter ESAFLY A2500x

2 4 • ME TEOROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SEPTEMBER 2015

Multi Parameter Logger Solution CTD

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