Topic 1: Cell Biology

Cell Theory
Cell theory: Atypical cells:

Living organisms are composed of cells Striated muscle cell -multiple nuclei

Cells are the smallest unit of life Acetabularia - too big.

Cells come from pre-existing cells Aseptate fungal hyphae - multiple nuclei

Microscopes
Light microscope: use visible light to illuminate specimens and are capable of magnifying up to around 1000 times.

Allowed for the development of the cell theory.

Accumulation of info on cells.

0.1 nm resolution.

Can be used to observe living specimens.

Electron microscope: use a beam of electrons to illuminate and magnify specimens and are capable of much higher magnification, up to around 10 million times.

Higher resolution than light microscopes.

200 nm resolution.

Can be used to observe non living dead specimens.

Magnification: size of drawing / actual size

Microscope resolution: the shortest distance between two separate points in a microscope’s field of view that can still be distinguished as distinct objects.

Unicellular and multicellular organsims

Unicellular organisms: Whole body is made up of only 1 cell (which should carry out all life processes)

(single-celled)

Examples:

1. Paramecium -less then 0.25 mm in size, heterotrophs, cilia.

2. Chlamydomonas - algae, 10 to 30 µm in diameter, flagella, autotrophs.

Multicellular organisms: composed of multiple cells that are specialized for different functions and work together to form a cohesive whole.

(many-celled)

Functions of life
Metabolism → life-supporting chemical reactions

Growth → Increase in size or shape over a period of time

Response → reaction

Homeostasis → maintenance of a constant internal environment by regulating internal cell conditions.

Nutrition → intake of nutrients

Reproduction → production of offspring

Excretion → removal of waste products

Surface area to volume ratio

As a cell grows, its volume increases by the power of 3 (cubed), whereas the surface area increases by the power of 2 (squared).
Therefore, its surface area to volume ratio decreases.

If a cell's surface area is too small compared to its volume, not enough of the necessary molecules can get in and not enough waste can get out.

From one cell to many

Evolutionary steps:

1. Organisms grew larger because they were no longer limited by the size of one cell.

2. Cells were able to specialise through differentiation.

3. Multicellular organisms displayed emergent properties → whole is more than sum of parts.

Specialized cells → different cell types can perform different functions.

Cellular differentiation → When an unspecialised stem cell changes and carries out a specific function in the body.

Stem Cells
→ undifferentiated cell of a multicellular organism that can form more cells of the same type indefinitely, and from which certain other kinds of cells arise by differentiation.

Totipotent - differentiate into any type of cell

Pluripotent - Differentiate into all body cells, but cannot give rise to a whole organism.

Topic 1: Cell Biology 1

 Multipotent - Differentiate into few closely related body cells.

Unipotent- only differentiate into their associated cell type.

Stem cells to treat diseases:

1. Stargardt's disease: loss of central vision, affects area of retina, recessive genetic mutation in gene ABCA4 → photoreceptor cells degenerate because of protein
malfunction.

Retinal cells derived from human embryonic stem cells → Injected into retina.

2. Leukemia: cancer of the blood/bone marrow, abnormal amount of blood cells.

Harvesting hematopoietic stem cells (multipotent) → taken from bone marrow, peripheral blood or umbilical cord blood. → Chemotherapy and radiotherapy →
transplanting HSCs back into the bone marrow to differentiate into healthy white blood cells.

Ethical issues:

Harvesting from embryos → may involve destruction of embryo.

Ultrastructure of cells
Eukaryotic cells: Prokaryotic cells

10 and 100 μm in diameter 0.1 to 5.0 μm in diameter.

membrane enclosed nucleus Free floating DNA in cytoplasm.

Compartmentalisation. no membrane bound organelles.

Prokaryotes
→ Considered earliest and most primitive type of cell.

Bacteria and archaea.

Structure:
Cell wall → Encloses cell, protecting, shape, prevents bursting.

Plasma membrane → control movement in and out of cell.

Cytoplasm → fills cell, where metabolic reactions happen.

Pili → protein filaments of cell wall serve with adhesion and DNA transferring.
Flagella → locomotion.

70S ribosomes → site of protein synthesis.

Nucleoid region → cell activity and reproduction of organism.

Plasmids → Small circles of DNA that carry genes.

Reproduction: Binary Fission → generates 2 identical cells.

1. Semi-conservative replication

2. 2 copies of DNA move to opposite ends.

3. Cell elongates

4. plasma membrane grows inward and pinches off.

5. 2 separate, identical cells created.

Eukaryotes
Nucleus: genetic material is isolated from the cytoplasm by it.

Topic 1: Cell Biology 2

 Compartmentalisation → refers to the formation of compartments within the cell by membrane-bound organelles.
Some advantages:

Greater efficiency of metabolism as enzymes and substrates are enclosed.

Optimal conditions can be maintained.

Isolation of toxic or damaging substances away from the cytoplasm.

Flexibility to change number and position of organelles.

Structure:

Plasma membrane → movement of substances in and out of the cell.

Cytoplasm → fills cell and holds all organelles + contains enzymes (catalyse)

Mitochondria → cellular respiration where ATP is generated.

80S ribosomes → Site of protein synthesis, free ones produce proteins.

Nucleus → controls cell activity and reproduction.

Nucleolus → part of nucleus, production of ribosomes.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum → producing and storing lipids.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum → transport proteins produced by ribosomes to Golgi apparatus.

Golgi apparatus → produces + packages proteins which are released in Golgi vesicles.
Vesicle → small sac, transports and releases substances produced by cell.

Lysosomes → only in animal cells, contain enzymes responsible for breaking down and recycling cellular waste materials.
Centrioles → only in animal cells, role in nuclear division, establishes microtubules.

Vacuole → osmotic balance, storage of substances.

Cell wall → only in plant cells, protection, shape, prevents bursting.

Chloroplast → only in plant cells, responsible for photosynthesis.

Exocrine gland cell:

specialized cells that secrete substances into ducts or body cavities for
external use or waste removal.

Palisade mesophyll cells:

Site of photosynthesis.

Contains greatest number of chloroplast per cell.

Membrane structure
Membranes are fluid due to phospholipids → allows cell to perform endocytosis and exocytosis.

Cholesterol → helps maintain flexibility of the membrane.

Membrane plays a key role in cellular homeostasis.

Topic 1: Cell Biology 3

 Phospholipids:
→ amphipathic molecule.

Phospholipid bilayers with proteins embedded in the bilayer. → 2 layers of phospholipids arranged due to properties:

Phosphate heads - Hydrophilic

fatty acids chains - Hydrophobic

Membrane proteins:

→ Integral proteins:

Amphipathic, embedded in plasma membrane.

→ Peripheral proteins:

hydrophilic (polar), attached to the outside of the membrane.

Functions:

→ Channels: passive transport of substances.

→ Carriers: Bind to substances, change shape, transport them to other side.

The ones that use energy to change shape → protein pumps.

→ Recognition: differentiate between self and non-self cells (immunity)

→ Receptors: Span whole membrane to relay info.

→ Enzymes: enhance rate of reactions.

Other parts:

Glycolipids → phospholipid and a carbohydrate attached together.

Cholesterol → steroid, vital in maintaining cell membrane structure.

Cholesterol
Steroid made up of a non-polar part comprising four ring structures, a hydrocarbon tail, and a polar hydroxyl group.

→ amphipathic molecule

Plays an essential role in controlling membrane fluidity and permeability.

Restricts movement of phospholipids and other molecules → Reduce fluidity.

Low temperatures → disrupts regular packing of the hydrocarbon tails → prevents the solidification of the membrane. Allows membrane to remain fluid at lower
temps.

Reduces membrane permeability to hydrophilic molecules and ions.

Davson- Danielli membrane model

1935, revised in 1954.

→ the cell membrane comprises a lipid bilayer where two layers of polar lipid molecules are arranged with their hydrophilic heads outward. The lipid bilayer is itself
sandwiched between two protein layers on either side of the membrane

Electron microscopy showed membrane to have 3 layers. (2 dark parallel lines with a light-coloured region in between)

Assumptions:

all membranes had identical structures → did not explain how different types could have different functions.

Proteins are amphipathic, though largely non-polar → Makes it improbable that they would be found in contact with aqueous environments.

Proteins dont move around through the membrane (was not possible according to model).

Fluid mosaic model

Singer and Nicolson (1972)

Topic 1: Cell Biology 4

 Evidence from freeze fracture techniques → membranes separated along the middle of bilayer → revealed irregular rough surface.

Proteins are individually embedded in the phospholipid bilayer.

Suggests that proteins in membrane can move around.

Passive transport
Diffusion → movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Is the result of random motion of particles.

Movement of substance from higher to lower concentration. (down concentration gradient).

Factors affecting it:

Temperature → Molecules move faster at higher temps.

SA of membrane → increase allows more molecules to diffuse.

Size particles → Smaller molecules diffuse faster.

Concentration gradient → bigger means faster diffusion.

Simple diffusion: Facilitated diffusion

→ Gas or liquid medium → Requires channel/carrier proteins.

→ Requires only concentration gradient. → Size and shape of protein channel/carriers determine what substances can

→ If a molecule is too big, it cant pass through phospholipid bilayer. cross.

→ Charged particles are repelled by hydrophobic tails. → Movement of K+ - K+ channels involved only allow the movement of K+

Active Transport
→ movement of particles across membranes, requiring energy in the form of ATP.
Move substances against a concentration gradient: Low concentration to high concentration.

Sodium-potassium pumps: nervous system → maintenance of resting potential in neurons.

Concentration of sodium ions - higher outside the neuron than inside them.

Concentration of potassium ions - higher inside then outside.

Process:

1. ATP Binding: The pump binds to ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which provides the energy needed for the process.

2. Sodium Binding: The pump has a high affinity for sodium ions (Na+), which bind to specific sites on the pump from the inside of the cell.

3. Phosphorylation: ATP is hydrolyzed, releasing a phosphate group that attaches to the pump, causing a conformational change.

4. Potassium Binding: The conformational change exposes the sodium-binding sites to the outside of the cell, while potassium ions (K+) from the outside bind to the
pump.

5. Dephosphorylation: The phosphate group is released from the pump, returning it to its original conformation and releasing the bound potassium ions inside the cell.

Endocytosis and exocytosis

Endocytosis - cells take in molecules or substances from outside of the cell by Exocytosis - the ejection of waste products or useful substances from the inside
engulfing them in the cell membrane. of the cell.

Phagocytosis - solids Excretion - undigested not useful solids.

Pinocytosis - liquids Secretion - proteins released in vesicles.

Vesicles:

Allow the movement of materials within the cell.

Membrane-bound structures

Aid in cellular processes like secretion and intracellular communication.

Osmosis
→ passive movement of water molecules from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration across a partially permeable membrane →
hypotonic to hypertonic.

Hypotonic - lower concentration

Hypertonic - higher concentration

Isotonic - equal concentration

Tissues and organs → solutions need to maintain the cells in a state as close as normal.

The origin of cells

→ Cells form from pre-existing cells.
Louis Pasteur → 1822–1895, french microbiologist.

→ experiment disproved the theory of spontaneous generation → living organisms could arise spontaneously from non-living matter.

Two flasks: one with a curved neck (swan-neck flask) and a straight neck flask.

The curved neck flask allowed air to enter but prevented dust particles and microorganisms from reaching the sterile broth inside.

Broth was boiled in both flasks to kill any existing organisms and then left them undisturbed for an extended period.

While the broth in the straight-neck flask became cloudy with microorganisms, the broth in the swan-neck flask remained clear, demonstrating that microorganisms
did not spontaneously generate but were introduced from the outside.

Topic 1: Cell Biology 5

 Miller and Urey experiment → simulated the conditions of early Earth.

high radiation levels, high temperatures and electrical storms.

After a week, some simple amino acids and complex oily hydrocarbons were found in the reaction mixture.

Conditions for emergence of life:

→ Results of the Mille-Urey experiment.

1. Simple organic molecules must be formed.

2. Larger organic molecules must be assembled from simpler molecules.

3. Replication of nucleic acids must be possible.

4. Biochemical reactions require set conditions → Self-contained structures are necessary.

Endosymbiotic Theory
→ Mitochondria and chloroplasts were once independent prokaryotic organisms that were engulfed by larger prokaryotes through endocytosis, and instead of being
digested, they established a symbiotic relationship with their host cells, evolving into mitochondria for energy production and chloroplasts for photosynthesis.

Evidence supporting:

Have double membranes

Have circular naked DNA, 70S ribosomes and divide by binary fission as in prokaryotes.

DNA is formed as single chromosomes.

Are susceptible to some antibiotics.

Cell Division
→ for growth, tissue repair, reproduction, etc.
For it to occur: Complete genetic material needs to be replicated and divided among daughter cells.

Cell cycle
1. Interphase: G1→ (cytoplasm) Cell grows due to rapid protein synthesis, undergoes normal
processes. Proteins requires for DNA synthesis are made. Mitochondria and
Longest and most active phase.
chloroplasts in cell plants are replicated.
Common cell processes happen.
S→ (Nucleus) DNA replication takes place. Genetic material is duplicated,
however no chromosomes are formed yet.

G2→ protein synthesis occurs to produce proteins for cell division. Preparation for
cell division.

2. Mitosis:

→ Nucleus divides into 2 identical daughter nuclei.

→ Sister chromatids separate into chromosomes and are distributed among nuclei.

3. Cytokinesis:

→ the cytoplasm of parental cell is divided between 2 daughter cells.

Cyclins:

→ Family of proteins control progression of cells through cell cycle.

→ Cells cannot progress to the next stage of the cell cycle unless the specific cyclin reaches a certain concentration.

→ They bind to enzymes (cyclin-dependent kinases CDKs) and activate them.

Topic 1: Cell Biology 6

 → Activated CDKs attach phosphate groups which triggers other proteins to become active.

Cyclin levels:

G1 phase → Cyclin D levels gradually increase

S phase → Cyclin E is instrumental to DNA replication and promotes
centromere duplication.
G2 → Cyclin A helps induce DNA replication.

Mitosis → Cyclin B is essential for forming spindles and alignment of

chromatids.

Mitosis
Chromosomes → DNA tightly wound around histones (proteins).
Sister chromatids → S phase
Chromosomes → After anaphase.

Prophase:

DNA supercoils which causes chromatin to condense.

Nucleolus disappears.

Nuclear membrane disintegrates.

Spindle fibres start to form.

Centrioles (animal) move to opposite poles.

Metaphase:

Spindle fibres bind to the centromere.

Sister chromatids are aligned at the equatorial plate.

Anaphase:

Sister chromatids are separated and pulled to opposite poles by spindle fibres.

Telophase:

Chromosomes reached the pole

Nuclear membrane starts to reform.

Spindle fibres disintegrate

Nucleolus forms in each nucleus.

Cell elongates

Mitotic index:

M = amount of cells going through mitosis / total cells.

Cytokinesis:
Animal 🐆: Plant 🌺:
microfilaments pull the plasma membrane Golgi apparatus forms vesicles that will
inwards. build new cell walls

Cleavage furrow is created. Vesicles merge and form cell plate

When cleavage furrow reaches centre of Cell plate grows and divides into 2
cells, it pinches apart. daughter cells.

Tumorigenesis
Benign tumor: does not spread, is usually localised, respond well to treatment.

Topic 1: Cell Biology 7

 Malignant tumor: spreads, cancerous, resistant to treatment.

When the events of the cell cycle are disrupted because of a mutation in one of the cyclins, CDKs, or a protein associated with the
cell cycle, a tumour can form.

cell might have lost ability to enter G1 phase → divides rapidly.

Mutation: Change in organisms genetic code.

Mutagens: Agents that cause mutations.

Chemicals

High-energy radiation

Short wave UV light

Some viruses

Oncogene: gene that underwent a mutation that will contribute to the development of a tumor.

Primary and secondary tumors.

abnormal cell division → malignant primary tumor forms.

cancerous cells detach from primary tumor.

Some penetrate walls of lymph or blood vessels and travel around the body, which results in the invasion of the cells in different tissues at different locations.

Those invasions can turn into secondary tumors.

Topic 1: Cell Biology 8