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Pokhara University

Faculty of Science and Technology

Course No.: xxx xxx Full marks: 100


Course title: Basic Electrical Engineering (3-1-2) Pass marks: 45
Nature of the course: Theory & Practical Time per period: 1 hour
Level: Undergraduate Total Periods: 45
Program: BE Computer/
BEIT
1. Course Description
This course covers the various concepts of electrical circuits, theorems as well as the
concepts of electrical machines. This course emphasizes on fundamental concept, principles
and properties of electrical circuits, circuit parameters and its application. It also covers the
concepts of DC and AC electrical circuit analysis and electrical machine.

2. General Objective
The general objectives of this course are:
 To acquaint the students with AC and DC electric circuits, steady state behavior of
single phase and three phase AC electrical circuits.
 To make the students able to distinguish and use electrical devices and machines.

3. Methods of Instruction
Lecture, Discussion, Readings, Lab works, Project works

4. Contents in Detail

Specific Objectives Contents


 Describe the generation, Unit I: Introduction (2 hrs)
transmission, distribution and 1. Role of electricity in modern society,
use of electrical energy. 2. Energy sources and production,
3. Generation, transmission and distribution of
electrical energy,
4. Consumption of electricity
 Evaluate voltages and currents Unit II: DC Circuit Analysis (15 hrs)
across the electric circuits using 1. Circuits concepts (lumped and distributed
voltage and current divider rule. parameters), linear and nonlinear parameter,
 Use Kirchhoff‟s laws to passive and active circuits,
evaluate current and voltage in 2. Circuit elements (Resistance, capacitance and
DC circuits. inductance), their properties and characteristics in a
 Obtain the equations for DC geometrical and hardware aspects,
electric circuits using mesh and 3. Color coding, Series of parallel compilation of
nodal analyses and solve them resistances, Equivalent resistance and its
to evaluate calculation, star-delta transformation,
current(s)/voltage(s). 4. Concept of power, energy and its calculations,
 Explain and use network 5. Short and open circuit,
theorems to reduce a DC circuit 6. Ideal and non-ideal sources, source conversion,
to a simple equivalent. 7. Voltage divider and current divider formula,
8. Kirchhoff‟s current and voltage laws,
9. Nodal method and mesh method of network
analysis (without dependent source),
10. Network theorem (Superposition, Thevenin‟s,
Norton‟s, maximum power transfer theorem)
 Explain generation of single- Unit III: Single Phase AC Circuits Analysis (10 hrs)
phase alternating quantities 1. Generation of EMF by electromagnetic
and its characteristics. induction, Generation of alternating voltage,
 Calculate average and root- 2. Sinusoidal functions-terminology (phase, phase
mean-square values of angle, amplitude, frequency, peak to peak value),
alternating average values and RMS or effective value of
voltage(s)/current(s). any types of alternating voltage or current
 Analyze the steady state waveform,
behavior of single-phase AC 3. Phase algebra, power triangle, impedance
electric circuits. triangle, steady state response of circuits (RL,
RC, RLC series and parallel) and concept about
admittance, impedance, reactance and its
triangle), instantaneous power, average real
power, reactive power, power factor and
significance of power factor,
4. Resonance in series and parallel RLC circuit,
bandwidth, effect of Q factor in resource
 Explain generation of poly Unit IV: Poly-phase AC Circuit Analysis (6 hrs)
phase alternating quantities 1. Generation of three phase alternating quantity
and its characteristics. and Concept of a balanced three phase supply,
 Analyze the steady state 2. Differences between single phase and three phase
behavior of three phase AC system,
electric circuits. 3. Star and delta connected supply and load
 Describe the measurement of circuits., Line and phase voltage/current
three phase power. relations, power measurement,
4. Concept of three phase power and its
measurement by single and two wattmeter
methods
 Analyze the difference Unit V: Electrical Machines (12 hrs)
between electric and 1. Differences and similarities between electric circuit
magnetic circuits. and magnetic circuit
 Explain the working principle 2. Transformers: Principle of operations, features,
of single-phase two-winding equivalent circuits, efficiency & regulation, open
transformer. circuit & short circuit tests of single phase two
 Analyze open circuit and winding transformer.
short circuit tests of single- 3. DC generator: Construction features, working
phase two-winding principles, Basic characteristics
transformer. 4. DC motors: Performance & operation, basic
 Explain the performance and characteristics, speed control & selection of
motors
operation of DC machines 5. AC machines: Single phase and three phase
 Explain the construction, induction motors (working principles, construction
working principle and use of features and uses)
induction motors.

5. Laboratory Works
a. To measure current, voltage and power across the passive components.
b. To verify Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) & Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)
c. To verify Thevenin's Theorem.
d. To verify maximum power transfer theorem.
e. To verify superposition theorem.
f. To measure three phase power by using two wattmeter
g. To determine efficiency and voltage regulation of a single-phase transformer by
direct loading.
h. To study open circuits & short circuits tests on a single-phase transformer
i. To study the speed control of dc shunt motor by.
i. Varying the field current with armature voltage held constant field control.
ii. Varying the armature voltage with field current held constant armature control.
j. To study open circuits and load test on a dc shunt generator (separately excited)
i. To determine magnetization characteristics
ii. To determine V-I characteristics of a dc shunt generator

6. List of Tutorials
The various tutorial activities that suits your course should cover all the content of the course
to give students a space to engage more actively with the course content in the presence of
Instructor/professor. The following tutorial activities of 15 hrs. should be conducted to cover
the content of this course:
1. Discussion-based Tutorials: (1 hr)
2. Numerical discussion on DC circuit analysis (star/delta conversion, mesh analysis,
nodal analysis, superposition theorem, Thevenin‟s theorem, Norton‟s theorem and
Maximum power transfer theorem. (5 hrs)
3. Numerical discussion on single phase ac circuit (3 hrs)
4. Analysis and numerical solution of three phase ac circuits. (2 hrs)
5. Numerical problems discussion on single phase Transformer, dc motor, dc generator.
(4 hrs)

7. Evaluation system and Students’ Responsibilities


Evaluation System
The internal evaluation of a student may consist of assignments, attendance, term-exams, lab
reports and projects etc. The tabular presentation of the internal evaluation is as follows:

External Evaluation Marks Internal Evaluation Weight Marks


Semester-End examination 50 Theory 30
Attendance and Class Participation 10%
Assignments 20%
Presentations/Quizzes 10%
Term exam 60%
Practical 20
Attendance and Class Participation 10%
Lab Report/ Project Report 20%
Practical Exam/ Project Work 40%
Viva 30%
Total Internal 50
Full Marks: 50 + 50 = 100

Student Responsibilities
Each student must secure at least 45% marks in internal evaluation with 80% attendance in
the class in order to appear in the Semester End Examination. Failing to get such score will
be given NOT QUALIFIED (NQ) and the student will not be eligible to appear the Semester-
End Examinations. Students are advised to attend all the classes, formal exam, test, etc. and
complete all the assignments within the specified time period. Students are required to
complete all the requirements defined for the completion of the course.

8. Prescribed Books and References

Text Books
1. Boylested, Albert “Introduction of Electric circuit” Prentice Hall of India Private
Limited, New Delhi
2. Thereja B. L & Thereja A. K. “A text book of Electrical Technology, S Chand
Publication.

References
1. Jain& Jain “ABC of Electrical Engineering”
2. Tiwari, S.N, “A first course of electrical engineering” att. Wheeler & Co. Ltd.
Allabhad.
Overview of Energy Sources
Energy is the capacity of a physical system to perform work. Energy exists in several forms
such as heat, kinetic or mechanical energy, light, potential energy, electrical, or other forms.
Energy sources could be classified as Renewable and Non-renewable.
Renewable sources of energy are available plentiful in nature and are sustainable. These
resources of energy can be naturally replenished and are safe for the environment. Examples:
Solar energy, geothermal energy, wind energy, biomass, hydropower and tidal energy.
A Non-Renewable Resource is a natural resource that is found underneath the earth. This
type of energy resources do not replenish at the same speed at which it is used. They take
millions of years to replenish. Examples of non-renewable sources of energy are: Natural
gas, coal, petroleum, nuclear energy and hydrocarbon gas liquids.
Renewable sources of energy Non-renewable sources of energy
The resources that can be renewed once they are The resources that cannot be renewed once they
consumed are called renewable energy. are consumed are called non-renewable energy.
Do not cause any environmental pollution. Cause environmental pollution..
Renewable resources are inexhaustible. Non- Renewable resources are exhaustible.
Renewable resources are not affected by human Non- Renewable resources are affected by human
activities. activities.
Examples- wind energy, Hydro and solar energy. Examples- natural gas, coal and nuclear energy.

Solar energy: The energy produced by the Sun is referred to as solar energy. It is formed due
to nuclear fission and fusion inside the Sun. This energy travels in the form of radiation
(electromagnetic waves). This energy is collected by some photovoltaic cell panels which
absorb the solar energy and convert it into electricity that can be used for home appliances.
Solar heating panels are used to heat the water in the solar heater.

Wind: When we talk about wind energy then it means that the wind speed should be high
enough to produce a considerable amount of useful work. This kind of wind energy is usually
available near the coastal regions or near the mountains where high wind flow is available at
a constant rate. Big turbines, called wind turbines are installed at such sites to tap this wind
energy which drives these turbines and as result, electricity is generated.
Tidal energy: We know the tides are created in the ocean due to the rotation of the Earth and
the attraction between Earth and the moon. Tides are nothing but the rise and fall of the water
level in the ocean. We can observe it easily on the shores. The tidal energy is captured by
forming narrow dams at the narrow entrances of rivers. During high tides and low tides, the
motion of the water column is used to rotate the turbines that produce electricity.
Biomass energy: Biomass energy is extracted from biological materials where biological
materials are formed from living organisms and plants. In the biomass power plant, biomass
is burnt into a combustor in order to produce heat which will be further converted into
mechanical energy in order to generate electricity. Biomass can also be converted into other
forms of energy like fuels used in transportation, biodiesel or methane gas depending on the
requirements.
Geothermal energy: As we know that the temperature increases as we move inside the
Earth's layers. This high temperature is the thermal energy source. Potential sources can be
hot springs and volcanoes which contain a very high amount of heat. This kind of energy is
known as geothermal energy. This energy can be extracted and can be used to generate
electricity.

Hydro energy: This energy is generally available in flowing rivers. A dam is formed to store
the water of the river at some convenient location. This stored water contains the potential
energy which can be converted into kinetic energy by giving a narrow passage to the flow.
Thus we get a water stream with high-speed that drives large turbines to produce electricity.

Nuclear Power: The energy is created through a specific nuclear reaction, which is then
collected and used to power generators. While almost every country has nuclear generators,
there are moratoriums on their use or construction as scientists try to resolve safety and
disposal issues for waste.
Nuclear energy is produced from uranium, a non-renewable energy source whose atoms are
split (through a process called nuclear fission) to create heat and, eventually, electricity.
Scientists think uranium was created billions of years ago when stars formed. Uranium is
found throughout the earth‟s crust, but most of it is too difficult or too expensive to mine and
process into fuel for nuclear power plants.
Fossil Fuels (Coal, Oil and Natural Gas)
Natural gas, coal and oils – these are all considered to be just one source of energy from
fossil fuels. Fossil fuels provide power for most of the world, primarily using coal and
oil. Oil is converted into many products, the most used of which is gasoline. Natural gas is
starting to become more common but is used mostly for heating applications, although there
are more and more natural gas-powered vehicles appearing on the streets.
The issue with fossil fuels is twofold. Getting to the fossil fuel and convert it to use, there has
to be heavy destruction and pollution of the environment. The fossil fuel reserves are also
limited, expecting to last only another 100 years given the basic rate of consumption.
It isn‟t easy to determine which of these different sources of energy is best to use. All of them
have their good and bad points. While advocates of each power type tout theirs as the best,
the truth is that they are all flawed. What needs to happen is a concerted effort to change how
we consume energy and to create a balance between which of these sources we draw from.

Electrical Energy: Generation, Transmission and Distribution


The electrical energy is produced at generating stations, and through the transmission
network, it is transmitted to the consumers by distribution. Between the generating stations
and the distribution stations, three different levels of voltage are used.

Generation System: Electricity energy in Nepal is generally produced from hydro power
plant, solar, and diesel engine. Electric power is commonly (or usually) generated at 11 kV in
generating stations. While in some cases, generation voltage might be higher or lower.
Generating machines, to be used in power stations, are available between 3.3 kV, 6.6 and
13.2 kV in Nepal. Generation voltage is made lower than transmission voltage because
insulation cost in winding of generator increases with increases in voltages.
Transmission System: Generating voltage is then stepped up to 132kV, 220kV, 400kV is
called transmission system. Stepping up the voltage level depends upon the distance at which
power is to be transmitted. Longer the distance, higher will be the voltage level. Stepping up
of voltage is to reduce the power loss i.e. I2R losses in transmitting the power (when voltage
is stepped up, the current reduces by a relative amount so that the power remains constant,
and hence I2R loss also reduces). This stage is called as primary transmission.
i.e. Power loss = I2R
If power to be transmit P = V*I = constant,
then if voltage increases then current decreases
so, power loss decreases
Also, the voltage is the stepped down at a receiving station to 33kV or 66kV are called
Secondary transmission voltages. Secondary transmission lines emerge from this receiving
station to connect substations located near load centers (cities etc.).
Distribution System: Distribution voltage is made lower than transmission voltage for
safety of personal and equipment. Voltage is stepped down again to 11kV at a substation.
Large industrial consumers can be supplied at 11kV directly from these substations. Also,
feeders emerge from these substations. This stage is called as primary distribution.
Also, the voltage is stepped down to 400V for commercial large consumers through three
phase supply or 230V to local household consumers through single phase supply are called
secondary distribution system.

Consumption of electricity in nepal


Hydropower potential of Nepal 42,000 megawatts (MW)
Generation capacity around 2,600 MW
Hydropower mostly
Diesel Power Stations (Duhabi Multifuel 39 MW sunsari, Hetauda 14.41MW)
55 megawatts of solar power had been added to the national grid (Nuwakot Solar
Power Station 25MW and Singhadurbar Solar Project 1.3 MW)
6.0 megawatts of cogeneration
But generation is limited to 35% of capacity during dry season
Consumption 1,800 MW of electricity
Unit II: DC Circuit Analysis (15 hrs)
Ohms law and its limitation
Ohm‟s law can be defined when the potential difference applied at the ends of
the conductor is „V‟ and the current moving through it is „I‟, and other conditions such as
temperature remain constant, such that the potential difference is directly proportional to the
current. Mathematically, we have:
V∝I
It can also be represented as:
I = V/R
or V = R*I
Here, R denotes the resistance of the conductor. Given below is a graphical representation
of the relationship between Current and Voltage:

Limitations of Ohm’s law include:


 Ohm‟s law cannot be applied to unilateral networks. Unilateral networks allow the
current to flow only in one direction. Examples of such networks
include diodes, transistors, etc.
 Additionally, Ohm‟s law is not applicable in the case of non-linear objects. In these
components, the current is not proportional to the voltage applied. This is because, for
each value of voltage and current, these components have different resistance values.
Examples of non-linear components include the thyristor.
 Ohm‟s Law will not work in the case of non-metallic conductors.
 Calculation using Ohm‟s law can be difficult in the case of complicated circuits.

DC Current
Direct current refers to the unidirectional propagation of electric charge. It is commonly used
in batteries and solar cells. Thomas Edison invented DC current, which allowed him to power
numerous complex electrical systems.
Circuits Concepts
lumped and distributed parameters:

Lumped Element Distributed Element

An electrical element or component which is An electrical element or component


concentrated at a single point or place is said to which is distributed all along the circuit
be known as a lumped element. is called a distributed element.

The size of distributed elements is


The size of lumped elements is smaller than comparable to the wavelength of applied
the wavelength of applied voltage and current. voltage and current.

lumped elements can be separated from the Distributed elements cannot be separated
circuit. from the circuit.

The voltage and current in a lumped element The voltage and current in a distributed
are a function of time alone. element are function of space and time.

A distributed circuit is difficult to


A lumped circuit is easy to understand and understand and analyze compared to a
analyze. lumped circuit.

Examples of distributed elements are


Examples of lumped elements are resistors, resistance, inductance, and capacitance of
inductors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, etc. a transmission line, etc.

Linear and Nonlinear Parameter


Linear Circuit Non-Linear Circuit

A linear circuit is an electric circuit in which A non-linear circuit is an electric circuit


the value of elements connected doesn't vary in which the value of elements connected
with current and voltage. varies with current and voltage.

A non-linear circuit is made of elements


A linear circuit is made up of only elements that exhibit a non-linear relationship
which exhibit a linear relationship between between current through and voltage
current through and voltage across it. across it.

Generally, ohm's law is not applicable for


Ohm's law is applicable for linear circuits. non-linear circuits.

The output characteristics curve between The output characteristics curve between
current and voltage for a linear circuit looks current and voltage for a non-linear circuit
like a straight line. looks like a curved line.

A non-linear network does not satisfy


A linear circuit satisfies both the properties of both additivity and homogeneity
additivity and homogeneity properties.
It is easy to solve linear circuits with simple It is difficult to solve non-linear circuits
techniques. compared to linear circuits.

Examples of linear elements are resistors, Examples of non-linear elements are


inductors, capacitors, etc. diodes, transformers, transistors, etc.

Bilateral Elements And Unilateral Elements


Conduction of current in both directions in a circuit element with same magnitude is termed
as a bilateral circuit element. It offers some resistance to current flow in both directions.
Examples: Resistors, inductors, capacitors etc.
The unilateral circuit element does not offer same resistance to the current of either
direction. The resistance of the unilateral circuit element is different for forward current
than that of reverse current.
Examples: diode, transistor etc.
When diode is forward biased it offers very small resistance and conducts. While it is reverse
biased, it offers very high resistance and doesn‟t conduct.

Passive and Active Circuits


An electric circuit element which can supply electric power to the circuit or power gain in the
circuit, is known as an active element or active component.
Some common examples of active circuit elements are energy sources (voltage sources or
current sources), generators or alternators, semiconductor devices such as transistors,
photodiodes, etc.
The active elements are the circuit component which are entirely responsible for the flow of
electric current in the circuit.
The circuit element which can only absorb electrical energy and dissipates it in the form of
heat or stores in either magnetic field or electric field is known as passive circuit
component or simply passive component.
Therefore, a passive component cannot provide electric power or power amplification in an
electric circuit. Some common examples of passive circuit components are resistor, inductor,
capacitor and transformer, etc.

Unit III: Single Phase AC Circuits Analysis (10 hrs)


Introduction to AC
• “AC” stands for Alternating Current which can refer to either voltage or current that
alternates in polarity or direction, respectively continuously with time in contrast
to direct current (DC) which flows only in one direction.
• The usual waveform of alternating current in most electric power circuits is a sine
wave, whose positive half-period corresponds with positive direction of the current
and vice versa.
• In DC Circuit, the opposition to the flow of current is only resistance of the circuit
whereas opposition to flow of current in the AC circuit is because of resistance (R),
Inductive Reactance (XL=2πfL) and capacitive reactance (XC = 1/2 πfC) of the circuit.
Advantages of AC over DC:
1. AC can be transmitted using step up transformers but direct current or dc cannot be
transmitted by this method. Equipment cost of DC is expensive.
2. AC is easy to generate than DC.
3. It is cheaper to generate AC than DC.
4. AC generators have higher efficiency than DC.
5. Toss of energy during transmission is negligible for ac.
6. AC can be easily converted into DC.
7. Variation of AC can easily be done using transformers either step up or step down.
8. Magnitude of AC can be decreased easily without loss of excess of energy. This can
be done by using choke coil
Disadvantages:
1. AC voltages cannot be used for certain applications e.g. charging of batteries,
electroplating, electric traction etc.
2. At high voltages, it is more dangerous to work with AC than DC.
3. Peak value of A.C. is high and it is dangerous to use so better insulation is required.
4. It attracts a person who touches it, unlike D.C. which gives a repelling shock.
5. An A.C. is transmitted from the surface of the conductor and hence need several
strands of thin wires insulated from each other.

Generation of EMF by electromagnetic induction


 Electric generators/alternator induces an AC emf by rotating a coil in a magnetic
field. The relationship between generation of AC voltage and a changing magnetic
field is given by faraday law of electromagnetic induction.
 Electromagnetic induction states: “that a voltage is induced in a circuit whenever
relative motion exists between a conductor and a magnetic field and that the
magnitude of this voltage is proportional to the rate of change of the flux”.
i.e E α , where Φ is the flux produced by magnetic circuit.
 The alternating voltage is generated in two ways.
o By rotating the coil inside the uniform magnetic field at constant speed
 By rotating the magnetic field around the stationary coil at the constant speed.
Process of Generating Alternating Voltage
Consider the stationary coil places inside the uniform magnetic field. The load is connected
across the coil with the help of brushes and the slip rings. When the coil rotates in the
anticlockwise direction at constant angular velocity ω the electromotive force induces in the
coil. The cross-sectional view of the coil at the different position is shown in figure below.
The magnitude of the emf induced in the coil depends on the rate of the flux cut by the
conductor. The figure below shows that the no current induces in the coil when they are
parallel to the magnetic line of forces. i.e., at the position (1), (2) and (3). And the total flux
cut by the conductor becomes zero.
The magnitude of induced emf becomes maximum when the conductor becomes
perpendicular to the magnetic line of force. The conductor cuts the maximum flux at this
position. Direction of the emf induces is determined by Fleming‟s right-hand rule.
In other words, the direction of emf induces in the conductor at position (2) and (4) becomes
opposite to each other.

Various terms which are frequently used in an AC circuit


Amplitude: The maximum positive or negative value attained by an alternating quantity in
one complete cycle is called Amplitude or peak value or maximum value. The maximum
value of voltage and current is represented by Em or Vm and Im respectively.
Alternation: One-half cycle is termed as alternation. An alternation span is of 180 degrees
electrical.
Cycle: When one set of positive and negative values completes by an alternating quantity or
it goes through 360 degrees electrical, it is said to have one complete Cycle.
Instantaneous Value: The value of voltage or current at any instant of time is called an
instantaneous value. It is denoted by (i or e).
Frequency: The number of cycles made per second by an alternating quantity is called
frequency. It is measured in cycle per second (c/s) or hertz (Hz) and is denoted by (f).
Time Period/periodic time: The time taken in seconds by a voltage or a current to complete
one cycle is called Time Period. It is denoted by (T).
Wave Form: The shape obtained by plotting the instantaneous values of an alternating
quantity such as voltage and current along the y-axis and the time (t) or angle (θ=wt) along
the x-axis is called a waveform.
Phase Difference Let OP and OQ be the two vectors (more preferred to be called phasors)
representing two alternating quantities of the same frequency at any instant. The angle
between them is called the phase angle.

The direction of rotation in counter clockwise direction is usually taken as positive. If OQ


and OP represent voltage and current vectors, then
e = OQ sin wt and,
i = OP sin (wt – ) where, is called the phase difference.
In above phasor OQ is said to lead the phasor OP. The „phase‟ of an AC wave may be
defined as its position with respect to a reference axis or reference wave. Phase angle as
the angle of lead or lag with respect to reference axis or with respect to another wave.
A is degree ahead of B
A attains its maxima degrees before B or T second or α = ωt (t=α/ω ) sec before B

Difference between AC and DC

Average Value
Average Value (also known as Mean Value) of an Alternating Current (AC) is expressed by
that Direct Current (DC) which transfers across any circuit the same amount of charge as is
transferred by that Alternating Current (AC) during the same time.
The average of all the instantaneous values of an alternating voltage and currents over one
complete cycle is called Average Value.
Mathematically, Average value = ∫ ( )
i.e. Average value of voltage = ∫ ( )
Average value of current = ∫ ( )

RMS (Root Mean Square) Value


RMS (Root Mean Square) value (also known as effective or virtual value) of of an
alternating current (AC) is the value of direct current (DC) when flowing through a circuit
or resistor for the specific time period and produces same amount of heat which produced by
the alternating current (AC) when flowing through the same circuit or resistor for a specific
time.
The value of an AC which will produce the same amount of heat while passing through the
heating element (such as resistor) as DC produces through the element is called R.M.S Value.
• Mathematically, RMS value =√ ∫ * ( )+

i.e RMS value of voltage=√ ∫ * ( )+

RMS value of current =√ ∫ * ( )+


Form Factor and Peak/Crest Factor
Form Factor is the ratio between the RMS value and the Average value of an alternating
quantity (current or voltage) and is given as
Mathematically, form factor F.F =
Peak Factor is defined as the ratio of maximum value to the R.M.S value of an alternating
quantity (voltage or current). The maximum value is the peak value or the crest value or the
amplitude of the voltage or current.
Mathematically, Peak factor P.F =

Phasor representation of AC quantities-complex, polar and exponential

Sinusoidal quantities can be represented by a function.


In order to analyze AC circuit, it is necessary to represent multi-dimensional quantities. In
order to accomplish this task, scalar numbers were abandoned and complete numbers were
used to express the two dimensions of frequency and phase shift at one time
In the study of electricity and electronics, j is used to represent imaginary numbers so that
there is no confusion with I, which in electronics represents current (i). It is also customary
for scientist to write the complex number in the form of a+jb
1. A complex number may be written in Rectangular form as:
Z= X+jY, where, X= r cos(ѳ) is a real and Y= r sin(ѳ) is a imaginary number.
Ѳ = tan-1(Y/X)
2. A second way of representing the complex number is by specifying the magnitude(r)
and angle (θ) in polar form
Z=r∠Ѳ
r=√ , Ѳ = tan-1(Y/X)
3. The third way of representing the complex number is the Exponential form.
Z = rejѲ
r=√ , Ѳ = tan-1(Y/X)

Single phase AC through different element


1 A.C through pure ohmic resistance only
Suppose that a pure resistor/non-inductive circuit (This means that it has no inductance or
capacitance) is connected to a sinusoidal voltage as shown in Figure
Let the alternating voltage applied across the circuit be given by the equation
v = Vm sin ωt ………..(1)
Then the instantaneous value of current flowing through the resistor will be:
i= = ……………….2)
The value of current will be maximum when ωt= 90° or sinωt = 1
Putting the value of sinωt in equation (2) we will get
i = Im sinωt ……………………..3)
From equation (1) and (3), it is clear that there is no phase difference between the applied
voltage and the current flowing through a purely resistive circuit, i.e. phase angle between
voltage and current is zero. Hence, in an AC circuit containing pure resistance, the current is
in phase with the voltage as shown in the waveform figure below.

As in DC supply circuit, the product of voltage and current is known as the Power in the
circuit. Similarly, the power is the same in the AC circuit also, the only difference is that in
the AC circuit the instantaneous value of voltage and current is taken into consideration.
Therefore, the instantaneous power in a purely resistive circuit is given by the equation
shown below:
Instantaneous power, p= v i

Where, V and I are the rms values of applied voltage and current respectively.
Thus for purely resistive circuits, the expression for power is the same as for dc circuits.
From the power curve for a purely resistive circuit shown in Fig. it is evident that power
consumed in a pure resistive circuit is not constant, it is fluctuating.
However, it is always positive. This is so because the instantaneous values of voltage and
current are always either positive or negative and, therefore, the product is always positive.
This means that the voltage source constantly delivers power to the circuit and the circuit
consumes it.
2 A.C through pure Inductive Circuit:
The circuit which contains only inductance (L) and not any other quantities like resistance
and capacitance in the circuit is called a Pure inductive circuit. Suppose that a pure inductive
circuit is connected to a sinusoidal voltage as shown in Figure

Let the alternating voltage applied across the circuit be given by the equation
v = Vm sin ωt ………..(1)
As a result, an alternating current i flows through the inductance which induces an emf in it.
The equation is shown below:
E=-L
The emf which is induced in the circuit is equal and opposite to the applied voltage. Hence,
the equation becomes,
V = - e …………..2)
Putting the value of e in equation (2) we will get the equation as
v=-(-L ) or
Vm sin ωt =L
di = sin ωt ……………………….3)
Integrating both sides of the equation (3), we will get

where, XL = ω L is the opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by a pure


inductance and is called inductive reactance.
The value of current will be maximum when sin (ωt – π/2) = 1
Therefore,
im = ……………………..5)
Substituting this value in Im from the equation (5) and putting it in equation (4) we will get
i = Im sin (ωt – π/2)
Thus, The current in the pure inductive AC circuit lags the voltage by 90 degrees. The
waveform of a purely inductive circuit is shown below
Instantaneous power in the inductive circuit is given by

Hence, the average power consumed in a purely inductive circuit is zero. The average power
in one alteration, i.e., in a half cycle is zero, as the negative and positive loop is under power
curve is the same.
In purely inductive circuit, during the first quarter cycle, power supplied by the source, is
stored in the magnetic field set up around the coil. In the next quarter cycle, magnetic field
diminishes and the power that was stored in the first quarter cycle is returned to the source.
This process continues in every cycle, and thus, no power is consumed in the circuit.

3 A.C through pure capacitive Circuit


Suppose that a pure capacitive circuit is connected to a sinusoidal voltage as shown in Figure

Let the alternating voltage applied across the circuit be given by the equation
v = Vmax sin ωt ………..(1)
Charge of the capacitor at any instant of time is given as
Q = C v ………………..2)
Current flowing through the circuit is given by the equation
i=
Putting the value of q from the equation (2) in equation (3) we will get
( )
i=
Now, putting the value of v from the equation (1) in the equation (3) we will get
Where Xc = 1/ωC is the opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by a pure
capacitor and is called Capacitive Reactance.
The value of current will be maximum when sin(ωt + π/2) = 1. Therefore, the value of
maximum current Im will be given as:
Im =
Substituting the value of Im in the equation (4) we will get

Thus, pure capacitor circuit, the current flowing through the capacitor leads the voltage by an
angle of 90 degrees. The waveform of voltage and current are shown below:

Instantaneous power is given by p = vi

Hence, from the above equation, it is clear that the average power in the capacitive circuit is
zero. The average power in a half cycle is zero as the positive and negative loop area in the
waveform shown are same.

Steady State Response of RL,RC, RLC series and parallel circuit


1. RL Series Circuit
• Consider a simple RC circuit in which resistor, R and inductor, L are connected in
series with a voltage supply driven by a sinusoidal voltage source.
Where,
VR – Voltage across the resistance R
VL – Voltage across inductor L
V – Total voltage across RL Series circuit
Let VR and VL be the voltage drop across resistor and inductor. Applying Kirchhoff voltage
law (i.e sum of voltage drop must be equal to apply voltage) to this circuit we get,
V =VR + VL
Phasor Diagram of the RL Series Circuit
Let, Current I is taken as a reference since current is same in series circuit.
The Voltage drop across the resistance VR = I.R is drawn in phase with the current I.
The voltage drop across the inductive reactance VL =I.XL is drawn ahead of the current I. As
the current lags voltage by an angle of 90 degrees in the pure Inductive circuit. For this
reason, in the series RL circuit the two voltage drops will not be directly additive but will be
a vector sum.
The vector sum of the two voltages drops VR and VL is equal to the applied voltage V.

Now, we have VR = I.R and VL = I.XL where XL = 2πfL


In right-angle triangle OAB,

Where, Z is the total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by an RL Series
circuit and is called impedance of the circuit,
And, the phasor diagram shown above, it is clear that the current in the circuit lags the
applied voltage by an angle ϕ and this angle is called the phase angle.

when we combine both resistance and inductor, the phase angle of a series RL circuit is
between 0o to 90o.
Thus, the instantaneous value of voltage and current flowing through the circuit will be
v = Vm sin t
i = Im sin ( t - )
Impedance triangle of RL series circuit
using Pythagoras theorem in above phasor diagram
V2 = VR2 + VL2
(IZ)2 = (IR)2 + (IXL)2 or I2Z2 = I2R2 + I2XL2
Next, dividing throughout by I2 eliminates I2, we get
Z2 = R2 + XL2

2. RC Series Circuit
Consider a simple RC circuit in which resistor, R and capacitor, C are connected in series
with a voltage supply driven by a sinusoidal voltage source.

Where,
VR – voltage across the resistance R
VC – voltage across capacitor C
V – total voltage across RC Series circuit
Phasor Diagram of RC Series Circuit
Let, Current I is taken as a reference since current is same in series circuit.
The Voltage drop across the resistance VR = I.R is drawn in phase with the current I.
The voltage drop across the capacitive reactance VC =I.XC is drawn IXC is drawn 90 degrees
behind the current vector, as current leads voltage by 90 degrees (in the pure capacitive
circuit). For this reason, in the series RC circuit the two voltage drops will not be directly
additive but will be a vector sum.
The vector sum of the two voltages drops VR and VC is equal to the applied voltage V.
The phasor diagram of the RC series circuit is shown below

Now, we have VR = I.R and VC = I.XC where XC = 1/(2πfC)


In right-angle triangle OAB,
Where, Z is the total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by an RC Series
circuit and is called impedance of the circuit,

Phase angle
From the phasor diagram shown above, it is clear that the current in the circuit leads the
applied voltage by an angle ϕ and this angle is called the phase angle.

The voltage and current waveforms of the R-C series circuit are shown in fig

Thus, instantaneous value of voltage and current flowing through the circuit will be, v = Vm
sin t
i = Im sin ( t + )
Impedance triangle of RC series circuit
using Pythagoras theorem in above phasor diagram
V2 = VR2 + Vc2
(IZ)2 = (IR)2 + (IXC)2
I2Z2 = I2R2 + I2XC2
Next, dividing throughout by I2 eliminates I2 , we get
Z2 = R2 + XC2

 Series RLC Circuit


Consider a simple RLC circuit in which resistor, R ,inductor, L and capacitor, C are
connected in series with a voltage supply driven by a sinusoidal voltage source.
Where,
VR – Voltage across the resistance R
VL – Voltage across inductor L
VC – Voltage across capacitor C
V – Total voltage across RLC Series circuit
Phasor Diagram of RLC Series Circuit
Let, Current I is taken as a reference since current is same in series circuit.
The Voltage drop across the resistance VR = I.R is drawn in phase with the current I.
The voltage drop across the inductive reactance VL =I.XL is drawn ahead of the current I. As
the current lags voltage by an angle of 90 degrees in the pure Inductive circuit.
The voltage drop across the capacitive reactance VC =I.XC is drawn IXC is drawn 90 degrees
behind the current vector, as current leads voltage by 90 degrees (in the pure capacitive
circuit).
The two vector VL and VC are opposite to each other. The vector sum of the three voltages
drops VR , VL and VC is equal to the applied voltage V. i.e.
So, V = VR+VL+VC
Writing in vector form,
V = IR + j I.XL - j I.XC
I= ( )
The phasor diagram of the RLC series circuit is derived when the circuit is acting as an
inductive circuit that means (VL>VC) is shown below and if (VL< VC) the circuit will behave
as a capacitive circuit.
Case I: when circuit is acting as an inductive circuit that means (VL>VC)
The phasor diagram of the RLC series circuit when the circuit is acting as an inductive circuit
that means (VL>VC) is shown below
So, I= ( )
I=

Now, drawing the phasor diagram


Here, R + JX =Z∠ Φ is the impedance of the circuit.
where, X = XL – XC is the net reactance of the circuit.
Now, Writing equation of current in complex form
I= = ∠

Hence, the circuit is inductive in nature because current lags the voltage by an angle ∠ .
Thus, the instantaneous value of voltage and current flowing through the circuit will be v =
Vm sin t
i = Im sin ( t - )
Case I: when circuit is acting as an capacitive circuit that means (VC>VL)
The phasor diagram of the RLC series circuit when the circuit is acting as an inductive circuit
that means (VC>VL) is shown below
So, I = ( )
I=
Now, drawing the phasor diagram

Here, R - JX = Z∠ - Φ is the impedance of the circuit.


where, X = XL – XC is the net reactance of the circuit.
Now, Writing equation of current in complex form
I= = ∠

Hence, the circuit is capacitive in nature because current leads the voltage by an angle ∠ .
Thus, the instantaneous value of voltage and current flowing through the circuit will be
v = Vm sin t
i = Im sin ( t + )
Parallel RLC Circuit
Consider a RLC circuit in which resistor, inductor and capacitor are connected in parallel to
each other. This parallel combination is supplied by voltage supply, VS.

In parallel circuit, the voltage across each element remains the same and the current gets
divided in each component depending upon the impedance of each component.
The total current, IS drawn from the supply is equal to the vector sum of the resistive,
inductive and capacitive current, not the mathematic sum of the three individual branch
currents, as the current flowing in resistor, inductor and capacitor are not in same phase with
each other; so they cannot be added arithmetically.
Apply Kirchhoff‟s current law, which states that the sum of currents entering a junction or
node, is equal to the sum of current leaving that node we get,

Phasor Diagram of Parallel RLC Circuit


Let V is the supply voltage.
IS is the total source current.
IR is the current flowing through the resistor.
IC is the current flowing through the capacitor.
IL is the current flowing through the inductor.
θ is the phase angle difference between supply voltage and current.
voltage is taken as reference because voltage across each element remains the same.
We know that in case of resistor, voltage and current are in same phase; so draw current
vector IR in same phase and direction to voltage.
In case of capacitor, current leads the voltage by 90o so, draw IC vector leading voltage
vector, V by 90o.
For inductor, current vector IL lags voltage by 90o so draw IL lagging voltage vector, V by
90o.
Now draw the resultant of IR, IC, IL i.e. current IS at a phase angle difference of θ with respect
to voltage vector, V.

Impedance of Parallel RLC Circuit


From the phasor diagram of parallel RLC circuit we get,

Substituting the value of IR, IC, IL in above equation we get,

On simplifying,

As shown above in the equation of impedance, Z of a parallel RLC circuit each element has
reciprocal of impedance (1/Z) i.e admittance, Y. For solving parallel RLC circuit it is
convenient if we find admittance of each branch and the total admittance of the circuit can be
found by simply adding each branch‟s admittance.
Power in AC circuit
INTRODUCTION
In dc circuit the value of voltage and current becomes constant. But in AC circuit the
instantaneous value of current and voltage flows and hence the power of the supply is
continuously varying with the time.
Usually, power is the product of applied voltage and current.
P = V*I
But, in case of ac circuit if voltage is taken reference, current has two components

i) I Cos ϕ in phase with the voltage V or,


(Active Component of current)
ii) I Sin ϕ which is 90 degrees out of phase with the voltage V
Or, reactive component of current
Thus, on the basic of component of current, power is divided into three types
i) Active power P
ii) Reactive power Q
iii) Apparent power S
i) Active Power: It is the product of voltage and current in phase with the voltage. It is
denoted by P. its unit is Watt.
Active power P = V x I cosϕ = V I cosϕ
P = V*I*
P = I Z*I*
P = I2R Watt
It is the actual amount of power being used, or dissipated, in a circuit to produce work.
It is called true power
ii) Reactive power: It is the product of voltage and current out of phase with the voltage. It is
denoted by Q. its unit is Volt Ampre Reactive (VAR).
Reactive power Q = V x I sinϕ = V I sinϕ
Q = V*I*
Q = I Z*I*
Q = I2X VAR
• Reactive power is also known as: phantom power.
• Reactive power is the part of complex power
that corresponds to storage and retrieval of energy rather than consumption.
iii) Apparent Power
• it is the product of a circuit‟s voltage and current, without reference to phase angle.
• The product of root mean square (RMS) value of voltage and current is known
as Apparent Power. It is denoted by S. its unit is VA (Volt Ampere).
Apparent power S = V x I = V I
• Also, The combination of reactive power and true power is called apparent power.
S=P+jQ
S =√
S = √( ) ( )

S = V I √( ) ( )
S = VI Volt ampre

Power Factor
Definition
Power factor is the cosine of the phase angle difference between voltage and current.
i.e. power factor = cos Φ = cos(∠ V - ∠ I )
Also, from impedance triangle and power triangle,
i) “The ratio between the resistance and total impedance of an AC circuit is called power
factor”
i.e. power factor = =

ii) “The ratio between the active power and apparent power is called power factor”.
i.e power factor =

= =

• Considering an inductive load, the power factor will be lagging due to which the
current is lagging behind the voltage.
• While in capacitive load the angle goes opposite, the applied current angle is now
leading before the voltage and consider as leading power factor.
• And, for purely resistive load power factor is unity
Significance of power factor
The power factor plays an important role in ac circuits depending upon the load. Consider the
power is to carrying capacity equation
P = V IL cos
If voltage and power to be transferred is assumed to be constant
IL
• As we know that lower the power factor, higher is the load current and vice-versa.so
lower power factor results:
1) When power factor decreases the load current increases which increases the rating of
the machine. i.e. P = V.I
2) When power factor decreases the load current increases. Thus, to carry higher current
the size of conductor increases and results in higher cost of the conductor.
3) Due to increase in load current, copper loss increases i.e. I2R. Thus efficiency of
machine decreases.
4) There is poor voltage regulation due to drop in terminal voltage.
5) Penalty/fine of lower power factor from utility power supply.
Causes of low power factor:
Low power factor is undesirable from the economic point of view.
1. Most of the AC motors (single phase and three phases) are induction motors
which work at extremely low power factor (0.2 to 0.3).
2. Industrial furnaces, arc lamps, electric discharge lamps etc operate at low power
factor.
3. Varying Load in Power System (As we know that load on power system is varying.
During low load period, supply voltage is increased which increase the magnetizing
current which cause the decreased power factor)
Power factor improvement:
• The low power factor is mainly due to the inductive loads. In inductive load the
current lags the voltage by some angle, so increases i.e. cos decreases thus
power factor decreases. So, component that provide leading current is to be provided
i.e capacitive.
• In order to overcome this situation, we must connect a capacitor in parallel with the
loads which can somehow stabilize the power factor. PF correction capacitors act as
reactive current generators.
• Power factor improvement can be achieved by using the following types of
equipment.
1) Static capacitor : The power factor can be improved by connecting a capacitor in parallel
with the inductive load. As we know that capacitor draws a leading current which can
neutralize the lagging power factor produced by the inductive loads. For three phase loads,
the capacitors can be connected in star or delta.

2) Synchronous condenser: Synchronous motors take the leading current when they are over
excited and therefore they behave like capacitors. So an overexcited synchronous motors
running at no load is called synchronous condenser. When such machines are connected in
parallel with the supply, it takes the leading current which partially neutralizes or tend to
minimize the low power factor. Hence the power factor is improved.

3) Phase Advancer
• Can be used only for Induction Motors
• We know that stator winding draws lagging current in a motor. This current is drawn
from the main supply.
• Hence, to improve pf, we supply this lagging current from an alternative source. This
alternative source is the phase advancer.
• A phase advancer is basically an AC exciter. It is mounted on the same shaft as the
main motor and connected in the rotor circuit. It supplies exciting ampere turns to the
rotor circuit at slip frequency. This improves the power factor.

Resonance
Resonance at Series RLC Circuit

In the RLC series circuit, when the circuit current is in phase with the applied voltage, the
circuit is said to be in Series Resonance.
Firstly, let us define series RLC circuits.
• Inductive reactance XL = 2
• capacitive reactance XC =
if XL > XC , the circuit is inductive in nature.
if XC > XL , the circuit is capacitive in nature.
Here, XL α f, so if we plot a graph between XL Vs f, we get the straight line as shown

And, XC α , so if we plot a graph between XC Vs f, we get the hyperbolic curve as shown


below.
At higher frequency XL (= 2 )is high and at low frequency XC= is high.
Then there must be a frequency point where the value of inductive reactance XL is the same
as the value of reactive reactance XC .This frequency is called resonance frequency ( fr ).

Thus, Resonance frequency is obtained when


XL = XC
or, 2 =
so, = Hz

Thus, this is required expression of resonant frequency. At that point of intersection, the
inductive and capacitive reactance becomes equal and the frequency at which these two
reactance's become equal, is called resonant frequency, fr.
NOTES
1. At resonance XL = XC ,
Z = R + j (XL-XC ) = R, so, the impedance is minimum and thus current is maximum.

2. At series resonance, XL = XC ,so IXL = IXC ,VL = VC so, imaginary voltage drop across
inductor and capacitor is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction and thereby they
cancel each other. So, in a series resonant circuit, voltage across resistor is equal to supply
voltage i.e. V = VR. So, also called voltage resonance circuit.
So, the circuit behaves like a pure resistive circuit and we know that in pure resistive circuit,
Therefore, the phase angle between voltage and current is zero and the power factor is unity.
3. As a series resonance circuit only functions on resonant frequency, this type of circuit is
also known as an Acceptor Circuit because at resonance, the impedance of the circuit is at
its minimum so easily accepts the current whose frequency is equal to its resonant frequency.
APPLICATION OF SERIES RESONANCE
RLC circuits have many applications as oscillator circuits. Radio receivers and television
sets use them for tuning to select a narrow frequency range from ambient radio waves. In this
role, the circuit is often referred to as a tuned circuit.
An RLC circuit can be used as a band-pass filter, band-stop filter, low-pass filter or high-pass
filter. The tuning application, for instance, is an example of band-pass filtering. The RLC
filter is described as a second-order circuit, meaning that any voltage or current in the circuit
can be described by a second-order differential equation in circuit analysis.
Since resonance in series RLC circuit occurs at particular frequency, so it is used for filtering
and tuning purpose as it does not allow unwanted oscillations that would otherwise cause
signal distortion, noise and damage to circuit to pass through it.
Quality factor of R-L-C series circuit
It is the measure of voltage magnification that the circuit produces at resonance. It is the ratio
of voltage across inductor or capacitor to the voltage across resistor.
Q= = = as, fr =

Q=

Q= √
Similarly, for C-circuit

Q= = = as, fr =

Q= =

Q= √
• In case of series resonance, higher value of Q-factor means not only higher voltage
magnification, but also a higher selectivity of the tuning coil and that is why it is
necessary that the coil be of high inductance and low resistance.
• In fact, Q-factor of a series resonant circuit may be defined as the ratio of resonant
frequency to bandwidth: Q = ƒr /B.W.
Bandwidth of a Series Resonance Circuit

Bandwidth is the difference in frequencies of band which lies between two point on either
side of the resonant frequency(Fr) of the resonance curve, when the curve values Irms = =

0.707 Imax.
The magnitude of bandwidth = Δf = f2 – f1.
Now, power dissipated at resonant frequency P0 = Im2 R
power dissipated at frequency f1 and f2 , P1 = P2 ( ) R =

f1 and f2 are the half power points. Bandwidth is the range of frequency within which
the power dissipated in the resistance is greater than or equal to half the power
dissipated at resonance.
Now,
for RLC series circuit
I= …………………….1)
√ ( ) ( ) ( )
√ ( ) √ ( )

And,
current passing at half power points I1 and I2 are given by
I1 = I2 = ……………………2)

( )
Equation 1) and 2) are identical if ( )= 1
or, ( ) = R ………………
Consequently, when frequency increases from f1 to f2 , XL must increases to 0.5R and X C
must corresponding decreases by 0.5R.
Thus, f2 L– f0 L= 0.5 R
– …………….*)
Similarly, when frequency decreases from f0 to f1 , Xc must increases to 0.5R and XL must
corresponding decreases by 0.5R.
Thus, f0 L– f1 L= 0.5 R
– …………….**)
Adding *) and **) we get
Δf = f2 – f1 = + =
ANOTHER WAY TO CALCULATE BAND WIDTH
Bandwidth is the difference in frequencies of band which lies between two point on either
side of the resonant frequency(Fr) of the resonance curve, when the curve values Irms = =

0.707 Imax.
The magnitude of bandwidth = Δf = f2 – f1.

As from fig, we know, XC – XL = R1 or, ……..1)


And, XL – XC = R2 or, ……..2)
From equation 1) and 2)
=
or, ( )= L ( 1 + 2)

or, 1 =
2
or, r = )
Also, + = 2R
( )
( ) = 2R
( )
( ) = 2R
( )
( ) = 2R as fr = so, , r =
√ √
( )
( ) = 2R

( ) ( ) = 2R
( )=
f2 – f1 = ………..*)
Thus Bandwidth = f2 – f1 =
And, fr – f1 =

Parallel Resonance
Parallel Resonance means when the circuit current is in phase with the applied voltage of an
AC circuit containing an inductor and a capacitor connected together in parallel.

Consider an Inductor of L Henry having some resistance of R ohms connected in parallel


with a capacitor of capacitance C farads. A supply voltage of V volts is connected across
these elements. The circuit current Ir will only be in phase with the supply voltage when the
following condition given below in the equation is satisfied.

The phasor diagram of the given circuit is shown below:

Resonance frequency
At the Resonance condition, the circuit draws the minimum current
as under this (resonance) condition the reactive component of current is suppressed.
The parallel resonance will occur if
where, IC = , IL= , sin
So, on substuting
= *
( )2 =
or, ( ( ) )=

or, =√

or, fr = √
or, fr = √

If L >> R, terms is neglected.

So, fr = √ =

This is the required frequency which is same as series resonance.


NOTE
1. The impedance of the parallel circuit is at its maximum value and equal to the
resistance of the circuit creating a circuit condition of high resistance and low current.
Also at resonance, as the impedance of the circuit is now that of resistance only, the
total circuit current, I will be “in-phase” with the supply voltage, VS.

2. At resonance the current flowing through the circuit must also be at its minimum as
the inductive and capacitive branch currents are equal ( IL = IC ) and are 180o out of
phase.
3. As a parallel resonance circuit only functions on resonant frequency, this type of
circuit is also known as an Rejecter Circuit because at resonance, the impedance of
the circuit is at its maximum thereby suppressing or rejecting the current whose
frequency is equal to its resonant frequency. The effect of resonance in a parallel
circuit is also called “current resonance”.
Quality Factor of RLC parallel circuit
It is measure of current magnification produced in RLC parallel circuit.
Q=

where, I0 = = =
= XL * XC = L/C
I0 =
So, Q= =

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