Water Supply

LECTURE NOTES
Degree Program
For Environmental Health Science Students
Water Supply II
Negesse Dibissa
Worku Tefera
Hawassa University
In collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, The Carter Center,
the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education
December 2006
Funded under USAID Cooperative Agreement No. 663-A-00-00-0358-00.
Produced in collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, The Carter
Center, the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education.
Important Guidelines for Printing and Photocopying

Limited permission is granted free of charge to print or photocopy all pages of this
publication for educational, not-for-profit use by health care workers, students or
faculty. All copies must retain all author credits and copyright notices included in the
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©2006 by Negesse Dibissa, Worku Tefera
All rights reserved. Except as expressly provided above, no part of this publication may
be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without written permission of the author or authors.
This material is intended for educational use only by practicing health care workers or
students and faculty in a health care field.
PREFACE
The principal risk associated with community water supply is

from waterborne diseases related to fecal, toxic chemical and
mineral substance contamination as a result of natural, human
and animal activities. When people consume water from a
contaminated source, they will be exposed to infectious and
other related diseases, risking possible death and disability.
Therefore, it is important to make the water safe for human
consumption through the utilization of different methods of
protection and treatment.
For this reason, a lecture note is developed for environmental

health students on how to treat water at household, small
scale and large scale levels, to make the water safe for
human consumption. The lecture note also includes
information on water quality control for the assessment of
hygienic quality of the drinking water using physical, chemical
and bacteriological analysis and the principle of water pumps
to lift and distribute water from shallow and deep wells for
individual and community utilization.
As the trainings at higher institutions have been upgraded to a

degree level, this lecture note is developed as an upgrade
version of the earlier one though some changes on the
chapters, contents and sequences. A chapter, “Water Supply
in Disaster Management” is also incorporated in this upgraded
i
lecture note. In this lecture note, too, each chapter has its own
learning objectives, review questions, and note for the
teachers (wherever deemed relevant). Both Metric and
English system of measurements were used. However, the
conversion factors are given on the annex.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We express our sincere thanks to Professor Dennis Carlson,

Resident Technical Advisor, and Resident Resource Team at
The Carter Center: Dr. Hailu Yeneneh, Ato Aklilu Mulgeta, Ato
Assefa Bulcha, W/t Meseret Tsegaw, and W/t Mahlet Tilahun,
for their encouraging and honorable advice in organizing
teaching material development.
We are grateful to The Carter Center for its overall financial
and material support for facilitating the lecture note
preparation process.
We are also thankful to intra- and inter-institutional reviewers:
Ato Sileshi Behailu and Getachew Redaei; and Dr. Mengesha
Admassu, Ato Tesfaye Gobena, Ato Fantahun Wassie, and
Ato Birhanu Zeleke, respectively, for giving valuable
comments, contributions, and suggestions for upgrading this
lecture note.
We are very grateful to national reviewers, Ato Gebre-
Emanuel Teka, Associate professor (Retired), and Dr. Abera
Kumie, Assistant Professor, MF, AAU for their critical
comments and suggestions made during the review.
We are also indebted to thank Ato Dejene Hailu, Dr. Eshetu
Wassie, and Ato Biruck Desalegn for facilitating the reviewing
process.
iii
Finally, we wish to thank W/t Meaza Teferi, for computer
typing the original material.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE .................................................................................i
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ........................................................... iii
CONTENTS .............................................................................v
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................. viii
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................. ix
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................... xi
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 1
Learning Objectives ............................................................ 1
1.1 Existing Problems of Water Supply .............................. 1
Review Questions ............................................................... 7
CHAPTER TWO
WATER QUANTITY AND QUALITY ASSESSMENT ............ 8
Learning Objectives ............................................................ 8
2.1 Introduction ................................................................... 9
2.2 Water Quality Analysis................................................ 17
Review Questions ............................................................. 34
CHAPTER THREE
WATER TREATMENT .......................................................... 36
Learning Objectives .......................................................... 36
3.1 Introduction ................................................................. 36
3.2 Water Treatment on Small Scale ................................ 37
v
3.3 Design Principles and Unit Processes of Conventional
(Large Scale) Water Treatment ........................................ 52
3.4 Supplementary water treatment ............................... 133
Review Questions ........................................................... 176
CHAPTER FOUR
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES ............. 179
Learning Objectives ........................................................ 179
4.1 Introduction ............................................................... 179
4.2 Principles of Water Sampling and Analysis .............. 180
4.3 Types of Sampling and Sampling Techniques ......... 180
4.3 Frequency of Sampling ............................................. 186
4.4 Water Analysis .......................................................... 188
4.5 Interpretation of Results............................................ 194
CHAPTER FIVE
WATER SURVEILLANCE .................................................. 198
5.1 Introduction ............................................................... 198
5.2 Sanitary Survey ........................................................ 199
CHAPTER SIX
WATER DISTRIBUTION AND HYDRAULICS ................... 211
6.1 Introduction ............................................................... 211
6.2 Water Distribution ..................................................... 227
vi
6.3 Hydraulics and Its Applications to Drinking Water
Supplies .......................................................................... 234
CHAPTER SEVEN
WATER SUPPLY IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT ............ 268
7.1 Introduction ............................................................... 268
7.2 Water Supply Activities ............................................. 270
7.3 Water in Camps of Displaced People ....................... 274
7.4 Conclusion ................................................................ 300
Glossary ............................................................................. 303
Reference ........................................................................... 307
Annexes ............................................................................. 312
Annex I. Water Quality Standards .................................. 312
Annex II Unit conversions ............................................... 314
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Classification of Water by Concentration of Coliform
Bacteria and Treatment Required.............................. 75
Table 3.2 Availability, forms of chlorine, and its compounds 111
Table 3.3 Chlorine residual for effective disinfection of filtered
water ....................................................................... 117
Table 3.4 Approximate volume of 10% alum solution (ml) to
be added in 40 liters of test water to obtain the
acceptable limit (1.0mg F/l) of fluoride .................... 141
Table 3.5 Removal of dissolved iron ....................................... 165
Table 4.1 Frequency of sampling for unchlorinated water

supplies ................................................................... 193
Table 4.2 Guidelines for bacteriological quality of water ........ 195

Table 6.1 Indicative values of the strickler coefficient for
various types of linings ........................................... 218
Table 6.2 Absolute roughness (Bhave, 1991).......................... 222
Table 6.3 The Hazen-williams factor (Bhave, 1991) ................ 223
Table 6.4 Suggested minimum flow velocities, coefficients or
roughness and side slopes, for lined and unlined
ditches and flumes ................................................... 248
Table 7.1 Microbial guidelines for water samples collected of
disaster sites ........................................................... 299
Table 7.2 Bleach calculations for dug wells ............................. 299
Table 7.3 Daily potable water needs per person ..................... 300
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1 Homemade sand filter .............................................. 40
Figure- 3.2- Candle Filter .......................................................... 43
Figure –3.3- Stone filter ............................................................. 45
Figure 3.4. Cloth filtration .......................................................... 47
Figure-3.5.- Method of preparing chlorine solution using local
material ..................................................................... 48
Figure 3.6 The preliminary treatment units ............................... 56
Figure 3.7 Conventional water treatment system flow diagram. 74
Figure 3.8 The ideal sedimentation basin ................................. 77
Figure 3.9. Types of sedimentation tank ................................... 80
Figure 3.10 Jar- test results ....................................................... 83
Figure 3.11 Rapid mixer ............................................................ 85
Figure 3.12 Slow sand filter for a small water supply ............... 93
Figure 3.13 Typical devices for the control of the rate of flow
or filtration .................................................................. 95
Figure 3.14Essential parts of a rapid sand filter ........................ 98
Figure 3.15 Pressure Filter cutaway ........................................ 103
Figure-3.16 Diatomaceous earth filter...................................... 106
Figure 3.17 The reaction of chlorine in water .......................... 121
Figure 3.18 An Emergency Siphon Chlorination ..................... 124
Figure 4.1 .Microbiological Testing of water by Membrane
Filtration .................................................................. 193
Figure 6.1 The concept of a ‘hydraulic graient’ ....................... 241
ix
Figure 6.2 Determination of head friction losses in straight
pipes. ....................................................................... 243
Figure 6.3 Head loss nomogram calculated for rigid PVC
pipes using Blasius formula .................................... 244
Figure 6.4 How total head and efficiency vary with flow .......... 247
Figure 6.5 A centrifugal force pump ........................................ 254
Figure 6.6 A typical pitcher pump being primed ...................... 259
Figure 6.7 Arrangement of a typical deep well force pump .... 260
Figure 6.8 Arrangement of a typical deep-well lift pump ......... 261
Figure 6.9 A typical arrangement of part of windmill tower and
well .......................................................................... 263
Figure 6.10 A typical single – action pump ............................. 265
x
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand

3
cm Cubic Centimeter
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
CFU Colony Forming Unit
d Day
0
C Degree Celsius
DO Dissolved Oxygen
EU European Union
FC Fecal Coliform
FS Fecal Streptococci
ft Feet
gm/l Gram per Liter
HPC Heterotrophic Plate Count
HP Horsepower
Kg Kilogram
MAC Maximum Allowable Concentration
MF Membrane Filter
m Meter
m/h Meter per Hour
m3 Cubic Meter
3
m /d Cubic Meters per Day
3
m /c/d Cubic Meters per Capita per Day
µ Micron
mg/l Milligram per Liter
xi
ml Milliliter
MPN Most Probable Number
NTU Nephlometric Turbidity Unit
ppm Parts Per Million
PCA Plate Count Agar
% Percentage
ppt Precipitate
psi pounds per square inch
SOC Synthetic Organic Chemicals
SS Suspended Solid
TC Total Coliform
O
H Unit of Color
US United States
VOC Volatile Organic Chemicals
GAC Granular Activated Carbon
WASH Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Education
w Weight
WHO World Health Organization
xii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student (the reader) will be able
to:-
• Understand water as an important and precious resource for
life.
• Describe the toll of diseases related to water.
• Discuss the different views on water supply.
• Appreciate the problem of water in terms of quality and
quantity.
• Identify the roles of different stakeholders, like Governmental
and International agencies, NGOs, professionals and the
public in accessing adequate and safe water supply.
1.1 Existing Problems of Water Supply

Water is humanity's second most precious resource after the air
we breathe. It covers over 70% of the earth's surface but only
less than 1% is available as fresh water, the distribution of which
painfully reflects the failure of the modern world to build a fair
society. Over 1.1 billion people lack access to safe water and 2.6
billion live without proper sanitation. Water-related diseases, such
as cholera, diarrhoeal diseases, dracunculiasis (Guinea worm),
1
filariasis, malaria, onchocerciasis (river blindness),
schistosomiasis (bilharzia), trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness),
and typhoid, still represent the single largest cause of human
morbidity and mortality, of whom most are children.
A primary requisite for good health is an adequate supply of

water that is of satisfactory sanitary quality. It is also important
that the water be attractive and palatable to induce its use
otherwise consumers may decide to use water of doubtful quality
from a nearby unprotected stream, well, river or spring.
Three trends exemplify the water problems now facing
humankind. First, there is a strong move toward the
“commodification” of water—treating it as an economic good
rather than a gift of nature. In principle, there is nothing wrong
with properly valuing of water’s role as a commodity. A second
trend is the growing interest in returning some water to nature.
This reflects rising concern about the loss of water’s fundamental
environmental functions, as in the case of wetlands and other
biologically diverse ecosystems that are rich in unique flora and
fauna and on which many poor people depend. This trend stands
as a potentially strong counterweight to the move to treat water
as an economic good. The third trend has to do with the widening
gap in water use between rich and poor- both within and between
countries.
The problem of water is more a case of distribution and quality

than that of quantity. All regions have some problems related to
2
either groundwater or surface water resources. The development
and efficient management of water resources is of particular
concern in the Middle East and parts of Africa, particularly the
Sudano-Sahelian belt and the Horn of Africa. Hence, the
development and efficient management of water resources is a
priority concern in the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and the Pacific.
Water supply in the rapidly urbanizing regions of Latin America,
Asia, and Africa is also an issue, particularly with regard to
serving the burgeoning squatter settlements and other low-
income urban communities. Since more than 1.5 billion people
depend on groundwater for their drinking, water protection of
groundwater supplies is also an issue of concern.
In regarding with the initiatives, a sound water policy for the 21st
century is generally recognized as requiring long-term planning,
active public participation, and a new vision of sustainable water
use, including explicit goals to help resolve water conflicts and to
meet basic human and environmental needs. It may also involve
the decentralization of water resource management
responsibilities from national to sub-national authorities, an
increasing role for the private sector in environmental
stewardship and policy development, and a move towards
integrated water policies and management practices.
A progress monitoring report jointly released by the United

Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health
Organization (WHO) in August 2004 suggested that, although the
3
drinking water target may be achieved in terms of absolute
numbers, poorer countries are being left behind. For example,
despite advancing from 49% coverage in Sub-Saharan Africa in
1990 to 58% in 2002, this rate is far too slow to meet the target
by 2015.
Clean water is almost always indicated as the first priority by low-

income communities when asked which services they would like
to receive. There are two indicators for an adequate water supply
-quality and quantity. Quality standards for drinking water are
often specified by relevant national agencies, but, when national
standards are not available, the World Health Organization's
(WHO) International Standards for Drinking Water Quality have
normally been adopted. These standards set minimum levels of
physical, chemical and bacteriological quality for domestic
consumption. Recently, the international standards have been
superseded by a set of Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality,
which WHO has produced and whose main emphasis is on the
microbiological quality of drinking water supplies.
In order to guarantee adequate water quality at the consumer's

end of the supply system, a series of quality-protection devices
and/or treatment processes have to be incorporated. They range
from simple spring or well protection to sophisticated physical
and chemical treatment systems. In addition, large water-supply
systems require investment in civil engineering works to protect
water quality, mainly from bacteriological contamination. These
4
works cover the transporting, storage and distribution stages. It is
obvious that low-income communities cannot afford expensive
systems, in terms of both capital and operating costs, and cannot
operate and maintain sophisticated systems themselves.
Sometimes, it will be necessary to use a water source, which

cannot be upgraded, to a satisfactory level of quality at an
affordable cost. This trade-off between quality and cost will not
normally apply to bacteriological quality but might be considered
a reasonable approach with regard to the aesthetic
characteristics of water. Health protection is a prime
consideration in the provision of adequate water supplies, and
actions in this respect will normally focus on the control of water-
related diseases. However, it must be accepted that it will not
always be possible to ensure an absolutely safe supply,
particularly in the case of small rural systems.
Although different strategies for the provision of drinking water

and sanitation were exerted by different public and NGO
institution, the output for the last decades were not encouraging
to a level that could impact the health of Ethiopian population.
The Federal Ministry of Health, Ministry of Education and
UNICEF are, among others, the leading pioneers that are
involved in the development of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene
education (WASH). Like other east African countries, in Ethiopia
the status of water supply is similarly reflected. This basic issue
5
has been give priority attention by integrated working among, the
ministries of Health, Education and Water resource.
With the memorandum of understanding with the ministries and

as matter of facts the Ministry of Health is responsible for the
health of the society at large. The quality of water is the concern
and priority choice of every individual, and also the task of
Ministry of Water Resources as this is part of the water treatment
plant, however, reassuring of the quality of water for consumption
is the responsibility of Ministry of Health.
The adequate knowledge and skills of water in relation to health

is most significant in promotion of health. For the proper
application of the measures one has to be trained in the area,
hence environmental health professionals are meant for the
prevention and control of health related problems, availability of
proper guidelines and materials, which are considered to be
mandatory.
6
Review Questions
1. Which health problems are related to water?

2. Justify why the problem of quality and distribution of
water mostly matters more than quantity?
3. Discuss the roles of the ministries of Health and Water
Resources on community water supply.
7
CHAPTER TWO
WATER QUANTITY AND QUALITY
ASSESSMENT
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter students will be able to:-

1. Define physical, chemical and bacteriological analysis of
water.
2. Describe the different methods of physical, chemical and
bacteriological analysis of water.
3. List laboratory apparatus used in drinking water quality
analysis.
4. Identify points to be considered in sanitary surveying of
water sources.
5. Explain the drinking water quality standard.
6. Determine the quantity requirements of water supply for
different purposes.
7. Identify the factors that should be considered to design
quantity requirements for drinking water systems.
8
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Need Assessment

The knowledge of the quantity of water required is important to
decide on the source for intake, amount to be processed daily,
weekly, or above; or hourly per minute or lower time period, and
the costs of construction, operation and maintenance. The multi
purpose of water necessitates different approaches to stimulate
the amounts for the different uses of water encountered in a
given time period. Hence, water consumption must be
distinguished from water usage. In the former case, some or
greater amount of water is lost to the environmental (body
atmosphere, or other environmental constituents) and is no
longer available for some kind of reuse. In the case of the water
usage the polluted water after its usage can be treated and
subsequently reused. For example, washing water is water use
while water used for drinking or irrigation is water consumption;
because it is lost (partly) by perspiration or evapotranspiration,
respectively. Major categories of water requirements can be
domestic, industrial, agricultural and recreational which in turn
have various other requirements. For instance, under domestic
requirements drinking, washing, cleansing, gardening fire
extinguishing etc can be subcategories, while the 2.5
(recommended) liter per day by an adult person for drinking
alone, 2.100-4.200 liters for bread preparation, or 15200 liters for
preparing a kiloliter of beer are examples for water consumption.
9
Quantity of water required also depends on the habits/ cultures of
people who use the water. The amount of water required is not
only calculated for the current purpose, especially when
treatment plants are designed for the source of intake is
determined by population growth, increasing urbanization
features, industries, agro-industrial complexes etc, must be
reconsidered for the future periods, say 10 years, 20 years or
more. The size of water storage facilities (reservoirs) is also very
much dependent on the quantity of water required both currently
and in due time.
2.1.2 Water Quality Assessment

Natural water is rarely of satisfactory quality for human
consumption. Chemically pure water is the one, which contains
two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen.
The primary objective of water treatment and purification is to

collect water from best available source and subject it to
processing which will ensure water of good physical quality, free
from unpleasant taste and/or odor, and containing nothing which
might be detrimental to health.
Depending largely upon the sources from which they are derived,
the various waters so obtained may differ greatly in purity and
suitability for the purposes for which they are required.
10
Pollution and water quality degradation interfere with vital and
legitimate water uses at scales from local to global levels.
Therefore, water quality criteria are necessary to ensure that the
appropriate quality of resources is available for an intended
purpose.
Water quality and standards vary and may originate in a number
of possible ways; there are international standards set by WHO
and EU, regional standards set by local authorities, with ultimate
objective of protecting the user from ill health.
Therefore, assessment of water quality is an important procedure
in modern society.
Earliest and simplest methods were purely subjective- does the
water look clean, smell right, etc? But the fact that water is such a
good solvent and can contain all kinds of dissolved substances
lead to requirements for more precise assessment methods of
water quality.
The modern approaches to the description of water quality utilize

three stages:
1. Quantitative measurements, such as physicochemical
parameters in water.
2. Biochemical tests including BOD estimation, toxicity test,
etc.
3. Semi-quantitative and qualitative descriptions involving
biological indicators and species inventories.
11
2.1.3 Water Quality Requirement
The importance of water quality, at times determines the
availability of “water proper” water that can be used for the
intended purpose. This is better explained by the saying “water
every where and not a drop to drink”.
To cite some examples of the presence of generally known as

water, but not water proper:
Consumption
Water contaminated with sufficient dose of bacteria that cause
typhoid fever detected (confirmedly) regardless of its being cold
and clear, cannot serve its purpose of quenching human thirst.
This is because the ingestion by human beings of a few typhoid
organisms can cause a high prevalence of (epidemic of) typhoid.
It can even be fatal in the case of cholera agents.
Industrial
A difference of, say, 40C in a cooling water system can be worth
a million dollars a year in a very large steam, electric generation
facility, etc.
Agricultural
Large stores of ground water/surface water may be found just
beneath the surface in water hungry (thirsty) areas, but its salinity
may be too great to use for irrigation of most crops.
12
However, in some places (communities, towns, and even big
cities) it is difficult to be too selective, as available sources are
limited. Thus a compromise is made with necessary protective
measures incorporated such measures include selective a main
intake, preliminary treatments, etc.
The selection of raw water sources is also influenced by the

general categories of water use, such as, industry, agriculture,
recreation, etc.
2.1.4 Affordability and technology options

Affordability of water treatment is paradoxically associated with
two basic issues:
• The first issue is that safe and adequate water supply is

an internationally accepted (UN/ WHO) health
requirement of every individual human being
• The second is that “more than half of the world’s
population (most of them in the developing countries)
lacks safe and adequate water, thus is exposed to
preventable water borne disease that account for more
than 40% of the communicable disease prevalent in
these countries.
As to the quantity (adequacy) issue, the tiny 0.7% available fresh

water worldwide of unevenly distributed is estimated to supply
13
the current world population 256 liters per capita per day. So
according to uses scarcity of water supply can be said is due to
its uneven distribution geographically. However, the availability of
water fit for all life (especially humans) is being endangered at an
alarming rate by human irresponsible activities. These activities
of crime against life on earth have already supposed the current
generation and become the legality of the coming ones. Human
interference through industrialization, agricultural complexes,
urbanization, and nuclear reactions, nowadays is not only blamed
of exploiting the water bodies but also of interrupting the natural
hydrologic cycle, deforestation, eutrophication, global warming,
greenhouse gas effect and ozone depletion are a few examples
of the outcomes of human abuses on our planet.
Therefore, the affordability of getting safe and adequate water

supplies on one hand is a global problem and on the other it is
the problem of the poor countries like Ethiopia. The former is due
to the burden of the problem over and above the capacity of a
country, groups of countries or geographical regions and the
latter due to the low socio-economic development levels
(poverty).
Attempts to solve the global level problem include the Montreal,

Kyoto, Rio de Janeiro, and Durban conferences resolutions,
which yet did not get acceptance by all countries especially by
the greatest polluters such the United States. Attempts to solve
the problems due to the socio economic development levels
14
include the “water and sanitation decade” of the WHO, UN
“Health for All by the year 2000 (Primary Health Care)” etc.
These also, though one cannot absolute due to a few changes,
especially in the sphere of awareness-raising and some urban
water supply treatment, did not reach at their stipulated goals. To
this end the gap between the rich and poor nations in getting
pure and adequate water supply is still wide apart.
Technological options available for making water safe and

adequate are similarity different between the two categories of
the world. This problem is more aggravated in the developing
nations, as the problem of affordability is complicated with lack of
knowledge and skills.
New technologies such as ozone disinfection (chlorine Æ

carcinogenic and not effect against shielded micro organism
bacteria, protozoa, fungi, viruses reverse osmosis), ionization
treatment are utilized in rich nations, while the routine unit
processes (sedimentation, filtration, and disinfections) are being
applied only in a few towns and cities in the remaining parts of
the world. Even then shortage of chemicals for disinfections as
well as apparatus and reagents for quality control coupled with
lack of trained human power and many items put the safety of the
water supplies under question. The incidence of water borne
disease (sometimes on an epidemic level, e.g. typhoid fever,
shigellosis, dysenteries, etc) implicated to the so-called
conventionally treated water supplies is not a rare phenomenon.
15
The cost of a conventional water treatment can be categorized
under three (main titles):
1. Construction/ installation cost: this includes the cost of

raw water if paid for:
- The cost of technology (technological materials)
- The cost of land
- The cost of labor
- The cost of construction materials; amount of sand,
gravel and stones
2. Operational cost: that is incurred to run the plant or the

entire water treatment and distribution works, cost of
chemical reagents, power, labor etc.
3. Maintenance cost :( repairing, cleaning, spare parts, labor

etc.)
In general, in normal (routine) conventional water treatment

system at the beginning the cost of construction, the cost of
operation is greater than the cost of maintenance. This depends
on the types of technology used. Thus, there are cases where
construction (installation) cost is less than operation cost and
even maintenance cost (after a certain time service greater or
almost all parts may be replaced).
16
Technological as well as operational costs also depend upon the
types of training and the expected standard of the water to be
treated. This in turn indicate the inputs and outputs of each unit
operation process (quality standard of water after sedimentation,
filtration, disinfection etc.) while the gold standard for certifying
the safety of treated drinking water supplies its being free from
pathogens and a known dose of other substances that cause
disease or ill health conditions of the consumer other quality
issues are often established on threshold levels (maximum and
minimum). Some minerals or chemical compounds that need to
be removed from or added to the treated water supplies are dealt
with in a process known as supplementary water treatment,
which will be discussed in another chapter.
2.2 Water Quality Analysis

Impurities present in water can be determined by different water
quality analysis techniques. The analysis can be done both for
raw and treated water.
2.2.1 Purpose of Water Quality Analysis

To classify the water with respect to general level of
mineral constituents
To determine the degree of clarity and ascertain the
nature of matter in suspension
To determine the chemical and bacteriological pollution
of water
17
To determine the presence/absence of an excess level of
any particular constituent affecting potable quality and
general use.
To determine the level of organic impurities.
To set the outlines of purification process and specify
stages in it.
To ascertain whether purification of water has reached
the required standards or not.
In general, assessing the quality of water is used to classify,
prescribe treatment, control treatment and purification processes
and maintains public supplies of an appropriate standard of
organic quality, clarity and palatability, etc.
Water quality parameters can be divided into three broad

classes:
1. Physical parameter
2. Chemical parameter
3. Microbiological parameter
2.2.1.1 Aesthetic and Physical Quality Parameters of Water

Aesthetic and physical quality parameters that show wide
variation in magnitude consists of: Color, turbidity, odor, taste,
temperature and solids.
Colour: imparted to water by dissolved constituents that absorb

white light and emit light at specific wavelengths. Color of water is
18
also influenced by its turbidity. Humic and fulvic acids impart
color to natural waters.
Watercolor caused by dissolved or colloidal substances that
remain in the filtrate after filtration through a 0.45 mm filter is
called "True color". "Apparent color" is the term applied to colored
compounds in solution together with colored suspended matter.
Color is measured in units of milligram/liter of platinum; with the
EU drinking water upper limit is 20 mg/l, with a guideline value of
1 mg/l.
Turbidity: Imparted by the colloidal matter present in water, this

can be clay and loam, or microscopic organisms. It is a measure
of the resistance of water to the passage of light through it and is
estimated against standard suspensions based on
standardization photometric means. Turbidity is expressed in
terms of ppm by weight. The permissible turbidity of domestic
water may be between five to ten ppm.
Common methods of measuring turbidity of water are:
1. By turbidity rod
2. By Jackson's turbidimeter
3. By Baylis turbidimeter
4. By Nephlometers
Odor and Taste: are of prime importance in assessing the

palatability of water. Their occurrence may be due to the
presence of mineral salts, industrial wastes, domestic sewage,
decomposing organic matter, certain types of microscopic
19
organisms or chemical compounds, etc. However, taste and odor
are the most difficult physical characteristics to measure because
of personal factors, related to taste and odor, atmospheric
conditions of impurity, temperature and humidity.
The odor threshold is determined by diluting a sample with odor-
free water until the last perceptible odor is detected and the result
is expressed as a dilution ratio in threshold odor number (TON).
The test is conducted at 200C and the TON should not be more
than three for public water supply.
Temperature: measurements are sometimes important to

identify the magnitude of density, viscosity, vapor pressure, and
surface tension of water. Also saturation values of DO, BOD, and
biological activities are dependent on temperature of water. The
temperature of water to be supplied should be between10-200C.
The temperature higher than 250C is considered objectionable. It
can be measured with ordinary thermometers graduated in 0.10C,
range 0-500C.
Solids: the amount, size and type of solids depend on the

specific water. High solid contents indicate either contamination
or presence of excessive mineral matters and the amount of total
solids should preferably be less than 500 ppm.
Classification of solids in water:
Total solids, TS
Suspended solids, SS
Total dissolved solids, TDS=TS-SS
20
Total volatile solids, TVS
Volatile suspended solids, VSS
2.2.1.2 Chemical Quality Parameters of Water

The assessment of chemical water quality parameter may be
either:
Specific, for instance analysis for ions, Ca++, HCO3-,
heavy metals like Pb, Cr, etc; or
General, for instance tests such as alkalinity, hardness,
etc.
The aim of chemical analysis of water is to determine the quality
and quantity of different types of chemicals that may be present
in a water supply system, which are generally reported in
concentrations of mg/l or ppm.
Gross chemical Parameters of Water

The gross chemical parameters of water that are in wide use
relating to water quality are: pH, alkalinity and acidity, hardness,
and conductivity.
pH: a measure of a degree of acidity or alkalinity of water.

Though the concentration of the two free or uncombined
components [H+] and [OH-] of water is extremely small, it is
governed by the Law of Mass Action,
i.e. [H+][OH-] = Constant
[H2O]
21
Since dissociation of water is only very slight, the concentration
of undissociated molecules (the denominator) may be taken as
100% or unity. Hence, we have:
[H+][OH-] = Ionization Constant.
When concentration of the equation is expressed in terms of ions
per liter, the constant is 10-14 at 210C.
i.e. [H+][OH-] = 10-14
for absolutely pure water, [H+] = [OH-] at 210C, its value is 10-7
each.
Thus, (10-7 gm H-ion) x (10-7 gm OH-ion) = 10-14
Because of very low value of H-ion concentration, this figure is
inconvenient to be used, and instead a term pH value has been
introduced.
pH= -log10[H+]= log10 1
[H+]
Acidic water causes corrosion while alkaline water causes
incrustation. For potable waters, the pH value should be between
6 to 9, and preferably between 7 and 8.5.
Measurement of pH value is important since it provides means of
classifying and of correlating behaviors such as corrosive activity
or other inter-related factors controlling biological function in a
body of water. It is also helpful in controlling softening and
coagulation processes in water treatment. There are colorimetric
and electrometric methods of determining pH value of water.
22
Alkalinity and Acidity: alkalinity is the capacity of water to
+
accept H ion, is a measure of its acid neutralizing capacity and
acidity is a measure of the base neutralizing capacity.
OH-, CO3-, HCO3- and CO2 contribute to alkalinity in relative
amounts.
Stumm and Morgan (1981) define alkalinity as:
[Alkalinity]=[OH-]+ 2[CO3-2]+[HCO3-] -[H+]
Alkalinity is measured volumetrically by titration with N/50 H2SO4
and is expressed in mg as CaCO3/L. The amount of acid required
to react with OH-, CO3-2 and HCO3-2 is called the total alkalinity.
Hardness: is due to presence of certain salts, such as CO3-2,

HCO3-, Cl- and sulphates of Calcium and magnesium dissolved in
it.
Total Hardness= Temporary hardness (Carbonate hardness) +

permanent hardness.
Temporary hardness (Carbonate hardness) is due to the
presence of CO3-2 and HCO3- of Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions. It is easily
removed by either boiling the water and by adding lime to the
water (H2O). The permanent hardness is due to the presence of
sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium and magnesium, and
cannot be removed by boiling and requires special method of
water softening. Hardness is expressed in ppm or in terms of
degree of hardness, 1-extremely soft water and 17 too hard to
use.
23
There are different methods of determining total hardness of
water like, Clark's method, Hehner's method and Versenate
method.
Analysis of total hardness is usually expressed in terms CaCO3
equivalent (mg/l of CaCO3). Hard water wastes soap, forms scale
in boilers, pipe lines and may act as a laxative under extreme
cases.
Conductivity: a measure of the ability of an aqueous solution to

carry an electric current. The greater the concentration of
dissolved salts, the higher the ionic mobility; and the higher the
magnitude of conductivity. Chemically pure water does not
conduct electricity. Seawater with high salts has a conductivity of
about 40,000 µs/cm.
A positive measure of conductivity is indicative of the
concentration of dissolved inorganic salts.
Although conductivity has no health significance, the EU drinking
water directive places an upper limit of 1500 µs/cm.
Some Specific Chemical Quality Parameters of Water

Chlorides: The test primarily carried out to determine the content
of NaCl in water. The dominant ion in rainwater is chloride, as
rainwater is largely derived from seawater. Chlorides are
estimated by titration with standard silver nitrate solution using
potassium chromate as indicator.
24
Metals and Other Chemical Substances
Iron and Manganese: Iron in water causes hardness, bad taste,
discoloration of clothes and plumbing fixtures and incrustation in
water mains. Manganese imparts a brownish or purplish color to
H2O and laundered goods when oxidized and stains plumbing
fixtures. It also impairs tastes to coffee and tea.
Estimation of iron is a colorimetric procedure and also estimation
of manganese is by matching the pink color produced on
oxidation to permanganate.
Lead and Arsenic: Lead is a known cumulative poison. Under

normal conditions, the concentration of lead should be less than
0.05 mg/l. The presence of lead can be detected by drops of
H2SO4 in a glass of water, which will give white precipitate. Zinc-
galvanized iron pipe, copper pipe with lead-based solder joints,
and brass pipe, faucets, and fittings may contribute lead. The
lead should not exceed 5 μg/l in the distribution system.
Lead, as well as cadmium, zinc, and copper, are dissolved by
carbonated beverages, which are highly charged with carbon
dioxide. Limestone, galena, water, and, food are natural sources
of lead. Other sources are motor vehicle exhaust, certain
industrial wastes, mines and smelters, lead paints, glazes, car
battery salvage operations, soil, dust, tobacco, cosmetics, and
agricultural sprays. Fallout from airborne pollutants also
contributes significant concentrations of lead to water supply
reservoirs and drainage basins. About one-fifth of the lead
ingested in water is absorbed. The US Environmental Protection
25
Authority (EPA) estimates that in young children about 20
percent of lead exposure comes from drinking water; dust
contributes at least 30 percent, air 5 to 20 percent, and food 30 to
45 percent.
Conventional water treatment, including coagulation, will partially
remove natural or man-made lead in raw water. Measures to
prevent or minimize lead dissolution include maintenance of pH >
8.0 and use of zinc orthophosphate or polyphosphates.
Chronic arsenic poisoning is difficult to diagnose, and can be
quite disabling prior to detection. Arsenic can be removed from
water in ion exchange equipment using activated alumina or
bone charcoal.
Fluorides and Iodides: In small concentration, both may be

useful to human being. Excess concentrations of fluoride (>3
ppm) can cause dental fluorosis or mottled enamel in children.
Flourides can be estimated colorimetrically by developing a color
with Zirconium alizarin reagent. Iodide can be determined in
water supplies by utilizing its utility to catalize the reduction of
ceric ions by arsenious acid, the effect being proportional to the
amount of iodide present.
Mercury: Episodes associated with the consumption of methyl

mercury-contaminated fish, bread, pork, and seed have called
attention to the possible contamination of drinking water. Mercury
is found in nature in the elemental and organic forms.
Concentrations in unpolluted waters are normally less than 1.0
26
μg/l. The organic methyl mercury and other alkyl mercury
compounds are highly toxic, affecting the central nervous system
and kidneys. It is taken up by the aquatic food chain. The
maximum permissible contaminant level in drinking water is
0.002 mg/l as total mercury. The WHO guideline is 0.001 mg/l.
Pesticides: Pesticides include insecticides, herbicides, fungicides,

rodenticides, and regulations of plant growth, defoliants, or
descants. Sources of pesticides in drinking water are industrial
wastes, spills and dumping of pesticides; and runoff from fields,
inhibited areas, farms, or orchards treated with pesticides.
Surface and ground water may be contaminated. Conventional
water treatment does not adequately remove pesticides.
Powdered or granular activated carbon treatment may also be
necessary.
Barium and Boron: Barium can have serious to toxic effects on

the heart, blood vessels and nerves. It occurs naturally in some
mineral springs as the carbonate salt. Ingestion of large amounts
of boron can affect central nervous system (CNS).
Cadmium and Hexavalent Chromium: Cadmium is highly toxic.

It can become a water contaminant through careless discharge of
electroplating plant washes or from galvanizing operations in
which cadmium is a contaminant.
Chromium, when inhaled can be a cause of cancer in human,
though the effects of ingestion are not known. The likely sources
27
of hexavalent chromium in water could be pollution by wastes
from chromium plating shops, tanneries, etc.
Phenols: water receives phenols from trade wastes; wash in

from road banks, gas liqueurs, etc. Trace phenol concentrations
can impart an objectionable taste to water following marginal
chlorination.
Nitrogen and Its Compounds: Nitrogen can be present in water

in the following forms:
I. Ammoniacal Nitrogen (free and saline ammonia)
II. Albuminoid Nitrogen
III. Nitrite
IV. Nitrate
1/Ammoniacal-nitrogen: The occurrence of free ammonia

indicates the direct inclusion of organic matter.
2/Albuminoid Nitrogen: Normally derived from the animal and
plant life normal to the aquatic environment. Its determination
gives an appropriate indication of the quality of proteinaceous
nitrogen present in water. Its presence gives an indication of
organic pollution in a water supply.
3/Nitrite: Occurs in water as an intermediate in an oxidation or
reduction process in raw surface water supplies the trace
amounts of nitrite indicates presence of pollution.
4/Nitrate: Nitrate is the final stage in the oxidation of nitrogen
compounds. When the nitrate is in excessive amounts, it
28
contributes to the illness known as infant methemoglobinaemia
(Blue Baby syndrome).
Phosphorus: Phosphates are present in surface waters as a

result of weathering and leaching of phosphorus-bearing rocks,
from soil erosion, from municipal sewage, industrial wastewater
effluent, agricultural runoff and atmospheric precipitation.
The commonly occurring compounds of phosphorus in water

are:
Orthophosphates:
Na3Po4 - Trisodium phosphate
Na2 HPo4 - Disodium hydrogen phosphate
Na2 H2Po4 - Sodium dihydrogen phosphate
(NH4)2HPo4 - Diamonium hydrogen phosphate
Polyphosphates:
Na3 (Po3) - Sodium hexmetaphosphate
Na3P3 )O3 - Sodium tripolyphosphate
Na2 H2Po4 - Sodium dihydrogen phosphate
Na4P2 O9 - Sodium pyrophosphate
Dissolved Oxygen Gases:

DO: Surface waters get O2 dissolved either from atmosphere or
due to activities of algae & tiny plant life in water. Its
content in surface water is dependent upon the amount &
29
character of the unstable organic matter in the water. The
amount of oxygen that water can hold depends upon
temperature.
BOD: is a measure of oxygen required to oxidize the organic

matter in a sample through the action of micro-organisms
contained in the sample. Unpolluted waters should have
5ppm of BOD found from an incubation period of five
days at a temperature of 200 C.
CO2: gets dissolved in water from the atmosphere from

decomposing organic matter at the earth’s surface or
from underground sources. The CO2 content of water
may contribute significantly to some corrosive situations.
The amount of CO2 can be reduced either by aeration or
by addition of alkaline.
H2S: mostly found in ground water and may be produced

either by reduction of sulphate by inorganic process or by
decomposition of organic matter through biological agencies and
sulphate reducing bacteria.
2.2.1.3 Biological Quality Parameters of Water

Contaminated water may contain a host of microorganisms, due
to which water borne diseases may be spread if water is not
properly treated before it is supplied to the public. The various
30
microorganisms found in water may be broadly classified under
three categories:
1/ Aquatic plants
2/ Aquatic animals
3/ Aquatic molds, bacteria & virus
1/ Aquatic plants:
- Waterweeds (Spermophyta)
- Mosses & liverworts (Broyphyta)
- Ferns & horsetails (Pteridophyta)
- Algae (Thallophyta)
2/ Aquatic animals:
- Fish & amphibians (vertebrate)
- Mussels, snails, slugs, limplets,
cocklets (Mollusca)
- Crustacea, insects, spiders, mites
(arthropods)
- Aquatic earth worms, threadworms,
rotifera (worms)
- Hydra, polyzoa etc (metazoa)
- Entameoba hystolytica etc.
(protozoa)
a/ Coli-aerogenes group (Coliform group)

The number of coliform organisms in human faeces is estimated
to be between 1011and 1013/capita daily.
31
The coliform group includes the entire aerobic and facultative
anaerobic, non-spore-forming, gram-negative rod shaped
bacteria that ferment lactose (milk sugar) with the production of
gas at 350C within 48hrs.
The coliform group is composed of two important species,

Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Aerobacteria aerogenes. They are
of advantage as indicators of water contamination. A negative
test for gas-formers indicates that the water is safe.
b/ Clostridium welchi: Found in cultivated soils, sewage and

polluted water. The intestines are its habitat where it causes no
harm but assists digestion.
c/ Faecal Streptococci: Found in human intestine, not as

numerous as E. coli in all normal cases. Hence the test for faecal
streptococci offers no advantage over the E. coli test except in
cases of doubt.
Microbiological Examination of Water: It includes both

bacteriological and biological examination. Bacteriological
examination of sample of water is aimed at determining its fitness
for use for human consumption/intended purpose. Biological
examination of water is aimed at determining the presence of the
microscopic organisms, other than bacteria, such as algae, fungi
etc. many of which affect the quality of water.
32
Purposes of bacteriological examination: To detect and
assess the degree of excremental pollution in the sources of
supply.
• To assess the amount of treatment required to render a
source of supply safe for consumption.
• To ascertain the efficiency of the purification treatment at
various stages.
• To locate the causes of any sudden deterioration in quality.
• To establish the bacteria purity of final water as it leaves the
treatment plant/purification work/s.
33
Review Questions
1. What is the environmental significance of turbid water?

2. What is the implication of high/low conductivity?
3. What are the tablets used in testing PH and residual chlorine?
4. Discuss briefly the similarities and differences between
general and chemical analysis.
5. Coliform organisms are the preferred indicators compared
with pathogenic micro-organisms – Do you agree? Justify
your reason of agreement.
6. Which methods of water quality test for microbiological
analysis are feasible during fieldwork?
7. Write the common ingredient of culture media.
8. Write and discuss types and forms of culture media.
9. What factors are to be considered in sampling water for
bacteriological examinations?
34
Note to the teachers
It is difficult for the students to understand easily this chapter in
the classroom teaching learning process. So, in your
environmental health laboratory, arrange for the students to have
a practical session on analysis of drinking water quality using
different methods.
35
CHAPTER THREE
WATER TREATMENT
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter students will be able to:

1. Define water treatment.
2. Explain the main objective of water treatment.
3. Mention methods of treating household water supplies
4. Describe the principal health risk associated with household
water storage
5. Design and construct different household water filtration
method
6. Mention chemicals and their dosage used in water treatment
at household level.
7. Identify the criteria required in classifying raw water for
treatment.
8. Write and discuss steps of conventional large-scale water
treatment.
3.1 Introduction
Water availability from various sources contains various types of
impurities. The raw water available from various sources cannot
be used unless it is made safe for human consumption. The
36
objective of water treatment is to eliminate all such impurities,
which cause troubles and make water unsafe. Impurities should
be reduced to such an extent that water becomes suitable for
intended purposes. Therefore, the nature of treatment to be given
to raw water depends upon the initial quality of raw water and the
desired degree of purity to be attained after treatment.
3.2 Water Treatment on Small Scale
In most rural areas and small communities in developing

countries, adequate water treatment procedures are almost non-
existent, mainly for economic reasons. Generally, water for
human use is collected from various unprotected water sources,
and is consumed without treatment.
Naturally, water-borne diseases are prevalent among

communities that consume such untreated contaminated water,
and such practices must be discouraged. Water must be
adequately treated before consumption, even in rural areas.
Therefore, small-scale treatment of water in emergency

situations, temporary settlement areas, at household level and in
areas where the municipality is not well organized is very
important to reduce the problem of waterborne disease through
the utilization of different methods of water treatment
37
Treatment of household water supplies may be effected by the
following methods, used singly or in combination, depending on
the reliability of each method.
3.2.1 Boiling
Boiling is one of the most reliable methods of disinfecting water
at household level. Provided that water is brought to the boiling
point, and is kept boiling for 15 to 20 minutes, all forms of
microorganisms, including the most resistant spores or cysts, will
be destroyed.
Furthermore, boiling is effective for all kinds of raw water, unless

the water contains toxic chemicals which boiling cannot destroy.
Yet although boiling is one of the most practicable methods of
treating water, it may not be used if a community has not
developed the habit of drinking boiled water. Boiled water has at
least one disadvantage, and that is its flat taste, due to the loss of
dissolved gases (carbon dioxide and oxygen) and minerals
during the process of boiling. This can be remedied, however, by
keeping the boiled water for a few hours in partially filled
containers. The flat taste may not be a hindrance if a continuous
effort is made to develop the habit of drinking boiled safe water.
Great care must be taken to avoid recontamination of the boiled

water either during storage or consumption. It must be stored in a
clean, firmly covered container, preferably the same container in
which it was boiled.
38
Health caregivers should take into consideration the importance
of health education to change the habit of people towards safe
water supply through boiling of water to reduce the problems of
waterborne disease.
3.2.2 Filtration
Filtration for household water supply is generally carried out by
simple filtration systems, such as:
A) Homemade Sand Filters

These can be set up in individual homes, in containers such as
steel barrels, drums, etc., that are locally available. An example is
shown in Figure 3.1.
The components of the filter media and the basic principles of

operation of a homemade sand filter are the same as those of a
slow sand filter. The minimum depth of filter sand should not be
less than 60 cm.
properly constructed and carefully maintained homemade sand

filter can remove most of the substances that cause turbidity,
taste and odor, the cysts and ova of parasites, and other
relatively larger organisms.
39
Figure 3.1 Homemade sand filter
(Adapted from Gabre- Emanual Teka. Water Supply-Ethiopia: An

Introduction to Environmental Health Practice, 1997.)
40
Some of the limitations of a homemade sand filter are:
1. It cannot be relied upon to remove all forms of pathogenic

organisms, particularly the viruses and some of the very
small-sized bacteria.
2. It frequently gets clogged, particularly if the raw water to be
filtered is turbid.
Maintenance of a homemade sand filter
1. There must be a continuous flow of raw water over the filter

bed.
2. The rate of filtration should normally be controlled not to be
more than 1.5 liters per minute. This rate will be achieved
after the filter has been in operation for a few days.
3. The top-most layer of the sand must be scraped off, cleaned
and replaced at fixed periods.
B) Home Candle Filters
These are commercially made for filtering individual water

supplies. There are various types and sizes, known by different
trade names.
The core of the filter is a porous cylinder (shaped like a wax

candle, hence the name), made from high-quality unglazed
41
porcelain (See Figure 3.2). The efficiency of filtration depends
upon the pore size of the candle. Different manufacturers
produce candle filters of varying pore sizes, but generally the
pore size varies from a maximum radius of about 50 microns to a
minimum radius of 0.3 micron. (A micron is one-millionth of a
meter.)
42
Upper
container
for
unfiltered
water
Porous
candle
Filtered
water
Figure- 3.2- Candle Filter

(Adapted from Gabre-Emanual Teka. Water Supply,Ethiopia, An
43
Some of the limitations of candle filters are:-
1. The average size of a bacterium is about 1.5 microns. Thus,
candle filters with a pore radius of more than 1.5 microns
may not remove all the pathogenic organisms that may be
present in the water. Viruses, for example, cannot be
removed by a candle filter.
2. The rate of filtration of a candle filter is normally very low,
although the rate can be increased by having a three-candle
or four-candle filter
3. Candle filters are relatively too expensive for wide use by the
general public.
Maintenance during operation
1. The raw water to be filtered must be reasonably clear, in

order to reduce clogging of the candle pores.
2. The candle needs dismantling once a week, for washing and
sterilizing in boiling water.
C) Stone Filters
Stone filters are similar to candle filters but are carved from
porous local stone (see Fig. 3.3.). They are generally difficult to
clean and heavy to lift, but have the advantage of being relatively
inexpensive if they can be produced locally. If these filters were
commonly used in a practical area, it would be worthwhile to test
the water from a representative sample to determine the
efficiency of removal of fecal contamination. This method of
44
filtration could be possible in Ethiopia using the local “Beha”
stone. But it needs research to introduce this method of filtration
for individual and community use.
Figure –3.3- Stone filter

(Adapted from WHO’s Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality:
Surveillance and Control of Community Supplies, 2nd edition,
volume3, 1997.)
D) Cloth Filtration to Prevent Guinea Worm Disease
Guinea-worm disease (dracunculiasis) is transmitted via

contaminated drinking water (e.g. from stagnate ponds, cisterns,
or step wells). The disease occurs in a number of countries in
Africa and Asia and causes severe suffering and disability among
45
the world's most deprived people. Infected individuals do not
develop immunity. There is no known animal reservoir, and
people can disseminate the parasite one year after infection and
during 1-3 weeks after emergence of the worm. For these
reasons, control of transmission, including treatment of drinking
water, is simple, and global eradication of this disease is feasible.
Dramatic reductions in the prevalence of dracunculiasis have

been achieved through improvement of water supplies and by
promoting proper hygiene in areas where the disease is endemic.
In such areas, guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis) can be
effectively eliminated by filtering all drinking water through fine
cloth (see Fig. 3.4). Filtration of drinking water is thus a primary
strategy for the control of guinea-worm disease.
Filters should be of mesh size less than 130 µm; this should
remove all infected intermediate hosts. Monofilament synthetic
cloth (nylon) is most suitable because it clogs less rapidly and is
easily cleaned; it has a mesh size of 100-130 µm. Cotton cloth
can be used but tends to clog rapidly. Boiling is also effective as
a means of controlling the disease.
46
Figure 3.4. Cloth filtration
(Adapted from WHO - Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality:
Surveillance and Control of Community Supplies, 2nd edition,
volume3, 1997.)
3.2.3 Chemical Disinfection

A) Chlorine or its compounds
Chlorine or its compounds can be applied to disinfect water on a

small scale, as described in the next chapter. Methods such as
siphon-bottle feeders can be used easily for household water
disinfection.
When dealing in terms of liters, 3 drops of 1% chlorine stock

solution applied to every liter of water can give satisfactory
disinfection; the dose can be doubled if the water is turbid.
47
The tablet forms of chlorine, such as Halazone, may be
effectively used under field conditions when camping and during
travel (dose: 1 tablet per liter of clear water.)
1. Fill two tops or one level teaspoon with

chlorine powder (HTH), put into a small 2. Cork the bottle and mix well for 2
drink bottle (about 300 ml) and add clean minutes, Leave to stand for 1 hour.
water to the top.
3. Now you have the same chlorine as

household bleach. Put it in a dark
4. Add 3 drops of the chlorine solution for every liter
of water. Leave for 1 hour, then taste. You should
place away from children.
just be able to taste the chlorine, If you cannot
taste it, add 1 drop per liter until you can. The
water will only be safe to drink for 24 hours.
Figure-3.5.- Method of preparing chlorine solution using local

material
(Adapted from WHO’s Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality:

nd
Surveillance and Control of Community Supplies, 2 edition, volume-3,
1997.)
48
B) Iodine and its compounds
Iodine and its compounds have also been effectively used for
individual water disinfection. In fact, iodine is believed to be a
better disinfectant than chlorine. Tablets of iodine, like those of
chlorine, are available under various trade names (Globaline,
Potable Aqua, etc.). Tincture of iodine (2%) applied at the rate of
2 drops per liter gives satisfactory results. Iodine, however, is
relatively expensive for ordinary use, and in addition imparts to
the water the familiar medicinal iodine smell.
C) Silver
Colloidal silver was used by the Romans to protect the quality of

water in storage jars since, at concentrations of about 0.05 mg/l,
silver is toxic to most micro-organisms. It is of value for small
portable filter units for field use where silver-impregnated gravel
filter candles remove turbidity and provide disinfection. The cost
becomes excessive for other than very small supplies.
3.2.4 Household Water Storage
When household storage is well practiced in the community,

turbidity will be reduced, bacteria and eggs of parasites will be
sedimented, and schistosomiasis will be prevented because the
chances of cercaria survival after 24 hours of water storage will
be reduced.
49
The principal health risk associated with household water storage
is the ease of recontamination during transport and storage;
particularly if the members of a family or community do not all
follow good hygiene practices. Good hygienic measures
include the following:
- Careful storage of household water and regular cleaning of

all household water storage facilities:
- Construction, proper use, and maintenance of latrines;
- Regular hand-washing, especially after defecation and before
eating or preparing food;
- Careful storage and preparation of food.
Water that is clean from the supply or has been treated in the
household needs to be protected from recontamination.
The most important elements of water storage can be

summarized as follows:-
• Use a clean water source or treat the water, either at home

or in a storage tank.
• Store water in an earthenware or plastic container with a lid.
• Store the water container at a height that puts it beyond the
reach of children and animals.
• Fit a tap to the container for drawing clean water in order to
prevent contamination by dirty cups, ladles, or hands.
50
Storage Tanks
Where a piped water supply to the household operates

intermittently, a storage tank is commonly used to ensure that
there is sufficient water for the family needs throughout the day.
The tank should be covered to prevent contamination of the
water and to restrict access by children and animals. It may be
located inside or outside the house, but a secure cover should be
fitted to an outdoor tank.
If the water running into the tank is clean (i.e. comes from a
protected source or a treatment plant), the tank should be
inspected, cleaned, and disinfected at least once a year. Where
the water supplied is not clean, the tank will require more
frequent cleaning, the frequency depending on the water quality.
Water of poor quality should be treated by the most appropriate
means.
The pipes running from a household storage tank to the taps

must not be made of lead, which is toxic; pipes made of
galvanized iron, copper, or plastic (such as potable grade PVC)
should be used instead. Galvanized iron pipes should not be
used where the water supplied is highly acidic or alkaline
because they will corrode.
A non-lead solder should be used, where possible, to join metal

pipes and a nontoxic solvent cement for plastic pipes. The
51
system should be thoroughly flushed before use to remove and
traces of solvent or metal solder from the pipes.
When a household storage tank and pipes for drinking water are
installed, they should ideally be filled with water containing 50
mg/liter of chlorine and left to stand overnight so that the system
is disinfected before use.
3.3 Design Principles and Unit Processes of

Conventional (Large Scale) Water Treatment
3.3.1 Water Treatment Design Principles and Contents
Designing water treatment (large scale) entails the following

water quantity upon which to base the design of a water
system should be determined in the preliminary planning
stages. Details of what current water quantity requires and
future demands are discussed under need assessment.
Social, economic, and land use factors, all of which can be
expected to change with time, are also discussed.
• Population projection is of the basic consideration.

Adjustments should be made for hospital and other
institution populations, industries, fire protection, military
reservations, transitions, and tourists.
• Health departments and other agencies that have design
guides and standard texts give additional information
52
• In any case the characteristics of the community must be
carefully studied and appropriate provisions made
Design period
The period of use for which a structure is designed, is usually

determined by the future difficulties to acquire land or replace a
structure or pipeline, the cost of money and the rate of growth of
the community or faculty served.
In general, large dams and transmission mains are designed to

function for 50 or more years; whereas filter plants, pumping
stations and distribution systems for 25 years, and water lines
less than 12 inches (30.5 cm) in diameter for the full future life.
• When temporary or short-term use is anticipated, a

lesser design period would be in order. Suggestions
indicate that the dividing line is in the vicinity of 3% per
annum watershed run off and reservoir design
In addition to future water demand, rainfall data, unit

hydrographs, maximum flow, minimum flows, mass diagrams,
characteristics of the water shed, evaporation losses, percolation
and transpiration losses should be considered for design
purposes and storage determinations when these are applicable.
• Estimation of watershed run off; the maximum rate of
run-off is:
53
Q= AIR
where,
Q is the runoff, ft3/sec
A is the area of the water shed in acres (hectares)
R is the rate of rain fall on the water shed in inches (cm)/ hr
and
I is the imperviousness ratio, that is, the ratio of water that
runs off the water shed to the amount precipitated on it. I will
vary from 0.01 to 0.20 for wooded areas; from 0.05 to 0.25
for farms, parks, lawns, and meadows depending on the
surface slope and character of the subsoil; from 0.25 to 0.50
for residential semirural areas; from 0.05 to 0.70 for suburban
areas; and from 0.70 to 0.95 for urban areas having paved
streets, drives, and walks. R is the rate found for each
specific area, e.g. 360/t + 30 for maximum storm for eastern
USA.
• Another formula for estimation of the average annual

runoff is by Vermuel’e formula:
F=R- (11 + 0.29R) (0.035)T- 0.65)

Where,
F is the annual run off in inches (cm),
R is the annual rainfall in inches (cm), and
T is the mean annual temperature in degree Fahrenheit (0C)
* For small water systems, it is suggested that design be based
on the year of minimum rainfall, or on about 60% of the average.
54
In any reservoir storage study it is important to take into
consideration the probable losses due to seepages, outflows,
evaporation from water surfaces during the year, and loss in
storage capacity due to sediment accumulation if the sediment
cannot be released during high inflow. This becomes very
significant in small systems when the water surfaces exceed 6 to
10 percent of the drainage area. The annual evaporation from
water surfaces is about 60% of the annual rain fall (in north
Atlantic countries).
As water loss of the water shed due to land evaporation, plant

usage, and transpiration is significant, it must be taken into
consideration when determining rainfall minus losses.
3.3.2 Intakes and Screens

Conditions/factors to be taken into consideration in the
design of intakes include:
- High- and- low water stages;
- Navigation or allied hazards;
- Floods and storms;
- Floating ice and debris;
- Water velocities, surface and subsurface currents, channel
flows, and stratification;
- Location of sanitary, industrial, and storm sewer outlets;
and
- Prevailing wind direction.
55
Figure 3.6 The preliminary treatment units
(Tebbutt. Principles of Water Quality Control. 3rd edition,
University of Birmingham, Pergamon Press, 1983.)
Small communities cannot afford elaborate intake structures. The

inlet fittings should have a coarse strainer or screen with about
one inch mesh. For a river intake the inlet is perpendicular to the
56
flow. A submerged intake crib, or one with several branches and
upright tee fitting anchored in rock cribes, 4 to 10 ft (1.2 to 3 m)
above the bottom, is relatively inexpensive. The total area of the
inlets should be at least twice the area of the intake pipe and
should provide an inlet velocity less than 0.5 fps (15 cm/s). Low-
entrance velocities reduce ice troubles and less likely to draw in
fish or debris. Duplicate stationary screens in the flow channel,
with 1/8- to 3/8- inch (3.2-9.5 mm). Corrosion-resistant mesh are
the types of screens recommended, as fine screens will become
clogged. The screen is attached to the end of the intake conduit
and mounted on a foundation to keep it off the bottom, and, if
desired, crushed rock or gravel can be dumped over the screen.
Attachment to the foundation should be made in such a way that
removal for inspection is possible. As to the inlet capacity of the
screen in relation to the diameter and the size of the screen, a 10
ft (~3m) section of a 24- in (61 cm) diameter screen with ¼- in
(6.4 mm) openings is said to handle 12 mgd at an influent
velocity of less than 0.5 fps (See figure 3.6).
In large installations, intakes with multiple-level streams to make

possible depth selection of the best water when the water quality
varies with season of the year and weather conditions.
Pumping (Station)
The distribution of water usually involves the construction of a
pumping station, unless one is fortunate enough to have a
satisfactory source of water at an elevation to provide a sufficient
57
flow and water pressure at the point of use by gravity. Water may
be pumped from the source or for transmission or both.
Electrically operated pumps should have gasoline or diesel
standby units having at least 50 percent of the routine capacity if
standby units provide power failure.
The size of pump selected is based on whether hydropneumatic

storage (steel pressure tank for a small system), ground level or
elevated storage is to be used; the available storage provided;
the yield of the water source; the water usage; and the demand.
Actual meter readings are recommended with consideration
being given to future plans, periods of low or no usage; and
maximum and peak water demands. Metering can reduce water
use by 25 percent or more. If the water system is to also provide
fire protection, then elevated storage is practically essential,
unless ground-level storage with adequate pumps is available.
• The capacity of the pump required for domestic water

system with elevated storage is determined by the daily
water consumption and volume of the storage tank.
• Site of location of the storage tank is governed by the
hydraulic gradient necessary to meet the highest water
demand.
• The pump should be of such capacity as to deliver the
average daily water demand to the storage tank in 6 to
12hr. In very small installations the pump chosen may
58
have a capacity to pump in 2 hrs all the water used in
one day.
Distribution storage Requirements

Water storage requirements should take into consideration of
peak daily water use, and the maximum day demand plus the
required fire flow, the capacity of the normal and standby
pumping equipment, the availability and capacity of auxiliary
power, the probable duration of power failure, and the
promptness with which repairs can be made. Additional
considerations are land use, topography, pressure needs,
distribution system capacity, special demands, and the increased
cost of electric power and pumps to meet peak demands.
• Water storage is necessary:
1. To help most peak demands, fire requirements and
industrial needs;
2. To maintain relatively uniform water pressures;
3. To eliminate the necessity for continuous pumping;
4. To make possible pumping when the electric rate is low;
5 To use the most economical pipe sizes, and
6 Surges in water pressure due to water hammer are also
dissipated
Other things being equal, a large-diameter shallow tank is

preferable to a deep tank of the same capacity, because it is less
expensive to construct and water pressure fluctuations on the
distribution system is less.
59
The cost of storage compared to the increased fire protection and
possibly lowered fire insurance rate, the greater reliability of
water supply, and the decreased probability of negative
pressures in the distribution system will be additional factors in
making a decision.
In general, it is recommended that water storage equal not less

than one-half of the total daily consumption, with at least one-half
the storage in elevated tanks.
A preferred minimum storage capacity (let, a) would be a 2-day

average use plus fire flow or the maximum day usage (let, b)
plus fire requirement (let, c) less the daily capacity of the
water plant (let, d) and system for the fire flow period (let, e)
(i.e. a= [b + c] - [d + e]). Another basis is to provide sufficient
water storage capacity to supply the maximum daily rate for a
4-hr period without depleting storage by more than one-half.
Additionally, the minimum amount of storage that usually
should be reserved for fire protection and other emergencies
is one-third of system storage.
• The amount of water required during peak hours of the

day may be equal 15 to 25 percent the total maximum
daily consumption. This does not include fire
requirements. Thus, some experts recommended 25 to
50% of the total average daily water consumption.
60
• It is a good practice to locate elevated tanks near the
area of the greatest demand for water and on the side of
town opposite from where the main enters.
• All distribution reservoirs should be covered; provided
with an over flow that will not undermine the footing,
foundation, or adjacent structures. And provided with a
drain, water-level gauge, access manhole with
overlapping cover, ladder, and screened air vent.
• Tanks located partly below ground must be at a higher
level than any sewers or sewerage disposal systems and
not closer than 50 ft (15m).
3.3.3 Peak Demand Estimates

The maximum hourly or peak demand flow upon which to base
the design of a water distribution system should be determined
for each situation. Characteristics difference is the premises,
therefore the design flow to determine the distribution system
capacity should reflect:
• The pattern of living or operation,
• Probable water usage, and
• Demand of that particular type of establishment or
community.
All the same time, considerations should be given to the location

of existing and future institutions, industrial areas, suburban or
fringe areas, high-ways, shopping centers, schools, subdivision
and direction of growth. In this connection, reference to city,
61
town, or regional comprehensive or master plan, where available,
are of great help.
Note that larger cities generally have higher per capita

water consumption than smaller cities, but smaller cities/
communities have higher percentage peak demand flow
than larger communities
The maximum hourly domestic water consumption for cities

above 50,000 population will vary from about 200 to 700 percent
of the average day annual hourly water consumption; the
maximum hourly water demand in smaller cities will probably vary
from 300 to 1000 percent of the average day annual hourly water
consumption.
• The daily variation is reported to be 150 to 250 percent

and the monthly variation 120 to 150 percent of the
average annual daily demand in small cities. Based on
some studies (in England and USA), it can be said that
the smaller and newer the community, the greater will be
the probable variation in water consumption from the
average.
3.3.4 Distribution System Design Standards

The distribution system design should follow usual good
waterworks practice and provide for fire protection. Mains should
be designed on the basis of velocities of 4 to 6 fps (1.2-1.8m/s)
62
with maximum of 10 to 20 fps (3-6 m/s), the rate of water
consumption (maximum daily demand), and fire demand, plus a
residual pressure of not less than 35 pounds per square inch
(psi) nor more than 100 psi, using the Hazen and Williams
coefficient C=100, with a normal working pressure of about 60
psi.
- Mains tied together at least every 100 ft (30m); line

less 6 in (15.24 cm) diameter should generally not be
considered
- In new construction 8-in. (15.24 cm) pipe should be
used. In urban areas 12-in. or larger mains should be
used for principal streets and for all long linesthat are
not connected to other mains at intervals close enough
for proper mutual support.
- The design should aim to provide a pressure of not
less than 35 psi in the distribution system during peak
flow periods, though 20 psi may be acceptable.
- A minimum pressure of 60 to 80 psi is desired in
business districts, although 50 psi may be adequate in
small villages with one- and two-story buildings.
- Valves are spaced not more than 500 ft (150m) apart in
commercial districts and 800 ft (240m) in other districts,
and at street intersecting.
- Hydrants should be provided at each street intersection
and spacing may range generally from 350 to 600 ft
(8.89-15.24m), depending on the area served for fire
63
protection and as recommended by the state Insurance
Services Office.
- Connection to the street main should be not less than 6
in. (15.24cm) in diameter.
- Main breaks occur longitudinally and transversely.
- Water lines are laid below frost, separated from sewers
a minimum horizontal distance of 10 ft (3m) and a
vertical distance of 18 in. (45.72cm) above thetop of
the sewer lines.
- Mains buried 5 ft (1.5m) are normally protected against
freezing and external loads.
- The selection of pipe sizes is determined by the
required flow of water that will not produce excessive
friction loss.
- Transmission mains for small water systems more than
3 to 4 mi long should not be less than 10 to 12 in. (25-
30 cm) diameter.
- Design velocity is kept under staffs and head loss
under 3 ft/100 ft (3m/100m). Velocities may be 11/2 to
51/2 fps (1.67-7.73 mps) for domestic use only.
- The friction loss in a pipe connected at both ends is
about one-quarter the friction loss in the same pipe
with a dead end & the friction loss in a pipe from which
water being drawn uniformly along its length is about
one- third the total head loss.
64
- In any case, only pipe and fittings that have a
permanent- type lining or inner protective surface
should be used.
Small Distribution System

In communities where no fire protection is provided, small
diameter pipe may be used. In such cases:
2-in. line Æ not more than 300 ft (90m) long
3-in. “ Æ not more than 600 ft (180m) long
If lines are connected at both ends 2- or 3-in. (5-7.5cm) lines

should be no longer than 600 ft (18om); and 4-in. (10.2cm) lines,
are not more than 200 ft (60.6m).
Fire Protection
• A water system must be capable of delivering at least
250 gpm at 20 psi at a fire location for at least 2 hr with
consumption at the maximum daily rate.
• There should be sufficient hydrants within 1000 ft (300m)
of a building to supply its needed fire flow.
N.B. The following assurance should be strictly observed
concerning water for fire protection:
- Being alert to assure that fire protection programs do
not include pumping from polluted or unapproved
sources into a public or private water system main
65
through hydrants or blow off valves nor should
bypasses be constructed around filter plants or
provision made for “emergency” raw water connection
to supply water in case of fire.
- In extreme emergencies, the health department might
permit a temporary connection under certain
conditions, but in any case the water purveyor
(supplier) must immediately notify every consumer not
to drink the water or use for food or drink preparation
unless first boiled or disinfected.
Cross –Connection Control (CCC)

A cross- connection is any physical connection between a otable
water system and non potable water supply; any waste pipe, soil
pipe, sewer, drain; or any direct or indirect connection between a
plumbing fixture or device whereby polluted water or ontaminated
fluids including gases or substances might enter and flow back
into the potable water system. The backflow may occur by
ackpressure or backsiphonage. In the backpressure situations,
the pressure in the nonpotable water exceeds that in the potable
water system. In backsiphonage, the pressure in the potable
water system becomes less than that in the nonpotable water
system due to a vacuum or reduced pressure developing in the
potable water system.
• A discussion of water system design would not be

complete without reference to cross-connection control
66
and backflow prevention. The goal is to have no
connection between a water of drinking water quality
(potable) and usage of questionable (nonpotable) water
system, or between a potable system and any plumbing
fixture or device, where by nonpotable water might flow
into the potable water system.
Negative or reduced pressure in a water distribution or plumbing

system may occur:
• When a system is shut off or drained for repairs,
• When heavy demands are made on certain portions of
the system causing water to be drawn from the higher
parts of the system, or
• When the pumping rate of pumps installed on the system
(or of fire pumps or fire pumpers at hydrants) exceeds
the capacity of the supply line to the pump.
The more common acceptable methods or devices to prevent

backflow are air gap separation, backpressure units, and vacuum
breakers.
Nonpressure-type vacuum breaker is always installed on the
atmospheric side of a valve and is only intermittently under
pressure, i.e. when flusho-meter valve is activated. The pressure-
type vacuum breaker is installed on a pressurized system and
functions when a vacuum occurs.
67
To prevent backflow into the distribution system:
• An elevated or ground- level tank providing an air gap,
• The reduced pressure zone backflow preventer, and
• The double check valve assembly, are generally used on
public water system connections; the vacuum breaker is
usually used on plumbing fixtures and equipment.
An approved backflow preventer or air break should be required
on the water service line to every building or structure using or
handling any hazardous substance that might enter the potable
water system. In addition, building plumbing codes should
prohibit cross-connections within buildings and premises and
require approved-type backflow preventers on all pumping,
fixtures, and devices which might cause or permit backflow.
• It is the responsibility of the designing engineer and
architect, the building plumbing inspector, the waterworks
official, and the health department to prevent and prohibit
possibilities of pollution of public and private water
systems.
• There are two major aspects to a cross-connection
control. One is protection of water distribution system to
prevent its pollution. The other is protection of the
internal plumbing system used for drinking and culinary
purposes to prevent its pollution.
• The water purveyor (supplier) has responsibility to
provide its customers with water meeting drinking water
standards, which requires control over unauthorized use
68
of hydrants, blowoffs, and main connections or
extensions.
A comprehensive cross-connection control programme includes:

1. An implementation ordinance that provides the legal
basis for the development and complete operation of the
programme.
2. The adoption of a list of devices that are acceptable for
specific type of cross-connection control.
3. The training and certification of qualified personnel to test
and ensure devices are maintained.
4. The establishment of a suitable set of records controlling
all devices.
5. Periodic seminars wherein supervisory, administrative,
political, and operating personnel, as well as architects,
consulting engineers, and building officials, are briefed
and brought up-to-date on the reason for the programme
as well as on new equipment in the field.
Note that:
• Enforcement is best accomplished at the local level,
• In addition to the 5 steps above, a control program
implementation requires that a priority system be
established. grouping structures and facilities served
as “hazardous”, “Aesthetically objectionable”, and
“Not hazardous” can make inspection manageable
69
and permit concentration of effort on the more
serious conditions
• Estimating the cost of installing backflow prevention
devices (some highly costly) is helpful in
understanding what is involved and in obtaining
corrections.
3.3.5 Hydropneumatic Systems
Hydropneumatic or pressure-tank water systems are suitable

for small communities, housing developments, private homes
and estates, camps, restaurants, hotels, resorts, country
clubs, factories, and institutions, and as booster installations.
Only about 10 to 20 percent of the volume of a pressure tank
is actually available. The tanks are usually made of 3/16 in. or
thicker steel and are available in capacities up to 10,000 or
20,000 gal (38,878-75,756 L).
• The required size of a pressure tank is determined by
peak demand, the capacity of the pump, and source, the
operating pressure range, and air volume control
(available).
• The capacity of well and pump should be at least 10
times the average daily water requirement rate.
• A simple and direct method for determining the volume of
the pressure storage tank and size of the pump to
provide is derived from Boyle’s Law and is based on the
formula:
70
Q= Qm
(1-P1/P2)
where,
Q = volume of pressure- tank in gal
Qm =15 minutes storage at the maximum hourly demand rate
P1= the minimum absolute operating pressure (gauge pressure
plus 14.7Ib/in2), and
P2 = the maximum absolute pressure
The pump capacity given on the curve is equal to 125% of the

maximum hourly
Demand rate.
The maximum Hourly demand is based on:
• Average daily rate = Average water use per day .
1440 min/day, in gpm; based on annual
water use
• Average maximum monthly rate = 1.5 x average daily
rate
• Maximum hourly demand rate
= 6 x average maximum monthly rate or 9 x
average daily rate
• Instantaneous rate (Pump capacity)
= 1.25 x maximum hourly demand rate, or 11.25
x average daily rate
• The water available for distribution is equal to the
difference between the dynamic head (friction plus static
head) and tank pressure.
71
Pumps
The pump types commonly used to raise and distribute water are
referred to as:
1. Positive displacement, including reciprocating,
diaphragm and rotary;
2. Centrifugal, including turbine, submersible, and ejector
jet;
3. Air lift; and
4. Hydraulic ram.
Pumps are classified as: low lift, high lift, deep well, booster, and
standby. Other types for rural and developing areas include: the
chain and bucket pump and hand pump.
3.3.6 Water Processing

In all cases, the water supply must meet the standards of drinking
water of the regulatory body or the international (WHO)
recommendations, in the absence of local standards. To this end,
conventional water treatment systems generally include the
following units, especially for surface water sources (See figure
3.7)
1. Intake
2. Pumping station
3. Pre-chlorination and aeration
4. Plain sedimentation
5. Coagulation and flocculation
6. Sedimentation/clarification
72
7. Filtration
8. Disinfection
9. Distribution (Transmission/Distribution)
*As already intake & pumping (station) were discussed under

design principles and contents, the remaining units and their
processes are discussed separately as follows;
*Pre chlorination and aeration are discussed in combination
with plain sedimentation
73
Figure 3.7 Conventional water treatment system flow diagram.
(Adapted from J.A Salvato. Environmental engineering and sanittion. 4th
ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1992 .)
74
Table 3.1 Classification of Water by Concentration of
Coliform Bacteria and Treatment Required to Render the
Water of Safe Sanitary Quality (J.A Salvato,1982)
Maximum permissible average

Group No MPN Total coliform Bacteria per Treatment required
month**
1. Not more than 10% of all 10ml or None for protected under
60% of 10 ml portions positive; not ground water, but at the
more than 1.0 coliform bacteria/100 minimum, chlorination
ml for surface water
2. Not more than 50/100 ml Simple chlorination or
equivalent
3. Not more than 5000/100ml and this Rapid sand filtration
MPN exceeded in not more than (including coagulation)
20% samples or its equivalent plus
continuous chlorination
4. MPN greater than 5000/100m in Auxiliary treatment such
more than 20% of samples and not as 30 to 90 days
exceeding 20,000/100ml in more storage, pre-settling,
than 5% of the samples pre-chlorination, or
equivalent plus complete
filtration and chlorination
5. MPN exceeds group No 4 Prolonged storage or
equivalent to bring within
groups 1 to 4
* Physical, inorganic and organic chemicals; and radioactive

concentrations in raw water and ease of removal by the
proposed treatment method must also be considered
75
** Fecal coliform not to exceed 20% of the total coliform
organisms
* If sterile water is needed, water should be placed in a
pressure-cooker at 2500F (1210C) for 15 min.
* Boil water for 20 min where protozoa and helminthic
disease causing agent are endemic
3.3.7 Plain Sedimentation

Plain sedimentation is the quiescent settling or storage of water,
such as would take place in a reservoir, lake or basin, without the
aid of chemicals, preferably for a month or longer.
The Ideal Sedimentation Basin

The behavior of a sedimentation tank operating on a continuous
flow basis with a discrete suspension of particles can be
examined by reference to an ideal sedimentation basin (See
figure 3.8), which assumes:
1. Quiescent conditions in the settling zone

2. Uniform flow across the settling zone
3. Uniform solids concentration as flow enters the settling zone
4. Solids entering the sludge zone are not resuspended.
76
Figure 3.8 The ideal sedimentation basin
(Adapted from Tebbutt. Principles of Water Quality Control. 3rd
edition, Pergamon Press, 1983.)
Advantages:
This natural treatment results in the settling out of:
1. Suspended solids, reduction of hardness, ammonia,
lead, cadmium and other heavy metals; some synthetic
organic chemicals and fecal coliform.
2. It also removes colour (due to the action of sunlight), and
3. Death of bacteria principally because of the unfavorable
temperature, lack of suitable food, and sterilizing effect of
sunlight
77
4. Certain microscopic organisms, such as protozoa
consume bacteria thereby aiding in purification of the
water
5. It is relatively inexpensive.
Experiments conducted by Sir Alexander Houston showed that

polluted water stored for periods of 5 weeks at 320F(00C), 4
weeks at 410F(50C) effected the elimination of practically all
bacteria (J. A. Salvato, 1992).
Disadvantages:
1. The growth of microscopic organisms that cause
unpleasant tastes and odors is encouraged
2. Pollution by surface wash fertilizers, pesticides,
recreational uses, birds, sewage and industrial wastes
may occur unless steps are taken to prevent or reduce
these possibilities
3. Although subsidence permits bacteria to die off, it also
permits bacteria to accumulate and grow in reservoir
bottom mud under favorable conditions
4. In addition, iron and manganese may go into solution,
carbon dioxide may increase, and hydrogen sulfide may
be produced
Presettling reservoirs are sometimes used to eliminate heavy

turbidity or pollution and thus prepare the water for treatment by
coagulation, settling and filtration. This process is known as
78
preliminary sedimentation. When heavily polluted water is to be
conditioned, provisions can be made for preliminary coagulation,
aeration or pre-chlorination at the point of entrance of the water
into the basins. However, considerations must be given to the
possible formation of trihalomethanes and their prevention.
79
Figure 3.9. Types of sedimentation tank
(Adapted from Tebbutt. Principles of Water Quality Control. 3rd
edition, Pergamon Press, 1983.)
80
Trihalomethanes are halogenated chloro-organic compounds
(chlorination by product) in water, which are formed by the
reaction of free chlorine with certain organic compounds in water.
The major cause of trihalomethane formation in drinking water
that is chlorinated is probably humic and fulvic substances
(natural organic matter in soil peat and runoff) and simple low
molecular weight compounds including algae referred to as
precursors.
Ordinarily, at least two basins are provided for the sedimentation
to permit one to be cleaned while the other is in use. A capacity
sufficient to give a retention period of at least 2 or 3 days is
desirable.
3.3.8 Clarification, Coagulation, Flocculation, and

Settling
Micro straining- is a process designed to reduce the suspended

solids including plankton in water; the filtering media consist of
very finely level fabrics of stainless steel on revolving drum.
Application to water supplies are primarily the clarification of
relatively clean surface waters low in true colour and colloidal
turbidity in which micro straining and disinfection constitute the
pretreatment and the clarification.
81
These basins should be at least two in number to permit cleaning
and repairs without interrupting completely the water treatment
even though mechanical cleaning equipment is installed.
Adding a coagulant such as alum (aluminum sulfate) to water

permits particles to come together, and results in the formation of
a flocculent mass, or floc, which entangles and agglomerates
microorganisms, suspended particles, and colloidal matter,
removing and attracting these materials in settling out. Removal
of 90 to 99 percent of the bacteria and viruses, and more than 90
percent of the protozoa and phosphate can be expected.
1. For the control of coagulation, jar tests are made in the

laboratory to determine the approximate dosage
(normally between 10 and 50 mg/L) of chemicals used
that appear to produce the best results. Then, with this
as a guide, the chemical dosing equipment, dry feed or
solution feed, is adjusted to add the desired quantity of
chemical proportional to the flow of water treated to give
the best results. Standby chemical feed units and alarm
devices are necessary to assure continuous treatment
(See figure 3.10).
82
40
20
ON
0 60
20 40 80
ALUM mg/l
COLOUR
alum dose 25 mg/l
40
20
0
5 6 7 8
PH
Figure 3.10 Jar- test results
(Adapted from Tebbutt. Principles of water quality control. 3rd
edition, Pergamon press, 1983.)
2. Zeta-potential is also used to control coagulation. It

involves the determination of the speed at which particles
move through an electric field caused by a direct current
passing through the raw water. Best flocculation takes
place when the charge approaches zero, giving best
precipitation when a coagulant such as aluminum sulfate,
assisted by a polyelectrolyte (polymer), is added.
Polymers may contain hazardous impurities. Quality
control specifications should be met.
83
Advantages of the use of alum, a polymer, and activated clay:
a. May assist coagulation and clarification of certain
waters
b. Faster setting and more filterable flock which is less
effected by temperature change or excessive flows
c. Less plugging of filters, longer filter runs more
consistent effluent turbidity, less back wash water,
less sludge volume, and easier dewatering of sludge
is claimed for polymer, clay- alum treatment
3. Another device for the coagulation and settling consists
of a unit in which the water, to which a coagulant has
been added, is introduced near the bottom, mixes with
re-circulated sludge, and flows upward through a blanket
of settled floc. The clarified water flows off at the top (see
figure 3.11). Sludge is drawn off at the bottom.
84
Figure 3.11 Rapid mixer
(Adapted from Tebbutt. Principles of Water Quality Control. 3rd edition,
Pergamon Press, 1983.)
These basins are referred to as up flow suspended-solids contact

clarifier. The detention period used in treating surface water is 4
hours, but may be as little as 11/2 to 2 hours depending on the
quality of the raw water. The normal up flow rate is 1440 gpd/ sq
feet of clarifier surface area and the overflow rate is 14,400 gpd
per feet of weir (wall) length.
Advantage- A major advantage claimed, where applicable is

reduction of the detention period and hence savings in space.
Disadvantages- include possible loss of sludge blankets with

changing water temperature and variable water quality
85
4. Tube settlers are shallow tubes, usually inclined at an
angle of approximately 60 degrees from horizontal. The
tube cross section may be square, trapezoidal, triangular
or circular. Effective operation requires laminar flow,
adequate retention, non-scouring velocities, and floc
particle settling with allowance for sludge accumulation
and desludging at maximum flow rates. Pilot plant
studies are advisable prior to actual design and
construction.
5. Lamella separators are similar to the tube settlers except
that inclined plates are used instead of tubes
Results expected
- Temperature- should preferably be < 600f
- Turbidity- A monthly average of 5 turbidity units may be
permitted if it can be demonstrated that the turbidity
does not interfere with disinfection maintenance of
chlorine residual through out the distribution system. For
the turbidity determination the standard measure is
NTU. It uses nephelometer, which means the amount of
light scattered, usually at 900 from the light direction by
suspended particles in the water test sample greater
- Odour should be absent or very faint, not greater than 3
threshold odour number. Water for food processing,
beverage, and pharmaceutical manufacture should be
86
essentially free from taste and odour. Colour should be
<15 colour units
Ground and surface waters from mountainous areas are
generally in the temperature range of 50-600F
• Design and construction of water system should provide for
burying or covering of transmission mains to keep drinking
water cool and to also prevent freezing in cold climates or
leaks due to vehicular traffic.
3.3.9 Filtration
The primary purpose of this unit is to remove suspended
materials although microbiological organisms and color are also
reduced. Filters are of the slow sand, rapid sand or other
granular media (including the multimedia), and pressure (or
vacuum) type each of which has application under various
conditions. The slow sand filter is recommended for use at small
communities and rural places, where adaptable. A rapid sand
filter, because of the rather complicated control required to obtain
satisfactory results, this requiring competent supervision and
operation. It is recommended for urban with large population and
skilled human-power. The pressure filter including the
diatomaceous earth type is commonly used for the filtration of
industrial water supplies and swimming poor water. It is not
recommended for the treatment of drinking water unless under
the conditions of the proposed use and except where considered
suitable.
87
3.3.9.1 Slow Sand Filter (SSF) - A gravity based sand filter
A slow sand filter consists of a water tight basin, usually covered,

built of concrete. The basin holds a special sand 30 to 48 in. (~75
to 120cm) deep, which is supported on a 12- to 18-in. (~30-
45cm) layer of graded gravel placed over an under drain system
that may consist of open-joint, porous, or perforated pipe or
conducts. The sand should have an effective size of 0.25 to 0.35
mm and a uniformity coefficient not greater than 2.5 (See figure
3.12).
Operation of the filter is controlled so that the filtration will take

place at a rate of 1 to 4 million gallons per acre per day with 2.5
million gal as an average rate. This would correspond to a filter
rate of 23 to 92 gal/ft2 of land area per day or an average rate of
57 gal. A rate of 10 million gal may be used if permitted by the
approving authority.
Note that:
o 1 million gallons per day (mgd)= 1.547 cubic
feet per second
o 1 cubic feet per second (cfs)= 0.646 million
gallons per day
o 1 acre =43.560 ft2,
o 1 pound per square inch (psi)= 2.31 ft vertical
head of water
o 1 inch (in)= 2.54 centimeters (cm)
88
Water pressure – h=P/w where, P = pounds per ft2
W = pounds per ft3Î 62.4 for water
h = head of water (ft)= Px144=2.3 P,62.4 where, P is in
2
psi h= V /2g
where,
g=32.2ft/sec/sec,and
V=velocity, in fps
A loss-of-head gauge should be provided on the filter to show the

resistance the sand bed offers the flow of water through it and
when the filter needs cleaning. The loss-of-head through a clean
filter is about 3” (~7.5cm) and this should be added to the
maximum head required. The rate of filtration is controlled by a
proper orifice and filter area, so as not to exceed the
recommended rate that would endanger the quality of the treated
water.
Expected maximum water flow (gal per day) = rate (gal/ft2/day)

x filter area (ft2)
• A minimum of 2 to 3 ft (~60-90cm) of water over the sand is

advised
• Design filter for twice the desired flow to assure air adequate
delivery of water as the frictional resistance in the filter to the
flow builds up.
• When no loss of head through sand and gravel or pipe is
assumed, flow is based on:
89
Q= C∆ VA, where, V= √2gh
C∆= 0.6 with free discharge

Given the diameter of orifice in inches and maximum head
(water), the maximum flow (gpd) can be found (from a table with
diameters) to 1 and head from 1’ to 61/2’. Thus the filter area can
be calculated using the formula:
A (ft2) = Max flow (gpd)

Flow rate, in gal/ ft2/ day
Example. To find the size of the filter (let, A) that can yield 500
gpd at 50 gal /ft2/ day will be:
A = 500 gpd = 10ft2

50 gal/(ft2)(day)
• From a practical stand point, the water that is to be filtered by

the slow sand filter should have colour< 30 units, coliform
concentration < 1000/100 ml and suspended matter with a
turbidity of < 50 units, other wise the filter will clog quickly.
Cleaning of the filter is done by draining the water out of the
sand bed and scrapping 1 to 2 in (~2.5-5cm) of sand with
adhering particles off the top of the bed. A scrapper or flat
shovel is practical for removing the top layer of clogged sand.
The sand is then washed and replaced when the depth of the
sand is reduced to about 24 in (~60cm). The sand surface
can also be washed (in place by a special washer traveling
90
over the sand bed). Slow sand filters should be constructed
in pairs. These filters are easily controlled and produce
consistently satisfactory water, when followed by disinfection.
The level of the orifice or filter outlet must be above the top of the
sand to prevent the developing of a negative head.
The filtered water storage should have at least two days’ storage
capacity. The orifice is recommended to be 21/2 “diameter pipe.
At least 6 in. of water over the sand will minimize possible
disturbance of the sand when water from the influent line falls
into the filter. Two glasses or clear plastic tubes are used to
control or determine the frictional resistance to the flow of water
through the filter, hence the need for cleaning the filter.
The tubes are calibrated before installation. They are assembled

at equal elevation above the sand surface- one in the filter and
the other in the filter storage compartments. The difference in
water level between the two glass tubes represents the frictional
resistance to the flow of water through the filter. When this
difference approaches the maximum head and the flow is
inadequate, the filter needs cleaning (See figure 3.13).
Inlet is just below frost while outlet is about 0.4” from floor of the
filter storage. A well-operated plant will remove 98 to 99.5% of
the bacteria in the raw water (after a film has formed on surface
of the sand, which will require slow filtration for several days to 2
weeks. Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary to destroy
91
those bacteria that grow or enter the storage basin and water
system.
This type of plant will also remove about 25 to 40% of the colour
in the untreated water. Chlorination of the sand filter itself is
desirable.
Either continuously or periodically to destroy bacteria that grows

within the sand bed, supporting gravel, or under drain system.
Continuous pre-chlorination at a dosage to provide 0.3 to 0.5
mg/L in the water on top of the filter will not harm the filter film
and will increase the life of the filter run.
92
Figure 3.12 Slow sand filter for a small water supply.
(Source: J.A Salvato. Environmental engineering and sanittion. 4th ed.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1992 (pp. 351) )
93
Filtering Mechanism in a Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
After the filter plant is installed according to the recommended
design and construction, the water to be filtered is made to run
through the layer of sand and grad gravel. Microorganisms
(bacteria) in the raw water are trapped by the top layer of sand
particles and start growing and multiplying. Gradually, they form a
stick film layer, which traps the impurities including
microorganisms from the water being filtered. As the spread of
the film over the top surface of the sand increases, the quality of
the filtered water increases, but the flow rate decreases. The
future increase of the film layer both in thickness and surface
area coverage causes further quality purification, but with further
decrease in flow rate, which in its turn decreases the head of
water coming out of the filtering media. Finally, a minimum rate of
flow and water head is observed, which indicates the need for
cleaning the filter media. This is done removing the few top layers
of the sand as explained earlier.
When the formation of the gelatinous film on the top layer cannot
take place on its own or when it is not sufficiently increasing as
expected due to the less number of bacteria in the raw water, a
section of such a film produced in other media or seeds of such
organisms are used in order to enhance the mechanism of
filtration. Strict precautions necessary as to the detection and
removal of the possible microorganisms that may pass on to the
filtered water and the proper disposal of the scrapped film/waste
94
water from washing the sand scrapped with the film in order to
replace it back.
Figure 3.13 Typical devices for the control of the rate of flow
or filtration.
(Source: J.A Salvato. Environmental engineering and sanittion.
4th ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1992 (pp. 353) )
95
Slow sand filter is one of the oldest methods of purifying drinking
water supplies. It is still effective especially for smaller
communities. Regardless it is designed and constructed
according to the recommended standard, and the unit process is
regularly supervised and controlled. The type of raw water, type
and effectiveness of the pretreatment given; the type, size,
design and installation of the sand filter; regular and proper
cleaning of the filter media; and the proper regulation of the
quality of the filtered water are the critical areas to focus upon, for
achieving the expected outcome and its consistency.
The other advantages of SSF are its running (operation) cost is

low. Further more once properly designed and constructed, its
operation doesn’t necessarily need skilled human-power. The
main disadvantage lies in its installation cost due to cost of large
area of land it requires.
3.3.9.2 Rapid sand filter (RSF) or granular media filter (GMF)
A rapid sand gravity filter, also referred to as a granular media

and mechanical filter, is shown in figure 3.14below.
Two important accessories to a rapid sand filter are the loss-of-

head gauge and the rate controller:
The lose-of-head gauge shows the frictional resistance to
the flow of water through the sand, laterals, and artifices.
When this reaches about 7 ft. with sand and 5 ft (~1.5m)
96
with a dual media, it indicates that the filter needs to be
backwashed.
The rate controller is constructed to automatically
maintain a uniform predetermined rate of filtration
through the filter usually about 3gpm/ft2, until the filter
needs cleaning.
97
Figure 3.14Essential parts of a rapid sand filter
98
Disturbance of filtrate or excessive head loss may cause break
through of suspended particles and filter flock. Filter design and
operation should reduce the possible magnitude of filter
fluctuations. A filter rate of 3 to 4 gal or higher may be permitted
with skilled operation, if pre-treatment can assure water on filter
has a turbidity of less than about 10 and preferably 3 units and a
coliform concentration of less than 2:2. Sand for the higher rate
would have an effective size of 0.5 to 0.7 mm and a uniformity
coefficient of 1.5 to 2.0.
In a combination of anthracite over sand bed, use is made of the

known specific gravity of crushed anthracite of about 1.5 and the
specific gravity of sand of 2.5 to 2.65. The relative weight of
sand in water is three times that of anthracite. Fair and Geyer
have shown that anthracite grains can be twice as large as sand
grains and that after backwashing the sand will settle in place
before the anthracite in two separate layers. Combination of
sand –anthracite filters require careful operating attention and
usually use of filter conditioner to prevent floc passing through
while at the same time obtaining a more uniform distribution of
suspended solids throughout the media depth. Longer filter runs
such as 2 and 3 times the conventional filter, at rates of 4 to
6gpm/ft2 and up to 8 or 10gpm/ft2 and less wash water are
reported.
Treatment of the row water by coagulation, flocculation, and

settling to remove as much as possible of the pollution is
99
usually a necessary and important preliminary step in the
rapid sand filtration of water. Water, after the preceding
settling process in passing to the filter carries with it some
flocculated suspended solids, colour, and bacteria. These
form a matt on top of the sand that aids greatly in the
straining and removal of other suspended matter, colour, and
bacteria, but this also causes rapid clogging of the sand.
Special arrangement is, therefore, made in the design for
washing the filter by forcing water backward up through the
filter at a rate that will provide a sand expansion of 40 to 50%
based on the water temperature and sand effective size. The
following examples best illustrate the association among the
four factors: effective sand size, % sand expansion, wash-
water rate rise and temperature.
• With a 0.4mm effective size sand, a 40% sand expansion

requires a wash-water rate rise of 21 in/min with 32g
water; and
• A rise of 33 ½ in'' with water at 700F, sand effective size
and percent expansion of sand being constant.
• The dirty water is carried off to the waste by troughs built
in above the sand bed 5 to 6 ft (~1.5-1.8m) apart. A
system of scrape or a 1½'' to 2'' pressure line at 45 to 75
psc (pounds/square inch) with hose connection should
be provided to clean the surface of the sand to assist in
loosening and removing the material on the sand.
Effective washing of the sand is essential.
100
Advantages
• When properly operated, a filtration plants, including
coagulation, and settling of the bacteria, can remove
a great deal of the odour, and colour, and practically
all the suspended solids. However, safety for
drinking water is guaranteed only after disinfection.
• Larger amount of water filtration at ≈ 4320gpd
very little time.
• Less land requirement for construction
• Less manual work, as the plant is mostly
operated (mechanically).
Disadvantages
• Needs skilled human power. Construction of a rapid
sand filter should not be attempted unless it is designed
and supervised by a competent sanitary engineer.
• Not effective/can not be used for all raw waters, unless
preceded by coagulation, flocculation and settling, and
the water brought within the permissible limits.
• The MPN of coliform organisms in the raw water cannot
exceed 5000/100ml.
• Removal of protozoa (Giardia cyst) and viruses cannot
be assured unless the granular media filtration (RSF) is
assisted by adequate coagulation, flocculation and
settling a head of it and disinfection after.
101
3.3.9.3 Direct Filtration
It is a recent type of filtration using waters with low suspended

matter and turbidity, colour, coliform organisms, and plankton,
and free of paper fibers. It has been attractive because of the
lower cost in producing a good quality water, if substantiated by
prior pilot plant studies reflecting seasonal variations in raw water
quality. In direct filtration, the sedimentation basin is omitted. The
unit processes prior to filtration (dual or mixed media) may
consist of only rapid mix, rapid mix and flocculation, or rapid mix
and contact basin (1-hr detention) without sludge collector. A
flocculation and contact basin is recommended for better water
quality control. A polymer is usually used in addition to a
coagulant.
Direct filtration can be a good possibility if:

1. The raw water turbidity and colour are each less than 25
units.
2. The colour is low and the maximum turbidity does not
exceed 200 NTU; or
3. The turbidity is low and the maximum colour does not
exceed 100 units.
The presence of paper fiber or of diatom in excess of 1000 areal

standard units/milliliter (asu/ml) requires that settling (or
Microscreening) be included in the treatment process chain.
Diatom levels in excess of 200 asu/ml may require the use of
102
special coarse coal on top of the bed in order to extend filter
runs. Coliform MPNs should also be low.
While good operation control is essential, decreased chemical

dosage and hence sludge production, but increased filter wash
water, will usually result in reduced net cost.
Disadvantage’s they can only work under the above criteria.
3.3.9.4 Pressure Sand Filter
It is similar in principle to the rapid sand gravity filter except that it

is completely enclosed in a vertical or horizontal cylindrical steel
tank through which water under pressure is filtered. The normal
filtration rate is 2gpm/ft2 of sand; but higher rates are also used.
Pressure filters are most frequently used in swimming pool and
industrial plant installations, and for precipitated iron and
manganese removal (See figure 3.15).
Figure 3.15 Pressure Filter cutaway

(Adapted from Pfaffin J.R. and E.N. Ziegler. Encyclopedia of
nd
Environmental Science and Engineering. 2 edition, volume 3, Q- Z
Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1983.)
103
Advantage – it is possible to use only one pump to take water
from the source or out of the pool (and force it through the filter
and directly into the plant water system or back into the pool).
Disadvantages:
1. Difficulty in introducing chemicals under pressure,
2. Inadequate coagulation facilities,
3. Lack of adequate settling,
4. The appearance of the water being filtered and
the condition of the sand cannot be seen;
5. The effectiveness of backwashing can not be
observed,
6. The safe rate of filtration may be exceeded; and
7. It is difficult to look inside the filter for the
purpose of determining loss of sand or anthracite
need for cleaning, replacing of the filter media,
and inspection of the wash water pipes, influent,
and effluent arrangements.
Because of these disadvantages and weaknesses, a pressure

filter is not considered dependable for the treatment of
contaminated water to be used for drinking purposes.
Nevertheless, it may have limited application for small, slightly
contaminated water supplies and for turbidity remova.l In which
such cases, the water should be coagulated and flocculated in an
open basin before being pumped through a pressure filter. This
will require double plumping.
104
3.3.9.5 Diatomaceous Earth Filter
There are two types of diatomaceous earth filters: the pressure

type, which consists of a closed steel cylinder inside of which are
suspended septa, the filter elements; the vacuum type, where the
septa are in an open tank under water that is re-circulated with a
vacuum inside the septa. Normal rates of filtration are 1 to 1½
gpm/ft2 of element surface (See figure 3.16).
In preparing the filter for use, a slurry or filter aid (precoat) of

diatomaceous earth is introduced with the water to be treated at
a rate of about 1½ oz/ft2 of filter septum area, which results in
about 1/16 in. depth of media being placed evenly on the septa,
and the water is recirculated for at least 3 min before discharge.
Then additional filter and (body coat) is added with the water to
maintain the permeability of the filter media. The rate of feed is
roughly 2 to 3mg/L per unit of turbidity in the water. Filter aids
are available in different particle sizes. If forms a coating or mat
around the outside of each filter element and is more efficient
than sand, because of smaller media pore size, in removing from
the water suspended matter and organisms such as cysts of
amoeba and giardia, cercariae of schistosomes, flukes of
fasciola, and worms of ascaris and trichuris.
The diatomite filter has also found greatest practical application

in swimming pools, iron removal of ground waters, and industrial
and military installations. It has a special advantage in the
removal of oil from condensate water, since the diatomaceous
105
earth is wasted. The filter should not be used to treat a public
water supply unless pilot plant study results on the water to be
treated meet the requirements related to health in the regulatory
issues.
Figure-3.16 Diatomaceous earth filter

(Adapted from Pfaffin J.R. and E.N. Ziegler. Encyclopedia of
nd
Environmental Science and Engineering. 2 edition, volume 3, Q- Z
Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1983.)
Disadvantages/Weaknesses
A) A major weakness is that failure to add diatomaceous
earth to build up the filtering mat, either through
ignorance or negligence, will make the filter entirely
ineffective and give a false sense of security.
B) Clogging of the septa, requires replacement or removal
and chemical cleaning.
106
C) The head loss through the filter should not exceed 3o
lb/in.2, during filtration, thereby requiring a pump and
motor with a wide range in the head characteristics.
D) Cannot be used where pump operation is intermittent, for
the filter cake will slough off unless sufficient continuous
recirculation is provided by a separate pump.
Backwashing – filter backwashing is done by reversing the flow
of the filtered water back through the septa, thereby forcing all
the diatomite to fall to the bottom of the filter shell, from which
point it is flushed to waste. Only about 0.5% of the water filtered
is used for backwash when the filter run length equals the
theoretical or design length.
The filter should not be used to treat raw water with greater than
2400 MPN/100 ml, 30 turbidity units, or 3000 areal standard
microscopic units per 100ml. It does not remove taste and odour
producing substances. In any case, chlorination is considered a
necessary adjunct to filtration. The diatomite filter must be
carefully operated by trained personnel in order to obtain
dependable results.
3.3.10 Water-Treatment Plant Wastewater and Sludge
Water-treatment plant sludge from plain sedimentation and

coagulation-flocculation settling basins and backwash
wastewater from filters are required to be adequately treated,
prior to discharge to a surface water course. The wastes are
107
characteristic of substances in the raw water and chemicals
added in water treatment. They contain suspended and
settleable solids (including organic and inorganic chemicals) as
well as trace metals, coagulants (usually aluminium hydroxide)
and polymers, clay, lime, powdered activated carbon, etc. The
aluminum would interfere with fish survival and growth.
The common waste treatment and disposal processes include:

• Sand sludge drying beds -- where suitable,
• Lagooning – where land is available,
• Natural or artificial freezing and thawing,
• Chemical conditioning of sludge using inorganic
chemicals and polymers to facilitate dewatering, and
• Mechanical dewatering by centrifugation, vacuum
filtration, and pressure filtration.
Sludge dewatering increases sludge solids to about 15 to 20
percent. The use of a filter press involves a sludge thickener,
polymer, sludge decant, lime, retention basin, addition of a
precoat, and mechanical dewatering by pressure filtration. The
filter cake solids concentration is increased to 40% (from the
sludge 10%); it can be disposed of to a landfill when permitted.
The use of a polymer with alum for coagulation could cut the
amount of alum used to less than one-fifth, the cost of coagulant
chemicals by one-third, and the sludge produced by over fifty
percent. Lime softening results in large amounts of sludge,
increasing with water hardness. Recovering and recycling of lime
108
may be economical at large plants. Sludge may be disposed of
by lagooning, discharge to a wastewater treatment plant, or
mechanical dewatering and land filling, depending on feasibility
and regulations.
3.3.11 Disinfection
Disinfection is killing infectious agents outside the body by

chemical or physical means. It is any chemical or physical
process to destroy or remove undesirables present on the
person, animal, plant, or in the environment.
Disinfection, as a unit process in conventional water treatment
system, is the step (unit) at which chemicals or physical
substances (disinfectants) are applied to the water under
treatment in order, mainly to destroy disease-causing organisms
in the water during the application as well as those, which may
enter the water system thereafter, so as to make the water safe/
free of pathogens up to the stages of human consumption or
other intended uses of the disinfected water.
The most common chemicals used for the disinfection of drinking
water are chlorine (gas and hypochlorite or chlorine compounds),
chlorine ammonia, chlorine dioxide and ozone. Other
disinfectants that may be used under certain circumstances
include ultraviolet radiation, bromine, iodine, silver and chlorinate
lime.
Chlorination is the most common method of destroying disease-
producing organisms that might normally be found in water used
109
for drinking. This emanates from the following characteristics of
chlorine and its compounds used as water disinfectants:
• The disinfectants readily kill the pathogens
• The disinfectants readily combine with the undesirable
substances to inactivate or remove them.
• They are easy to utilize (comparatively) and are readily
available (utilize implies prepare, apply and detect).
• After fulfilling the purpose in the first place, they also remain
as a “reserve army” in the system to avoid the undesirables
should they come later into the system.
• They are relatively of low cost which permits they widely use.
Some of the disfavored properties of chlorine are:

• Its volatility (especially gas chlorine)
• Its being poison, especially when used in excess
amount
• Its ineffectiveness, especially when micro-organisms
are shielded by turbidity or others
• Hypochlorite is corrosive and may produce severe
burns, unless stored in the original containers in a cool,
well-ventilated, dry place
• Its toxicity to fish and other aquatic life
• Its being suspected of being a carcinogen.
110
Table 3.2 Availability, forms of chlorine, and its compounds
Chlorine and its % chlorine Form of

Compounds existence
(availability)
1. Gas/ liquid chlorine 100 gas/ liquid in a
closed cylinder
2. Hightest Hypo (per 10 Powder
chlorine) Chlorite
(potassium)
3. Chlorinated lime 25 Powder
4. Sodium hypo chlorite 14 Powder
5. Bleaching soda 5 Liquid
(‘Barakina’)
6. Halazon 4 Tablet
Chlorine and its compounds may be used in conventional water

treatment system for the following purposes:
1. To kill algae, reduce some organic matter that cause odour,

taste, and colour problems; the usage at this phase (in raw
water for treatment) is known as pre-chlorination; the amount
of chlorine to be added depends on the impurity. The addition
can be continuous or intermittent.
111
2. To destroy the bacteria that may grow within the sand bed
supportive gravel or under drain system. The addition can be
periodical or continuous; the latter is usually true for slow
sand filters. The chlorination is done at a dosage to provide
0.3 to 0.5 mg/L in the water on top of the filter. This
chlorination is also termed as pre-chlorination.
3. To kill all pathogenic microorganisms as well as other
undesirable substance in drinking water supplies at the
treatment plant (after filtration) as well as in the distribution
system up to the consumer. This type of chlorination is called
post-chlorination or disinfections is done on a continuous
basis, as will be explained later.
4. To kill or eliminate the coliform organisms and others entered
into the distribution system as a result of a surface water
supply or an inadequately filtered water supply coming into
contact with treated water in the distribution system. These
contaminants may include coliform organisms, organic
matter, minerals and sediment, fungi, algae, macroscopic
and microscopic organisms. They may pass through or settle
in the mains or become attached and grow in the mains
when chlorination is marginal or inadequate to destroy them
suspended matter and iron deposits (favoring iron bacteria)
will mater single with and harbor the growths.
Therefore, a positive program of continuous heavy chlorination at

the rate of 5 to 10 mg/L coupled with routine flushing of the mains
is maintained to obtain a free chlorine residual of at least 0.2 to
112
0.4 mg/L in active parts of the distribution system. Unless this
residual chlorine is attained which indicates the removal of the
organisms, bacteriological control of the water supply is lost. The
rapidity with which a contaminated distribution system is cleared
will depend on factors such as uninterruption of chlorination even
momentarily; the chlorine residual maintained in the entire
system, the growth in the mains and degree of pipe incrustation
conscientiousness in flushing the distribution system; the social,
economic and political deterrents; and mostly the competency of
the responsible individual.
5. Similar chlorination process can be done at post chlorination

stage in reservoirs (storage facilities) when found open to
contamination.
3.3.11.1 The dosage of chlorine
The dosage of chlorine to treat a water supply system depends

on:
a. Chlorine demand, and
b. The required residual chlorine to be available in the
system at any time and in any place (in the system
includes taps at individual premises and building fixtures)
a. Chlorine demand: is the amount of chlorine to be

consumed in the water in reacting with the impurities in
the water and in destroying the microorganisms and
others during a specific time incrustation- formation of a
113
hard outer covering. The required chlorine dosage should
take into consideration.
• Pollution of the source of water (appearance as well as
the quality of the water)
• The type of microorganisms likely to be present
• The PH of the water Æ the disinfecting capacity of
chlorine HOCl decrease as the PH increases
• The temperature of the water, and
• The degree of treatment the water receives
• B. Residual chlorine- is the amount of chlorine available
in the water system after the demand for chlorine is
satisfied. The availability can be in the form of hypo-
chlorous acid (HOCl) or hypochlorite (OCl-) in which case
it is known as free chlorine residual, or in the form of
chlorine compounds (usually with nitrogenous
compounds known as combined chlorine residual. Total
residual chlorine in water is the sum of the free and
combined residual chlorine present in the water at the
time of measurement.
• In order to understand about the dose the demand and
the residual chlorine in relation to water treatment it is
better to go through the following briefing on the reaction
of chlorine in water is very important.
114
3.3.11.2 Reaction of chlorine in water
In the presence of ammonia, organic matter and other chlorine

consuming materials, the required chlorine dosage to produce a
free residual will be high. The following 5 steps explain the
reaction of chlorine in water after it is added to:
1. Destruction of chlorine by reducing compound; at this step,
no disinfection takes place
2. Chloro-organic compounds are formed; only little
disinfections is done here
3. Ammonia plus chlorine producing chloramines
4. Chloramines and Chloro-organic compounds destroyed
5. Free chlorine and the remaining Chloro-organic compounds
are found in water
Due to these reactions (requiring high chlorine dosage) in it, the
water is said to have a high chlorine demand. The generic idea
efficiency of chlorine is primarily dependent on the present free
chlorine that is in the form of hypochlorous acid (HOCl), which in
turn is dependent on the pH and temperature of the water. (See
table 3.3)
Free residual chlorination is the addition of sufficient chlorine to

yield free chlorine residual in the water supply in an amount
equal to more than 85 percent of the total chlorine present. When
the ratio of chlorine to ammonia is 5:1 (by weight), the chlorine
residual is all mono-chloramines; when the ratio reaches 10:1
dichloride (chlorine) is also formed; when the ratio reaches 15 or
20:1 nitrogen tri chloride is formed. Nitrogen tri chloride as low as
115
0.05 mg/L causes an offensive and acrid odour that can be
removed by carbon, aeration, exposure to sunlight, or forced
ventilation indoors. It is also highly explosive.
2NH3 + Cl2Æ 2NH2 Cl + H2O
2NH2 Cl+ Cl2Æ NH Cl2+H2O
2NHCl2+Cl2Æ 2NCl3+H2O
The mono; and dichloramines have fairly some disinfecting
power, though they act slowly and gradually, while nitrogen tri
chloride has almost no disinfecting capacity. The former also
elongate the residual effect water having a turbidity of less than 5
NT (ideally less than 0.1), a PH less than 8.0 and HOCl residual
of 1 mg/L after 30 min contact provides an acceptable level of
protection.
With free residual chlorination, water is bleached and iron,

manganese, and organic matter are coagulated by chlorine and
precipitated particularly when the water is stored in a reservoir or
basin for at least 2hr. Most taste and odour producing
compounds are destroyed the reduction of sulfates to taste and
116
Table 3.3 Chlorine residual for effective disinfection of filtered water
Approximate percent at 68 to Bactericidal Cysticidal treatment
0 0
32 F (10-0 C) treatment
S.No pH HCl OCl At 36 to 41 0F 600F 780F
1. 5.0 - - - - - 2.3 -
2. 6.0 98 to 97 2 to 3 0.2 1.0 7.2 - 1.9 d
3. 7.0 83 to 75 17 to 25 0.2 1.5 10.0 3.1 2.5 d
4. 7.2 74 to 62 26 to 38 - - - - 2.6 d
5. 7.3 68 to 57 32 to 43 - - - - 2.8 d
6. 7.4 64 to 52 36 to 48 - - - - 2.0 d
7. 7.5 58 to 47 42 to 53 - - 14.0d 4.7 3.2 d
8. 7.6 53 to 42 47 to 58 - - - - 3.5 d
9. 7.7 46 to 37 53 to 64 - - 16.0d 6.0 3.8 d
10. 7.8 40 to 32 60 to 68 - - - - 4.2 d
11. 8.0 32 to 23 68 to 97 0.4 1.8 22.0 9.9 5.0 d
12. 9.0 5 to 3 95 to 97 0.8 Reduce - 78 20.0 d
117
pH of
water to
below
13. 10.0 0 100 0.8 9.0 - 761 1706
th
(Source: J.A Salvato. Environmental engineering and sanittion. 4 ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1992)
118
Free available chlorine HOCl+ OCl. Combined available
Chlorine = chlorine bound to nitrogenous matter as chloramines.
Only free available chlorine or combined available chlorine is
measured by percent testing methods, therefore, to determine
acute free chlorine (HOCl), correct reading by percent shown
above “chlorine residual”, as the term is generally used, is the
combined available chlorine and free available chlorine= total
residual chlorine. When the chlorine to ammonia reaches 15 or
20:1 nitrogen tri chloride is formed, it is acid and highly explosive.
Ventilate: Viricidal treatment requires free available chlorine of
0.53 mg/L at pH 8.5 in 320F demand free water. For water at a
temperature of 77 to 82.40F and pH 7 to 9, free available chlorine
of 0.3mg/l is adequate. At a pH 7 and temperature of 770F at
least 9 mg/L combined available chlorine is needed with 30 min
contact time. Turbidity should, be less than one Jackson unit. All
the results are based on studies made under laboratory
conditions using water free of suspended matter and chlorine
demand. In practice, unless other wise indicated, at least 0.4 to 5
mg/L free residual chlorine for 30 min or 2mg/L combined
residual chlorine for 3hr. should be maintained in a clear water
before delivery to the consumer. The regulatory body (Health
department) may require more dependent on source of raw water
and sanitary survey.
• Expression: All residual chlorine results are reported as
mg/L one mg/L hypochlorous acid (HOCl) gives 1.35
mg/L free available chlorine as OCl distributed as noted
above the HOCl component is the markedly superior
119
disinfectant, about 40 to 80 times more effective than the
hypo chlorite ion (OCl)
3.3.11.3 Break point chlorine
It is the point at which chlorine added to the water satisfies the

chlorine demand of the water and starts increasing in the water
as free residual chlorine. After the break point, the amount of
chlorine added to the water and the amount of fee residual
chlorine are equal, unless now pollution is encountered. The
chlorine in the treaded water there after acts as a stand by army
in the distribution odour producing sulfides is prevented; and
objectionable growths and organisms in the mains are controlled
or eliminated provided a free chlorine residual is maintained in
the water an indication of an accidental pollution of water in the
mains is also obtained if the free residual chlorine is lost,
provided chlorination is not interrupted (See figure 3.17).
120
Figure 3.17 The reaction of chlorine in water.
Laboratory studies (Kelly and Sanderson)

Indicated that depending on PH and temperature, residual
chlorine values of greater than 4 ppm, with 5 min contact or per
contact periods of at 4 hr with a residual chlorine value of 0.5
ppm are necessary to inactivated the virus of poliomyelitis at PH
of 6.85 to 7.4 in 2 hr coagulation settling filtration and chlorination
to 1.1 mg. L total and 0.4 mg/ L free chlorine was effective
against infectious hepatitis virus. Removal of nematodes requires
121
pre-chlorination to produce 0.4-to 0.5-mg/L residual after 5 hrs
retention followed by settling. Fungicidal action is obtained at a
PH of 7.4 and at a water temperature of 260C with 0.35 mg/l free
chlorine after 4 hrs contacts and with 1.8-mg/L free chlorine after
35 min contact. In general water to be treated by chlorination
should be relatively clear and clean with an average monthly
MPN of coliform bacteria of < 50/100 ml
3.3.11.4 Ways of feeding chlorine
(into water supplies and the underlying precautions)

Equipment tool for feeding chlorine is known as a chlorinator. In
conventional water treatment system operation of the chlorinator
should be automatic. Proportional to the flow of water and
adjusted to the temperature and pH chlorine on line as well as a
complete set of spare parts for the equipment so as to make
possible immediate repair the chlorinator should provide for the
positive injection of chlorine and be selected with.
Granular activated carbon due regard to pumping head and

maximum and minimum flow of water to be treated. The point of
chlorine application should be selected so as to provide adequate
mixing and at least 15 min, preferably 30 min, chlorine contact
with the water to be treated before it reaches the first consumer.
Hypo-chlorinators are generally used to feed relatively small
quantities of chlorine at 1 to 5 percent sodium or calcium
122
hypochlorite solution. Positive feed machines are fairly reliable
and simple to operate (See figure 3.18).
Chlorine to be feed into a water system for disinfections can be in

powder liquid or gas or tablet form. While the gas form is usually
used for treating large quantities of water mandatory
mechanically, tablet chlorine is for small quantities of water, more
often to disinfect individual water supplies applied manually.
When using the powder form, make a paste with a little water
then dissolve the paste in a recommended amount of water.
Allow the solution to settle and then uses in clean liquid with out
wasting time and hence should be made up fresh once a week. It
is important to allow the treated water to stand for 3 min after the
chlorine is added before it is used double the chlorine dosage if
the water is turbid or coloured.
123
J
i Air tube
Rub
ber Air –
tube tight
rubber
stopper
Gl
as
s
Chlo
rine
solut
stock chlorine
Stopc solution bottle
ock
for
regul
ating
hl i
Drops to the
water
to be
Figure 3.18 An Emergency Siphon Chlorination

(Adapted from Gabre- Emanual Teka. Water upply- Ethiopia, An
124
Chlorine containing tablets (halazones) are suitable for use on
camping, hunting, liking, and fishing trips. The tablets contain 46
grams of chlorine and they deteriorate, with age. As these are
chloramines and chlorine are slow-acting disinfectants the
treated water should be allowed to stand at least 60 min before
being used.
Gas chlorinator
When a dry feed gas chlorinator or a solution feed gas chlorinator
is used. The chlorinator and liquid chlorine cylinders should be
located 1 gram= 64.8 mg calcium hypochlorite is in powder form,
while sodium hypochlorite is in liquid. Separate gas-tight rooms
that are mechanically ventilated to provide low air changes per
minute with the exhaust openings at flow level opposite the air
inlets. Exhaust ducts must be separate from any other ventilating
system of ducts and extended to a height and location that will
not endanger the public personnel or property and ensure
adequate dilution. The door to the rooms should have a glass
inspection panel and a chlorine gas mask or self- contained
breathing apparatus approved by the regulatory body, should be
available out side of the chlorinator and chlorine cylinder rooms.
(The chlorine canister type of mask is suitable for low
concentrations of chlorine in air while the self-contained
breathing apparatus (pressure demand) is recommended for high
concentrations of chlorine. The temperature around the chlorine
cylinders should be between 50 to 850F and cooler than the
temperature of the chlorinator room to prevent condensation of
125
chlorine in the line conducting chlorination or in the chlorinator.
Cylinders must be stored at a temperature below 1400F. A flat
form scale is needed for the weighing of chlorine cylinders of
used to determine the pounds of chlorine used each day and to
anticipate when a new cylinder will be needed.
N.B: A chlorine contain along 100 lb of chlorine developing a

leak that cannot be repaired can have the chlorine absorbed
by 125 Ib of caustic soda in 40 gal of water; 300 Ib of soda
ash in 100 gal of water, or 125 Ib of hydrated lime in 125 gal
of water continuously agitated.
Cylinders should be connected to manifold so that chlorine may

be drawn from several cylinders at a time and so that cylinders
can be replaced without interruption of chlorine. In order to
prevent clogging by chlorine ice, it is recommended not to draw
more than 35 to 40 Ib of chlorine per day at a continuous rate
from 100- or 150 Ib cylinders. Liquid chlorine comes in 100- and
150 Ib cylinders, in 1- ton containers and in 16 to 90 ton tank
cars. There are also smaller cylinders. The major factors affecting
withdrawal rate are ambient air temperature and size and type of
cylinder.
The normal operating temperature is 700F. A relatively clear

source of water of adequate volume and pressure is necessary to
prevent clogging of injectors and strainers and to assure proper
chlorination at all times. The water pressure to operate a gas
126
chlorinator should be 15 psi and about three times the
backpressure (water pressure at point of application plus friction
loss in the chlorine solution hose, and difference in elevation
between the point of application and chlorinator) against which
chlorine is infected. About 40 to 50 gpd of water is needed per
pound of chlorine to be added.
To assure that only properly treated water is distributed, it is

important to have a component and trust worthy person in charge
of the chlorination plant. He/she should keep daily records
showing the amounts of water treated, the amount of chlorine
used and its strength, the gross weight of chlorine cylinders if
used the setting of the chlorinator the time residual chlorine tests
made, the results of such tests, and any repairs or maintenance,
power failures modifications or unusually occurrences the
treatment plant or water system
Reading assignment to students: please read and take notes
on the different types of chlorinators for small quantities and
emergency water supply from J.A. Salvato (1982) p.p.368-372.
3.3.11.5Testing for Residual Chlorine
The recommended tests for measuring residual chlorine in water

are the DPD (SNORT) methods. All tests should be made in
accordance with accepted procedures. The leucocrystal violet
method is also satisfactory. It determines free available chlorine
with minimal interference from combined chlorine, iron, nitrates
and nitrites. DPD is considered a more accurate field test.
127
However, studies showed that the best accuracy and precision
was obtained by leucocrystal violet and the standardized neutral
orthot (SNORT) procedures followed by DPD titrimetric
amperometric filtration, DPD- colorimeteric, and methyl orange by
for the best the orthotolidine arsenate (OTA) procedure.
In another study (Gutter, et al) it was reported that

syringaldaznie the most specific for free available chlorine and
DPD more accurate and precise over temperature and pH
variations. The SNORT procedure showed false positive readings
for free available chlorine in the presence of combined chlorine.
Combined chlorine can also cause interference with DPD method
if readings are not made with in one minute.
3.3.11.6 Preparation of chlorine stock solutions
Chlorine stock solutions are usually prepared as 1 percent (0.01)

available chlorine and updated at least every week. The following
steps are followed when calculating 1mg the stock solution from
compounds containing a certain percentage of available chlorine.
1. Change the different units into one unit by using the
proper changing factors
2. Find the amount of water to be treated at the rate
intended to be treated
3. Find the amount of the disinfectant need to disinfect the
calculated water at the specified rate 4/1 this being
from the percentage of the available chlorine in the
128
compound find the 100% strength in the unit planned
to be measured.
E.g. Find the amount of calcium hypo chlorite (powder in oz) that
is needed to disinfect 1000 gal of water at 1 mg/L
Solution
1. 1gal =3.785L, =28359 mg
2. 1000 gal = 3785 L
3. at 1 mg/L 3785 L 3785x 1mg= 3785mg
4. 3785/28350 =0.133097 oz
If 0.1335097 oz is from 100% available chlorine,

what amount is needed from 70%?
Î 100/70 x 0.1.335097 oz
NB 1/100 = 10,000/1000000 ≈ 0.190728 oz

≈ 0.2oz
Î Stock solutions Î 1/100 available chlorine
Class work
a. Calculate the above question from 5.2%
available chlorine
b. From 25% available chlorine
3.3.11.7 Other disinfectants/Iodine, Ozone/

Sight drops of 2 percent tincture of iodine (8mg/dose may be
used to disinfect 1 qt of clear water. The water to which the
disinfectant is added to is allowed to stand at least 30 min before
129
being used. Elemental iodine is good disinfectant over a pH
range of 3 to 8 even in the presence of contamination combined
amines are not formed to use up the iodine. A dosage of 5 to 10
mg/L, with the average of 7.5 mg/L for most waters, is effective
against enteric bacteria, amoebic cysts, cercarial, leptospira, and
viruses with 30 min. Iodine tablets which dissolve in less than
1min and stable for extended periods of time are available. They
are known as iodine water purification tablets. Of these tablets
globuline or tetraglycine hydrogen peroxide, is preferred. They
contain 8.0 mg of active iodine per tablet. Furthermore; the
treated water by these tablets is palatable. The main
disadvantage of iodine is its high cost when compared to chlorine
and its compounds.
Bromine can also be a water disinfectant although its use has

been more of the time to disinfect swimming pool waters.
Ozone treatment and its Advantages

Ozone has been used for many years as disinfectant and as an
agent to remove colour, taste and odour from drinking water. It is
more effective in these latter purposes when compared to the
other agents. It also oxidizes and permits removal or iron and
manganese and aids in turbidity removal.
Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent over a wide pH and

temperature range, in contrast to chlorine. It is an excellent
viricide, effective against amoeba cysts and destroys bacteria
130
and phenols. The potential for the formation of chlorinated
organics such as trihalomethanes (THMs) is reduced with
prolongation; the removal of soluble organics in coagulation is
also reported to be improved. Ozone is reported to be 3100 times
faster than chlorine in disinfection.
Some of the disadvantages of ozone are:

- It is a toxic gas and very corrosive
- It provides no lasting residual in water for it disappears
in 7 to 8 min and
- It is more expensive compared to chlorine and chlorine
dioxide
- It cannot be stored as a compressed gas.
Adding chlorine to maintain chlorine residual in the distribution

system can offset the disadvantage of no tasting. Careful
consideration must be made to avoid the possibility of the
formation of compounds with mammalian toxicity during
ozonization of drinking water, though the probability is said to be
small.
Ozone must be generated at the point of use even though ozone

can be produced by electrolysis of perchloric acid and by
ultraviolet lamps; the practical method of water treatment is by
passage of dry clean air between two high- voltage electrodes.
Pure oxygen can be added in a positive pressure injection
system. The ozonized water is injected in a mixing and contact
131
chamber with the water treated. The space above the chamber
must be carefully vented after its concentration is reduced using
an ozone destructive device to avoid human exposure, as ozone
is very corrosive and toxic. As the vented ozone may contribute
to air pollution, precautions must be taken in the storage,
handling, piping, respiratory protection, and housing of ozone as
chlorine.
Chlorine Dioxide Treatment

Chlorine dioxide is manufactured at the water plant where it is to
be used. It is formed by pumping sodium chlorite solution and
chlorine water (made by gas chlorine) ion to a glass cylinder. It is
added to the water being treated from here, together with the
chlorine water for a complete reaction with full production of
chlorine dioxide, the pH of the solution with glass reaction
cylinder must be less than 4.0 where hypochlorintors are used, it
is produced by adding hypochlorine solution, a dilute solution of
hydrochloric acid, and a solution of sodium chlorite in the glass
reaction cylinder so as to maintain a pH of less than 4.0. The
solution feeders are then needed. Cox, as indicated by Salvato,
gives the theoretical ratio of chlorine to sodium chlorite as
1.0:2.57 with chlorine water or hypochlorite solution, and sodium
chlorite to chlorine dioxide produced as 1.0:0.74. More chlorine is
needed to drop the pH to less than 4.0.
132
Advantages- A chlorine dioxide dosage of 0.2 to 0.3 mg/L will
destroy most phenolic taste producing compounds for which it
was originally developed
3.4 Supplementary water treatment
3.4.1 Technologies for fluoride removal

Fluoride is a normal constituent of natural water samples. Its
concentration, though, varies significantly depending on the
water source
3.4.2 Sources of fluoride

Although both geological and man- made sources contribute to
the occurrence of fluoride in water, the major contribution comes
from geological resources.
Except in isolated cases, surface waters seldom have fluoride

levels exceeding 0.3 mg/l. examples are streams flowing over
granite rich in fluoride minerals and rivers that receive untreated
fluoride-rich industrial wastewater.
There is several fluoride bearing minerals in the earth’s crust.

They occur in sedimentary (limestone and sandstone) and
igneous (granite) rocks. Weathering of these minerals, along with
volcanic and fumarolic processes, leads to higher fluoride levels
in ground water.
133
Dissolution of these barely soluble minerals depends on: the
water composition and the time of contact between the source
minerals and the water
3.4.3 Health impacts of excess fluoride in potable

waters
Low dental caries incidence rates demonstrate that fluoride
concentrations of up to 1.0mg/l in potable water are beneficial to
the oral health of children and, to a lesser extent, adults. In
several developed countries fluoridation of water supplies is
practiced if the natural concentration is below the desired level.
Consumption of water having excess fluoride over a prolonged

period leads to a chronic ailment known as fluorosis. Incidence of
high- fluoride ground water has been reported from 23 nations
around the globe. It has led to endemic fluorosis which has
become a major geo-environmental health issue in many
developing countries. According to a recent estimate, 62 million
people are affected by various degree of fluorosis in India alone
(Susheet, 2001)
Dental fluorosis, also called “mottled enamel”, occur when the

fluoride level in drinking water is marginally above 1.0 mg/l. A
relationship between fluoride concentration in potable water and
mottled enamel was first established in 1931. Typical
134
manifestations of dental fluorosis are loss of shining and
development of horizontal yellow streaks on teeth. Since this is
caused by high fluoride in or adjacent to developing enamel,
dental fluorosis develops in children born and brought up in
endemic areas of fluorosis. Once formed, the changes in the
enamel are permanent. When the above manifestations are seen
in an adult, they clearly indicate that the person has been
exposed to high fluoride levels during her or his childhood.
Skeletal fluorosis affects both adults and children and is generally

manifested after consumption of water with fluoride level
exceeding 3mg/l. typical symptoms of skeletal fluorosis are pain
in the joints and backbone. In severe cases this can result in
crippling the patient.
Recent studies have shown that excess intake of fluoride can

also have certain non-skeletal health impact such as gastro-
intestinal problems, allergies, anemia and urinary tract problems.
Nutritional deficiencies can enhance the undesirable effects of
fluoride.
3.4.4 Guidelines and Standards

Taking health effects into consideration, the world Health
organization has set a guideline value of 1.5mg/1 as the
maximum permissible level of fluoride in drinking water
However, it is important to consider climactic conditions, volume
of water intake, diet and other factors in setting national
135
standards for fluoride. As the fluoride intake determines health
effects, standards are bound to be different for countries with
temperature climates and for tropical countries, where
significantly more water is consumed.
3.4.5 Fluorosis in Ethiopia

The highest fluoride levels worldwide have been reported from
the East African rift system. The tests made so far were mapped
and reported, by Kloos and Tekle-Haimanot, shows the same
overall distribution pattern of very high fluoride concentrations in
the rift valley and moderate to very low levels in the highlands
and other parts of Ethiopia. Sixty-five percent of the 248 sources
tested in the Rift Valley had fluorosis levels of 1.0 mg/l and
higher, 23.4 % of them with concentrations between 5.0 and 9.9
mg/l and 26.6% above 10.0 mg/l. From the 219 sources in the
highlands and other parts of the country that were mapped, only
20.5% of them had fluoride levels between 1.0 -4.9 mg/l and
higher and concentrations in 19.2% of all the sources were below
0.5 mg/l.
It was also reported by Kloos and Tekle-Haimanot that all types

of water sources in the Rift Valley except rivers had high fluoride
levels. Lakes and hot springs had the highest fluoride
concentrations, with all of the 6 hot springs and 9 of the 11 lakes
tested exceeding 5.0 mg/l. The highest concentrations were
recorded in Lake Shala (264 mg/l) and Lake Abayata (202 mg/l).
All the 21 tested cold springs had fluoride concentrations below 5
136
mg/l, while about two-third of all deep- and shallow-wells
exceeded 1.0 mg/l, with most of them falling in the 5.0-9.9 and
above 10 mg/l categories. Concentrations on the9 river sites
were below 4.9 mg/l but still higher, on average, than the
highland and lowland in other parts of the country.
An extensive study of endemic fluorosis in Ethiopia, among 1,456
individuals in 14 communities, by Tekle-Haimanot and
colleagues, reported that in central Rift Valley the prevalence
rates of dental fluorosis between 69% and 98% (mean 84%), with
a rate of 48.2% in the village with the highest fluoride levels (33.6
ppm).
A recent community-based study carried out in Wonji-Shoa by
Zenebe and Colleagues reported an overall skeletal prevalence
of 65.7%. (Y. Berhan, D. Haile Mariam, H. Kloos, 2005)
3.4.6 Fluoride control options
3.4.6.1 Search for alternative sources

If fluoride concentration in a community’s water supply is
significantly and consistently beyond the permissible level, it is
essential to consider remedial measures to combat fluorosis. The
first choice should be to search for water source with a lower
fluoride level. Options are:
(a) Provision of a new and alternate source of water with
acceptable fluoride levels
It may be possible to get a safe water source in the
vicinity by drilling a new well and / or drawing the water
137
from different depths, as leaching of fluoride in to ground
water is a localized phenomenon.
(B) Transporting water from a distant source:

This may lead to lasting benefits, but initial cost will be
high. Such an approach has been implemented in
endemic fluorosis areas in few countries
(C) Blending high fluoride with low fluoride water
Mixing high and low fluoride waters so as to bring the

concentration within permissible levels can be an appropriate
long- term solution provided the low fluoride source is available
within reasonable distance and is of acceptable quality with
respect to other characteristics.
(D) Dual water sources:

If there are sources with low fluoride levels available to the
same community, the source having low fluoride levels can
be strictly limited to drinking and cooking. The water source
with high fluoride can then be used for other purposes.
(E) Rainwater harvesting

There are two ways in which rainwater harvesting can be
used as a solution for the fluoride problem. Individual
household- roof rainwater harvesting and container storage
can provide potable water for families. On harvested surface
138
water runoff can be used to recharge high- fluoride ground
water sources.
N.B. When non of the above options is feasible or if the only

solution. Would take a long time for planning and implementation,
defluoridation of drinking water have to be practiced.
3.4.6.2 Defluoridation of water
Two options are then available:

i. The central treatment of water at the source- this
method adopted in developed countries, need
skilled personnel and high cost
ii. The treatment of water at the point of use that is
at the household level
Treatment at the point of use has several advantages over

treatment at the community level. Costs are lower, as
defluoridation can be restricted to the demand for cooking and
drinking- usually less than 24% of the total water demand.
Chemical treatment of the entire water demand would lead to
production of large volumes of sludge, which requires a safe
disposal.
Limitations of point of use treatment are that reliability of the

treatment units has to be assured, and that all users should be
motivated to use only the treated water for drinking and cooking
when untreated water is also available in the house.
139
Defluoridation methods
Defluoridation methods can be broadly divided into three

categories according to the main removal mechanism
• Chemical additive methods
• Contact precipitation
• Adsorption/ion exchanged methods
- Chemicals additive methods
These methods involve the addition of soluble chemicals to the

water. Fluoride is removed either by precipitation, co-
precipitation, or adsorption onto the formed precipitate.
Chemicals include, lime used alone or with magnesium makes
the water unsuitable for drinking because of the high pH after
treatment. The use of alum and a small amount of lime has been
extensively studied for defluoridation of drinking water. The
method is popularly known as the Nalgonda technique
(RENDWM, 1993), named after the town in India where it was
first used at water works level. It involves adding lime (5% of
alum), bleaching powder (optional) and alum (Al2(SO4)3.18H2O)
in sequence to the water, followed by coagulation, sedimentation
and filtration. A much larger dose of alum is required for fluoride
removal (150 mg/mgF-), compared with the doses used in routine
water treatment.
140
As hydrolysis of alum to aluminum hydroxide releases H+ ions,
lime is added to maintain the neutral pH in the treated water.
Excess lime is used to hasten sludge settling. The dosage of
alum and lime to be added to raw waters with different initial
fluoride concentrations and alkalinity levels is given in table 5.1.
Table 3.4 Approximate volume of 10% alum solution (ml) to be

added in 40 liters of test water to obtain the acceptable
limit (1.0mg F/l) of fluoride at various alkalinity and
fluoride levels. The lime to be added is 5% of the alum
amount (mg/l)
Test Test water alkalinity as mg CaCO3/l
Water 125 200 300 400 500 600 800 210
fluorides
(mg/L)
2 60 90 110 125 140 160 190 310
3 90 120 140 160 205 210 235 375
4 60 165 190 225 240 275 405
5 205 240 275 290 355 485
6 245 285 313 375 425 570
7 395 450 520 675
8 605
141
The Nalgonda technique has been successfully used at both
individual and community levels in India and other developing
countries like China and Tanzania. Domestic defluoridation units
are designed for the treatment of 40 liters of water (Fig 3.4)
whereas the fill- and – draw defluoridation plant (Fig. 5.2) can be
used for small communities
Contact precipitation
Contact precipitation is a recently reported technique in which
fluoride is removed from water through the addition of calcium
and phosphate compounds. The presence of a saturated bone
charcoal medium acts as a catalyst for the precipitation of fluoride
either as CaF2, and/ or fluorapatite (Fig 5.3). Tests at community
level in Tanzania have shown promising results of high efficiency.
Reliability, good water quality and low cost are reported
advantages of this method (Chilton, etal.1999).
Adsorpiton/ion- exchange method

In the adsorption method, raw water is passed through a bed
containing defluoridating material. The material retains fluoride
either by physical, chemical or ion exchange mechanisms. The
adsorbent gets saturated after a period of operation and requires
regeneration.
A wide range of materials has been tried for fluoride uptake.

Bauxite, Magnetite, Kaolinite, Serpentine, various types of clays
and red mud are some of the naturally occurring materials
142
studied. The general mechanism of fluoride uptake by these
materials is the exchange of metal lattice hydroxyl or other
anionic groups with fluoride. Fluoride uptake capacity can be
increased by certain pre- treatments like acid washing,
calcinations, etc. None of the above mentioned materials
generally exhibits high fluoride uptake capacities.
Processed materials like activated alumna, activated carbon,

bone char, defluoron-2 (sulphonated coal) and synthetic
materials; like ion exchange resins have been extensively
evaluated for defluoridation of drinking water. Among these
materials, bone char, activated alumina and Calcined clays have
been successfully used in the field. Application of these materials
is described below.
Bone char as a defluoridating material:

Bone char consists of ground animal bones that have been
charred to remove all organic matter. Major components of bone
charcoal are calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate and
activated carbon. The fluoride removal mechanism involves the
replacement of carbonate of bone char by fluoride ion. The
method of preparation of bone charcoal is crucial for its fluoride
uptake capacity and the treated water quality. Poor quality bone
char can impart bad taste and odour to water. Exhausted bone
char is regenerated using caustic soda. Since acid dissolves
bone char, extreme care has to taken for neutralizing caustic
soda. Presence of arsenic in water interferes with fluoride
143
removal. Bone char is considered as an appropriate
defluoridating material in some developing countries. The ICOH
(Inter- country Center for Oral Health) domestic defluoridator was
developed in Thailand and uses crushed charcoal and bone char
(Fig. 5.4). Its defluoridation efficiency depends on the fluoride
concentration in raw water as well as the fluoride uptake capacity
and the amount of bone char used in the filter.
Activated alumina as a defluoridating material:

Activated alumina or calcined alumina, is aluminum oxide, Al2O3.
It is prepared by low temperature dehydration (300-6000C) of
aluminum hydroxides. Activated alumina has been used for
defluoridation of drinking water since 1934, just after excess
fluoride in water was identified as the cause of fluorosis.
The fluoride uptake capacity of activated alumina depends on the

specific grade of activated alumina, the particle size and the
water chemistry (pH, alkalinity and fluoride concentrations). In
large community plants the pH of the raw water is brought down
to 5.5 before defluoridation, as this pH has been found to be
optimum and it eliminates bicarbonate interference. The
mechanism of fluoride removal is most probably the ligand
exchange reaction at the surface of activated alumina. Exhausted
activated alumina has to be regenerated using caustic soda. To
restore the fluoride removal is most probably the ligand exchange
reaction at the surface of activated alumina. Exhausted activated
alumina has to be regenerated using caustic soda. To restore the
144
fluoride removal capacity, basic alumina is acidified by bringing it
into contact with an excess of dilute acid.
Activated alumina has been the method of choice for

defluoridation of drinking water in developed countries. Generally
it is implemented on a large scale in point of source community
plants. A few point of use defluoridation units have been
developing countries. Domestic defluoridation units (fig.5.5) have
been developed in India using indigenously manufactured
activated alumina, which is commercially available in bulk
quantities. Choosing the proper grade of activated alumina is
important for its effective reuse in multiple defluoridation cycle.
Around 500-1500 liters of safe water could be produced with 3 kg
of activated alumina when the raw water fluoride is 11 and 4 mg/l
respectively at natural water pH of 7.8-8.2. The frequency of
regeneration is once in 1.5-3 months. The cost of activated
alumina is around US$ 2 per kg and the total cost of the domestic
filter depends upon material used for filter assembly.
Regeneration of exhausted activated alumina cost around US$
0.5 (Venkobachar et al., 1997).
Calcite Clay
Freshly fried brick pieces are used in Sri Lanka for the removal of
fluoride in domestic defluoridation units (Fig. 5.6). The brick bed
in the unit is layered on the top with charred coconut shells and
pebbles. Water is passed through the unit in an upflow mode.
The performance of domestic units has been evaluated in rural
145
areas of Sir Lanka (Priyanta & Padamsiri 1997.) It is reported that
efficiency depends on the quality of the freshly burnt bricks. The
unit could be used for 25-40 days, when withdrawal of
defluoridated water per day was around 8 liters and raw water
fluoride concentration was 5 mg/l. As PVC pipes are costly, a
defluoridator made out of cement and brick has also been
recommended.
A part from the methods discussed above, specific synthetic ion

exchangers and separation technologies such as rivers osmosis
and electrodialysis have also been developed for fluoride
removal from potable water
• To select a suitable defluoridation method for application

in developing countries, some of the following criteria
need to be considered:
- Fluoride removal capacity
- Simple design
- Easy availability of required materials and chemicals
- Acceptability of the method by users with respect to
taste and cost
Both precipitation and adsorption methods have advantages and

limitations. In the Nagonda technique easily available chemicals
are used and the method is economically attractive. Limitations of
the method are varying alum doses depending on fluoride levels
146
in water, daily addition of chemicals and stirring for 10-15 min,
which many users may find difficult.
In adsorption- based methods like activated alumina and bone

char, daily operation is negligible. Activated alumina is costly.
Hence exhausted alumina has to be regenerated using caustic
soda and acid and repeatedly reused, at least for a few cycles.
Improperly prepared bone char imparts taste and odour to the
treated water. Since bone char from point of use units is not
generally regenerated, a ready supply of properly prepared
material needs to be available. Furthermore, bone char may not
be culturally acceptable to certain communities as defluoridating
material. Some of the merits and demerits of defluoridation
methods are given in table 5.2.
3.4.7 Water desalination

Desalination or desalting is the conversion of seawater or
brackish water to fresh water. To meet the ever-increasing
demands for fresh water, especially in arid and semi-arid areas,
much research has gone into finding efficient methods of
removing salt from seawater and brackish water.
When health effects and cost issues are resolved in prior, the
conversion of treated wastewater to potable water using modified
desalination processes is also possible. Water containing more
dissolved salts than seawater, e.g. Great Salt Lake, sea, etc is
considered brine.
147
Under circumstances where adequate and satisfactory ground
water, surface water, or rainwater is not available and higher
quality water is required, but where seawater or brackish water is
available, desalination may provide an answer to the water
problem. Cost of construction and energy, however, could be
major deciding factor.
Seawater has a total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration of

about 36,000 mg/l. About 75% is sodium chloride, 11%
magnesium chloride, 6% magnesium sulfate, 4% calcium sulfate,
and the rest potassium sulfate, calcium carbonate, magnesium
bromide, suspended solids and microorganism.
Desalting will remove to some degree dissolved salts and

minerals such as chlorides, sulfates, sodium, hardness, nitrates,
nitrites phosphates, fluorides, ammonia, and heavy metals. Very
hard brackish (15,000 to 36,000 mg/l) water will require prior
softening to make reverse osmosis or electro dialysis very
effective.
Some known methods for desalting water are:

Membrane: Reverse osmosis, electro dialysis, transport
depletion
Distillation: Multi-stage flash distillation, multi-effect multi-stage
distillation, vertical tube distillation, vapor
compression, solar Humidification.
148
Crystallization: vacuum-freezing vapor compression, electric
freezing, secondary refrigerant freezing,
Hydrate formation.
Chemical: Ion exchange
Distillation, particularly multistage, has been the process of

choice for desalting seawater, with the vertical process gaining
more acceptances. Electro dialysis and reverse osmosis appear
to be more favorable for brackish water, also ion exchange for
specific purposes.
Distillation
In distillation, seawater is heated to the boiling point and then into
steam, usually under pressure, at a starting temperature of
250oF. The steam is collected and condensed in a chamber by
coming into contact with tubes (condensed-heat-exchanges)
containing cool seawater. The heated saline water is passed
through a series of distillation chambers in which the pressure is
incrementally reduced and the water boils (made to “flash”),
again at reduced temperature, with the production of steam,
which is collected as fresh water. The wastewater (brine) and
distilled water are also used to preheat the incoming seawater
the process referred to as multistage flash distillation (MSF). A
major problem is the formation of scale (calcium carbonate,
calcium sulfate and magnesium hydroxide) on the heat transfer
surface of the pipe or vessel in which the seawater is permitted to
boil. This occurs at a temperature of about 160oF, but scale can
149
be greatly minimized by preheating the seawater to remove
either the calcium or carbon dioxide. Distilled water is tasteless
and low in pH if not aerated and adjusted before distribution.
Reverse Osmosis
In this process pressure (typically 600 to 800, but up to 1500 psi)
is applied to the salt water on one side of a special flat or
cylindrical supported membrane or hollow fiber. In the process
fresh water is separated out from the salt water into a porous or
hollow channel from which the fresh water is collected. The
concentration of TDS in the salt water flowing through the unit
must be kept below the point at which calcium sulfate
precipitation takes place. Chlorinated methane and ethane, which
are common solvents, are not removed by reverse osmosis; air
stripping, however is effective. Some of the dissolved solids, 5 to
10% will pass through the membrane. An increase in TDS will
result in a small increase of solids in the fresh water.
In reverse osmosis the salt water to be treated must be relatively

clear and fell of excessive hardness, iron, manganese, and
organic matter to prevent fouling of the system membranes. The
pretreatment may consist of softening to remove hardness;
coagulation and filtration to remove turbidity suspended matter,
iron and manganese and filtration through activated carbon
columns to remove dissolved organic chemicals. Acid is used if
necessary to lower the pH and prevent calcium carbonate and
150
magnesium hydroxide scale. Chlorine might also be used to
control biological growth on the membranes.
Electro dialysis
Using this method the dissolved solids in the brackish water (less
than 10,000 mg/l TDS) are removed by passage through a cell in
which a direct electric current in imposed. Dissolved solids in the
water contain positively charged cons (cations) and negatively
charged ions (anions). The cations migrate to and pass through a
special membrane, which allows passage of the positive ions.
Another special membrane allows the negative ions to pass
through exam the concentration of dissolved solids determines
the amount of current needed. The partially desalted
demineralized water is collected and the wastewater is
discharged to waste.
The plant size is determined in part by the desired amount of salt

removal. However, a change in the total dissolved solids in the
brackish water will result in an equal change in the treated water.
Similar to the reverse osmosis, pretreatment of the brackish
water is necessary to prevent fouling of the membranes and to
prevent scale formation. The cost of electricity limits use of
electro dialysis.
151
Ion Exchange
1. In the deionization process, salt are removed from brackish
water (2,000 to 3,000 mg/l TDS). Raw water passes through
beds of special synthetic resins, which have the capacity to
exchange ions held in the resins with those in the raw water.
2. In the two-step process, at the first bed (acidic resin) sodium
ions and other cations in the water are exchanged for cations
(cation exchange) in the resin bed. Hydrogen ions are
released and, together with the chloride ions in the raw
water, pass through to the second resin bed as a weak
hydrochloric acid solution. In the second resin added bed, the
chloride ion and other anions are taken up (anion exchange)
from the water, are exchanged for hydroxide ions in the resin
bed which are released, combine with the hydrogen ion to
form water, and pass through with the treated water. The ion
exchange beds may be in series or in the same shell.
When the resins lose their capacity and become saturated, the
treatment of water is interrupted and the beds are regenerated,
with acids or bases. The resins may become coated of fouled if
the raw water contains excessive turbidity, microorganisms,
sediment, colour, and organic matter including dissolved
organics, hardness, iron, or manganese. In such cases
pretreatment to remove the offending contaminant is necessary.
Chlorine in water would attack the cation resin and must be
removed prior to deionization.
152
3.4.8 Nitrate Removal
Nitrate in ground water originates from:
- Natural biological process in the soil, e.g. plants/
bacteria which are responsible for concentration up to
5-10 mg NO3/l
- Oxidation of NH4+ in the aerobic zone in the soil
• 2N4+ +402 bacteria 2NO3-+ 4H++2H2O.This can
result into concentration up to several hundred
mg/l.
- Domestic solid and liquid waste fecal matter, urine
- Domestic waste water
- Waste of (intensive) animal farming (manure)
• Nitrate can be removed in the soil under

anaerobic conditions e.g. if organic matter or
FeS2 is present:
• 5CH2O(g)+4NO3- bacteria 2N2+4HCO3-

+CO2+3H2O(3.g peat)
• 5FeS2(S)+14NO3-+4H+
7N2+10SO4+5Fe2++2H2O
This reaction can be continued by
• 5Fe2+ NO3- + 12H2O 1/2N2 +5Fe (OH)3(s)+9H+
More over No 2- can be formed
• CH2O(S) + 2NO3- 2NO2- + H2O+CO2
153
Treatment processes for NO3-
• Reverse osmosis
• Ion exchange
• Biological Denitrification
• Distillation
• Electro dialysis
When pure water is separated from a salt solution by a semi-
permeable membrane and the pressure on the salt solution
exceeds the osmosis pressure, water is transported through the
membrane and salts (cations and anions) are rejected, E.g. as
NO3- is anions.
Nitrate can be removed from water membranes operated at a

pressure between 14 and 70 bar. The rejection of the
membranes is between 90-99.5%.
Effect of reverse osmosis, e.g,

Parameter Raw water Product
No3- 50mg/l 7 mg/l
Cl- 23 “ 3 “
SO4- 18 “ 3 ”
HCO3- 2.9 mmol/l 0.1 mmol/l
2+
Ca 3.3 “ 0.2 0.1 “
pH 7.2 “ 0.3 4.6 “
154
Disadvantage of Reverse Osmosis
- costly
- discharge of brine
Ion exchange
Nitrate can be removed by anion exchange Anion exchanges
consist of insoluble solid polymers, e.g. styrene, which act as
carrier for quaternary ammonia groups. This group has a positive
charge. The anion exchanger is in the form of spheres and is,
e.g. in the chlorides form
RN + Cl- (R=Resin, e.g. styrene)
During the process NO3- is exchanged with Cl- and removed form
the water.
RN + Cl- +NO3------- RN+NO3- + Cl-
When the anion exchanger is saturated with No3- regeneration
with, e.g. 10%NaCl- solution is carried out
RN + NO3-+ Cl- ---- RN+Cl-+NO3-
Effect of ion exchange
Parameter Raw water Product

-
NO3 50mg/l 2 mg/l
-
Cl 23 “ 87mg/l
SO4- 18 “ 1 ”
HCO3- 2.9 mmol/l 2.6 mmol/l
pH 7.2 7.2
155
Disadvantages
- Costs
- Discharge regenerate
• Biological denitrification
- Heterotrophic bacteria
- Organic compounds for reduction nitrate to nitrogen
eg. methanol, ethanol. Acetic acid
• Methanol
5CH3OH+6NO3- --- 5HCO3- + OH- + 7H2O+3N2
• Ethanol
5C2H5OH + 12NO3----- 10HCO3- + 2OH- +
9H2O+6N2
• Acetic acid
5CH3COOH+8NO-3--- 8HCO3- + 2CO2 +
6H2O+4N2
- Autotrophic bacteria
- Inorganic compound for nitrate reduction eg
Hydrogen, Sulfur
5H2(gas)+2H+2NO3----N2 + 6H2O
5S + 6NO3 - + 2H2O---5SO4- + 3N2 + 4H+
Biological denitrification techniques: For denitrification with
methanol, Ethanol and acetic acid
- Fluidized bed
- Floating bed
- Fixed bed. (R.S.F)- Techniques are applied
156
As very important factor in these techniques is the formation of
significant amounts of biomass, this biomass has to be removed
from the sand grains
- as in a fluidized bed the mass transfer to the active
biomass is reduced
- In a fixed bed or floating bed channeling will occur which
reduces the effectiveness
Disadvantages (Fluidized/floating/fixed techniques)

- removal of biomass not easy
- disposal of biomass
- Post treatment required(Removal of turbidity,
biodegradable organic matter, bacterial)
• For denitrification with hydrogen-Corrugated
plate system is applied
Disadvantages
- H2 explosive gas
- Complicated process
3.4.9 Removal of Ammonia (NH4+)

• Originates from:
- Domestic waste (water)
- Fertilizer
- Peat (groundwater)
- Industrial waste water
* Presence of NH4+ & involves
157
1. Effectiveness of chlorine is affected due to the formation of
NH2Cl
2. After growth may occur in the net work, food for organisms
3. Toxic effects on fish (NH3)
Methods into the removal of NH4+

1. Breakpoint chlorination
2. Bio-oxidation e.g.
- S.S.F
- R.S.F
- Dry filtration
- Lake or river
- (waste water treatment)
3 Air stripping
1. Breakpoint Chlorination
When more chlorine is added than equivalent amount to oxidize
ammonia completely into nitrogen (N2), the following reaction
takes place: The overall reaction which occurs, results from the
three reactions together.
I. 2NH4+ + 2Cl2Æ 2NH2Cl+4H+ + 2Cl-
II. 2NH2Cl+2Cl2Æ 2NHCl2 + 2H+ + 2Cl-
III. 2NHCl2Æ N2 + Cl2 + 2H+ + 2Cl-
IV. 2NH4+ + 3Cl2Æ N2 + 8H+ + 6Cl-
This complete reaction is called chlorine breakpoint reaction,

which means that NH4+ is oxidized by chlorine to N2. In reality the
158
formed Cl2 during the third reaction is used for the second
reaction. The required amount of chlorine per mg ammonium
follows from the reaction equation and amounts
6mg Cl2per mg NH4+
When excess of chlorine is added a side reaction occurs

NHCl2+Cl2Æ NCl3+ H+ + Cl-
The formed NCl3 has a bitter taste, so this reaction is not desired.
In practice chlorine breakpoint graph is applied to illustrate what
is happening in this process. In this graph the total available
chlorine concentration is given as function of the dosage of
chlorine. Total available chlorine is the sum of free and combined
available chlorine.
2. Bio-Oxidation
Oxidation of ammonium by bacteria follows the equations:
2NH+4 3O2 Nitrosomonas 2NO2-+4H++2H2O
2NO2-+O2 Nitrobacter 2NO3-
_____________________________
_____________________________
2NH+4+4O2---- 2NO3-+4H++2H2O
1mg NH4+=3.6mg O2/1
* Removal in a S.S.F. and a R.S.F.
159
The concentration that can be removed by S.S.F. and R.S.F. is
limited by:
a. The available O2 in water

Saturation concentration
Temp O0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
O2mg/l 14.6 12.8 11.3 10.1 9.22 8.4 7.6 7.17
b. The presence of biodegradable organic and inorganic matter,

e.g. CH4 BOD 5,Fe2+; Mn2+; NO2- which consume oxygen
* Removal in a dry filter up to 20 mg/l NH+4 can be removed due
to the continuous aeration in the filter bed (filtration rate =2.5 m/h;
H=1.5-2m)
3. Air Stripping
This method is very expensive as:
- High pH is required (10 to 11) as the ammonia ion NH4+
have to be transformed to the volatile NH3 compound:
NH4+ + OH-----------> NH3 + H2O
(Non volatile) (Volatile)
- And high air to water ratio due to low portion coefficient

(NH3 is very soluble in water)
Consequently
- high investment cost
- high energy consumption
160
- chemical costs e.g. Ca(OH)2
- Clogging occurs due to precipitation of CaCO3
3.4.10 Radionuclide Removal by Lime-Soda Ash Softening
The natural radionuclides of interest in water are within the decay

series of Uranium (U-238), Actinium (U-235), and Thorium (Th-
232). The U-238 decay series ( i.e. Rn-222, Ra-226, and u) are
of primarily health concern because of their relatively high
exposure associated with drinking water.
The most significant exposures to radioactivity in drinking water

occur in small public and private shallow ground water supplies.
The removal from the large water supplies can be achieved by
conventional treatment methods. Aeration is effective for removal
of Rn-222 because of its high volatility and short half-life of 3.8
days. Traditional surface water treatment by coagulation and
filtration is effective for removal of artificial radionuclides for the
degree of contamination normally expected.
The best process for removal of radium and uranium from ground
water is precipitation by lime-soda ash softening at pH greater
than 10. The removal efficiency is generally 80%-90%. The
recommended disposal of lime sludge containing the
radionuclides is by spreading on land or by landfill.
161
3.4.11 Iron and Manganese Removal
Dissolved iron and manganese are often found in ground water
from wells located in shale, sand stone, and alluvial deposits.
Iron II (Fe2+) and manganese II (Mn2+) are chemically reduced to
soluble forms that exist in a reducing environment (absence of
dissolved oxygen and low pH) . These conditions exist in ground
water and anaerobic reservoir water. When it is pumped from
underground or an aerobic hypolimnion, carbon dioxide and
hydrogen sulfide are released, raising the pH. In addition the
water exposed to air, creating an oxidizing environment. The
reduced iron and manganese start transforming to their stable
3+
oxidized, insoluble form of iron III (Fe ) and manganese IV
4+
(Mn ).
The rate of oxidation of iron and manganese depends on the type

and concentration of oxidizing agent, pH, alkalinity, organic
content and presence of catalysts.
Oxygen, chlorine and potassium permanganate are the most

frequent oxidizing agents. The natural reaction by oxygen is
enhanced in water treatment by using spray nozzles or waterfall-
type aerators. Chlorine and potassium permanganate
(KMnO4) are the chemicals commonly used in iron and
manganese removal plants.
Oxidation reactions using potassium permanganate are:
3Fe2+ + MnO-4 3Fe 3+ + Mn O2
162
3Mn2+ + 2Mn O-4 5Mn O2
The rate of oxidation of the ions depend on the pH and
bicarbonate ion concentration. The pH for oxidation of iron should
be 7.5 or higher; manganese oxidizes readily at pH 9.5 or higher.
Organic substances like humic acid can create complexes with
iron and manganese ions, holding them in the soluble state at
higher pH levels. If a large concentration of organic matter is
present, iron can be held in solution at pH levels of up to 9.5.
Copper ions and silica have a catalytic effect on the oxidation of

iron and manganese. The presence of about 0.1 mg/l of copper
increases the rate of iron oxidation 5-6 times. Silica increases
oxidation rates of both metals. Manganese oxides are catalytic in
the oxidation of manganese. Tray aerators frequently contain
coke or stone contact beds through which the water percolates.
These media develop and support a catalytic coating of
manganese oxides.
Polyphosphates have been effective in sequestering iron and

manganese in some well water supplies. When applied at the
proper dosage, before oxidation of the iron and manganese
occurs, polyphosphates tend to hold the metals in solution and
suspension, preventing destabilization and thus, stopping
agglomeration of the individual tiny particles of iron and
manganese oxides. The concept is that the sequestered metals
will pass through the distribution system with out creating
discolored water. Nevertheless, oxidized particles often settle out
163
and collect in water mains at times when the velocities of flow in
the pipes are low and in storage reservoirs during quiescent
periods. Then, when the velocities of flow increase and when
water in storage is agitated, these particles are re-suspended in
the water at much higher concentrations than in the raw water.
Removal of Iron
Iron may be present in three forms:-
• Dissolved - Fe2+
• Colloidal -Fe(OH)3 mainly
• Suspended - Fe (OH)3 mainly
Removal of dissolved iron: Is based on the transformation of
2+
the soluble form of iron (Fe ) to the insoluble form of iron (Fe
(OH)3)
4Fe2+ +O2 + 2H2O< -- > 4Fe3+ 4OH
4Fe3+ = 4OH + 8H2O < -- >4Fe (OH)3 +8H+
4Fe 2+ + O2 +10H2O < -- > 4Fe (OH)3 +8H+

For this reaction oxygen is required
* 4 Fe 2+ + O2 + 10H2O < -- > 4 Fe (OH)3 +8H+
4x56 mg Fe 2+= 2x16 mgO2
1mg Fe2+ =32/(4x56)mg O2 =0.14mgO2
1mg Fe2+ =0.14 mg O2
N.B. The pH is decreased due to the formation of H+
164
* The rate of oxidation depends strongly on the pH. The lower the
pH, the lower will be the rate of oxidation.
• The rate of oxidation of pH= 7 is limited
Example: O2 = 8.9 mg/l; Tem. = 200C; HCO3 = 570 mg/l; pH=7
Table 3.5 Removal of dissolved iron
Time(min.) Residual Fe 2+ (mg/l)

1 9.5
2 7.8
3 6.2
4 4.8
6 3.0
9 1.9
10 1.0
What is happening in practice?

In practice iron is removed from ground water by aeration
followed by rapid sand filtration.
Subsurface removal is a cheap alternative for the removal of iron
by aeration and rapid sand filtration. At this method water is
injected in the soil through a well. This water is free from iron and
contains oxygen. After the injection of, e.g. 100 m3, water is
abstracted, which is free from iron that can be abstracted in much
more than 1000m3 e.g. up to 10000 m3.
165
The mechanism is as follows:
The oxygen in the injected water oxidizes the Fe2+ of the ground
water in Fe3+ which forms a layer of Fe (OH)3 on the surface of
the soil material. During abstraction oxygen free and iron
containing water passes this Fe (OH)3 on which Fe2+ adsorbed.
2+
When the Fe (OH)3 is saturated with Fe , it is not any longer
removed, consequently abstraction has to finished and oxygen
containing water has to be injected, in order to oxidize the
adsorbed Fe 2+ to Fe (OH)3 which is able to adsorb again Fe2+.
In practice water can be produced free from iron, when two wells
are applied and the abstracted is aerated. A part of this water is
injected in the other well
The theoretical ratio between abstracted and infiltrated water can

be estimated/ calculated
Example: raw water contains 2mg Fe 2+/l;

Oxygen concentration after aeration is approximately 10mg/l
Calculation:
2mg Fe 2+= 2x0.14 mg O2 = 0.28mg O2;
Consequently lL water with 10 mg O2/L is able to oxidized the
Fe2+ in 10/0.28~35 L water, the efficiency is not 100%
Î 35Lx 50%=17.5L water
166
Removal of Manganese
Manganese is mainly present in water as Mn2+. This is very well
soluble. The removal of manganese is based on the formation of
MnO2 which is insoluble. This compound is formed when Mn2+ is
oxidized e.g. by oxygen;
6Mn2+ + O2 +6H2O Æ 2Mn3 O4 + 12H+

2Mn3O +2O2 Æ 6MnO2
___________________________________________
6Mn2+ 302 + 6H2OÆ 6MnO2 + 12H+
1mg Mn2+ =0.29mgO2
The rate of oxidation in a solution is very low when the pH is

below 8.6 In rapid sand filter the oxidation may take place when
the pH is higher than 7.0.
- Mn3O4 acts as catalyst on which Mn2+ is oxidized to
MN3O4 while the “Older” Mn3O4 is oxidized to MnO2.
- The rate of oxidation of Mn2+ in much lower than for Fe
2+
in a rapid sand filter
- This explains the necessity to back was Mn2+ removing
filter, to avoid the removal of the catalyst Mn3O4
- Mn2+ can be oxidized as well by chemical oxidation
agents e.g. Cl2 and KMnO4
Î Disadvantage of this procedure:
- More complicated treatment
167
- Excess of kMnO4 gives the water a violet colour
N.B. The removal of iron and manganese is in general combined
in one rapid sand filter (with or with out dosage of Cl2 or KMnO4),
it speeds up the oxidation rate. The process in which iron is
removed after aeration in a RSF first and after that Mn2+ is
removed in the next filter has advantages (when the Fe2+ con. is
relatively high) as compared with the combined process:
E.g. The optimum back wash procedures can be realized for the
Fe2+ and Mn2+ removing filters (which are different)
- The iron (FeOH3) will not cover the catalyst Mn3O4 to make it
inactive
• The disadvantage is that two filters in series is required.
But this is compensated by the possibility the double
the rate of filtration
3.4.12 Volatile Organic Chemical Removal

The two processes for removal of volatile organic chemicals
(VOCs) are stripping by aeration and granular activated carbon
(GAC) because of their volatility these chemicals are rarely found
in surface waters. However, Volatile organic chemicals are stable
in ground waters contaminated by leaching of chemicals from
industrial discharges, improper chemical use and spillage. The
maximum concentration levels for volatile organic chemicals are
in the range of 2-10, 10,000 microgram per liter, with a most
common value of 5 microgram per liter. Because of these
extremely low allowable concentrations, air stripping in a
countercurrent packed tower is the only aeration method
168
satisfactory for drinking water treatment. In cold climates the
process may not be feasible because of poor removal at low
temperatures and the possibility of ice formation on the tower
packing. The most costly processes of granular activated carbon
adsorption may replace air stripping or be applied as a second
stage following partial removal by aeration.
3.4.13 Synthetic Organic Chemical Removal

Synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs) include pesticides,
(herbicides and insecticides), volatile organic chemicals, and
trihalomethanes. Trace concentrations of pesticides are found in
runoff from agricultural lands, occasionally in ground waters
under agricultural lands, and in ground waters contaminated by
seepage from improper disposal of industrial wastes and spillage
of chemicals. Conventional water treatment provides limited
removal of organic chemicals. If adsorbed on particles or
associated with large hydrophobic molecules, they can be taken
out by Coagulation -Sedimentation- Filtration. However, dissolved
organic chemicals are rarely adsorbed to metal hydroxides and
polymers, resulting in negligible removal. Adjustment of pH,
changing coagulants or coagulants aids and application of
powdered activated carbon are options to be considered for
improved treatment. In surface water treatment, these process
variables are generally successful for greater removal of natural
organic precursors to reduce subsequent formation of
trihalomethanes.
169
• Activated carbon adsorption
Activated carbon can be made from a variety of carbonaceous
raw materials. Processing is dehydration and carbonation by
slow heating in the absence of air followed by chemical
activation to produce a highly porous structure. Powdered
activated carbon for water treatment, which has good
characteristics for adsorption of taste and odor compounds, is
commonly made from lignin or lignite. Granular activated
carbon made from coal has the best physical properties of
density, particle size, abrasion resistance and ash content.
These characteristics are essential, since granular activated
carbon is subject to filter back washing, conveyance as a slurry
and heat reactivation.
The activation process in manufacture creates a highly porous

surface on the carbon particles with macro porous and micro
porous down to molecular dimensions. Organic contaminants
are adsorbed by attraction to and accumulation in pores of
appropriate size; thus the pore structure is extremely important
in determining adsorptive properties for particular compounds.
In general granular activated carbon most readily adsorbs
branch chained high molecular weight organic chemicals with
low solubility. These include pesticides, volatile organic
chemicals, and trihalomethanes.
Powdered activated carbon is fine powder applied in a water

slurry, which can be added at any location in the treatment
170
process ahead of filtration. At the point of application, the
mixing must be adequate to ensure dispersion and the contact
time long enough for adsorption. The dosage for normal taste
and odor control is usually up to 5mg/l with a contact time of 10-
15 minutes. Although powdered activated carbon is an effective
absorber of organic compounds that cause taste and odor, this
success is not repeated by the adsorption of synthetic organic
chemicals. Poor adsorption is attributed to the pore structure of
the PAC, short contact time between the carbon particles and
the dissolved organic chemicals, and interferes by adsorption of
other organic compounds.
Efficiency in removal of SOCs requires a granular activated
carbon filter to ensure close contact between the water and
carbon for a sufficient time for adsorption to occur.
The activated carbon in powder form may be applied to water at
various stages of its treatment as follows:
o It may be applied to raw water, ahead of treatment
plant.
o It may be applied in the mixing basin, either alone
or fixed with other chemicals such as alum, by
mean of any of the types of dry chemical feed
machines.
o It may be fed before, during or after coagulation, at
more than one point. This is known as split
treatment. Usually, a portion is fed in the mixing
basin and the balance just ahead of filter.
171
o It may be applied just ahead of filers. Its rate of
application is high when filter is washed, and
becomes lower and lower as filter gets clogged.
• Granular activated carbon systems

Granular activated carbon (GAC) can be used in place of
anthracite and sand media in conventional filters to increase
removal of compounds that cause taste and odor in surface
waters. The filter-absorber beds may be dual media granular
activated carbon sand or single medium granular activated
carbon grease, Snoeyink and Lee reviewed the performance of
treatment plants with GAC filter absorbers. GAC filter
absorbers do not perform well in removing compounds, such as
trihalomethanes and volatile organic compounds, which are
less strongly adsorbed.
A fixed-bed contactor has GAC bed that remains stationary

(fixed) during operation. Although the bed can be designed for
down flow or up flow, down flow operation with provision for
back washing is more common. The GAC is not reactivated
until chemically breakthrough; then the entire bed is removed
and replaced. In a surface water treatment plant, the
conventional filter is retained for removal of turbidity, and the
fixed bed contactor added as a second stage. Adsorptive
capacity can be significantly reduced by organic contaminants
in unfiltered water. Also, GAC suitable for filtration may not be
optimum for adsorbing the contaminating organic chemicals.
172
Contact time is expressed as empty bed contact time,
calculated by dividing the volume of the bed by the flow rate. In
conventional filtration, the empty bed contact time is usually 3-9
minutes, while in a GAC contactor it is 15-30 minutes or
greater. Pretreatment may be necessary to remove
contaminants that can interfere with filtration through the GAC
bed.
In general, activated carbon treatment has the following

functions:
• It has been found effective in aiding coagulation, if adopted

before filtration of water.
• It has valuable color removing properties.
• It is effective in preventing or retarding the decomposition of
sludge in settling basins.
• It is useful in removing tastes and odors due to excess chlorine,
hydrogen sulphide, phenols and other elements.
• It reduces the chlorine demand of treated water.
• It adsorbs organic matter in water.
3.4.14 Color, Odor and Taste Removal

The water to be supplied in the public water supply scheme
should be free from color, odor and taste.
The objectionable tastes and odors may be due to the following:
• Organic and vegetable matters.
173
• Industrial waste and domestic sewage.
• Dissolved gases.
• Dissolved mineral matter.
• Microorganisms such as moulds, actinomycets; iron and
sulphur bacteria; and algae.
Depending upon the cases, different methods can be adopted for

the removal of taste and odor. Some of the methods described
earlier, used for removal of color, odor and taste are:
• Coagulation followed by filtration
• Prechlorination
• Superchlorination followed by dechlorination: the excess of
free chlorine breaks down the odor producing substances of
oxidation. Dechlorination is usually done to remove some of
the excess chlorine, after giving sufficient contact time.
• Chloramine treatment or lime is applicable in the removal of
phenol tastes.
• Use of chlorine dioxide, has been found effective against
both phenolic and algae tastes.
• Ozonization improves the appearance of water, remove
traces of color, and removes odors if applied in sufficient
quantity. However, it is always effective against ‘earthy’ and
‘muddy’ tastes and odors.
• Removal of iron and manganese
174
• Treatment by activated carbon or aeration: is especially
applicable to the removal of tastes resulting from dissolved
gases.
• Use of copper sulphate, is used to serve two purposes:
o Removal of color, odor and taste from water.
o Control of growth of algae, bacteria and aquatic
weeds in the water reservoirs.
It is available in powder form or in crystal
form. It may be applied either directly in
the distribution pipes or in open
reservoirs. In the powder form, the dose
may vary from 0.3 to 0.6 ppm for its
application to the reservoir.
• Use of potassium permanganate and bleaching clay are also
helpful in removing tastes and odors. The tastes produced by
microorganisms can be objectively controlled by the use of
potassium permanganate. It can be used alone or in
combination with chlorine. Potassium permanganate has also
been found useful in removing tastes and odors caused by
solvent naptha wastes, rosin, soap and fermenting cereal
waste.
175
Review Questions
1. What makes boiled water less attractive than the unboiled

water?
2. What are the health risks associated with household water
storage?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of homemade
sand filters?
4. Justify the reason why iodine is believed to be a better
disinfectant than chlorine.
5. What is the advantage of raw water intake in water
treatment?
6. What is the use of fine and coarse screens?
7. In water treatment plants, what is the most important use of
clarifiers?
8. Explain the use of jar test.
9. Mention the most commonly used water coagulants.
10. Write the phenomena that occur in filtration.
11. In a water treatment plant, the Jar test results show that 5
mg/l of Alum at PH 7 is required for coagulating. What is the
consumption of Alum for 5,000 m3 of water intended for
coagulation?
12. Identify the disinfectant used in water treatment.
13. In a community water supply, 10 ppm of chlorine are added
for disinfection. After 30 minutes, the residual chlorine was
176
found to be 0.3 ppm in laboratory test. What is the chlorine
demand of the water?
14. The label of a chlorine powder container indicates that it
contains 70% of available chlorine. How many grams of the
powder must be added to 45m3 of water to give a dose of 2
ppm?
15. What are the conditions that lead to the formation of
hardness?
16. Show the chemical reaction indicating how water becomes
hard.
177
Note to the teacher
• In a developing country like Ethiopia, provision of adequate

and safe water supply through large-scale water
treatment is very difficult. The only choice to protect the
community from waterborne disease is through the
internalization of household water treatment methods that
can be easily practiced.
• Using your own local materials, arrange a practical session

in developing household filtration media and show
students the efficiency of filtration of fecal coliform, using
bacteriological analysis.
• After you have gone through this chapter, arrange a

practical visit to a nearby conventional large scale water
treatment plant and show the students the steps in
treatment processes. Give them an assignment to write a
report and present it.
• Arrange a practical session to an environmental health

laboratory to show the students how to prepare stock
solution and determine the residual chlorine concentration.
178
CHAPTER FOUR
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND
PROCEDURES
Learning Objectives

1. Define sampling and analysis of water
2. Describe the purpose of sampling and analysis
3. Mention steps involved in sampling water from different
sources.
4. Make decisions on frequency of sampling.
4.1 Introduction
Quality control is mandatory for public water supply to ensure the
health of the public. Taking samples from public water supplies
(conventional and community level) is an essential part of the
monitoring and evaluation activity. Though municipal
conventional water treatment plants routinely take samples and
analyzes it, the role of quality control activity is by large left to the
environmental health professionals to make sure that the public
is being provided with safe drinking water supply. Hence, the role
of this chapter is to introduce students to the basic principles of
179
sampling, the types, the frequency and procedures of water
sampling, and to enable students understand the analysis of
water and interpretation of the results.
4.2 Principles of Water Sampling and Analysis
Raw and finished water should be continuously monitored. A

water treatment plant should have a well-equipped laboratory,
certified operator, and qualified chemist. Disinfectant residual,
turbidity, and pH should be monitored continuously where
possible. In addition to routine testing equipment, equipment at
large plants usually include a zeta meter for coagulant dosing
measurements, a nephelometer for turbidity readings, a flame
spectrophotometer for measuring inorganic chemicals, and a gas
chromatograph with spectrophotometer instrument to measure
organic chemicals in low concentrations (micrograms per liter or
less). It should be understood that failure to report the presence
of certain chemicals or microorganisms does not mean they are
not present if the laboratory does not examine for them. All
examinations should be made in accordance with the procedures
given in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Waste Water, latest edition.
4.3 Types of Sampling and Sampling Techniques
Types of Samples
180
Water samples may be continuous (such as for turbidity or
particle counting), grab (instantaneous), composite (an
accumulation of grab samples of equal volume), flow-weighted
composite (proportional to volume of flow). Most drinking water
samples are grab, although this can be misleading when
sampling for organic chemicals or heavy metals. Wastewater
samples are composite or flow-weighted composite. When
sampling, laboratory collection procedures should be followed.
Sampling Techniques and Procedures

Hold the sterile bottle by the base in one hand. Use the other
hand to remove the stopper and cover together the stopper and
cover should be retained in the hand while the bottle is filled and
then they should be replaced together. To prevent contamination,
the person collecting the water must not touch, or allow any
surface to touch , the screw thread of the bottle neck or the inside
of the cap. If the bottles become contaminated, it must not be
used.
Water can be divided into three basic types for the purpose
of sampling:
- Water from a tap in a distribution system or from a fixed

pump outlet, etc.
- Water from a water course (river, lake, etc.) or a tank
- Water from a dug well, etc.,.
181
Collecting a sample from a tap or pump outlet
A) Clean the tap

Remove from the tap any attachment
that may cause splashing. Using a
clean cloth, wipe the outlet to remove
any dirt.
B) Open the tap

Turn on the tap at maximum flow and let the water run for 1-2
minutes.
Note: some investigators do not
continue to stages C and D but take
the sample at this stage. In this
case, the tap should not be adjusted
or turned off, but left to run at
maximum flow. The results obtained
in this way will provide information on the quality of the water as
consumed. If the procedure is continued to stages C and D,
however, the results represent the quality of the water excluding
contamination by the tap.
C) Sterilize the tap

Sterilize the tap for a minute with the
flame from a gas burner, cigarette
182
lighter, or an ignited alcohol-soaked cotton wool swab.
D) Open the tap before

sampling
Carefully turn on the tap and allow the
water to flow for 1-2 minutes at a
medium flow rate. Do not adjust the flow after it has been set.
E) Open the sterilized bottle

Take out a bottle and carefully
unscrew the cap or pull out the
stopper.
F) Fill the bottle

While holding the cap and protective
cover face downwards (to prevent
entry of dust, which may contaminate

air
the sample), immediately hold the
bottle under the water jet, and fill. water
A small air space should be left to

make shaking before analysis easier.
G) Stopper or cap the bottle

Place the stopper in the bottle or
screw on the cap and fix the
brown paper protective cover in
183
place with the string.
Note: Leaking taps may cause contamination of the sample from
sources outside the water pipe and therefore leaks should be
reported when sampling. A bacteriological sample should not be
taken until the leak is repaired.
4.3.2.2 Collecting a sample from a river, stream, or other

surface water:
Open the sterilized bottle as described in section 1.
A) Fill the bottle
Holding the bottle by the lower

part, submerge it to a depth of
about 20 cm, with the mouth
20 cm
facing slightly upwards. If there
is a current, the bottle mouth
should face towards the current.
The bottle should then be
capped or stoppered as
described previously.
4.3.2.2 Collecting a sample from

dug wells and similar sources
A) Prepare the bottle
Clover
hitch
half
184 hitch
Stone
With a piece of string, attach a clean
weight to the sampling bottle.
B) Attach the bottle to the string
Take a 20-m length of clean string

rolled around a stick and tie it to the
bottle string. Open the bottle as
described in section 1.
C) Lower the bottle
Lower the bottle, weighed down by

the weight, into the well, unwinding
the string slowly. Do not allow the
bottle to touch the sides of the well.
D) Fill the bottle
Immerse the bottle completely in the

water and lower it well below the
surface without hitting the bottom or
disturbing any sediment.
E) Raise the bottle
1. Once the bottle is judged

to be full, rewind the string
on the stick to bring up the
bottle. If the bottle is
185
completely full, discard some water to provide an air
space. Stopper or cap the bottle as described previously.
Transporting Water Samples to a Water Testing Laboratory
Transporting after collection, samples should be placed

in an insulated cold box for transport to a water testing
laboratory
Water samples should examined as soon as possible on
arrival and always with in six hours of collection. When
ever possible, process water samples in the field.
4.3 Frequency of Sampling

In large treatment plants, it should be a routine to sample water
daily at each stage of treatment; untreated sources of water are
used. In these situations, periodic sanitary surveys of raw water
should be carried out to establish the level of epidemic water-
borne disease to which the population is exposed. The survey
should include an onsite inspection and evaluation of the water
supply system, and a bacteriological analysis of the water.
From such survey, sources of pollution can often be identified
and measures taken to prevent future contamination.
The frequency of sampling water in distribution pipes,
unchlorinated water supplies before distribution and chlorinated
water before distribution are as follows:
186
1. Water in distribution pipes
It is inevitable that water quality deteriorates in distribution,
mainly as a result of corrosion in pipes allowing leaks and
infiltration. The larger the population served, the longer the risk of
contamination.
At least one sample per 5000 population per month should be
examined and every effort should be made to establish a random
routine sampling procedure.
2. Unchlorinated water supplies before distribution

The world Health organization has suggested that the maximum
interval between successive samples for bacteriological analysis
should be as follows:
187
Table 4.1 Frequency of sampling for unchlorinated water
supplies
Population served Maximum interval
Less than 20,000 1 month
20,000-50.000 2 weeks
50,000-100,000 4 days
3. Chlorinated water supplies before distribution.

Large supplies, serving populations of greater than 100,000
should be subjected to daily sampling for bacteriological analysis
in conjunction with continuous chlorine residual recording.
For small rural community (< 10,000), where even sampling for
bacteriological analysis at weekly intervals may be impractical, in
such cases, it is important that the chlorine in water leaving
treatment plants should be checked at least once daily.
4.4 Water Analysis

4.4.1 Bacteriological Testing of water
The bacteriological analysis of water can confirm whether a water
supply has been faecally contaminated. To search directly in a
water sample for the presence of specific enteric pathogens is
impractical for routine control purposes. When no normal faecal
bacteria are detected in water sample, it is probable that enteric
pathogens (usually present in much smaller numbers) are also
absent. It must be remembered, however, that some viruses and
188
parasites survive longer and are more resistant to chlorination
than some faecal bacteria used as indicators of pollution.
Faecal coliforms (Some times called thermo tolerant coliform
organisms or E coli) are the most appropriate indicators of faecal
pollution.
It is less useful to test for total coliforms because they are not
directly related to the presence of faecal contamination and so
not to the risk of disease. The most valuable test for the routine
quality control of water supplies is the E. coli Count.
As perviously explained, the E. coli count is the most useful test
for detecting faecal contamination of Water supplies in water
quality analysis.
Two principal techniques are available for counting faecal
coliforms:
1. Membrane filtration
2. Multiple tube / most probable number (MPN)
Membrane Filtration Technique

In this technique, a 100ml water sample or diluted sample is
filtered through a membrane filter. The membrane, with the
coliform organism on it is then cultured on a pad of sterile
selective broth containing lactose and a gas indicator. After
incubation, the number of coliform colonies can be counted. This
gives presumptive number of E. coli in the 100 ml water sample.
189
Required
1. Sterile filtration unit for holding 47 mm diameter
membrane filters with suction device.
2. Sterile grid membrane filters, 47 mm diameter with a
pore size of 0.45 Nm.
3. Sterile 47 mm diameter cellulose pads (both culture
medium is added just before use).
4. Sterile Petri dishes 50-60 m m diameter
5. Sterile membrane laury sulphate broth (lactose sodium
laury sulphate broth).
When laury sulphate broth is unavailable, use macConkey
membrane broth. E. Coli colonies appear yellow on both
types of broth.
For use, place a sterile cellulose pad in a sterile Petri dish
and add 2.5 ml of the sterile broth. The pad will swell slightly
after adding the broth pour off any surplus broth before
placing the membrane on the pad.
Method
1. Assemble the flirtation unit and suction device.
2. Using sterile blunt-ended forceps place a sterile
membrane filter, gride-side uppermost, on the filter base
and reassemble the unit.
3. Mix thoroughly the sample of water by inverting the bottle
several times.
Volume of water to filter
- Treated water samples and ground
190
water samples-------------------------------------- 100ml.
- Untreated water samples from
surface water sources---------------------------- 10ml.
- Partially treated samples from protected
borehole or well water -------------------- 50 ml or 10ml
4. Apply suction (Using hand, water or electric device) to
draw the water sample through the filter membrane.
5. Using sterile blunt-ended forceps aseptically remove the
membrane from the filtration unit and place it, grid side
upper most, on the culture medium pad in the Petri dish,
ensuring there are no air bubbles trapped under the
membrane. Close the Petri dish. Label the top of the lid
with the code number of the water sample and volume of
water used.(See fig. 4.1)
6. Leave at least one hour (4hours for chlorinated samples)
before incubating the samples at 440c for 12-16 hours.
Place the Petri dishes (lids upper most) in the incubator,
preferably in Petri dish holder.
7. Following incubation and using oblique lighting examine
the membrane for yellow lactose fermenting colonies, 1-3
mm in diameter. Count the number of colonies. Ignore
any pink colonies and very small colonies (less than 1
mm in diameter). When the number of colonies are too
numerous to count, report such a confluent growth a ‘too
numerous to count‘(indicative of gross contamination).
8. Calculate the presumptive E. Coli count / 100 ml as
follows
191
100 ml water sample, multiply number of
colonies by 1.
50 ml water sample, multiply number of colonies
by 2
10 ml water sample, multiply number of colonies
by 10.
Note: - Whenever possible use a standardized form to report the
water analysis and interpretation of the E. Coli count.
192
Figure 4.1 .Microbiological Testing of water by Membrane
Filtration. 1 adding sterile broth to the cellulose pad in a petridish.
2 Aseptically removing the sterile membrane. 3 Placing the
membrane on the filter base. 4 Pouring the water sample in the filter
unit. 5 Drawing the water through the membrane by suction. 6
Removing the membrane. 7 Placing the membrane on the broth
impregnated pad. 8 Labelling the petri dish before incubation.
193
Courtesy of Robens Centre for Public and Environmental Health.
(Source: Monica Cheesbough. District Laboratory Practice in
Tropical Countries. Part 2. Cambridge University Press. 2000)
4.5 Interpretation of Results
A distinction needs to be drawn between samples from

chlorinated and unchlorinated water supplies.
Chlorinated samples:
At least 90% of all samples taken over a 12-month period
should have a zero E. coli count per 100me.
The E. coli count should never exceed 5 per 100ml.
Unchlorinated samples:
Most untreated water supplies contain faecal bacterial but in case
of protected ground water, e g. springs, protected wells and tube
wells, it should be possible to achieve very low levels of
contamination.
The following guidelines are, therefore, suggested:
194
Table 4.2 Guidelines for bacteriological quality of water.
Mean Count 440C. Category Comments
100 ml E. Coli
count
0 A Excellent
1-10 B Acceptable: But make
regular sanitary checks
10-50 C Unacceptable: look for
and correct for structural
faults and [poor
maintenance of pumps
plinth. Then disinfect
equipment and sources.
More than 50 D Grossly polluted: look
for alternative source, or
carry out necessary
repairs and disinfect well.
source: Monica Cheesbough. District Laboratory Practice in
Tropical Countries. Part 2. Cambridge University Press. 2000
Guidelines can only be applied when routine survey

date are available e.g. 5-10 consecutive weekly
samples.
NB. A single laboratory examination of any water whether raw or

treated, and however favorable the result, does not justify the
conclusion that all is well and that a water supply is suitable for
drinking. Contamination is often intermittent and may not be
195
revealed by the examination of a single sample. The value of
water analysis is dependent upon it being performed frequently at
regular intervals, using tests, which can be carried out, reliably in
the field.
The interpretation of results is the same in both techniques of

bacteriological analysis.
196
Review Questions
1. What is the objective of sampling?

2. What are the prerequisites taken into consideration
in the handling of sample bottle for bacteriological
analysis?
3. What is the importance of dechlorination of samples
of water for microbiological analysis?
Note to the teacher
After you have gone through the different methods of sampling in

the theoretical class, arrange a practical session for the students
to show how to take samples from different sources of water.
197
CHAPTER FIVE
WATER SURVEILLANCE
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:

1. Define the terms sanitary survey, water surveillance, and
sanitary inspection.
2. Explain the purpose of sanitary survey and water
surveillance.
3. Describe the information required for sanitary survey of water
supply.
4. Understand the functions of sanitary inspection report form.
5. Carry out and analyze the reports of sanitary inspection of
water supply.
5.1 Introduction
Water sampling and analysis is usually done in conjunction with
sanitary surveys. It is very crucial to accompany sanitary surveys
with water quality analysis since it helps to interpret the result of
the analysis. Sanitary survey results may indicate the need for
examination of water, or the result of the water laboratory
examination can be properly interpreted using the tool of sanitary
survey. Nevertheless, the use of sanitary survey is not just limited
198
to small-scale water supply schemes (well and spring water), it
can also serve as an instrument to monitor and evaluate both
large conventional water treatment plant and its distribution.
Therefore, environmental health professionals should apply this
vital tool in order to safeguard the health of the consumer. In this
regard, this chapter aims to provide the students with the
necessary knowledge about and equip them with important
techniques of sanitary survey and surveillance.
5.2 Sanitary Survey
A sanitary survey of a water supply system is the complete,

extremely careful and detailed investigation of the entire water
supply system, from the source to the consumer, in order to
detect the presence of actual or potential sources of
contamination. The sanitary survey report of the water supply
system is the single reliable and practical source of information
for ascertaining the potability of the water supply.
5.2.1 Purpose of Sanitary Survey

A sanitary survey is necessary to determine the reliability of a
water system to continuously supply safe and adequate water to
the consumer. It is also necessary to properly interpret the results
of water analyses and evaluate the effects of actual and potential
sources of pollution on water quality. The value of the survey is
dependent on the training and experience of the investigator.
When available, the advice of the regulatory agency Sanitary
199
engineer or Sanitary engineer or Sanitarian should be sought.
Watershed protection includes enactment of watershed rules and
regulations and regular periodic surveillance and inspections. It,
in effect, becomes epidemiological surveillance and is a study of
environmental factors that may affect human health. Watershed
rules and regulations are legal means to control land use that
might cause pollution of the water draining off and into the
watershed of the water source.
5.2.2 Important Considerations in doing Sanitary

Survey
If the source of water is a natural or man-made lake, attention
would be directed to the following, for each contributes distinctive
characteristics to the water:
Drainage basin and location of sewage and other solid
and liquid waste disposal or treatment systems;
bathing areas; storm water drains; sewer outfalls;
swamps; cultivated areas; feed lots; sources of
erosion, sediment and pesticides; and wooded areas,
in reference to the pump intake.
When water is obtained from a stream or creek, all land and

habitation above the water supply intake should be investigated.
This means inspection of the entire watershed drainage area so
that actual and potential sources of pollution can be determined
and properly evaluated and corrective measures instituted. All
surface-water sources should be considered of doubtful sanitary
200
quality unless given adequate treatment, depending on the type
and degree of pollution received.
Sanitary surveys have usually emphasized protection of surface-

water supplies and their drainage areas. Groundwater supplies
such as wells, infiltration galleries, and springs have traditionally
been protected by proper construction and location (at an
arbitrary “safe” distance from potential sources of population and
not directly downgrade). The rule-of-thumb distance of 75, 100,
or 200 ft, coupled with well construction precautions, has usually
served this purpose in most instances, such as for onsite
residential wells, in the absence of hydrogeological and
engineering investigation and design. However, greater attention
should be given to potential distant sources of pollution,
especially chemical sources.
The sanitary survey would include, in addition to the source as

noted above, the potential for and effects of accidental chemical
spills and domestic sewage or industrial waste discharges and
landfill sites. Included in the survey would be inspection and
investigation of the reservoir, intake, pumping station, treatment
plant, and adequacy of each unit process; operation records;
distribution system carrying capacity, head losses, and
pressures; storage facilities; emergency source of water and
plans to supply water in emergency; integrity of laboratory
services; connections with other water supplies; and actual or
possible cross-connections with plumbing fixtures, tanks,
201
structures, or devices that might permit back-siphonage or
backflow. Certification of operators, the integrity and competence
of the person in charge of the plant, and adequacy of budgetary
support are important factors. Consideration should also be given
to land-use plans and the purchase of hydrogeologically sensitive
areas and Zoning controls.
5.2.3 Sanitary survey of a water supply includes the

following information:
A) Geological and topographical survey of the source: the type
and nature of the rock formations of the locality, (including
porosity, permeability, existence of limestone,), hydraulic
gradient, depth to water table, etc.; the extent of the drainage
or catchments basin of the source or other feeders of the
source, the type of vegetation, and the factors that all these
points may contribute to contamination.
B) Human habitation, livestock and animal population: the

existence of actual or potential sources of contaminants as
the result of human activities. For example, methods of
excreta and refuse disposal, and animal waste disposal; the
distance of such sources of contaminants, latrines,
cesspools, sewage, etc., from the water source; industrial or
other wastes, which are being drained or will be drained into
the source.
202
C) Amount and duration of rainfall: the chances of infiltration or
flooding of runoff during rainy seasons and dry seasons to
the source; preventive measures against such infiltration by
diversion ditches, if any or by other means.
D) Soundness of the protection technique: if the source is a well

or a spring, the soundness of the casing platform and cover
to exclude the infiltration of contaminants; the possibility of
contamination through the method of drawing water (water
pump, sanitary bucket and rope, etc.); the gradient and
distance from potential sources of contaminants, with the
chance or infiltration from nearby streams, ponds, septic tank
effluents, seepage pits, cesspools, oxidation ponds, etc.
Note: Fluoresce in sodium solution is one of the chemicals

commonly used for tracing underground infiltration of
pollution.
E) Efficiency of treatment: the type of treatment used and the

efficiency of each step: aeration, chemical coagulation,
sedimentation, filtration (slow or rapid sand filter),
chlorination; storage methods and condition of the reservoir;
possibilities of contamination during pumping, transport
(piping), storage and distribution, including public standpipes
and house connections; frequency of supervision, type of
personnel and their qualification for running the treatment
processes; regularity of chlorination; presence of residual
203
chlorine at all times and at all points in the system, availability
of residual chlorine records (daily, weekly, etc.); frequency of
disinfection, if any; and, if the source is ground-water, type
and frequency of laboratory test performed.
5.2.4 Sanitary Inspections

A sanitary inspection is an on-site inspection and evaluation by
qualified individuals of all conditions, devices and practices in the
water supply system that pose an actual or potential danger to
the health and well being of the consumer. Sanitary inspections
provide a direct method of pinpointing possible problems and
sources of contamination. They are also important in the
prevention and control of potentially hazardous conditions,
including epidemics of waterborne diseases.
Sanitary inspections are intended to provide a range of

information and to locate potential problems. The data obtained
may identify failures, anomalies, operator errors, and any
deviations from normal that may affect the production and
distribution of safe drinking water. When the inspections are
properly carried out at appropriate regular intervals, and when
the inspector has the knowledge necessary to detect and
suggest technical solutions, the production of good quality water
is ensured.
The frequency of routine sanitary inspections depends on a

number of factors, such as geography, distribution of the
204
population, access to the various localities, etc. as well as the
overall development level, including facilities, number and
expertise of technical staff, level of activity in programs, etc.
The two principal activities are sanitary inspection and water

quality analysis. Sanitary inspection should take priority over
analysis, but the two should be done together whenever possible.
They are complementary activities; inspection identifies potential
hazards, while analysis indicates whether contamination is
occurring and if so, its intensity.
A sanitary inspection is indispensable for the adequate

interpretation of laboratory results. No analytical, bacteriological
or chemical survey, however carefully carried out, is a substitute
for comprehensive knowledge of conditions at the water source
and within the distribution system, the adequacy of water
treatment, and the qualifications and performance of the
operators. Samples represent conditions at a single point in time
and even when there is frequent sampling and analysis, the
results are reported after contamination has occurred, especially
in systems without long-term storage. Microbiological
contamination is often sporadic and may not be revealed by
occasional sampling.
1. Sanitary Inspection Reports

The sanitary inspection report is that part of the survey based on
the on-site inspection of the water sources (i.e. a field survey). It
205
therefore provides a direct method of identifying all the hazards
that are potential and actual causes of contamination of the
supply. It is concerned with the physical structure of the supply,
its operation, and external environmental factors. The hazards
recorded during inspection are often tangible and observable and
may be used together with analytical data to derive a risk
assessment.
Sanitary inspections, thus, provide essential information about

immediate and ongoing possible hazards associated with a
community water supply, even in the absence of microbiological
or chemical evidence of contamination.
A) Functions of Sanitary Inspection Report Forms

Inspections forms should provide a simple and rapid means of
assessing and identifying hazards associated with water supply
systems. The inspection form should include at least a checklist
of the components of the water supply from source to distribution
and incorporate all the potential points where hazards may be
introduced. Any problems identified during the inspection should
be highlighted so that a report may be provided directly to the
community and copies forwarded to both supply agency and
health authority.
The specific functions of the sanitary inspection report are to:
- Identify potential sources and points of contamination of the

water supply;
206
- Quantify the hazard (hazard score) attributable to the
sources and supply;
- Provide a clear, graphical means of explaining the hazards to
the operator/user;
- Provide clear guidance as to the remedial action required to
protect and improve the supply, and;
- Provide the raw data for use in systematic strategic planning
for improvement.
B) Design of Sanitary Inspection Report Forms

The design, evaluation and refinement of sanitary inspection
forms are among the most important aspects of developing a
surveillance or quality-control program. Two approaches are
possible: the use of pictures and brief checklists, or the use of
detailed checklists with explanatory notes. Either may be used
successfully. However, the use of pictorial inspection forms
should be adapted to match local circumstances; they should be
suitable for the inspectors to use, and the recipients of the
information should be able to understand and act on them.
2. Carrying out Sanitary Inspections

Staff responsible for field sanitary inspection work should always
try to notify the local community representatives in advance of the
visit, especially where the presence of the latter is required in
order to obtain access to certain points in the supply system and
where the assistance of community members in conducting the
inspection is needed.
207
Before visiting the community, the sanitarian should have prior
knowledge of the type and number of supplies, sources and taps.
This should be checked against local records and maps held by
the local health post or health center. If no map is available, an
attempt should be made to prepare at least a sketch map of the
supply or sources.
The sanitarian should complete the sanitary inspection report

onsite together with the community representatives.
Opportunities to point out problems or defects in the field to
community members, their representatives, or the system
caretaker or operator should be taken whenever possible. It may
also be appropriate to undertake simple repairs at the same time.
After completing the sanitary inspection, the sanitarian should

circle each of the points of risk on the diagram. Before leaving
the community, the sanitarian should discuss, agree and
schedule any follow up actions and indicate the date of the next
survey. The survey officer carrying out the sanitary survey should
record whether or not sampling or analysis will be undertaken.
Labor, and hence, time can sometimes be saved by carrying out
the analysis in the field at the same time as the inspection.
Sanitary inspections should be undertaken on a regular basis.

Regular or routine inspections are visits made with a defined
frequency in accordance with a previously established plan. In
addition, non-routine visits by the inspector will be necessary in
208
atypical situations, such as the introduction of a new water
source, and in cases of emergency. Emergency situations calling
for the urgent presence of the inspector include:
a) Reports of epidemics
b) High turbidity caused by floods
c) Unresolved cases where bacteriological analysis repeatedly
show the presence of excess levels of micro-organisms and
where residual chlorine levels remain consistently low
d) The detection of any important changes that could impair
drinking water quality.
209
Review Questions
1. Define what sanitary survey is and describe its purpose.

2. What factors are to be considered during sanitary inspection
of water sources?
3. Which information is crucial when you do sanitary surveys?
4. What is the purpose of sanitary report?
Note to the teacher
At the end of this session, if possible, please arrange a water

source visit and orient the students with the techniques of
sanitary survey practically.
210
CHAPTER SIX
WATER DISTRIBUTION AND
HYDRAULICS
Learning Objectives

1. Define the meaning of water pumps.
2. Discuss the impact of atmospheric pressure on pumping.
3. Explain the principle of pumping water.
4. Identify the types of pumps used in drinking water supply.
5. Recognize cause of friction head.
6. Calculate power requirements of pumps.
6.1 Introduction
The water needs to be transported from the source to the

treatment plant, if there is one, and onward to the area of
distribution depending on the topography and local conditions
that water may be conveyed through.
• Free- flow conduits
• Closed conduits
• A combination of both
The water conveyance will be either under gravity or by pumping
211
Free-flow conduits are generally laid at a uniform slope that
closely follows the hydraulic grade line. Examples of such
conduits are canals, aqueducts, tunnels or partially filled pipes. If
a pipe or tunnel is completely full, the hydraulic gradient and not
the slope of the conduit will govern the flow.
The hydraulic laws of closed conduit flows, also commonly called
pressurized flows apply in this case. Pressurized pipelines can be
laid downhill as needed, as long as they remain at sufficient
distance below the hydraulic grade line, i.e. certain minimum
pressure is maintained in the pipe.
Free-flow conduits have a limited application in water supply

practice in view of the danger that the water will get
contaminated. They are never appropriate for the conveyance of
treated water but, may well be used fro transmission of raw
water.
For community water supply purposes, pressurized pipelines are

the most common means of water transmission. Whether for free
flow or under pressure, water transmission conduits generally
require a considerable capital investment. A careful consideration
of all technical options and their costs and discussion with the
community groups that will support and manage the system are
therefore necessary when selecting the best solution in particular
case.
212
Routes always need to be checked with community members as
well to make use of local knowledge and ensure cultural
acceptability (technically desirable routes may, for example, run
through a burial site or be unacceptable for other local reasons).
o Types of water conduits
1. Canals – are laid in areas where the required slope of

the conduit more or less coincides with the slope of the
terrain.
2. Aqueducts and tunnels – are constructed in hilly areas.
They should be of such a size that they are
approximately three-quarters full at the design flow rate.
Thy are constructed to shorten the overall length of a
water transmission route.
3. Free-flow pipelines are used for transport of smaller
quantities of water than tunnels. Compared with canals
and aqueducts they offer better protection from pollution.
Due to the free-flow conditions, simple materials may be
used for construction Glazed clay or concrete pipes
should be adequate. Similar hydraulic conductions occur
as for other free-flow conduits.
4. Pressurized pipelines – The routing of pressurized
pipelines is much less limited by the topography of the
area to be traversed, than is the case of canals,
aqueducts or free-flow pipelines. A pressure pipeline may
run up-and downhill and there is considerable freedom
for selection of the pipeline alignment.
213
o Design parameters:
1. Design flow
The water demand in a distribution area will fluctuate
considerably during a day. Usually a service reservoir is provided
to accumulate and even out the variation in water demand. The
service reservoir is supplied from the transmission main, and is
located at a suitable position to be able to supply the distribution
system (Fig. 6.4). Again, its site needs to be chosen by the local
people, based on technical advice and their own socio cultural
criteria. The transmission main is normally designed for the
carrying capacity needed to supply water demand on the
maximum consumption day at a constant rate. All hourly
variations in the water demand during the day of maximum
consumption are then assumed to be evened-out by the service
reservoir.
The number of hours the transmission main operates each day is

another important factor. For a water supply with diesel engine or
electric motor-driven pumps, the daily pumping often is limited to
16 hours or less. In such a case, the design flow rate for the
transmission main as well as the volume of the service reservoir
need to be adjusted accordingly.
214
2. Design pressure
Pressure as a design parameter is only relevant for pressurized
pipelines. Consumer connections on transmission lines are rare,
so the water pressure can be kept low provided that the hydraulic
grade line is positioned above the pipe over its entire length and
for all flow rates. A minimum of a few meters water column is also
required to prevent intrusion of pollution through damaged parts
of the pipe or faulty joints. In fact, nowhere should the operating
pressure in the pipeline be less than 4-5 mwc (meters water
column).
High pressures in transmission pipe occur as a result of long

distances or specific topography. During supply by gravity the
maximum pressure does not occur under operating conditions. It
is the static pressure when the pipeline is shut. In order to limit
the maximum pressure in a pipeline and thus the cost of the
pipes, the route can be divided into sections separated by a
break-pressure tank. The function of such a tank is to limit the
static pressure by providing an open water surface at certain
places along the pipeline. The flow from the upstream section
can be throttled when necessary.
If water is to be transported to higher elevations, the maximum

pressure will occur in the vicinity of pumping. High pressures in
the transmission pipe can be avoided in this case by application
of multistage pumping along the pipe route.
215
Critical pressures may also develop as a result of pressure surge
or water hummer in the pipeline. The phenomenon is caused by
the instant or too rapid closure of values, or by sudden pump
starts or stops, e.g. due to electricity failure. A longitudinal water
wave created in such a way causes over-and under-pressures
well above the normal working pressure. This is potentially a very
dangerous situation that may result in damage to the pipeline
over long distances.
Proper prevention includes construction of surge tanks, air

vessels or water towers as well as selection of suitable pipe
materials that can withstand the highest pressures. Regarding
values, specified minimum shut-off times should be strictly
respected. This makes it important how communities choose,
train and supervise value operators and that operators
understand, and practice the proper regulation of the values.
3. Design velocity and hydraulic gradient

A velocity range is established for design purposes for two
reasons. On the one hand, a certain minimum velocity will be
required to prevent water stagnation causing sedimentation and
bacteriological growth in the conduits. On the other hand, the
maximum velocity will have to be respected in order to control
head losses in the system as well as to reduce the effects of
water hammer.
216
The velocity of flows in canals, aqueducts and tunnels usually
ranges between 0.4 and 1.0m/s for unlined conduits, and up to
2m/s for lined conduits. Flows in pressurized transmission mains
have the velocity range between 1 and 2 m/s.
In the case of pressurized pipes, design values may also be set

for the hydraulic gradient. This is done primarily to limit the head
losses, i.e. to minimize the energy consumption for pumping the
water. Common values of the hydraulic gradients for transmission
pipes are around 0.005, which means 5 mwc of head loss per km
or the pipe length.
o Hydraulic design
Flow Q (m /s) through a cross-section A (m2) is determined as =
3
vA, where v (m/s) is the mean velocity of the cross-section.

Assumptions of ‘steady’ and ‘uniform’ flow apply in basic
hydraulic calculations for the design of water transmission
systems. The flow is steady if the mean velocity of one cross-
section remains constant with a certain period of time. If the
mean velocity between the two cross-sections is constant at a
certain moment, the flow is uniform.
1. Hydraulic design in free-flow conduits

The sticker formula is widely used for conduits with free-flow
conditions. The formula reads:
V = K4R2/3 S1/2
217
Where;
V = mean water velocity in the cross-section (m/s)
K4 = strickler coefficient (m1/3/s)
R = hydraulic radium (m)
S = hydraulic gradient (m/km)
The strickler coefficient represents roughness of the conduit. For
design purposes, table 6.1 provides indicative values of this
coefficient for various of linings in clean, straight conduits. In
practice, these values may differ from one channel section to
another and are often subjected to seasonal variations.
Table 6.1 Indicative values of the strickler coefficient for

various types of linings
Type of lining Strickler coefficient K4(m1/3/s)
Concrete, trowel finished 80
Masonry
- Neat cement plaster 70
- Brickwork, good finish 65
- Brickwork, rough 60
Excavated
- Earth 45
- Gravel 40
- Rock cut, smooth 30
- Rock cut, aged 25
218
In a wide range of literature, the strickler coefficient is listed as
the Manning coefficient, n in m1/3 s, where n = 1 ¼ consequently,
the formula is called the manning formula:
V = 1/n(R 2/3S1/2)
The hydraulic radius, R = A/P, where A(m2) is the cross-sections
area and P(m), the wetted perimeter.
Finally, the hydraulic gradient, S, can be substituted by the slope
of the conduit where the assumption of uniform flow conditions is
valid.
examples, calculations
2. Hydraulic design in closed conduits

The Strickler and Manning formulas are also applicable for closed
conduits by introducing the real hydraulic gradient of the flow and
the wetted perimeter as the full perimeter of the conduit.
Nevertheless, a problem may occur in the selection of the
roughness factors for a wide range of pipe materials and flow
conditions. More appropriate formulas for computing the head
loss of water flowing through a pressurized pipeline are those of
Darcy-weilbach and Hazen-Williams.
The Darcy-Weilbach formula states:
ΔH = [λ x L/D x Y2/2g)
= [(8λ L/π2 gD5)Q2)
= [(λL/12.ID5)Q2)
Where:
ΔH = head loss (mwe)
L = pipe length (m)
219
D = pipe diameter (m)
λ = friction factor (-)
V = the mean velocity in the pipe (m/s)
g = gravity (9.81 m3/s)
Q = flow rate (m3/s)
Introduction the hydraulic gradient S = ΔH/L, the formula can be
rewritten as:
V = √(2gDS) /λ
The factor λ is the friction coefficient can be calculated by the
Colebrook-white formula.
1 / √λ = 2log(2.51/Re√λ)+ (k/3.7D)]
Where:
Re = the Reynolds number (-)
K = absolute roughness of the inner pipe wall (mm)
D = pipe diameter (mm)
μ = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
Finally, the kinematic viscosity is dependent on the water

temperature. For T in 0C:
μ = (497 x 106) / (T + 42.5)1.5
The Colebrook white formula is developed for a turbulent flow
regime, i.e. Revalues about + 4000. The common values in
practice are much higher, typically in the order of 104 and 105. If
by chance the flow is laminar (Re < 2000) the friction factor λ will
be calculated as:
220
λ = 64/Re
Calculation by the Colebrook-white formula is not straightforward,
as the λ-factor appears on both sides of the equation. The
alternative formula of Barr can be used instead:
1/√λ = 2log (5.1289/Re0.89) + (k/3.7D)]
The common range of k-values is listed in table 6.2 for various

pipe materials. For practical calculation these values can be
increased depending on the number of years the pipe was in
service and the influence of head losses caused by bends, joints,
values, etc.
221
Table 6.2 Absolute roughness (Bhave, 1991)
Pipe material K (mm)
Asbestos cement 0.015-0.03
Bitumen/Cement lined 0.03
Wrought iron 0.03-0.15
Galvanized/Coated cast iron 0.06-0.3
Uncoated cast iron 0.15-0.6
Ductile iron 0.03-0.06
Uncoated steel 0.015-0.06
Coated steel 0.03-0.15
Concrete 0.06-1.5
Plastic, PVC, PE 0.02-0.05
Glass fiber 0.06
Brass, cooper, lead 0.003
(source: Bhave, P.R, (1991) Analysis of flow in water distribution systems.
Lancaster, PA, USA Technomic publishing.)
The Hazen-williams formula is simpler, although less accurate

than the Dracy Weilbach equation. It states for SI-unit.
V = 0.355CkwD0.63S0.54
This formula is applicable for a common range of flows and
diameters. Its accuracy becomes reduced at lower values of Ckw
(much below 100) and/or velocities that are dimensionally
uniform and if other units are used than SI, it has to be
readjusted. Nevertheless, due to its simplicity this formula is still
widely used in the USA and in many, predominantly Anglophone,
developing countries.
222
Table 6.3 The Hazen-williams factor (Bhave, 1991)
Pipe material Ckw Ckw Ckw Ckw Ckw
D=75 D= 250mm D = D = D=12
mm 300mm 600m 00
m mm
Uncoated cast iron 121 125 130 132 134
Coated cast iron 129 133 138 140 141
Uncoated steel 142 145 147 150 150
Coated steel 137 142 145 148 148
Wrought iron 137 143
Galvanized iron 129 133
Uncoated asbestos 142 145 147 150
cement
Coated asbestos 147 149 150 152
cement
Concrete, minimum 69 79 84 90 95
values
Concrete, 129 133 138 140 141
maximum values
Prestressed 147 149 147 150 150
concrete
PVC, brass, 142 145 150 152 153
copper, lead
Wavy PVC 147 149 147 150 153
Bitumen/cement 150 152 153
lined
(source: Bhave, P.R, (1991) Analysis of flow in water distribution systems. Lancaster, PA,
USA Technomic publishing.)
Application of the discussed head loss formulas is illustrated in

the examples.
223
Example 1
Determine the capacity of the rectangular concrete canal if the
water depth is 0.2 m. The width of the canal is 1.0 m and the
slope of the bottom is S = 1 */00.
Solution
From table 6.2, Ks for concrete = 80 m1/3/s Further.
R = A/P = b y(b +2y) = 1*0.2/1+2*0.2 =0.1429 m
V = KsR2/3S1/2 =80*0.14292/3 0.0011/2 = 2.19m/x
Q = V by = 2.19 10.2 = 0.437m3/s = 437 1/s
Example 2
Find out the head loss in the concrete transmission pipe, L =
300m and D = 150 mm, following full. The flow rate is 80 m3/hour
and the water temperature is 100C. Compare the results of the
Darcy-weisbach, Hazen-williams and strickler formulas.
Solution
For water temperature of 100C, the kinematics viscosity
The pipe kiscosity μ = (497 * 10*) / (T +42.5)1.5
= (497 * 10-6) / (10 + 42.5)1.5
= 1.31 * 10-6 m2/s
The pipe velocity: V = 4Q / D2π
= (4 * 80/3600)(0.152 * 3.14)
= 1.26 m/s
And the Reynolds number: Re = vD/μ

= (1.26m/s *0.15m)/1.31 * 10-6m2/s
224
= 1.44 * 105
From table 6.2 the k-value for concrete pipes ranges between
0.06 and 1.5 mm. For k = 0.8 mm, λ factor form the Barr
equation.
1/√λ = 2log [(5.1289/Re0.89) + (k/3.7D)]
1/√λ = 2log [(5.1289)(1.44 10 5)0.89 )+ (0.8/3.7150)]
= 5.60887; λ = 0.032
Finally, ΔH = [λ x L/D x V2/2g]
= [0.032*(300/0.15)*1.262/(2*9.81)]
= 5.12 mwc
According to table 6.2, the Hazen-williams factor for ordinary
concrete pipe.
D = 150 mm ranges between 79 and 133, For Ckw assumed at
105
V = 0.355CkwD0.63S0.54;
S = [V/0.355CkwD0.63]1/0.54
= [1.26 / (0.355 * 105 *0.150.63)]1.852 =0.01722
Consequently: ΔH = SL = 0.01722 * 300 = 5.17 mwc
Finally, for Ks = 85 m1/3/s
R = A/P = [(D2π/4)/Dπ) = D/4 = 0.15/4 = 0.0375m
V = KsR2/3 S1/2; S = (V/(KsR2/3)]2 = 0.01743
ΔH = SL = 0.01743 * 300 = 5.23 mwe
All three formulas show similar results in this case. This can differ
more substantially for different choice in roughness parameters.
E.g in case of Ckw = 120, the same calculation by the Hazen-
225
williams formula would yield ΔH = 4.03 mwc while for K4 = 80
m1/3s, the sterickler formula gives ΔH = 5.90 mwc.
In practice, the accuracy of any head loss formula is of less
concern than a proper choice of the roughness factor (K, Ckw or
K4) for a given surface. Errors in results originate far more
frequently from insufficient knowledge about the condition of the
conduit, than from wrong choice of formula.
Example 3
What will be the flow in a 100 mm-diameter pipe to transport
water from a small dam to a tank at 600 m distance? The
difference between the water surfaces in the two points is 3.60m.
the absolute roughness of the pipe wall is k = 0.25 mm and the
water temperature equals 10 *C.
Solution
The difference between the water levels indicates the available
head loss. Hence, ΔH = 3.60 mwc and S = 3.60/600. From the
previous example, μ = 1.31 * 10-6m2/s for the water temperature
of 100C. the calculation has to be iterative due to the fact that the
velocity (flow) is not known and it influences the Reynolds
number, i.e. the flow regime. A common assumption is v = 1m/s.
Further:
Re = (1.0*0.1)(1.31*1.10-6) = 7.65*104
1/√λ = 2log [(5.1289) 7.65*104)0.89)+(0.25/(3.7*100)
= 6.0851; = λ = 0.027
226
V = √ (2gDS/λ = √[(2*9.81*0.1*0.006)/0.027]
= 0.66m/s
The calculated velocity is different from the assumed one of 1
m/s. The procedure has to be repeated starting with this new
value. For V = 0.66 m/s, Re = 5.06 *10-4 and λ = 0.0 28, which
yields V = 0.01 m/s considered as acceptable and hence:
Q = V * A = 0.65 *(0.12 π/4) = 0.0051 m3/s = 5.1 1/s
6.2 Water Distribution

6.2.1 Introduction
Water distribution systems convey water drawn from the water
source of treatment facility, to the point where it is delivered to
the users. Unlike the transmission system discussed in chapter 6,
these systems deal with water a demand that varies considerably
in the course of a day.
Water consumption is highest during the hours that water is used

for personal hygiene and cleaning when food preparation and
clothes washing are done. Water use is lowest during night.
This variation in flow can be dealt with by operating pumps in

parallel and/or building balancing storage in the system. For
small community water supplies the distribution system with
water storage (e.g. a service reservoir) is the preferable option,
given that supplies of electricity or diesel to power pumps will
227
usually be unreliable. Although it can be kept simple, construction
of such a system may represent a substantial capital investment
and the design must be done properly.
Generally the distribution system of a small community water

supply is designed to center for the domestic and other
household water requirements. Stock watering and garden plot
irrigation water may also be provided.
Service reservoirs accumulate and store water during the night
so that it can be supplied during the daytime hours of high water
demand.
It is necessary to maintain sufficient pressure in the distribution

system to protect it against contamination by the ingress of
polluted seepage water. For small community supplies a
minimum pressure of 5-10 mwc (maters of water column) should
be adequate in most instances.
6.2.2 Types of Distribution Systems

There are basically two main layouts of a distribution network:
• Branched configuration
• Looped (or “grid”) configuration
Branched networks: are predominantly used for small-capacity

supplies delivering the water mostly through public standpipes
and having few house connections, if any. Although adequate,
228
having in mined simplicity and acceptable investment costs,
branched networks have some disadvantages:
Low reliability, which affects all users located
downstream of any breakdown in the system.
Danger of contamination caused by the
possibility that a large part of network will be
without water during irregular situations.
Accumulation of sediments, due to stagnation of
the water at the system ends (‘dead’ ends)
occasionally resulting in taste and odour
problems.
Fluctuating water demand producing rather large
pressure variations.
Branched systems are easy to design. The direction of the water

flow and the flow rates can readily be determined for all pipes.
This is different in looped distribution networks, where consumers
can be supplied from more than one direction. Looped network
greatly improve the hydraulics of the distribution system. This is
of major importance in the event that one of the mains is out of
operation for cleaning or repair.
A looped network: usually has a skeleton of secondary mains

that can also be in a form of branch, one loop (‘ring’) or number
of loops. From there, the water is conveyed towards the
distribution pipes and further to the consumers. The secondary
mains are connected to one or more loops or rings.
229
The network in large (urban) distribution system will be much
more complex; essentially a combination of loops and branches
with lots of interconnected pipes that requires many valves and
special parts. To save on equipment costs, over-crossing pipes
that are not interconnected may be used but at the cost of
reduced reliability.
Points at which the water delivered to the users are called service
connections. The number and types of service connections has
considerable influence on the choice of a network layout.
The following types of service connections may be distinguished:

• House connection
• Yard connection
• Group connection
• Public standpipe
A house connection is a water service pipe connected with in-

house plumbing to one or more taps, e.g. in the kitchen and
bathroom. Usually 3/8 inch (9mm) ands ½ inch (12mm) taps are
used.
The service pipe is connected to the distribution main in the
street by means of a T-piece (on small-diameter pipes), a special
insert piece (ferrule) or a saddle (on large size secondary pipes).
A special insert piece is mostly used of cast iron and ductile iron
pipes.
230
A yard connection is quite similar to a house connection, the
only difference being that the tap is placed in the yard outside the
house. No in-house piping and fixtures are provided.
Plastic (polyvinyl chloride or polyethylene), cast iron and

galvanized steel pipes are used for both house connections and
yard connections.
Group connections are outside tap that are shared by a clearly

defined group of households, often neighbors. They share the tap
and pay the bill together. Each family may pay the same (flat)
share or contributions may be weighed according to the
estimated volume of water each family consumes. Consumptions
estimates may be based on indicators such as family size and
composition and types of use by the different households.
Sometimes the taps can be locked and a local committee holds
the key and manages the use and financing.
Public standpipes can have one or more taps. Single-tap and

double-tap standpipes are the most common types in rural areas.
They are made or brickwork, masonry or concrete, or use
wooden poise and similar materials. The design should be done
in close consultation with the users (especially women) is order to
arrive at an ergonomically optimal solution. Standpipes may have
platforms at levels, making it easy for adults and children to use
them with containers or different sizes. Cattle watering and/or
231
washing and/or breathing facilities may be constructed nearby.
The design and often also the construction is best done in
consultation and with participation of the user households, i.e.
both men and women. Public taps drawing from a small reservoir
(cistern) represent an alternative method of water distribution.
Each standpipe should be situated at a suitable point within the

community area in order to limit the distance the water users
have to go to collect their water. The walking distance for the
most distant user of a standpipe should, whenever possible, be
limited to 200 m; in sparsely populated rural areas 500 m may be
acceptable. The required discharge capacity of a standpipe
normally is about 14-18 litters/minute at each outlet. A single-tap
standpipe should preferable be used by not more than 40-70
people; a multiple-tap standpipe may provide a reasonable
service for up to 250-300 persons; in no case should the number
of users dependent on one standpipe exceed 500.
Public standpipes can operate at a low pressure. Distribution

systems that serve only standpipes may therefore use low
pressure piping, whereas the pipes for distribution systems with
house connections generally have to be or a higher pressure call.
Water collected at a public standpipe will have to be carried

home in a container (bucket, jerry can, vessel, pot, etc). This
means that the water that was safe at the moment of drawing
may no longer be so at the moment it is used in the house. Water
232
consumption from standpipes generally is not higher than 20-30
liters per person per day. This consumption increases when other
facilities (e.g. for washing/bathing) are added to reduce the
amount of water women and children have to carry home. Water
use for other purposes than drinking and cooking, is likely to be
curtailed, will usually encourage a more generous water use for
personal hygiene and cleaning purposes.
Wastage of water from standpipes can be a serious problem,

especially when users fail to turn off the taps. Furthermore, poor
drainage of spilled water may cause stagnant pools of dirty water
with the associated health hazards. It is also not uncommon for
the taps to be damaged by the users and pilferage sometimes
occurs. These problems occur particularly when designs do not
meet the user requirements, i.e. there has not been adequate
consultation with the users (women and men) and/or there are no
clear management arrangements. One way to cope with these
problems is through payment for water consumed. When there is
a fair and effective way of water demand management often
those selling water are women, as they are chosen for their
reliability and trustworthiness, their need to be present for work
within their own neighborhood and their suitability as hygiene
promoters with other women and children.
In spite of their shortcomings, group connections and public

standpipes are really the only practical options for water
distribution at minimum cost to a large number of people who
233
cannot afford the much higher costs of house or yard
connections. In fact, housing is frequently not suitable
constructed to allow the installation of internal plumbing. It would
often be impossible for a small community to obtain the
substantial capital for a water distribution system with house
connections. Also, the costs of adequate disposal of the
considerable amounts of wastewater generated by a house
connected water supply service would place an additional heavy
financial burden on the community. Consequently, public
standpipes have to be provided and the principal concern should
be to lessen their inherent shortcomings as much possible.
To achieve sustainability of this type of service, the management

at the public standpipe level needs special attention in terms of
organization, O & M and cost recovery.
6.3 Hydraulics and Its Applications to Drinking

Water Supplies
6.3.1 Introduction
Hydraulics- as the principles and applications of motion physics
applied to drinking water systems is only considered here to
provide an outline of the basic principles of flow through channels
and pipes so far as they are important to the correct choice and
selection of water-lifting system. So, students are advised to
read far more details on the subject, in case they want a
comprehensive knowledge about it.
234
In common with the prime moves and the water-lifting device;
cost effectiveness is focused upon, rather than mere mechanical
efficiency, because the aim of the course is to deal with passive
items like pipes or distribution systems. Nevertheless, flow
through channels is also considered due to the fact that channels
are used to convey raw water from the source to a treatment
plant or somewhere in between; and for comparison between
channels and pipes as raw water conveyance so as to derive the
most economical and efficient system.
The channels are usually cheap to build, but require regular

maintenance, offer more resistance to flow, and depending on
the soil conditions, are prone to lose water by both percolation
and evaporation. The pipe is expensive, but usually needs little
or no maintenance and involves little or no loss of water.
In general, since the power needed is the product of head and

flow, any losses that cause water to fail to reach the treatment
plan, hence the final user represent a reduction of effective flow
(other constraints being normal) from the system. Such losses,
therefore, add to the power demand and represent a further
source of inefficiency. The losses occur through adding to the
actual pumping head or through decreasing the effective flow
rate due to losses of water (or both). Because purchase costs
are obvious and running costs (and what causes them) are less
clear there is a tendency to error the side of minimizing capital
235
costs or refraining from investing in drinking water supply
systems.
However, with the proper design of water conveyance systems,

especially in terms of the prime mover and the water lifting
devices, an entire water treatment system can be sub-divided
into stages, each of which has a (variable) efficiency and a
describe need for power. Mask components have an optimum
efficiency. All components need to be chosen so as to be
optimized close to the planned operating condition of the system
if the most economical and efficient system is to be derived. The
concept of cost effectiveness is an important one in this
connection, since most drinking water treatment systems are a
compromise or trade-off between the conflicting requirements of
minimizing the total cost (capital and running costs) and
supplying adequate and safe drinking water to the public. It is at
this juncture that the knowledge of applied physics, such as
hydraulics and the skill of applying them effectively, are most
important.
6.3.2 Flow Through Channels and Pipes

Even though hydraulics includes the flow of gases and liquids,
we only consider the flow of water, through channels and pipes
related to conveying raw water to a treatment plant and to the
distribution of the treated water to the public. The device to move
(lift) the water and the prime mover (power) of the device are the
basic components around which the discussion winds. The main
236
aim is to provide the necessary slope or hydraulic gradient to
cause the water to flow at a sufficient rate.
6.3.2.1 Channels
It is natural that when water is at rest, the water level will always
be horizontal. However, if water flows down an open channel or
canal, the water level will slope downwards in the direction of
flow. This slope is called the “hydraulic gradient. The greater the
frictional resistant to the flow the steeper it will be. Hydraulic
gradient is usually measured as the ratio of the vertical drop per
given length of channel, e.g. 1m.per 100m is expressed as 1/100
or 0.01. The rate of flow (Q) that will flow down a channel
depends on the cross-sectional area of flow (A) and the mean
velocity (v). The relationship between these factors is
Q = vA
E.g. If the cross –sectional area is 0.5m2 and the mean velocity is
1m/s, then the rate of flow will be: 1m/s x 0.5m2 = 0.5m3/s. The
mean velocity (v) of water in a channel can be determined with
reasonable accuracy for typical irrigation channels by the Chezy
Formula.
V = C√rs
Where C is the Chezy coefficient, which is dependent on the
roughness of the surface of the channel (n); its hydraulic radius
(r), which is the area of cro-section of submerged channel divided
by its wetted submerged perimeter, and the hydraulic gradient (s)
of the channel (measured in unit fall per unit length of channel).
The Chezy coefficient is found from Manning’s Formula:
237
C = K r1/6
n
In this formula K = 1 if metric units are used, or K = 1.486 if feet
are used. R is the previously defined hydraulic radius and n is
the Manning’s co-efficient of roughness appropriate to the
material used to construct the channel, e.g. sand, clay, rock. The
materials used to construct the channel are in an established
table that also indicates the recommended side slopes and
maximum flow velocities for a selection of commonly used types
of channels, ranging from earth ditches to concrete, metal or
wooden flumes. Combining the above equations gives an
expression for the quality of water that will flow down a channel
under gravity as follows:
Q = AK r 2/3 S1/2
N
Where Q will be in m2/s, if A is in m2, r is in m and K is 1.
To obtain a greater flow rate, either the channel needs to be

large in cross-section (and hence expensive in terms of
materials, construction cost and land use) or it needs to have a
greater slope. Therefore it requires determining the best trade-
off between capital cost or first cost (i.e. construction cost) and
running cost in terms of the extra energy requirement if flow is
obtained by increasing the hydraulic gradient rather than the
cross-sectional area. The nature of the terrain also comes into
consideration as channels normally need to flow the natural slope
of the ground if extensive regarding or supporting structures are
238
to be avoided. A proper design of the system of bends,
functions, changes in section, slope of surface, etc is another
consideration. A further point to be considered with channels is
the likely loss of water between the point of entry to the channel
and the point of discharge caused by seepage through the
channel walls and also by evaporation from the open surface.
Any such losses need to be made up by addition of extra water,
which in turn requires pumping power (and energy) in proportion.
One of the methods for calculating conveyance losses is
S = CLPR ½
Where S will be the conveyance loss in m3/s per length L if C is
coefficient depending on nature of soil (e.g. C = 0.0015 for clay
and 0.003 for sand)
L = length in Km
P = Wetted perimeter of cross-section
R = hydraulic mean depth (i.e. flow cross-
sectional area divided
by width of surface
6.3.2.2 Pipes
A pipe can operate like a channel with a roof on it i.e., it can be
unpressurized, often with water not filling it. The advantage of a
pipe, however, is that it need not-follow the hydraulic gradient like
a channel since water cannot over flow from it if it dips below the
natural level. In other words, although pipes are more expensive
than channels in relation to their carrying capacity, they generally
and are therefore more cheaply and simply installed. They are of
239
course essential to convey water to a higher level or across
uneven terrain.
As with a channel, a pipe is also subject to a hydraulic gradient,

which also necessarily becomes steeper if the flow is increased,
that is, a higher load of a higher pressure is needed to overcome
the increasing resistance to a higher flow. This is clearly seen in
a pipeline with vertical tapping in it. When no flow takes place
due to the outlet valve being closed, the water pressure along the
pipe will be uniform and the levels in the vertical tappings will co-
respond to the head of the supply reservoir. If the valve is
opened so that the water starts to flow, then a hydraulic gradient
will be introduced and the levels in the vertical tappings will relate
to the hydraulic gradient, in becoming progressively lower further
along the pipe. The same applies if a pump is used to push
water along a pipe. Here the pump needs to overcome a
resistance equal to the static head of the reservoir, which is the
pipe friction head.
The pictures (figure 6.1) below illustrate the concept of a

‘hydraulic gradient’ in general and the two conditions explained
above. In the two upper diagrams, the static head of the
reservoir is equal to the pipe friction head, which is the resistance
the pump needs to overcome.
240
Figure 6.1 The concept of a ‘hydraulic graient’
(Source: Peter Fraenkel. Water-pumping devices: A handbook for
users and choosers. 2nd ed. Intermediate technology
publications. 1997)
As indicated in the third lower figure in low lift applications, the

pipe friction head can in some cases be as large or larger than
the static head which is all the suction head (in the diagram,
since the pump is mounted at the same level as the discharge).
The power demand, and hence the energy costs will generally be
directly related to the total head for a given flow rate, so that, in
241
the example figure, friction losses in the pipe could be
responsible for about half the energy costs.
The easiest way to estimate pipe friction is to use charts, which

are commonly published both in the literature of pipe and pipe
fitting manufacturers and in hydraulics textbooks (See figure 6.2
below).
As an alternative method, a nomogram (as seen in figure 6.3

below) for obtaining the head loss (as m/km in the figure) can be
used. But the results may have to be modified depending on the
type of pipe, by multiplying the result obtained from the chart by
the roughness coefficient of the pipe relative to material for which
the chart or monogram was derived.
242
Figure 6.2 Determination of head friction losses in straight
pipes.
publications. 1997)
243
Figure 6.3 Head loss nomogram calculated for rigid PVC
pipes using Blasius formula
244
users and choosers. 2nd ed. Intermediate Technology
Publications. 1997)
In general, the relationship between head of water, m (ft) and
water pressure in pounds per ft2 is
H = P/W
Where W is 62.4 for water.
The head loss due to friction in a pipe line is approximately
related to the mean velocity and hence the flow rate squared:
Head loss, hf = KQ2
Therefore, the total head felt by a pump will be approximately the

sum of the static head (hs.) the friction head (hf) and (if the water
emerges from the outlet with significant velocity) the velocity
head (See also Table 6.4 below for more illustration):
Total head, Ht = hs + KQ2 + V2/2g
• Where g = 32.2 ft/sec/sec, and velocity is in fps (feet per

second)
• When pressure in pounds per square such,
Head = P x 144 = 2.3 p
62.4
When water is flowing with gravity alone
h = v2 = V2
2g 2 x 32.2 ft/sec/sec
245
= V2
64.4ft/sec/sec
Since the velocity of flow is proportional to the flow rate (Q), total
head can be
Ht = hs +K’Q2
Where K=K’ +1/(2gA2) and A is a constant, and the pipeline
efficiency which can be expressed in energy terms is:
Pipeline efficiency, η pipe = [hs – K’Q2]
Hs
The capacity of the pump required for domestic water system

with elevated storage is determined by the daily water
consumption and volume of the storage tank.
The head loss due to friction in a pipeline is approximately

related to the mean velocity and hence the flow rate squared:
Head loss hf = KQ2
Therefore, the total head felt by a pump will be approximately the

sum of the static head, the friction head and (it the water
emerges from the out-let with significant velocity) the velocity
head:
Total head Ht = hs + KQ2 + v2/2g
246
i.e. (total head) = (static head) + (friction head) + (velocity head).
Since the velocity of flow is proportional to the flow rate (Q), the
above equation can be re-written:
Total head ht = hs + K’Q2
where K = k’ + 1/2gA2) and A is a constant. Fig. 6.4 below
illustrates the relationship between the total head and the flow
rate for a pumped pipeline, and the pipeline efficiency, which can
be expressed in energy terms as:
Pipeline efficiency η pipe = (hs – k’Q2)/hs).
Figure 6.4 How total head and efficiency vary with flow.
publications. 1997)
247
Table 6.4 Suggested minimum flow velocities, coefficients or
roughness and side slopes, for lined and unlined ditches
and flumes

publications. 1997)
248
6.3.3 Suction Lift: The Atmospheric Limit
Certain types of pump are capable of sucking water from a
source; i.e. the pump can be located above the water level and
will literally pull water up by creating a vacuum in the suction
pipe. Drawing water by suction depends on the difference
between the atmospheric pressure on the free surface of the
water and the reduced pressure in the suction pipe developed by
the pump. The greater the difference in pressure, the higher the
water will rise in the pipe. However, the maximum pressure
difference that can be created is between sea level atmospheric
pressure on the free surface and a pure vacuum, which
theoretically will cause a difference of level of water or 10.4m (or
34ft). However, before a drop in pressure even approaching a
pure vacuum can be produced, the water will start gassing due to
release of air held in solution (like soda water gases when
released from a pressurized container). If the pressure is reduced
further, the water can boil at ambient temperature. As soon as
this happens, the pump loses its prime and the discharge will
cease (due to loss of prime) or at least be severely reduced. In
addition, boiling and gassing within the pump (known as
cavitation) can cause damage if allowing continuing for any
length of time.
The suction lifts that can be achieved in practice are therefore

much less than 10.4m. For example, centrifugal pumps, which
are prone to cavitations due to the high speed of the water
through the impeller, are generally limited to a suction lift of
249
around 4.5m (15ft) even at sea level with a short suction pipe.
Reciprocating pumps generally impose lower velocities on the
water and can therefore pull a higher suction lift, but again, for
practical applications, this should never normally exceed about
6.5m (21ft) even under cool sea level conditions with a short
suction pipe.
At higher altitudes, or if the water is warmer than normal, the

suction lift will be reduced further. For example, at an altitude of
~3000m (10,000ft) above sea level, due to reduced atmospheric
pressure, the practical suction lift will be reduced by about 3m
compared with sea level (and proportionately for intermediate
altitudes, so that 1500m above sea level will reduce suction lift by
about 1.5m). Higher water temperatures also cause a reduction
in practical suction head; for example, if the water is at, say 300C
(or 860F) the reduction in suction head compared with water at
amore normal 200C will be about 7%.
Extending the length of the suction pipe also reduces the suction
head that is permissible, because pipe friction adds to the suction
required; this effect depends on the pipe diameter, but typically a
suction pipe of say 80m length will only function satisfactorily on
half the above suction head.
A suction rod tied to the handle running through the suction pipes and
finally fitted the upper valve of the sucking cylinder
• The sucking cylinder fitted to both the suction pipe and the
suction rod and immersed in the water as explained earlier.
250
The cylinder is open with a fine screen and a control valve
similar to the upper one. The valves are gasketed air tight.
• The pumps operate based on the principle of air
displacement. This is effected by the down and up stroke of
the handle, which in its turn moves up and down the
suction rod fitted to the cylinder. The two valves of the
sucking cylinder function alternately. Accordingly one the
upper valve opens, the lower valve closes. With down
stroke of the handle and the up stroke a of the handle and
the up stroke a vacuum is formed in the suction pipe and
the suction cylinder. After such complete strokes, water
displaces the air in the system and water gashes out
(discharge) in other words, the down stroke pulls out the
air, thus opening the upper valve and clothing the lower
valve. The up stroke of the handle compresses first the air
and then the water in the suction pipe. This makes the
upper valve closed and the bottom valve open. Thus, when
the bottom valve opens, water fills the cylinder and when
the upper valve is opened, water enters the suction pipe as
the bottom valve is closed this time. Finally such repeated
strokes alternately effect the discharge of water at the
surface through the discharge opening (discharge pipe).
When any of the suction rod and suction cylinder fittings
are dismantle the process of water procuring stops and it
should be repaired to continue the process. Silt and mud
may also block the suction cylinder
251
Repairing can be done taking out both the suction pipe and the
suction cylinder with the suction rod. If only part or the whole
suction cylinder is disconnected it is possible to repair the part by
entering through the inspection hole, but the water then should
be disinfected and bailed out before using the source for
consumption.
6.3.4 Drawdown and Seasonal Variations of Water

Level
Groundwater and river water levels vary, both seasonally and in
some cases due to the rate of pumping. Such changes in head
can significantly influence the power requirements, and hence
the running costs. However, changes in head can also influence
the efficiency with which the system works, and thereby can
compound any extra running costs caused by a head increase.
See more on suction lift: The Atmospheric limit (Pumps).
a) At sea level and with pumps

Certain types of pump are capable of sucking water from a
source; ie. The pump can be located above the water level
and will literally pull water up by creating a vacuum in the
suction pipe. Drawing water by suction depends on the
difference between the atmospheric pressure on the free
surface of the water and the reduced pressure in the suction
pipe developed in the plump. The greater the difference in
pressure, the higher the water will rise in the pipe. However,
the maximum pressure difference that can be created is
252
between sea level atmospheric pressure on the free surface
and a pure vacuum which theoretically will cause a difference
of level of water of 10.4cm. Nevertheless, before a drop in
pressure even approaching a pure vacuum can be produced,
the water will start gassing due to the release of air held in
solution (licensed water gases when released from a
pressurized container). If the pressure is reduced further, the
water can boil at ambient temperature. As soon as this
happens the pump loses its prime and the discharge will
cease (due to loss of prime) or at least be severely reduced.
In addition, boiling and gassing within the pump (known as
capitation) can cause damage if allowed to continue for any
length of time.
o The suction lifts that can be achieved in practice are,
therefore, much less than 10.4m.
For example, centrifugal pumps (See figure 6.5 below), which are
prone to prime cavitations due to the high speed of the water
through the impeller, are generally limited to a suction lift of
around 4.5m(14ft) even at sea level with a short suction pipe
reciprocating pumps generally impose lower velocities on the
water and can, therefore, pull a higher suction lift, but again for
practical applications this should never normally exceed about
6.5m(25ft) even under cool sea level conditions with a short
suction pipe
253
Figure 6.5 A centrifugal force pump
(Adapted from Gabre-Emanual Teka. Water Supply- Ethiopia, An
a. If a higher attitude or if the water is warmer than normal,

the suction lift will be reduced further. For example, at an
attitude of ~3000m (10,000 ft) above sea level due to
reduced atmospheric pressure the practical suction lift
will be reduced by 3m compared with sea level (and
254
proportionally for intermediate attitudes so that 500 m
above sea level will reduce suction lift by about 1.5m
above sea level will reduce suction lift by about 1.5m)
b. Higher water temperatures also cause a reduction in
practical suction head; for example if the water is at say
300C (Or 860F), the reduction in suction head compared
with water at a more normal 200C will be about 7%.
c. Extending the length of the suction pipe also reduces the
suction head that is permissible because pipe friction
adds to the suction required; this effect depends on the
pipe diameter, but typically a suction pipe of say, 80
meter long will be on function satisfactorily on half the
above suction head.
6.3.4 Pumps and their Application in Conventionally

Treated Water Supplies’ Distribution System
Unless sufficient gravity force is available the distribution of water
involves the use of pumps to provide a sufficient flow and water
pressure at the point of use. Water may be pumped directly from
the treatment plant to the final consumer or from the treatment
plant to a reservoir (transmission) where it can be distributed by
gravity or still by a pump known as booster pump. Pumps
commonly used to raise and distribute water are referred to as
positive displacement pumps. These include reciprocating, rotary,
centrifugal, airlift, force, turbine, submersible ad ejector jets and
hydraulic ram, pumps. Others such as chain and bucket and
simple hand pumps are also available, but for small water supplies.
255
The type to be selected is mainly based on the power to move it
and the cost.
The size of pump to be selected is based on:

• The amount of the water to be pumped,
• The water usage and demand
• The storage facility and the elevation to be used, and
• The actual periods of low or no usage and, maximum
and peak water demands, and future plants
If the water system is also to provide fire protection, adequate

pumps need to be available. The capacity of the pump to be
chosen is determined by the water head, amount velocity and
pressure preset to be achieved. This maximum hourly or peak
demand flow is the basis for both the design of a water
distribution system and determining the capacity of the pump to
be used. However, the pump should be of such a capacity as to
deliver the average daily water demand to a storage facility in 6
to 12 hours. (For small installations, the pump chosen may have
a capacity to pump all water to be used in one day in 2 hours).
The capacity of the pump required for domestic water system
with elevated storage is determined by the daily water
consumption and the volume of the storage facility.
A simple and direct method for determining the volume of the
pressure storage facility and the size of the pump to provide is:
Q = Qm
(1-P1/P2)
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Where Q = volume of pressure-facility in gallons,
Qm = 15 minutes storage at the maximum hourly
demand rate(35 psi)
P1 = the minimum absolute operating pressure (gauge
pressure plus 14.7lb/in2, and
P2 = the maximum absolute pressure.
*The pump capacity determined by the given formula is equal to

125% of the maximum hourly demand rate. The capacity of a
pump (of course the capacity of the water source) should be at
least 26 to 10 times the average daily water requirement.
* The maximum hourly demand is based on:
1) The average daily rate = average water use per day

1440 min/day
(in gallons per minute based on annual water use)
2) The average maximum monthly rate = 1.5 x average
daily rate
3) Maximum hourly demand rate = 6 x average maximum
monthly rate
or
= 9 x average daily rate
4) Instantaneous rate (pumping capacity) = 1.25 x
maximum hourly rate
or
= 11.25 x average daily rate
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* In general, the water available for distribution is equal to the
difference between the dynamic head (friction head plus static
head) and the tank pressure.
6.3.4.1 Pump Power and Drive

The power available will usually determine the type of motor or
enquiry used. Accordingly:
• Electric power is given the first preference, with other
sources used for standby or for, emergency equipment.
• Steam power should be considered if pumps are located
near existing boilers (if any).
• Diesel oil engines are good, economical pumps driving
units when electricity is not available or is not
dependable. The constraints are their being constant low
speed units.
• Gasoline engines are satisfactory, portable or stand by
pump power units with low first cost but high operating
(running) cost.
• Natural gas, methane and butane can also be used.
6.3.4.2 Manual Pumps: Their Parts and Operations

Pumps such as pitcher, lift and force pumps are sometimes
referred to as hand pumps or manually operated pumps.
258
Figure 6.6 A typical pitcher pump being primed
259
Figure 6.7 Arrangement of a typical deep well force pump
260
Figure 6.8 Arrangement of a typical deep-well lift pump
261
These pumps are mostly used to draw ground water especially
well water for a household or group of households in rural areas.
They can also be operated by wind wherever possible.
262
Figure 6.9 A typical arrangement of part of windmill tower
and well
263
Majority of these pumps are used to suck water from shallow or
limited depth of hand dug wells and discharge at the very sites of
the protected ground water sources. However, those like the
force pumps may extend their discharges to a little further
distance to the community or a convenient place for supplying
the water. This is effective only where the force of gravity is
available for conveying the water.
A typical hand pump consists of the following parts:
• The body of the pump with a handle and discharge

opening/pipe must be installed on slab (concrete top
floor) of the protected well/spring.
• A suction pipe fitted to the bottom of the pump and
extending to the well water up to 15-35 cm above the
bottom of the well water finally fitted to a sucking cylinder
immersed in the water at least 5 cm above the bottom.
264
Figure 6.10 A typical single – action pump
265
Review Questions
1. What is hydraulics?
2. What are points to be considered in selection of a specific
type of pump for community water supply?
3. What is the theoretical and practical suction height to which
atmospheric pressure can lift water for a locality that is 2000
m above sea level?
4. Taking a typical example of hand pump in your locality,
explain the principle of operation.
5. What is the difference between a positive displacement type
of pump and a centrifugal force pump?
6. What needs to be considered before installation of windmill
as a source of power supply in the groundwater supply?
7. In a rural village having 10,000 people, a bore hole well was
dug at 200 m depth, with a yield of 4.5 liters per second, and
having 81 m3 water reservoir tank with 210 m total pumping
head and 85% pump efficiency.
Find :
A) The time required to fill the reservoir using a motor pump.
B) The length of time required for the motor to operate daily in
order to fill the reservoir, if 18 liters per day per person is
used in this community.
C) Calculate the water and brake horsepower.
266
Note to the teacher
After you have gone through this chapter, arrange a practical

session to show different parts of the pump and principles of
operation in your environmental health workshop, together with a
field visit to show the already installed pump giving service to the
community.
267
CHAPTER SEVEN
WATER SUPPLY IN DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:

1. Understand the general principles of emergency water
management.
2. Identify the water needs and requirements of displaced
people in emergency.
3. Identify the possible sources of water, water related
health risks, the quality assessment methods used, the
type of treatment technique needed, and the protection of
water source in disaster.
7.1 Introduction
Water and the environment play an essential role in the spread of
many communicable diseases and epidemics. Potable water is
the most important immediate relief commodity necessary for
ensuring the survival of disaster-affecting populations, particularly
when they have been displaced to regions where the supporting
public health infrastructure has been destroyed. Diarrhoeal
diseases, mostly caused by poor hygiene and a lack of safe
268
water supply, are major causes of morbidity mortality among the
refugee and displace populations. The most striking example is
that reported among Rwandan refugees in Goma (Zaire) in 1994,
where extremely high mortality rates were associative with
explosive epidemics of Cholera and shigellosis; a household
survey reported that more than 585 of deaths during the first
weeks following the initial massive influx were associated with
diarrhoeal diseases.
The goal of water, hygiene and sanitation programme is,

therefore, to plan for and maintains the minimum risk threshold in
regard to water and environment-related morbidity and mortality.
Such a programme must be considered as an integral part of the
preventive health activities in the same way as, for example,
measles immunization, the technique used in the emergency
phase; these techniques should be simple but effective.
In the emergency phase priority should be given to the

following:
- The water supply to the population, focusing on
providing sufficient quantities of water; the quality should
be improved as quickly as possible, but improvements
must not affect the quantity actually distributed.
- Increasing the public awareness of the basic rules of
hygiene.
269
General Principles of Emergency Water Management
To reduce public health threats associated with the human

consumption of contaminated water at disaster sites, emergency
water programs must satisfy certain conditions. First they must
provide adequate quantities of water for fluid replacement,
personal hygiene, cooking, and sanitation. If potable water
supplies are insufficient in quantity, it is likely that population will
supplement their intake with water from unsafe sources. Second
programs must provide water of sufficient quality to prevent the
transmission of diseases. Potential sources of water for human
consumption may need to be evaluated and treated to ensure
potability. Last, because the quality and the quantity of public
water are so closely related to the health status of a disaster-
affected population, emergency water programs must be an
integral part of the public health component of disaster response.
7.2 Water Supply Activities
Like any other population, refugees require immediate access to

an adequate water supply in order too maintain life and health
and this becomes even more vital in refugee camps where
overcrowding increases the risk population and epidemics of
water borne diseases. Attention must therefore be paid to water
provision from the out set of any attempt to deal with a refugee
emergency.
270
1. First step: Ensuring a sufficient quantity of water
It is essential that water supply is in sufficient quantities. Extreme

water shortages can lead to dehydration and death. Lack of
water also leads to poor hygiene and increases the incidences
hygiene-related diseases such as faeco-orally transmitted
diseases (diarrhoeal diseases), diseases transmitted by lice (e.g.
typhus) and other milder diseases such as scabies and
conjunctivitis. The first objective is therefore to supply a sufficient
quantity of water; its quality is a later consideration. A large
amount of proper quality water is preferable to a small amount of
good quality drinking water.
Requirements
¾ During the first days of the emergency phase, a

minimum amount of water is required for survival: 5
liters of water per person per day (source: WHO)
¾ In the next stage of emergency phase, the amount of
available water must rapidly be increased to a sufficient
quantity: 15 to 20 liters per person per day.
¾ Although water requirement standards have been set,
the quantity of water consumed varies from one
country or region to another, depending on the climate
and the habits of the population. However, for health
reasons it is recommended not to put any limit on water
consumption.
271
Water availability
It is not enough to supply large amounts of water to a

refuge site. To ensure adequate availability, it is essential
to adhere as closely as possible. The water points should
be set up so as to ensure accessibility in regard to both
distance and waiting time, and the following provisions
should be foreseen:
• 1 hand pump for 500 to 750 persons

• 1 tap for 200-250 persons
• a maximum of 6 to 8 taps per distribution
point unit
• Water point yields- the number of water
point should be increased if the out-flow
is sufficient (under 5 liters/ minute/ tap) in
order to speed up the water distribution.
• Water containers- minimum overall
capacity of 40 liters per family.
2. Second steps: improving water quality
Water should not pose a health risk and should have an

appearance and taste acceptable to the population. Ideally,
the water supplied should meet WHO quality standards.
However, in emergencies it is generally very difficult or even
impossible to adhere to these standards. The main goal is to
provide water, which is clean enough to restrict water-borne
272
diseases, i.e. containing the fewest possible pathogenic
germs. The presence or absence of pathogenic organisms is
the only criteria or real importance to health.
Water for consumption should contain less than 10 faecal

coliforms/100 ml.
Measures for Meeting the Requirements
The following principles must be respected in order to ensure

good quality water:
• Water from deep protected wells, protected springs
and deep drilling may be considered safe and used
without treatment;
• Surface and near-surface water are considered to be
contaminated, and this water must be treated
• Prior to treatment (usually chlorination), water should
be checked for its turbidity and pre-treated if
necessary
• Priority should be given to the selection and
protection of water points
273
7.3 Water in Camps of Displaced People
The objective of this section is to suggest some concrete

responses to water supply problems faced in camps of displaced
people. However, most of the points considered concern water
problems in general, and apply to any deprived situation.
A. Needs
Like any population, displaced people need access to good
quality water in sufficient quantity. This need is that much greater
in camps where the population concentration increases the risks
of pollution and of epidemics of water-borne diseases.
Quantity
The notion of sufficient quantity is very subjective and depends
strongly on the climate and on the habits of the population.
Nevertheless, it may be assumed that ten liters per person per
day is a minimum need (See table 7.3), while aiming to reach the
following targets as soon as possible (UNHCR 1982):
- For domestic consumption: 15 - 20 liters per person
per day (drinking, cooking, hygiene).
- For collective feeding centers: 20 - 30 liters per person
per day.
- For hospitals: 40 - 60 liters per person per day.
In case of severe shortage, a daily ration of 4 to 5 liters may

suffice very provisionally. Unless there is a shortage, it is better
274
not to put any limit on consumption as the health status of the
population is influenced by the quantity of water used.
It is not enough to supply 10 - 15 liters of water per person per

day to a camp; people should actually be able to use this
quantity. Therefore water should be reasonably accessible (in
terms of distance and of waiting time at the water point), and the
means to transport and store it should be available (if the supply
is via taps, allow at least one tap per 200 - 250 people and
arrange these taps in groups of 6 or 8 maximum). It is important
to ensure that the population has enough containers (jerry-cans,
buckets, etc.) for the collection and storage of water; otherwise a
distribution will be necessary. If a sufficient quantity of water is
not available near the site, moving the camp should be
considered.
Quality
The water should be harmless to health and have an appearance
and taste acceptable to the population. Ideally the water supplied
should meet the water quality standards of the WHO. However, in
practice it is often necessary to supply water which does not
conform to these standards, simply because there is no
alternative.
COMMENTS
• The quantity of water available has relatively more
importance than its quality. It is preferable to have a lot of
275
water of average quality than little water of very good quality.
The lack of water to ensure a minimum of hygiene entails
even more problems than does the consumption of relatively
poor quality water.
• Water quality is important for drinking water but is of less

importance for other uses (except where there is a risk of
schistosomiasis). It is sometimes possible to supply water of
two different qualities, but this generally entails more
disadvantages than advantages.
B. Water Related Health Risks
Problems due to a Lack of Water:

In extreme cases of lack of water, life is simply not possible
(dehydration and death). Less extreme shortages also have an
impact on the health status of a population.
They provoke an increase in the incidence of numerous diseases

due to a lack of hygiene. Good personal hygiene requires a
sufficient quantity of water.
The diseases linked to a lack of water for personal hygiene,

called "water-washed diseases", are:
Dermatological and Ophthalmic Diseases:

Dermatological and ophthalmic diseases directly due to a
276
lack of hygiene such as scabies, trachoma, conjunctivitis,
etc.
Diseases Transmitted by Lice: Lack of personal

hygiene and washing of clothes encourages the
proliferation of lice which, in addition to the problems
caused by their presence (itching and scratching, skin
sores), are disease vectors. They transmit louse-borne
typhus and recurrent fever.
Faeco-Orally Transmitted Diseases: A lack of hygiene,

particularly of hands and food, allows the transmission of
these diseases from infected individuals (sick people or
carriers) to uninfected individuals.
These so-called "dirty hands diseases" or “filth-borne
diseases” are: diarrheas and dysenteries (bacterial,
protozoan, or viral), cholera, typhoid and paratyphoid
fevers, hepatitis A, poliomyelitis and various helminthic
diseases. Most of these diseases can be spread
epidemically in concentrated populations.
Problems due to Poor Chemical Water Quality:

Water may contain numerous dissolved chemical substances
which come either from pollution fertilizers insecticides, industrial
waste, etc.), or from the composition of the rocks themselves
(fluorine, arsenic, iron, etc.).
277
These substances may give the water such a bad taste that it is
undrinkable (for example, if it contains too much salts or too
much iron), but it may also, in the long term, cause severe health
problems, for example:
- Methaemoglobinaemia in babies, due to high nitrate levels,
- Arsenic poisoning, etc.
The possible presence of toxic substances in water is something,

which must be borne in mind, but in the situations considered
here, the microbiological quality of the water is a much more
important and preoccupying problem.
Problems due to Poor Biological Water Quality:

Water may contain numerous pathogenic organisms and thereby
become a means of transmission for many diseases:
- Typhoid and paratyphoid fevers (bacteria)
- Hepatitis A (virus)
-Cholera (bacteria)
- Poliomyelitis (virus)
- Diarrhoeas (caused by Escherischia Coli,
salmonellas and Yersinia Enterocolitica) (bacteria)
- Viral gastroenteritis (virus)
- Bacillary dysentery (caused by various
species of shigellas) (bacteria)
- Campylobacter dysentery (bacteria)
-Amoebic dysentery (protozoa)
-Giardia (lambliasis) (protozoa)
278
-Balantidiasis (protozoa)
- Helminthiasis caused by
Ascaris and Trichuris (helminths)
It should be noted that these so-called "water-borne" diseases

form part of the group of "water-washed" diseases as well. They
may also be transmitted by any of the faeco-oral routes: dirty
hands, dirty food, dirty water, etc. Besides these diseases, water
is also involved in the transmission of "water-based" diseases (in
other words, those diseases of which the causative agent passes
part of its life-cycle in an aquatic plant or animal):
- The different schistosomiases or bilharzias: diseases

caused by helminths (worms) which are usually
contracted by contact with infested water (washing
clothes, bathing, etc.), but sometimes also via the oral
route.
- Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm), transmitted only by

drinking infested water.
Lastly, water may also transmit:

- Leptospirosis: a bacterial disease, which is contracted
primarily by contact with water contaminated with the
infected urine of various animals (principally the rat), but
also by drinking such water. All the infectious diseases
transmitted by water-with the exception of Guinea worm-
279
are linked to the pollution of water by the excreta of
humans or other animals (from the sick or from healthy
carriers).
Problems due to Water-based Insect Vectors:

One last category of water-related diseases is those with an
insect vector, which develops in or lives near to water, for
example malaria, dengue and yellow fevers and onchocerciasis.
The solution to these problems lies among other things with the
choice of site for a settlement and with environmental hygiene
measures (drainage, elimination of stagnant water, covering
reservoirs, etc.). They will not be considered in more detail here.
In terms of health
It is of primary importance that the population should be able to
use a sufficient quantity of water to allow a minimum of hygiene,
in addition to use for cooking. This means that the water should
be available in sufficient quantity and easily accessible, and that
people should have enough water containers.
In terms of water quality

The major danger is pollution of water by fæcal matter.
Everything possible should be done to prevent such pollution.
Nevertheless, it is preferable to have a lot of water of average
quality than a little water of very good quality.
280
C. Water Supply
Different types of water

Potentially, three types of water may be available:
Surface Waters: Streams, Rivers, Lakes, Ponds, Reservoirs

(Dams)
• It is generally heavily polluted particularly during the rainy
season.
• Its quantity varies with the season.
• It generally needs complex treatment before use.
Nevertheless, certain catchment methods allow a significant
improvement of water quality: shallow wells dug close to river
banks, river bed filters, infiltration galleries.
Ground Waters: Wells, Boreholes, Springs

• Deep groundwater (boreholes, deep wells, certain springs):
o Generally clear and of good bacteriological quality
(filtered by percolation through rocks).
o Sometimes containing substances rendering it
undrinkable because of its taste or because of
toxicity.
o Not generally subject to much seasonal variation in
quality or quantity.
• Shallow groundwater (wells a few meters deep, certain

springs, groundwater near water courses):
281
o The higher the water table, the lower the
bacteriological quality tends to be (water from less
than 3 meters deep should be treated like surface
water).
o Subject to seasonal variation in quantity.
Rainwater
• In non-industrialized regions, rainwater is relatively pure and
may be consumed without treatment as long as it is collected
with certain precautions, i.e. on a clean surface (tin roof, tent,
plastic sheeting) and the first flow of water is rejected.
• Although rainwater rarely provides a regular supply, it may
sometimes be a useful temporary or complementary supply
(it may be a good alternative to heavily polluted surface water
during the rainy season).
• Rainwater may dissolve the metal in which it is stored. Do not
use containers or pipes made of copper, zinc or lead: clay,
cement or plastic containers are suitable.
In practice there is rarely a choice between these different

sources of water, particularly in emergency situations.
When settlement begins, surface water (the most polluted or the

most easily polluted) is often the only supply available. It is,
therefore, imperative to concentrate on the problem of water as
top priority. Sometimes, at first, supply by water tanker is the only
solution. Other solutions should quickly be planned: drilling,
282
digging wells, moving the camp, etc. (specialist advice will usually
be needed). Sometimes a piped supply from an urban area may
be possible.
Priorities
What are the priorities in terms of water supply, when dealing
with a concentrated population?
Before anything else:
Find out where and how the people go to collect
water and where they defecate.
Then:
Designate defecation areas far away from water
points.
Distribute water containers if necessary (very
important).
Take specific steps to protect water points.
Determine the amount of water available.
If necessary, set up a water rationing system.
Finally:
If necessary, increase the output of the water
points or look for additional sources of supply.
Create a reserve water stock.
Improve measures to protect water points.
If possible, set up a system whereby water is
pumped into reservoirs before being distributed.
Check water quality if necessary.
Possibly, install a treatment system.
283
Water Point Protection Measures
All the protection measures aim at preventing the introduction of
fæcal germs into the water (either directly, or indirectly by run-off
or dirty soil falling into the water, etc.).
- Protection of water courses
Organize the use of the water course according to
environmental health considerations. The point used
for collecting water should be upstream of all other
uses.
Note: surface water is always difficult to protect (there may be a
village upstream). As soon as possible, use other sources (wells,
springs, boreholes), or at least, pump the water so that people
and animals do not have direct access to the water course.
- Well protection
Immediately (and this does not require any particular materials
or skills):
· Employ a watchman to monitor access to the
well.
· Surround the well with a fence against animals. If
it is used to water animals, make a channel to
take water to a trough situated outside the
protective fence.
· Forbid the use of personal water containers: one
rope with a single container should be provided
for this use.
284
· Install a winch or similar system so that the
bucket and rope are not laid on the ground and
so that people do not lean over the well.
· Keep sources of pollution such as latrines at
least 30 metres away from the well and downhilI
from it if there is a slope (caution: in certain hard
and fissured rocks, 30 metres is not enough).
As soon as possible:
· Make the improvements needed to prevent
infiltration of run-off (make the upper part
watertight to at least 3 metres depth, install an
apron, a concrete slab on the head wall, and
drainage of the surroundings, etc.).
· Cover the well and install a hand pump or a self-
priming motor pump (plan for maintenance and
the supply of spare parts).
- Spring protection
Immediately:
· Install a system which prevents water from
standing at the spring (collect the running water
with a split bamboo, for instance).
· Erect a protective barrier around the spring (10
metres above it).
· Dig a drainage channel 10 metres above the
spring to avoid it being polluted by run-off.
285
As soon as possible:
· Build a spring box.
Certain measures for the protection of water points can, and

should, be taken during the very first days. Others require
particular materials, equipment and skills, and should only be
envisaged at a later stage, though as quickly as possible. Do not
wait to be able to solve the whole problem before starting work;
every step taken is an improvement.
Note: Fæcal pollution of water may occur at any stage between

its origin and its consumption. For example, for water from a well
there may be:
- Pollution of the water table,
- Pollution of the water inside the well (from soil,
run-off, etc.)
- Pollution during transport (from dirty containers,
dirty fingers, etc.),
- Pollution during storage in the home (from
insects, dust, people taking water with dirty
recipients, etc.).
Consumption of clean water can only be achieved by action at all
levels, with a global programme of water point protection, excreta
control and health education which is a long-term programme).
Pollution at the source or during collective transport is

nevertheless more dangerous than pollution in the home,
286
because it affects the whole population at once and consequently
encourages large-scale epidemics.
Containers for Transport and Storage

If the displaced people have not been able to bring enough
containers with them they cannot use the water, which is
provided for them.
Each family should have containers with a total capacity of 40
liters as a minimum. If the people do not have enough containers,
it is vital to distribute them as a top priority.
Containers with small openings (like ‘jerrycans’) with a cap are
the most suitable because they are used by pouring the water
and not by dipping into it (which risks contaminating it each time).
Cooking oil is often distributed in such cans, and they can be re-
used.
Traditional clay containers may be suitable as long as they are
covered to prevent contamination by dust and insects.
D. Assessment of water quality

Is the water potable or not?
The only criteria really of importance to health are the
presence or the absence of pathogenic organisms and of
toxic concentrations of certain chemicals.
Unfortunately these two criteria cannot be assessed by simple

tests.
287
For example, there is no direct relation between the
appearance of a sample of water and its potability. (A
cloudy sample may be safe, whereas a clear sample may
be both chemically and biologically dangerous.)
In non-industrialized areas the presence of pathogenic

organisms is an infinitely more frequent problem than the
presence of chemical substances at toxic concentrations.
In practice, which analysis should be done and when?
Turbidity (Cloudy Appearance)

The presence of suspended solids is always a problem (the
water is unpleasant to drink, there is a sediment, etc.), even if it
does not necessarily mean that the water is polluted. But it is
particularly important to take the turbidity into account if the water
needs treatment.
The measurement of turbidity may be done with special

equipment (graduated plastic tubes), but generally simply looking
through the water in a transparent container gives enough
information.
Chemical Analysis
In emergency situations a blind eye is usually turned to the
acceptability of the taste and smell of water.
288
However, a laboratory chemical analysis may be requested:
- if a long term water supply is being planned,
- if there are particular reasons to suspect
chemical pollution.
Biological Analysis
In other words, how to tell if water contains pathogens?
- Principle:
The pathogenic organisms which may be present in
water are too numerous and too various to be identified
individually in practice (bacteria, protozoa, helminthes,
etc.).
As their presence is always linked to fæcal pollution

(except for Guinea worm), it is preferable to look for
organisms which are "indicators" of this pollution.
The indicator organisms generally looked for are the
fæcal coliforms, principally Escherichia coli (E. coli).
These germs are always present in large numbers in the

faeces of man and other warm blooded animals.
The presence of fæcal coliforms in water indicates the

possible presence of pathogenic organisms.
289
The absence of fæcal coliforms in water indicates the
probable absence of pathogens, but is no proof of this
(certain pathogens are more resistant than fæcal
coliforms).
The count of fæcal coliforms (or E. Coli) per 100 ml gives

an indication of the degree of fæcal pollution.
Note:
Other bacteria very similar to fæcal coliforms live more or
less everywhere in the environment. They also belong to
the coliform group.
Coliform group =
- Fæcal coliforms (principally E. Coli)
(total coliforms)
- Other coliforms
In raw water (untreated), only the presence of E.coli is significant
for health, because they are the only coliforms, which prove
fæcal contamination.
Although in certain cases total coliforms are identified, only fæcal

coliforms are used as indicators in the field.
- Method of bacteriological analysis

The membrane filtration method is
generally used. This consists of filtering
290
the water through a membrane which
retains bacteria.
The membrane is then incubated at 44ºC for 14 - 18 hours on a

specific culture medium.
The count of those colonies which develop with a characteristic

appearance gives the number of fæcal coliforms in the sample of
water which was filtered.
Note:
When incubating at 37 C all the coliforms develop, so the count is
of total coliforms.
There are kits available for field analysis (for example the Del
Agua/Oxfam kit or the Milliflex kit from Millipore), composed of
portable filtration and incubation systems.
However, these kits are expensive and require good training in

their operation and in the reading and interpretation of results.
- How to express the results of analyses?
· Number of coliforms/100 ml if it concerns total

coliforms.
· Number of fæcal coliforms/100 ml or sometimes
number of E. Coli/100 ml (the two may be
291
interchanged, as in human faeces E. Coli
represents more than 90% of fæcal coliforms).
When to do a bacteriological analysis?
A bacteriological analysis is rarely necessary. It is

generally much more important and useful to do a
sanitary inspection (the origin of the water, protection of
the water point, its siting in relation to defecation areas,
protection of the water during storage and transport,
etc.). Such an inspection will often make it possible to
see that the water is polluted or has strong chances of
being polluted at some time or other.
Analysis only gives an indication of pollution at the

precise moment of sampling, and not of the potential risk
of pollution.
Moreover, a sanitary inspection may be done by anyone,

whereas bacteriological analysis needs equipment and
proper training in its use and in the interpretation of
results.
A bacteriological analysis should only be considered when:

· Deciding whether or not to treat surface water
(see the next section).
292
· Using properly protected groundwater which,
despite everything, is suspected of being the
cause of a high incidence of diarrhoeal disease,
or of being the origin of an epidemic of diarrhoea,
cholera or typhoid.
Caution: in no case is the detection of fæcal coliforms in water

proof that the water is the origin of an epidemic. Detection of
heavy pollution indicates that it may be the source of the
epidemic, but is no proof of this. However, in this case, action
must be taken anyway.
The analysis is done:

· Either by a competent local laboratory within 6
hours of sampling (after this time the samples
are no longer representative of the water to be
analysed).
· Or in the field by someone trained in the use of
field testing kits.
As long as the water is chlorinated and the free residual chlorine

level is satisfactory (see brief Chlorination), bacteriological
analysis is neither necessary nor appropriate.
293
E. Simple water treatment technique
Storage and sedimentation
Storage is the simplest procedure to improve water quality
(certain pathogens do not survive beyond several days), but it
needs large reservoirs. Storage alone is not always a very
effective procedure.
During storage there also occurs purification by sedimentation.

Suspended material settles to the bottom of the reservoir with a
proportion of the pathogens (mainly the largest: helminthes eggs
and protozoan cysts).
Sedimentation of turbid water is essential before filtration and

disinfection.
If natural sedimentation is too slow, flocculation may be
necessary (a specialist’s help is needed for this). In practice, if
water in a bottle is still muddy after an hour, then the natural
sedimentation will not be enough.
Filtration
Passing water through a permeable bed eliminates a proportion
of the pathogens by retaining them mechanically on the surface
or within the filter.
Ceramic candle filters and certain sand filters (known as rapid

sand filters) work on this principle.
294
Slow Sand Filtration
Under certain conditions, in passing water through a bed of sand,
particularly effective filtration is achieved by biological purification
in addition to the mechanical action of the filter. For this to occur,
the filtration must be relatively slow.
A deposit is formed at the surface and in the top few centimetres

of sand, in which breeds a whole range of bacteria and
microscopic plants, forming a skin (called the Schmutzdecke,
biological membrane or bacterial film), which works both
biologically and mechanically. It acts as a very fine filter which
retains or kills most pathogenic organisms: it eliminates eggs,
cysts, nearly all pathogenic bacteria and a proportion of viruses.
Slow sand filtration is the only procedure, which achieves such

an improvement of water quality in a single operation.
A slow sand filter can operate for weeks or even months without
maintenance (which consists of the removing of a thin layer of
sand when the filtration rate becomes too low).
In practice:
At the collective scale, the construction of this type of filter needs
the input of a specialist, and then the maintenance is relatively
simple.
295
At a smaller scale, for example in a feeding centre, a small filter
may be made with local materials.
Whatever the size of the filter, the operating principle remains the
same.
Important
The bacterial layer is fragile and certain precautions should be

taken to preserve it: never let it dry out, and never pass
chlorinated water through it.
Disinfection with chlorine

Chlorine is a suitable disinfectant for water because it is very
powerful without being toxic. It allows the destruction of all viral
and bacterial pathogens in water.
Chlorine can also be used to disinfect surfaces in contact with

water: the insides of wells, pumps, pipes, spring boxes,
reservoirs, etc.,(when putting into service, after repairs or after
accidental pollution).
For this purpose it is used at much higher concentrations than for

the disinfection of drinking water because the pollution may be
much greater (see technical briefs Chlorine-generating products
and Chlorination).
296
In the situations considered here, gas chlorination is not
recommended because it can be dangerous and is not practical
on a small scale. Chlorine-generating products are preferred:
calcium hypochlorite, chloride of lime, sodium hypochlorite
solution (see technical brief Chlorine-generating products).
All these chemicals release chlorine when they are dissolved in
water.
Chlorine reacts immediately with all the oxidizable substances,

which may be present in the water (organic matter and certain
mineral substances as well as pathogens and other organisms).
These substances consume chlorine. For the chlorination to be

effective, sufficient chlorine must be added to meet this initial
chlorine demand. This is confirmed by checking that an excess of
unconsumed chlorine remains in the water (residual free chlorine:
see technical brief Monitoring chlorination). (See table 7.2)
Effectiveness
At the doses normally used, chlorine destroys all pathogenic
viruses and bacteria in water, but it is ineffective against:
- protozoan cysts and helminth eggs or larvae, -
pathogens within suspended particles (as they
are thus not in contact with the chlorine), so it is
advisable to filter water prior to chlorination, to
remove eggs, cysts, larvae and suspended
particles.
297
Practical Use
Chlorination is a very suitable treatment method for emergency
situations (e.g. typhoid or cholera epidemics), because it is very
effective, but it is relatively tricky to set up and needs constant
attention.
If water has to be treated, which method should be used?
The choice of treatment method will depend on the appearance

of the water, the supposed degree of pollution, or that measured
by bacteriological analysis, and the technical options. See the
following table 7.1.
In an emergency, chlorination is often the best technique, but in
the long term, slow sand filtration is generally the most
appropriate solution. However, it is always better to use water,
which does not need treatment.
Water quality
Potable water is defined as water that is free from microbiologic

or toxicological contamination that would adversely affect human
health. In general water quality is assessed by laboratory
analysis of representative water samples. Water characteristics
such as microbial content, turbidity, color, salinity, pH, and
chemical contamination may require immediate testing. Under
emergency conditions, water quality analysis may be limited to
testing for the presence of coliform bacteria or determining
whether treatment with water –purification agent such as chlorine
is adequate.
298
Table 7.1 Microbial guidelines for water samples collected of
disaster sites
Coliforms per 100 ml of water Water quality
Reasonable quality
Polluted
100-1,000 Dangerous
>1,000 Very dangerous
Source: United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), assisting in emergencies:
handbook for UNICEF field staff. New York: UNICEF, 1992. Situation
Regardless of the standards used to evaluate water quality or to

purify water supplies at disaster sites, water thought to be
responsible for disease outbreaks should be considered
contaminated until it can be treated at a central location to ensure
its portability.
Table 7.2 Bleach calculations for dug wells
Bleach calculation for dug wells
Diameter of well in Amount of 5.25% Amount 70% chlorine

feet launder Granulates per foot
Bleach per Foot of of well depth
Well depth
3 1.5 cups 1 ounce
4 3.0 cups 2 ounce
5 4.5 cups 3 ounce
6 6.0 cups 4 ounce
7 9.0 cups 6 ounce
299
8 12.0 cups 8 ounce
10 18.0 cups 12 ounce
One cup= 0.24 liter and One ounce= 30 milliliter
Source: Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Flood: A prevention guide to
promote your personal health and safety. Atlanta Center for Disease Control and
Prevention, 1993.
Table 7.3 Daily potable water needs per person

Need to be addressed
Liters
3-5 Minimum for survival

15-20 Individual (optimum)
20-30 Mass –feeding centers (per
beneficiary)
35 Washing facilities (per beneficiary)
40-60 Health centers (per patient)
Source: United Nation Children’s Fund (UNICEF): Assisting in emergencies: a resource book
for UNICEF field staffs NEW York: UNICEF, 1992.
7.4 Conclusion
Populations affected by disaster often require emergency
environmental health programs during the initial emergency
response phase. Although this chapter has focused on the
emergency management of water, other environmental health
activities are also vital to the health of the population; such
activities include vector control, solid-waste management, injury
prevention, personal hygiene, and proper food preparation and
distribution. Emergency environmental health program should
begin with a rapid environmental survey to determine the need of
300
the disaster affected population and the availability of local
natural resources such as suitable land for emergency
settlement. Health professional must ensure that all disaster
victims have access to a source of potable water, a system of
sanitation, and adequate shelter. To achieve the greatest benefit
for a disaster-affected population, coordinative environmental
health activities should be an integral part of the overall
emergency public health response.
301
Review Questions
1. Discuss the general principles of emergency water

management
2. List the types of water related health risks/ diseases. Give
examples for each of them.
3. What are the minimum water quality and quantity
requirements in disaster situations?
4. Describe the measures that should be taken in order to meet
the requirements of disaster affected people.
5. Mention and describe the different simple water treatment
techniques that can be used in emergency.
6. What protection measures of water points should be sought
immediately after a disaster happened and as soon as
possible?
302
GLOSSARY
Aeration - supply with air
Agar - an extract from algae, used to grow bacteria, etc.
Air washing - Cleaning by using aeration
Algae - a simple form of plant life
Alkali - a substance that combines with an acid to form a salt
Alkalinity - the state of being alkaline
Altitude - height
Asphyxiate - to stop life or consciousness because of lack of
oxygen
Atmosphere - the mass of air surrounding the earth
Atmospheric pressure - pressure or thrust caused by the weight
of air
BOD - the amount of oxygen needed to stabilize organic matter
through the action of bacteria
Brake horsepower - power of a motor estimated from the force
operated on the friction brake
Centrifugal - moving away from the center
Centrifugal force - the power that causes an object or substance
on a curve or rotating surface to move outward from the axis or
center
Chlorination - treatment with chlorine or with hypochlorite
Clogging - prevention of movement because of dirt or other
substances.
Coagulant - a substance that makes other substances clog
Coefficient - a number that measures a quality or characteristic.
303
Colloid - a substance in such small particles that it does not
easily settle in a liquid.
Contact time - the time needed for a reaction between two or
more substance placed together.
Conventional water treatment system- the system of making
water free from pathogens and other harmful substances, on a
large scale for human consumption as well as the different uses
of water for development and better well being of humans.
Dechlorination - removal of chlorine or a chlorine compound
Defluoridation - the removal of fluoride
Disinfection - destruction of agents of infection
Effective (grain) size - is a measure of the diameter of particles,
when compared to a theoretical material having an equal
transmission constant. It is the dimensions of that mesh which
will permit 10 percent of its sample to pass and will retain 90
percent. This means that, the size of the grain in mm, such that
10% by wt are smaller.
Feces - discharged body waste, excrement
Fluoridation - addition of fluoride
Friction - resistance caused by the motion of, for example, water
against another substance or a wheel against a brake
Gate valve - a valve with a control that can close or open a pipe
Head - the difference in height between two points in a body of
liquid; the resulting pressure of the liquid at the lower point,
expressed as the height
Horsepower - a unit of power
Impeller - the driving part of a machine
304
Loss of head - the decrease in head between two points, i.e. the
difference in pressure between a higher and lower point; loss of
energy
Nozzle - a tube forming the opening of a pipe, used to control the
quantity or direction of a fluid
Orifice - an opening
PH - potential of hydrogen
Piston - a sliding cylindrical piece of equipment that moves
within a hollow cylinder
Plunger - a piece of equipment made to slide up and down in a
cylinder piston
Potable water- safe water for human consumption
Prime mover - original or initial source of power
Pre-chlorination - addition of chlorine compounds to water
before it is filtered
Precipitate - solid that can usually be separated from a liquid by
filtration
Purveyor (n): a person or company that supplies or makes water
available.
Raw water- water that did not undergo any of the processes that
make water safe for human consumption and other uses
Safe water- water free of pathogens and other substances
deleterious to human health
Sedimentation - the action of setting down or depositing matter
in a liquid
Siphon - a method of continuously transferring a liquid to a lower
point by air pressure forcing it up the shorter end of a bent tube
305
Specific Gravity - the ratio of one substance’s density to another
density
Spout - the part of the pipe through which fluid comes out
Suction Head - the part of the total that exists on the intake or
suction part of a pump
Treated water- water made safe for human consumption and other uses
by modern water treatment schemes
Ultra-Violet Ray – short wave radiation beyond the violet end of
the visible spectrum. Used to treat some diseases and to kill
microbes
Uniformity coefficient - is the ratio of the grain size that has 60
percent finer than itself to the size, which has 10 percent finer
than itself (effective size). It is recommended not be greater than
2.5 for SSF. A size of graded gravel ranges from ¼”-1¼”.
Valve - a movable piece of equipment designed to open, close or
control the opening of a pipe or other piece of equipment
306
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14. Gordon M.F, J.C. Geyer and D.A. Okum. Elements of Water
Supply and Wastewater Sisposal. 2nd edition, New York and
London, Wiley and Sons, Inc, 1971.
15. Gurcharan Singh. Jagdish Singh. Water supply and Sanitary
engineering (environmental Engineering). Standard
Publishers Distributors. 2003.
16. Joseph A. Salvato. Environmental Engineering and
th
Sanitation. 4 edition, A Wiley – Interscience Publication,
1992.
17. Joseph A. Salvato. N. L. Nemerew. F.J. Agardy.
th
Environmental Engineering and Sanitation. 5 edition, A
Wiley – Interscience Publication, 2003.
18. J. Defrancq. Drinking, Industrial and Waste water
Technologies. University of Gent. 2002-2003.
19. KSB (1990) Centrifugal pump design. S.L, KSB.
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20. Larock, F.E; Jeppson, R.W. and waters G.Z (2000).
Hydraulics of pipeline systems. Boca Raton, FL, USA. CRC
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21. Mays, L.W. (2000), water distribution system handbook. New
York, USA, McGraw-Hill.
22. Mengesha. A. Water Supply for Sanitarian, Addis Ababa,
Gonder College of Medical Science, 1996.
23. Mjengera, HJ.; Mtalo, F.W: Mashauri D.A. and Tjell, C.H.
(1997). ‘Fluoride removal using heat activated animal bone
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of water. Addis ababa, Ethiopia, November 19-22,1997.
Dunedin, New Zealand, International Society of Fluoride
Research.
24. Monica Cheesbough. District Laboratory Practice in Tropical
Countries. Part 2. Cambridge University Press. 2000
25. Morgan P. Rural Water Supplies and Sanitation. Blair
Research Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Harare and Hong
Kong, Macmillan Publishers Limited, 1990.
26. Panchdhari A.C. Water Supply and Sanitary Installations:
Design, Construction and Maintenance, Wiley Eastern
Limited, 1993.
27. Pfaffin J.R. and E.N. Ziegler. Encyclopedia of Environmental
Science and Engineering. 2nd edition, volume 3, Q- Z Gordon
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28. Rejchangool,S and Rajchagool,C .(1997). Solving the
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workshop on fluorosis and defluoridation of water, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia, November 19-22,1997. Dunedin, New
Zealand, International Society for Fluoride Research.
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Water quality and defluoridation techniques. New Dehi,
India,/rajiv Gandhi National Drinking water Mission
30. Ronald L. Droste. Theory and practice of water and
wastewater treatment. John Wiley and Sons. Inc. New York.
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31. Smith, L.A; chen A.S.C and Tafuri, A.N (2000) Opetions for
keak and break Detection and repair for drinking water
system. Columbus, OH, USA. Battle press
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Foundation.
33. Tebbutt. Principles of Water Quality Control. 3rd edition,
University of Birmingham, Pergamon Press, 1983.
34. United Nation Children’s Fund (UNICEF): Assisting in
emergencies: a resource book for UNICEF field staffs NEW
York: UNICEF, 1992.
35. Venkobachar,C; lyengar, L. and Mudgal, A. (1997).
“Household defluoridation of drinking water using activated
alumina technology.’In: Dahi,E. and Nielsen,J.M(eds).
nd
Proceedings of the 2 international workshop on fluorosis
and defluoridation of water . Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
November 19-22,1997. Dunedin, New Zealand, International
society for Fluoride Research.
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36. Warren V. and Hammer J. Water Supply and Pollution
Control. 4th edition, New York, Harper and Row Publishers,
1985.
37. Warren V. and Hammer J. Water Supply and Pollution
Control. 6th edition, New York, Addison Wesley Longman,
1998.
38. WHO. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality: Surveillance
and Control of Community Supplies, 2nd edition, volume 3,
Geneva, WHO, 1997.
39. WHO. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality: Health Criteria
and Other Supporting Information, 2nd edition, volume 2,
Geneva, WHO, 1996. http://WWW.WHO.int/water- sanitation-
health/GDWQ/GWDWQ index.htm1
40. WHO. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality:
nd
Recommendation, 2 edition, volume 1, Geneva,
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Geneva, 1984 & 1985.
42. Yemane Berhan, Damen Haile Mariam, Helmut Kloos (Ed.).
Epidemiology and Ecology of Health and Disease. 3rd ed.
Shama Books. 2005.
Web sites
Fluorosis: http:// WWW.Education vsnl. Com/fluorosis
Voice:http:WWW.Voice.Buz org/fluoridation
No Fluoride:http:WWW. Nofluoride. Com
Inter country Center for Oral Health: http:/WWW.icoh. Org
UNICEF:http://WWW. Unicef.org
311
Annexes
Annex I. Water Quality Standards
WHO Recommendations for Drinking Water Quality
1 – Primary Standards – Microbiology Contaminants
Limit
Bacteria (Count/100 m) Remarks
Treated water fed into Turbidity <1 NTU; pH – value on
mains cholrianation < 8.0; after 30 min
1. E. coli 0 contact time free chlorine 0.2 –
2. Coliforms 0 0.5 mg/L
Untreated water fed In 98% samples tested per year
into mains in larger supply systems
1. E. coli 0 Occasionally but not in
2. Coliforms 0 sequential samples
3. Coliforms 3
Mains water In 95% samples tested per year
1. E. coli 0 in larger supply systems
2. Coliforms 0 Occasionally but not in
3. Coliforms 3 sequential samples
Non-mains water
supply 0 Should not appear in sequential
1. E. coli 10 samples
2. Coliforms
312
2 – Primary Standards – Chemical Contaminants
Organic
Inorganic Limit (mg/L) Constituents Limit (μg/L)
constituents
Turbidty (NTU) 5, (1 after Aldrin, dieldrin 0.03
disinfection) Benzene 10
Arsenic (As) 0.05 Benzo(a)pyrene 0.01
Cadmium (Cd) 0.005 Carbon tetrachloride 3
Chromium (Cr) 0.05 Chlordane 0.3
Cyanide (CN) 0.1 Chloroform 3
Fluoride (F) 1.5 DDT 1
Lead (Pb) 0.05 1,2 dichloroethene 10
Mercury (Hg) 0.001 1,1 dichloroethane 0.3
3-
Nitrate (NO ) 45 Trichloroethene 30
Selenium (Se) 0.01 Methaoxychlor 30
Pentachlorophenol 10
Tetra chloroethene 10
2,4,6 - 10
trichlorophenol
3 – Secondary Standards – Chemical Constituents
Inorganic
Inorganic constituents Limit (mg/L) Constituents Limit (μg/L)
Color (TCU) 15 Hydrogen sulfide nil
Taste and odor none Sodium (Na) 200
pH 6.8-8.5 Iron (Fe) 0.3
Dissolved solids 1,000 Manganese (Mn) 0.1
Hardness as CaCO3 500 Aluminum (Al) 0.2
Chloride 250 Copper (Cu) 1
Sulfate 400 Zinc (Zn) 5
Adapted from WHO, Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, Vol. 1,

Recommendations WHO, Geneva,
313
Annex II Unit conversions
Conversion From customary to metric units (in alphabetical order)
Multiply Customary Abbreviation By To Obtain
Unit Metric Unit
3
Acre ac 4.047 x 10 m2a
0.404 7 ha
(hectare)
acre-foot ac-ft 1233 m3a
a
atmosphere atm 101.3 kPa
(pascal)
b
bar bar 100.0 kPaa
Cubic feet per gallon cu ft/gal 7.482 m3/m3a
-3
7.482 x 10 m3/L
-6
cubic feet per hour cfh or cu ft/hr 7.867 x 10 m3/sa
7.867 x 10-3 L/S
-5
cubic feet per hour per cfh/sq ft 8.467 x 10 m3/m2 . Sa
2
square foot 304.8 L/m h
3
cubic feet per million cu ft/mil.gal 7.482 mL/M
gallobs
cubic feet per minute cfm or ft/min 4.719 x 10-4 m3/sa
0.4719 L/s
cubic feet per minute cfm/ft 1.549 L/m . s
per foot
-2
cubic feet per minute cfm/1000 cu ft 1.667 x 10 L/m3 . s
per thousand cubic feet
3
cubic feet per minute cfm/1000 gal 0.124 7 L/m .s
per thousand gallons
cubic feet per pound cu ft/lb 6.243 x 10-2 m3/kga
314
Multiply Customary Abbreviatio By To Obtain
Unit n Metric Unit
-2
cubic fees per cfs 2.832 x 10 m3/sa
second (or second- 28.32 L/s
feet)
cubic feet per cfs/ac 6.997 x 10-6 m3/m2 . sa
second per acre 69.97 L/ha . s
-8
cubic feet per cfs/sq mile 1.093 x 10 m3/m2 . sa
second per square 0.109 3 L/ha . s
mile
cubic foot cu ft 2.832 x 10-2 m3a
28.32 L
-6
cubic inch cu in. 16.39 x 10 m3a
16.39 mL
cubic yard cu yd 0.764 6 m3a
Curieb Ci 3.700 x 1010 s-1a
cycles per second cps 1.000 Hz (hertz)
o o o
degrees Fahrenheit F 0.555 6 ( F - C
32)
o
Rankine R 0.555 6 K (kelvin)
-2
degrees Per second degrees/se 1.745 x 10 rad/sa
c
degrees per second degrees/se 1.745 x 10-2 rad/s2a
squared c2
315
Multiply Abbreviation By To Obtain
Customary Unit Metric Unit
feet of head ft 0.304 8 ma
feet per hour ft/hr 8.467 x 10-5 m/sa
feet per minute ft/min or fpm 5.080 mm/sa
feet per second ft/sec or fps 0.304 8 m/sa
feet per second ft/sec2 0.304 8 ma (meters
squared per annum)
-5
gallons per day gpd 4.381 x 10 L/s
gallons per day gpd/cap 3.785 L/cap . d
capita
gallons per day gpd/sq ft 4.715 x 10-7 m3/m2 .sa or
square foot m/sa
gallons per hour gph 1.051 mL/s
mile mile 1.609 km
0.446 9 m/sa
miles per hour mph 0.446 9 m/sa
million gallons mil. gal 3.785 x 103 m3a
3.785 ML
-2
million gallons per mgd 4.383 x 10 m3
day
mst probable MPN/100 10.00 ML/ha . d
number per mL MPN/L
hundred milliliters
Parts per million ppm 1.0 (approx.) mg/L
1.000 mg/kg
316
Square foot ft2 2.0 9.290 x m2a
10-2
yard yd 3.0 0.914 4 ma
(Adapted from Joseph A. Salvato. Environmental Engineering and

Sanitation. 4th edition, A Wiley – Interscience Publication, 1992)
317

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LECTURE NOTES

Important Guidelines for Printing and Photocopying

©2006 by Negesse Dibissa, Worku Tefera

The principal risk associated with community water supply is

For this reason, a lecture note is developed for environmental

As the trainings at higher institutions have been upgraded to a

We express our sincere thanks to Professor Dennis Carlson,

Table 4.1 Frequency of sampling for unchlorinated water

Table 4.2 Guidelines for bacteriological quality of water ........ 195

BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand

1.1 Existing Problems of Water Supply

A primary requisite for good health is an adequate supply of

The problem of water is more a case of distribution and quality

A progress monitoring report jointly released by the United

Clean water is almost always indicated as the first priority by low-

In order to guarantee adequate water quality at the consumer's

Sometimes, it will be necessary to use a water source, which

Although different strategies for the provision of drinking water

With the memorandum of understanding with the ministries and

The adequate knowledge and skills of water in relation to health

1. Which health problems are related to water?

At the end of this chapter students will be able to:-

2.1.1 Need Assessment

2.1.2 Water Quality Assessment

The primary objective of water treatment and purification is to

The modern approaches to the description of water quality utilize

To cite some examples of the presence of generally known as

The selection of raw water sources is also influenced by the

2.1.4 Affordability and technology options

• The first issue is that safe and adequate water supply is

As to the quantity (adequacy) issue, the tiny 0.7% available fresh

Therefore, the affordability of getting safe and adequate water

Attempts to solve the global level problem include the Montreal,

Technological options available for making water safe and

New technologies such as ozone disinfection (chlorine Æ

1. Construction/ installation cost: this includes the cost of

2. Operational cost: that is incurred to run the plant or the

3. Maintenance cost :( repairing, cleaning, spare parts, labor

In general, in normal (routine) conventional water treatment

2.2 Water Quality Analysis

2.2.1 Purpose of Water Quality Analysis

Water quality parameters can be divided into three broad

2.2.1.1 Aesthetic and Physical Quality Parameters of Water

Colour: imparted to water by dissolved constituents that absorb

Turbidity: Imparted by the colloidal matter present in water, this

Odor and Taste: are of prime importance in assessing the

Temperature: measurements are sometimes important to

Solids: the amount, size and type of solids depend on the

2.2.1.2 Chemical Quality Parameters of Water

Gross chemical Parameters of Water

pH: a measure of a degree of acidity or alkalinity of water.

Hardness: is due to presence of certain salts, such as CO3-2,

Total Hardness= Temporary hardness (Carbonate hardness) +

Conductivity: a measure of the ability of an aqueous solution to

Some Specific Chemical Quality Parameters of Water

Lead and Arsenic: Lead is a known cumulative poison. Under

Fluorides and Iodides: In small concentration, both may be

Mercury: Episodes associated with the consumption of methyl

Pesticides: Pesticides include insecticides, herbicides, fungicides,