CERTIFICATION

This is to certified that this seminar work was prepared by ADENIYI SULIYAT ADEOLA with
matric no 1811920017 has been ready and approved as meeting part of the requirement of the
department of science laboratory technology, faculty of pure and applied science osun state
college of technology Esa-Oke for the award of higher national diploma (HND) in microbiology.

Date
Student Signature

Date
Seminar Supervisor Signature

HOD Signature Date

 DEDICATION
This seminar happily dedicated to Almighty Allah for wisdom and knowledge given to me, inspiration
and strength to carry out this seminar successful. May he receive all Glory (Amen).
Also dedicated to my lovely parents Mr&Mrs ADENIYI
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My profound gratitude goes to Almighty Allah whom made it possible for me
and given me Grace to complete this seminar work successfully, I also appreciate my
supervisor for his endless support and patient towards the completion of the seminar
work in person of Mr Agbesanya.
Special thanks to my HOD in person of Mr Esho B.A Department of
microbiology faculty of pure and applied science osun state college of technology
Esa-Oke and to all my lecturer in charge, thanks you all for the knowledge impacted
to me, God bless you abundantly.
 ABSTRACT
The main purpose of this study was to identify sanitation practices among
undergraduate students in the halls of residents in University of Benin. In order to
achieve this objective four research questions were raised. The descriptive research
design was used for the study and the population of the study consists of all the
undergraduate students residing in the halls of residents in Ugbowo campus at
University of Benin. The sample size for the study was 400 students and was selected
through the multistage sampling procedure. A structured questionnaire designed by
the researchers titled personal attributes influencing sanitation practices among
undergraduate students was used for the study. The instrument was content validated
by three experts and when subjected to reliability testing, a reliability coefficient of
0.72 was obtained. The questionnaires were administered to the students in their
various halls of residence. The completed ones were retrieved immediately, coded and
annalysed using frequency counts and simple percentages.
The results of the study among others revealed that: Sanitation practices among
undergraduate students in the University of Benin are low, age and gender influence sanitation
practices. And also, inadequate water supply, poor toilet facilities, insufficient toilet, bathroom
and waste disposal facilities and poor drainage system are the major causes of poor sanitation
in the hostel environment. It was recommended that there is need to educate the students on
cleanliness during their orientation exercise and that keeping the environment clean on
campus should be a joint responsibility of the school authority and students.
TOPIC PAGE PAGE NO
ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………………… V
CHAPTER ONE
1.0. Background to the study ………………………………………………………1
1.1. Definition of sanitation ………………………………………………………..1
1.2. Type of sanitation ……………………………………………………………...2
1.2.1. Environmental sanitation …………………………………………………….2
1.2.2. Community-led total ………………………………………………………....2
1.2.3. Dry sanitation …………………………………………………………………2
1.2.4. Ecological sanitation ………………………………………………………….2
1.3. Water and sanitation situation of the world ……………………………………2-3
CHAPTER TWO
2.0. Poor sanitation …..................................................................................................3
2.1. Causes of poor sanitation ………………………………………………………...3
2.1.2. Poor sanitation practices among student …………………………………………3
2.1.3. Reason /causes of poor sanitation ….....................................................................3-4
2.1.4. Implication of poor sanitation …………………………………………………….4
2.2. Infectious diseases ………………………………………………………………….4
2.2.1. How diseases spread …………………………………………………………….4-5
2.3. Diseases spread through water and inadequate sanitation …………………………6
2.4. Diseases spreading through contaminated water and excreta………………………6
2.4.1. Diarrhoea …………………………………………………………………………..6-7
2.4.2. Ascariasis …………………………………………………………………………..7
2.4.3. Hookworms ……………………………………………………………………….7-8
2.4.4. Giadia intestinalis …………………………………………………………………8
2.5. Diseases spread through inadequate hygiene and due to lack of water ………………8
2.5.1. Trachoma ……………………………………………………………………………8-9
2.5.2. Scabies ……………………………………………………………………………….9
2.5.3. Malaria ………………………………………………………………………………9-10
2.5.1. Dengue fever ………………………………………………………………………...10
CHAPTER THREE
3.0. Sanitation solution ……………………………………………………………………...10
3.1. Selecting the sanitation solution ………………………….........................................10-11
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0. Sanitation culture …………………………………………………………………..12
4.1. Physiological factors ………………………………………………………………12-13
4.2. Religion ……………………………………………………………………………..13
4.3. Gender Relatedness in sanitation culture ……………………………………………13-14
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0. Sanitation and hygiene training ………………………………………………………14-
15
CHAPTER SIX
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………16
Reference……………………………………………………………………………………17
 CHAPTER ONE
1.0.INTRODUCTION
1.1. Definition of sanitation
World health organization (WHO) defines sanitation as group of methods to collect
human excreta and urine as well as community waste waters in a hygienic way where
human and community health is not altered. Sanitation method aim to decrease
spreading of diseases by adequate waste water, excreta and other waste treatment,
proper handling of water and food and by restricting the occurrence of causes
diseases.[WHO 1987,cited 17.4, 2005]
Sanitation is a system to increase and maintain healthy life and environment. Its
purpose is also to assure people enough clean water for washing and drinking
purposes. Typically health and hygiene education is connected to sanitation in order to
make people recognize where health problems originate and how to better sanitation
by their own actions. Essential part of sanitation is building and maintenance
education on sewage system wash up and toilet facilities.[cited 25.4,2005]
Developed sanitation services are defined in WHO's and UNICEF's joint monitoring
program (JMP) "Global water supply and sanitation assessment 2000" following
method are considered as developed sanitation services.[millennium April 2003]
.Public sewer
.Septic tank
.Pour- flush latrine
.Ventilated improved pit
.Ecological sanitation
Following sanitation method are considered as undeveloped.[WHO,UNICEF 2000]
.Service or bucket latrine(where excreta are manually removed)
.Public latrines
.Open latrines
.Excretion to environment
Basic sanitation was defined in UN's world summit on sustainable
development(WSSD) in 2002. By the definition basic sanitation consists.[Millennium
April 2003]
.Development and implementation of efficient household sanitation systems
.Improvement of sanitation in public institution,especially in schools
.Promotion of safe hygiene practices
.Promotion of education and outreach focused on children, as agents of behavioral
change
.Promotion of affordable and socially and culturally acceptable technologies and
practice
.Development of innovative financing and partnership mechanisms
.Integration of sanitation into water resources management strategies in a manner
which does not have negative impact on the environment.
1.2. TYPES OF SANITATION
1.2.1. - ENVIROMENTAL SANITATION
 This is the art and science of applying sanitary, biological and physical science
principles and knowledge to improve and control the environment factors for the
protection of the health and welfare of the public.
1.2.2. - COMMUNITY-LED TOTAL SANITATION (CLTs)
This is an innovative methodology for mobiliting communities to completely
eliminate open
defecation(OD) communities are facilitated to conduct their own action to become
ODF(open defecation free)
1.2.3. -DRY SANITATION
Dry sanitation is defined as the disposal of human waste without the use of water as
a carrier. Often the product is then used to fertilizer (Lacey 1978,Lachapelle 1995). In
developed countries, dry sanitation toilets were initially designed for use in remote
areas for practical and environmental reasons.
1.2.4. -ECOLOGICAL SANITATION
Ecological sanitation (ecosan) is based on the nutrient cycle. In the modern
centralized waste water solutions human faeces are considered more of a resource
than waste. Excrement is treated in situ and the formed end product can easily be used
as fertilizer in agriculture. Ecological sanitation techniques take into consideration the
surrounding environment by decreasing contamination as well as keeping it clean and
safe.
Following characters can be found in Ecological sanitation principles and
implementation.
. Aim is to decrease contamination of the environment caused by human excretion and
prevention of diseases deriving from excreta.
. Human faeces are considered as a resources, not as waste
. Recovery of nutrients from excreta and utilisation of the end products as fertilizer
and soil enrichment material
. In situ or close by treatment of the excreta
. Avoiding utilisation of water in the transportation of excreta
. Use of decentralized waste treatment method and services e.g collecting, recycling
and preserving.
1.3 WATER AND SANITATION SITUATION OF THE WORLD
Access to clean water can be considered as one of the basic needs and rights of a
human being. Health of people and dignified life is based on access to clean water.
Clean water together with proper sanitation increases well-being in terms of health
and economy. When sanitary conditions improve people have more time to take care
of livelihood and food supply. Ensuing access to clean water and basic sanitation
services is the first step in eliminating poverty.[WHO,UNICEF 2000]
According to WHO and UNICEF 82 percent of world's population had access to an
adequate water supply. The amount of proper sanitation has increased from 49 percent
in year 1990 to 58 percent in year 2002. Still approximately 1 out of 6 (equal to 1, 1
billion people) people are lacking access to an adequate water supply and 2 out of 5
(equals to 2,6 billion people) people are without access to an adequate water supply
these people lives in areas of Asia, where as much as half of the population lack of
proper sanitation services and in areas of Africa, where 2 out of 5 does not have
access to adequate water supply. The situation is especially alarming in rural areas,
where half of the people do not have access to proper sanitation and water supply
services. In bigger critics the problem is intense population growth and concentration
on population centres . This will burden existent services on decades to come.[WHO
et al,2000]

CHAPTER TWO
2.0. POOR SANITATION
Poor sanitation is linked to transmission of diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea,
dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid and polio and exacerbates stunting. Poor sanitation
reduces human well-being, social and economic development due to impacts such as
antiety, risk of sexual assault, and list educational opportunities.
2.1. CAUSES OF POOR SANITATION
. Inadequate Hygiene Education
.Neglect of health education
. Insufficient water supply
. Inadequate toilet/latrine facilities
. Lack of dustbins for disposing waste like biscuit wraps
. Throwing rubbish anywhere in the compound
. Inadequate funds to provide sanitation equipment
. Poor waste storage method adopted.

2.1.2. POOR SANITATION PRACTICES AMONG STUDENTS

• Open defecation (because there is no enough facilities)

• Messing of toilet facilities (because there is no regular supply of water)
• Littering the environment with empty satchets of pure water (which collect
water and breed maleria vectors) and (, Ogawa,2005)
• Practice of not washing hand after defecation (because there is no hand
washing basin)
• Habit of eating with unwashed hand (because water is not made available for
students)

2.1.3. REASON/CAUSES OF POOR SANITATION

• Inadequate Hygiene Education.(Snel,2004)

• Lack of good/Insufficient water supply.(Danida 2007)
• Inadequate toilet/latrine facilities.
 • Lack of sanitation facilities (Danida,2007)
• Poor attitude of students towards sanitation
• Inadequate funds to provide sanitation equipment
• Overcrowding/overpopulation of students
• Improper disposal of waste
2.2. INFECTIOUS DISEASES
Resources of safe drinking water will decrease in the future due to factor like
intense population growth, urbanization and possibly also from climate change.
Strong migration to cities will increase the amounts of human excreta and other
waste to a level where Lt is hard to handle. If no improvement take place in the
resources these waste end up untreated to the environment and water bodies.
Especially in the rural areas people lack knowledge on sanitation solutions and
waste treatment as well as resources to solve these problems.[cited 7.6, 2005]
• Sanitation and human health are closely connected to each other. Inadequate
treatment or disposal of human excreta and other waste can lead to transmitting
and spreading of diseases originating from excreta. Polluted water inadequate
sanitation cause 5,7 percent of all epidemics. Especially children are
susceptible to diseases. Therefore it is very important to safeguard adequate
sanitation and hygiene education to reduce the amounts of infections and access
of causes of diseases of water.[cited 7.6, 2005]

2.2.1. HOW DO DISEASES SPREAD

• PICTURE 4 Environmental transmission of pathogens through several different

routes
• pathogen transmit through several different routes. The cause is often
inadequate sanitation and hygiene. Pathogens can transmitted by:[cited
7.6,2005]
• . Direct contact to human excreta
 • . Contaminated drinking water
• . Through vegetables, shellfish or other food products exposed to contaminated
water or soil.
• . By accidental ingestion of contaminated e.g during swimming.
• . Inhalation of contaminated dust and aerasols from waste water irrigation,
scums, shower or by other means.
• . Through waterborne pathogens.
• . Contact with animals acting as hosts for parasites and pathogenic bacteria.
• . Through contact with infected individuals.
• The main organisms posing threat to human health are pathogenic bacteria,
viruses, parasitic protozoa and helminths that can be found in large number
from excreta of infected individuals. Usually only a small amount of infectious
agents and doses is enough for infection. The direct and indirect load is caused
by:[cited 7.6, 2005]
• . Direct load from human excreta.
• . Large qualities of water from centralized water treatment plants.
• . Grey water.
• . storm water.
• . Impact of sludge and manure run-off from cultivated land.
• . Impact of animals' and bird's excreta.
Effect of direct load from human excreta depend mainly on the soil type and
quality and location of water sources (ground water,surface water) in respect to
the sources of load(e.g toilet). Transmission of the load varies in different soil
types. Pathogens also have their characteristics in terms of mobility and life
span due to different soils. Transport of pathogens usually necessitates liquid.
Therefore movement of liquid in the soil is crucial on mobility of pathogen. In
order to prevent spread of pathogens special attention needs to be given in
isolation of pathogens from surface and ground water.[kolsky, cave 1999]

2.3 DISEASES SPREADING THROUGH WATER AND INADEQUATE

SANITATION
Shortage or lack of safe drinking water can easily cause transmission of excreta
related diseases. Infections tend to have two main routes: drinking of contaminated
water and inadequate hygiene due to scarcity of water.[WHO,UNICEF 2000]
Several excreta related epidemics have occurred due to drinking of contaminated
water and even today these epidemics can be found in both the developing and the
developed countries. Excreta related diseases are e.g diarrhoea, cholera, typhoid
fever, hepatitis A ,dysentery and guinea-worm disease. Appendix 1 shows diseases
and causes of diseases both in English and Finnish.[WHO,UNICEF 2000]
Unimproved hygiene and inadequate washing up usually derive from scare water
resources. These cause skin and eye infections which spread easily from direct contact
to contaminated water resources or to infected individual.[WHO,UNICEF 2000]
2.4. DISEASES SPREADING THROUGH CONTAMINATED WATER AND
EXCRETA
2.4.1. DIARRHOEA
- DIARRHOEA: This is the most important excreta related diseases. It transmutes
easily through both main routes. Approximately 4 billion people are infected and 2.2
million die annually to diarrhea. Several bacteria and viruses cause diarrhea. It is an
acute malfunction of digestive system which cause watery excrement and continuous
need for excretion. It creates rapid weakening of liquid and salt balance and the body
starts to dehydration. 10 percent loss in body fluids leads to death. Children are
remarkably more vulnerable to diarrhoea than adults. Diarrhoea is the main cause of
malnutrition of children.[WHO et, al 2005]
Main factors in transmitting of diarrhoea are inadequate personal and food hygiene,
lack of safe drinking water, high residential density and increase of bottle-feeding
instead of breast-feeding.[WHO et al, 2005]
The most important means of preventing diarrhoea.[WHO et al,2005]
. Improvement and increase of access to safe water and sanitation services.
. Using adequate toilet and paying attention on proper handling and disposal of
excrement.
. Promoting hygiene education
. Encouraging breast-feeding.
. Vaccinating against measles.
. proper cooking of drinking water and food.
. Keeping food and water clean.
. Washing hands( also children's hands) before touching food.
. General improvement of living conditions.
Washing hands is a simple measure to prevent diarrhoea. Hands should be washed
always after using the toilet and before food preparation and eating . Special attention
should be paid that children wash their hands because of exposure to pathogen while
playing with contaminated water and ground. If possible hands should be washed with
soap and running water. A simple hand-washing device can be made for washing
hands. Instruction for construction and use can be found in Appendix 2.
2.4.2. ASCARIASIS
Ascariasis is one of the most common parasitic diseases in the developing countries,
but the helminth is found all over the world. It is caused by Ascaris lumbricoides
roundworm. It is transmitted through uncooked food in contact with contaminated
ground (by roundworm eggs). Eggs spread through human excreta. Approximately 10
percent of the population in developing countries are infected by ascariasis and every
year it causes death to ca 60000 people (mostly children). Infection can cause stomach
aches, coughing, breathing difficulties or fever. Infected individuals suffer from under
nourishment, anaemia and slow down in growth.[WHO, 2005]
The most important measure to prevent parasitic infection.[WHO, 2005]
. Avoiding contact to ground contaminated by human excreta.
. Washing up hands with soap before food preparation
. Peeling, washing or cooking all raw vegetables.
. Avoiding food contact on ground, and reheating all food that is dropped to floor.
. Termination direct watering of plant with waste waters(water needs to be treated e.g
primary sedimentation pools).
. Improvement and increase of access to safe waters and sanitation services.
. Using inadequate toilet and paying attention on proper handling and disposal of
excreta.
. Promoting hygiene education.
2.4.3.HOOKWORMS
Hookworms (E.g Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus) are common
intestinal parasites especially in the tropic. In warm and moist circumstances their
eggs develop into larvae that can be penetrate by piercing human skin (also through
healthy skin) and move via blood circulation to lungs and thereafter to digestive
system and small intestine. They attach to small intestine walls and start sucking
blood and by doing so causing running scores to the intestines. Matured hookworm
develops in the intestines and produce thousand eggs that spread back to the ground
by excretion. Mild infection caused by hookworm is often symptomless, but
continuous infections can cause especially to children e.g anaemia, stomach aches,
diarrhoea and weight loss. Chronic infection can cause children e.g disturbances in
growth and to lack of protein and iron slow down of metal development. Hookworms
are extremely dangerous to small children.[cited 5.8,2005]
Infections from hookworms can be prevented by avoiding walking barefooted and
contact to human excreta contaminated ground. Use of adequate toilets and proper
hygiene are of great importance in defeating the disease.[cited 5.8,2005]
2.4.4. Giadia intestinalis
Giadia intestinalis(also known as Guardia lambia)protozoa create very durable cyst
from which can last in the excreta even seven years. Protozoa is met
worldwide.Giadia can be transmitted from ground, food or water which has been in
contact with infected individual's or animals excreta. It spreads usually through mouth
and not through blood. It can cause digestional problems such as diarrhoea, stomach
aches and nausea. The symptoms can lead to weight loss or dehydration. Guardia can
occur also as symptomless.
The most important measure to prevent Giardiasis[cited 5.8,2005]
. Restraining oneself on swimming at least two weeks after diarrhoea to prevent
pathogen spreading through water
. Avoiding use of uncooked food and washing all raw vegetables with clean water
. Boiling filtering or chlorine/iodine treatment of water or use of clean drinking water.
. Improvement and increase of access to safe water and sanitation services
. Using adequate toilet and paying attention on proper handling and disposal of
excreta.
. Adequate hand hygiene and promotion of hygiene education.
Also Crytosporidium protozoa create durable cyst forms, which can even have
resistance to chlorine and iodine treatment. It spreads similar to Guardia and
infections are found all over the world. It has similar symptoms to giadia, but can also
in addition cause fever and intense vomiting. Crytosporidium infections can be
prevented like giardiasis, but since chlorine and iodine treatment are not definite
water needs to be boiled to terminate it. It can Al's spread from swimming pools,
where chlorine usually eradicates other pathogens.[cited 5.8,2005]

2.5. DISEASES SPREADING THROUGH INADEQUATE HYGIENE AND

DUE TO LACK OF WATER
2.5.1. TRACHOMA
Trachoma is an eye infection, which, if suffered from repetitious infections, can
cause blindness. It is caused by Chlamydia trachomatis.It spread easily from contact
especially amongst children, or from child to mother. Also flies transmit the disease.
The infection causes bilateral keratoconjunctivitis which causes corneal scarring
resulting upper eye lid to turn inward, severe weakening of eyesight and blindness.
According to WHO estimates there are over six million people blinded by trachoma
and 150 million people who are in the need of treatment. It is one of the biggest
blindness causing diseases, which is curable.[WHO,2005]
The most important measure to prevent and treat trachoma[WHO,2005]
. Improvement and increase of access to safe water and sanitation services.
. Using adequate toilet and paying attention on proper handling and disposal of
excreta.
. Promoting hygiene education.
. Restricting reproduction of flies.
. Facial cleanliness.
. Antibiotic treatment.
. Surgery of eyelids.
2.5.2. SCABIES
Scabies is easily infective skin disease, which spreads in e.g crowds. It is found
worldwide. It is caused by Sarcoptes scabeimite. Fertilised female mite penetrates into
the skin, depositing eggs in the tunnel behind her. After the eggs are hatched, larvae
migrate to the skin surface and eventually transform into the adult form mites and
mate. Actually scabies is an allergic reaction of mites. Scabies can occur on hands,
between the fingers, folds of the skin, penis, breasts and shoulders. Annually over 300
million scabies cases are reported. Even though scabies can be found everywhere and
in all social classes. Its appearance is enhanced by poverty, inadequate water supply
and sanitation conditions and high population density. The mite is easily spread in
crowding conditions by skin contact such as in hospitals and daycare centres. It
spreads to some extent through bed linen and clothes and extremely well in sexual
intercourse.[WHO,2005]
The most important measure to prevent scabies.[WHO,2005]
. Adequate personal hygiene.
. Improvement and increase of access to save water and sanitation services.
. Washing up with hot water and soap and thereafter with acaricide mite wash.
. Disinfection and wash of contaminated (by mites) clothes and bed linen.
2.5.3. MALARIA
Malaria is the most common infectious disease caused by Plasmodium falciparum,
P.vivax, P.ovals and P.malariae parasites and it spreads by carrier Anopheles-
mosquitoes, which reproduce in standing sweet and brackish waters. Mosquito are
usually active (bite) at dusks and evenings. Malaria causes fever, repetitive chills,
intense sweating, headache, muscular pains, tiredness, nausea, vomiting, heavy
diarrhoea, anaemia and yellowish skin, but also in more severe cases seizures, coma,
severe anaemia and renal failure. Without appropriate treatment malaria can spread to
brains and cause death. According to WHO's estimates there are 300-500 million
maleria infections and over one million death caused by malaria every year. Malaria is
one of the major causes of death amongst African children under the age of five.
[Heisinki et al,2004]
The most important measures to prevent malaria.[Heisinki et al,2004]
. Avoid moving outside without proper clothing especially during sunrise and sunset.
. Dressing in light long sleeved and legged clothing during sunrise and sunset.
. Using N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide(DEET) consisting mosquito repellent on
uncovered areas of skin.
.Using prophylactic medication.
. Eradicating mosquitoes with mosquito repellent from sleeping facilities before going
to bed.
. Promoting and using of insecticide treated bed nets.
. Ensuring early detection and control of malaria epidemics
. Reducing mortality be early detection and prompt treatment of malaria cases with
effective antimalaria drugs.
. Filling up or drying reproducing water sites of mosquitoes as a part of a broad
environmental programme.
2.5.4. DENGUE FEVER
Dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever(DHF) has become one of the most
serve infectious diseases carried by mosquitoes; infection is caused by arbo virus,
which spreads through Aedes mosquitoes also at daytime. Dengue fever causes fever,
headache, muscle pain behind the eyes, muscle and joint pain and rash. Dengue
hemorrhagic causes high fever, bleeding, enlargement of liver and in the most severe
case disturbances in blood circulation and dealth. it is estimated that there are 50-100
million dengue infections and 500000 dengue hemorrhagic fever cases annually.
There is no vaccination or prophylactic medication against dengue fever.[Heisinki
2004]
The most most important measures to prevent dengue fever infections are mainly
similar to malaria's but protection from mosquito bite is also needed during the
daytime and there are no prophylactic medication.[Heisinki 2004]
CHAPTER THREE
3.0. SANITATION SOLUTION
There are several technical solution and variations for treatment of human urine and
solid excrement depending on existing culture and building possibilities. Most of
these solutions, when properly planned, built, used and maintained, ensure safe and
adequate sanitation and provide significant health benefits. In order to attain all health
benefits mere technical solutions are not enough, but sanitation and hygiene education
is also needed.[cited 7.6,2005]
In order to enhance human health with latrines, following issues should be taken into
account.[cited 7.6,2005]
. User of the latrine should be isolated from(their) excreta.
. Prevention of community exposure to excreta through e.g contaminated water.
. Prevention possibility of flies and prevent transmission of pathogen to humans.
. Excreta must be covered and/or pathogens made harmless
Human excreta (mainly solid excrement) contain pathogen. Many diseases can be
spread through excreta. If treatment (excreta) has not be handled adequate and safe.
Diseases such as diarrhoea, cholera and typhoid fever spread easily from excreta to
hands and thereafter to mouth causing infection. Adequate excreta handling methods
(collection, storing and treatment procedure) enhance human health. Therefore
sanitation programmes can be of great importance in providing good human health.

If excreta handling is not carried out properly their remains a risk of pathogens
spreading to surface waters along the rain water. In a cases of prolonged inadequate
excreta handling ground water contamination may also appear. Excreta attract
flies,rats and other harmful animals, which can further spread diseases and worsen the
health conditions of humans.
3.0 IMPLICATIONS OF POOR SANITATION FOR STUDENT HEALTH
These factors have led to consequences on student health. Diseases related to poor
sanitation and water availability causes many sickness like cholera, diarrhea, malaria
and typhoid. All these diseases greatly affect the health of students. Students cannot
even learn properly because they are sick. Poor sanitation reduces human well-being,
social and economic development due to impacts such as anxiety, risk of sexual
assault, and lost educational opportunities.
The effects of poor urban sanitary conditions and waste management on the well-
being of city residents are often expressed in health and environmental terms. Of
equal importance, which requires the attention of urbanists and other analyst of the
urban environment, are the social consequences of poor sanitation. As earlier noted,
we recognized the severe health and environmental consequences of poor sanitation,
and their direct and indirect links to social consequences. In other words, the analysis
here does not trivialize the environmental and health consequences of poor sanitation
and waste management, but rather places more emphasis on the social consequences.
For esa oke, the abundance of uncollected garbage and its use as a weapon raise
questions about community social cohesion. Poor urban communities are noted for
their strong social cohesion. This is achieved through social networks, a process
which tends to assist the poor to weather the storm and challenges associated with
urban life. Interviews with key informats, adult students FGDs conducted in esa oke
revealed some disquiet between the older and younger generations. In particular, poor
sanitation in the community is partly blamed on the lack of discipline among student
with regarded to their non-participation in the communal cleaning exercise
(something the older people undertook frequently when they were young) and their
indiscriminate dumping of refuse. This view is captured in this quote from an adult
students FGD participant:
Some students in the school dump rubbish anywhere they like when nobody is
watching them. They collect the rubbish from class and dump them at unauthorized
place because they don't want to pay at the container site. So when they are caught,
we allow the school managements to deal with them. Within the perception of the
students as undisciplined with regard to sanitation are the broader issues of violence
and insecurity, and the contestation of open spaces at the neighborhood level.
According to Bartlett (1999, p. 71), the quality of common space certainly influences
social interaction. She adds that when people have reason to make frequent use of
neighborhood space, the very level of activity can inhibit anti-social behavior.
The poor state of sanitation and physical living environment have implications for
community characterization and stigmatization by "others". According to Owusu et al.
(2008), the negative characterization of poor urban communities as a result of their
poor infrastructure and physical environment is associated with stigmatization of the
residents of esa oke contributes in part to the undevelopment of the community. This
is because it sometimes forms the basis for denying the community and its residents
other vital services, which in turn reinforce the negative characterization of the
community. As one key expert informant noted.
Under the fear of possible retribution of being bombarded with garbage, adults watch
as some students openly smoke marijuana and engage in other social vices in the
community. In the context, adults' role as guardians of the future generation of the
community is greatly impeded. As we conducted an FGD for adult boys in a school
building at esa oke, we observed a group of students at the other end of the school
compound smoking marijuana. Participants of the FGD complain to us (researcher),
telling of their disapproval of the practice, but they felt helpless about stopping the
practice.
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0. SANITATION CULTURE

Social and culture views have to be considered when travelling to developing
countries and especially when planning different projects for the area. Successful and
sustainable projects can not be carried out without thorough background studies and
even good projects can fail due to lack of background studies. Local culture should be
respected and paid attention to in all decision making.
Projects must derive form the needs of the inhabitants and they are to be carried out
considering the cultural issues. It is necessary to understand that outsides can not
determine what needs to be done and how. Instead of commanding, outsiders can
provide means and alternatives on how to reach wanted goals. A lot of good methods
can be learning process where each party can broaden their views on methods and
cultures. It is to be remembered that there are no right or wrong attitudes or methods
but these are formed according to ones culture.
Sanitation culture is affected e.g by the following matters
. Psychological factors.
. Religion.
. Gender related factors.
. Social and institutional factors.
4.1. Psychological factors
In sanitation culture psychological factors determine the attitude towards latrine
waste and their handling, and how this attitude affects to practical methods. Attitudes
are formed from experiences and can change in time. Especially different
occupational groups have different opinions of latrine waste handling depending on
whether the person is from the issue the less positive is the attitude towards the issue.
In most cases attitudes though change when the issue is brought nearer to the people.
E.g. In the implementation of compositing latrines a lot of prejudices are present
mainly due to handling of the waste. If people are on the other hand presented with
functioning systems in practice and (their) benefits in cultivation attitudes usually
change in to more positive.
4.2. Religion
Religion affect remarkably to formation of sanitation culture since many religious
habits and rituals have a connection to sanitation. Definitions of good and
bad,polluted and clean can be found in many religions. This affect to utilized latrine
types and attitude towards latrines, latrine waste handling and use of the waste.
In different religious groups inside Christianity water is used for many rituals (e.g in
baptism). Christianity does not though define the use of water in latrines or utilisation
of latrine waste. But then again Islam determines specific rules on how to handle with
excreta, only left can be used for washing purpose after defecation (right hand is used
for eating purposes) and water is used for hand-washing. Therefore in Islamic
countries it is very hard to justify use of dry latrines and in some cases dry latrines are
forbidden by law. In some Islamic countries such as Yemen dry latrine are used and in
this cases washing can be carried out in washing places in contact with latrines.
In addition to main religion there are several different religions and sects whose
behavior has an influence on used sanitation methods. In most cases it is hard to
determine whether behavioral actions derive from the religion, learned habits or other
cultural factors. In many places e.g burying of excreta is used to prevent evil
spirits,certain groups have organised their own latrine facilities or only certain people
can handle the latrine waste.
4.3 Gender relatedness in sanitation culture
Gender affects to sanitation culture already by physical differences. Women have to
use latrines more often than men due to various reasons(pregnancy, period, child care
e.t.c) and their visit to latrines consume more time than men's. On global scale there
are though fewer latrines for women than men. In some countries there are no public
latrines for women at all.
In sanitation, behaviour of young children does not vary significantly between the
sexes. It is common in developing countries that when girls reach puberty they are
faced with more limitations than boys and they have to e.g .
. Use more remote places and places further from the settlements for defecation.
. Defecate in groups and in most cases even after sun set.
. Defecate in their homes and help their mothers to take out the excreta and solid
waste.
. Even quit school for lack of sanitation facilities.
Sanitation possibilities in schools and homes enhance equality between the sexes.
Girls become equal to boys for they do not have to walk far to defecate or quite
school because of the absence of sanitation facilities. Improvements can though create
new inequalities of the sexes. E.g getting flushing and washing water and cleaning of
the latrines can end up for girls and women's responsibility. Many times these works
are not distributed fairly between men and women even though they both use the
sanitation facilities.
When planning for sanitation programs gender related factors need to be considered.
This was projects become more efficient, fair and sustainable. Efficient sanitation
facility is maintained and utilised. Different user groups needs have to be answered to
ensure utilisation of the latrine facilities. It is then not about merely answering the
needs of men and women, but answers to e.g different social and religious groups
demands on sanitation.
Sanitation needs and demands vary between genders. Women and girls demand more
efforts in decreasing the work load, increase in privacy, safety and improvement of
hygiene than men and boys. Women are in most cases more motivated to improve
sanitation than men. Men have fewer demands considering personal and economical
matters in improved sanitation. They are though motivated by the facts that safety
issues improve conditions for their daughters and wives,and value of the property
increases. Both sexes appreciate improved social status which derive from, improved
sanitation condition.
Both men and women have to be takes in to account in distribution of information
and decision making. Special strategies, informational channels and organisational
arrangements and needed in many countries to ensure participation of both sexes in
the decision making and selection processes. Communication strategies have to be
consider that men and women do not differ merely on interests but also on literacy,
knowledge of language and in term of mobility.
 Conclusion
Based on the result of the study, it can be concluded among others that sanitation
practices among undergraduate students of University of Benin in their halls of
residents is low and that inadequate water supply, poor toilet facilities, insufficient
toilet, bathroom and waste disposal facilities and poor drainage system are the major
causes of poor sanitation in the hostel environment.
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