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Mechanical and durability properties of

self-compacting concrete containing fly
ash and bottom ash
a b b
Rafat Siddique , Paratibha Aggarwal & Yogesh Aggarwal
a
Civil Engineering Department , Thapar University , Patiala , India
b
Civil Engineering Department , National Institute of Technology ,
Kurukshetra , India
Published online: 27 Nov 2012.

To cite this article: Rafat Siddique , Paratibha Aggarwal & Yogesh Aggarwal (2012) Mechanical and
durability properties of self-compacting concrete containing fly ash and bottom ash, Journal of
Sustainable Cement-Based Materials, 1:3, 67-82, DOI: 10.1080/21650373.2012.726820

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 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
Vol. 1, No. 3, September 2012, 67–82

Mechanical and durability properties of self-compacting concrete

containing fly ash and bottom ash
Rafat Siddiquea*, Paratibha Aggarwalb and Yogesh Aggarwalb
a
Civil Engineering Department, Thapar University, Patiala, India; bCivil Engineering
Department, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India

The paper investigates the production of self-compacting concrete (SCC) more

affordable for construction industry with various percentages of fly ash as part of the
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total powder content and bottom ash as replacement of fine aggregates. Various
properties studied included strength (compressive and split tensile strength) and dura-
bility properties (carbonation and deicing salt surface scaling). Based on the materi-
als used in this study, the SCC was observed to be flowable, cohesive, and
developed 28-day compressive strength, approximately in the range of 18–35 MPa.
Besides the environmental benefits, there could be some technical and economical
advantages as well. As a general result, presence of fly ash and bottom ash affected
the durability properties of concrete positively.
Keywords: fly and bottom ash; compressive strength; split tensile strength; carbon-
ation; deicing salt surface scaling

1. Introduction material structure. The elimination of the

ACI Committee 371 defines self-com- compaction work results in reduced cost
pacting concrete (SCC) as “Highly flow- of placement, shortening of the construc-
able, non segregating concrete that can tion time, and, therefore, improved pro-
spread into place, fill the formwork, and ductivity. It also leads to a reduction of
encapsulate the reinforcement without noise during casting, better working con-
any mechanical consolidation.” The SCC ditions, and the possibility of expanding
has evolved into an innovative technol- the placing time in inner city areas. Com-
ogy capable of achieving the status of pared to ordinary vibrated concrete, SCC
being an outstanding advancement in the can be used to solve special casting prob-
sphere of concrete technology. lems (congested reinforcement, slender
The use of SCC can remarkably structures, etc.).
lower the complexity of construction by The main requirements of SCC are its
reducing the demand for a significant properties in fresh state. The mix design
amount of consolidation practice and is focused on the ability to flow under its
skillful workmanship. Therefore, it allows own weight without vibration. The work-
a much easier construction schedule and ability of SCC is higher than “very high”
results in a more reliable quality of con- degree of workability as mentioned in IS:
crete placement and a more homogeneous 456-2000. A concrete mix can only be

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

ISSN 2165-0373 print/ISSN 2165-0381 online

Ó 2012 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21650373.2012.726820
http://www.tandfonline.com
 68 R. Siddique et al.

classified as self-compacting if it has the need for viscosity-enhancing chemical

characteristics of filling ability, passing admixtures. A study by Khatib [6]
ability, and segregation resistance. exploring the effect of different fly ash
Such concrete requires a high slump contents on the performance of SCC. The
that can easily be achieved by superplast- results show that, generally, there is
icizer addition to a concrete mix and strength reduction for concretes contain-
special attention has to be paid to mix ing fly ash compared with that of the
proportioning. The SCC often contains a control concrete. Similar conclusion has
large quantity of powder materials which been reported by other researchers for
is required to maintain sufficient yield SCC containing fly ash [7,8]. Compres-
value and viscosity of the fresh mix, sive strength reduction was reported by
hence reducing bleeding, segregation, and Boukendakdji et al. [9] for SCC mixtures
settlement. As the use of a large quantity with increasing slag content up to 15% at
of cement increases cost, mineral admix- all ages. Khatib and Hibbert [10] studied
tures such as fly ash, blast furnace slag,
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the strength development of concrete with

or limestone filler could increase the slag and showed there is a systematic
slump of the concrete mixture without decrease in compressive strength as the
increasing its cost. slag content increases during the early
Previous studies have shown that the stages of hydration. Uysal and Sumer
use of mineral admixtures such as fly ash [11] measured the effect of different min-
and blast furnace slag could increase the eral admixtures such as granulated blast
slump of the concrete mixture without furnace slag, fly ash, limestone powder,
increasing its cost, whereas reducing dos- marble powder, and basalt powder on the
age of superplasticizer is needed to obtain properties of SCC. From the results, it
similar slump flow compared to concrete can be concluded that all mixtures had
made with Portland cement only [1]. the lower compressive strength at 7 days
Also, the use of fly ash improves the rhe- when compared to control mixture. The
ological properties and reduces the crack- lower compressive strength of self-com-
ing potential of concrete as it lowers the pacting mortar containing marble powder
heat of hydration of the cement [2]. Stud- was also reported by Guneyisi et al. [12].
ies have shown that fly ash replacement The paper investigates the making of
up to 30% results in a significant SCC more affordable for the construction
improvement of the rheological properties industry with various percentages of fly
of flowing concretes [3,4]. Kim et al. [3] ash as part of the total powder content
studied the properties of super flowing and bottom ash as replacement of fine
concrete containing fly ash and reported aggregates. Such concrete was observed
that the replacement of cement by 30% to be flowable, cohesive, and developed
(40% for only one mixture) fly ash 28-day compressive strength, approxi-
resulted in excellent workability and mately in the range of 18–35 MPa.
flowability. Other researcher [4] evaluated
the influence of supplementary cementi-
tious materials on workability and con- 2. Materials used
cluded that the replacement of cement by Ordinary Portland cement (Grade 43)
30% of fly ash can significantly improve with normal consistency of 28% and ini-
the rheological properties. The use of fly tial and final setting times as 75 and 215
ash reduces the demand for cement, fine minutes were used. It had specific gravity
fillers, and sand [5], which are required as 3.15 and 7-day compressive strength
in high quantities in SCC. Moreover, the as 37 MPa and conformed to BIS: 8112-
incorporation of fly ash also reduces the 1989 specifications. Class F fly ash
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials 69

obtained from “Panipat Thermal Power fine aggregate content at 45% by volume
Station, Panipat,” Haryana with specific of mortar in concrete (910 kg/m3), the w/p
gravity 2.13 was used. In addition to fly ratio was 0.41–0.62 by weight, with air
ash, there are vast amounts of substan- content being assumed to be 2%. Mix
dard (coarse) bottom ash that can be proportions and fresh properties for the
utilized in the concrete industry. Coal various SCC mixes are given in detail in
bottom ash was also obtained from Pan- Tables 2 and 3.
ipat Thermal Power Station, Panipat, Har- For these mix proportions, required
yana. Specific gravity of bottom ash was quantities of materials were weighed and
1.93 and fineness modulus was observed cement and fly ash in dry state were
to be 1.6, with bulk density loose and mixed and coarse and fine aggregates
compacted as 776 and 948 kg/m3, respec- were mixed in dry state separately. Half
tively. The chemical properties of fly ash of the mixing water was added to coarse
and bottom ash are presented in Table 1. and fine aggregates and mixed for 3 min.
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A polycarboxylic ether-based superplasti- Mixer was stopped and left covered for
cizer complying with ASTM C-494 type 15 min, then cement and fly ash were
F, having density of approximately 1.10 added evenly over the aggregate and
and pH of approximately 5.0, was used. again mixed for 30 s. Remaining water
Locally available natural sand with over next 30 sec was added and then
4.75 mm maximum size was used as fine mixing continued for 3 min after adding
aggregate and crushed stone with 16 mm all the materials together in a mixer to
maximum size was used as coarse aggre- obtain homogeneous mix. The casting
gate. Both fine aggregate and coarse immediately followed mixing, after carry-
aggregate conformed to Indian Standard ing out the tests for fresh properties. The
Specifications BIS: 383-1970. The coarse specimens were removed from molds
and fine aggregates had a specific gravity after 24 h and cured in water till testing.
of 2.67, water absorptions of 0.95 and All test measurements were taken as the
0.90%, and fineness modulus of 6.86 and average of three readings for strength
2.32, respectively. Grading curves for fine tests.
aggregates (sand and bottom ash) are
shown in Figure 1. The bulk density
(loose and compacted) was observed to 4. Testing of the specimens
be 1460 and 1540 kg/m3 for coarse For determining the self-compactibility
aggregates and 1590 and 1780 kg/m3 for properties, such as slump flow, T50 cm
fine aggregates, respectively. time, V-funnel flow times, L-box block-
ing ratio, and U-box difference in height,
3. Experimental program tests were performed. All fresh test mea-
The proportions of the concrete mixtures surements were duplicated and the aver-
are summarized in Table 2. Twelve con- age of measurements was given. In order
crete mixtures were tested, with four to reduce the effect of workability loss
mixes for each percentage of fly ash (15, on variability of test results, fresh state
25, and 35% by weight of total powder properties of mixes were determined
content) having replacement of fine aggre- within a period of 30 minutes after mix-
gates with bottom ash at 0, 10, 20, and ing. The order of testing was as given
30%. The mixes had total powder content below, respectively:
of 550 kg/m3 (cement + fly ash). Coarse
aggregate content was maintained at 39% (1) Slump flow test and measurement
by volume (590 kg/m3) of concrete and of T50 cm time;
 70 R. Siddique et al.

Table 1. Chemical properties of fly ash and bottom ash.

Fly ash % Bottom ash %

Sr. No. Constituents (by Weight) (by Weight)
1 Loss on ignition 4.17 5.80
2 Silica (SiO2) 58.55 57.76
3 Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 3.44 8.56
4 Alumina (Al2O3) 28.20 21.58
5 Calcium oxide (CaO) 2.23 1.58
6 Magnesium oxide (MgO) 0.32 1.19
7 Total sulfur (SO3) 0.07 0.02
8 Alkalies (a) sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.58 0.14
and (b) potassium oxide (K2O) 1.26 1.08
The properties of fly ash and bottom ash conform to IS: 3812-2003.
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(2) V-funnel flow tests at 10 s (T10 s) to the two edges of the split face, immedi-
and 5 min (T5 min); ately after spraying the indicator.
(3) L-box test; and Scaling resistance of concrete surfaces
(4) U-box test for numbered lists. exposed to deicing chemicals according to
ASTM C 672 was carried out at 90 and
For each mixture, the compressive 365 days. The test method (according to
strength was determined on three cubes at ASTM C 672) covers the determination of
7, 28, 90, and 365 days and the split ten- the resistance to scaling of a horizontal
sile strength test on three cylinders at 28, concrete surface exposed to freezing and
90, and 365 days was determined as per thawing cycles in the presence of deicing
IS 516:1959. Carbonation of SCC mixes chemicals. It is intended for the use in
according to RILEM Committee CPC-18 evaluating surface resistance qualitatively
[13] was carried out by casting cylinders by visual examination. Specimens of size
(150 mm
300 mm). Carbonation test of 225 mm
225 mm
25 mm were pre-
depth of colorless region using phenol- pared for all mixes. A dike of 25 mm wide
phthalein indicator was determined using and 20 mm high was placed along the
the cylinders (150 mm
300 mm) as per perimeter of the top surface of the speci-
RILEM CPC-18. After casting, test speci- mens. The specimens were removed from
mens were covered with plastic sheets the molds after 24 h and then cured. Since
and left in casting room for 24 h at room the concretes with strength at different
temperature and demolded and cured in ages are to be compared, the specimen
water for 28 days. After that, specimens was cured till that age. At the desired age,
were air cured (open environment) for the the specimens were removed from moist
required age, say till 90 days or 365 days, storage and stored in air for 14 days. After
and were then split. The freshly split sur- completion of moist and air curing, the flat
face was cleaned and sprayed with a phe- surface of the specimen was covered with
nolphthalein pH indicator. The indicator 6 mm thick layer solution of calcium chlo-
was a phenolphthalein 1% ethanol solu- ride solution and water. A 100 mL of solu-
tion (1 g phenolphthalein and 90 ml etha- tion contains 4 g of anhydrous calcium
nol (95.0 V/V%) diluted in water to chloride. The specimens were placed in
100 ml). The average depth ‘Xp’ of the freezing environment for 16–18 h. The
colorless phenolphthalein region was specimens were removed from freezer and
measured from three points, perpendicular placed in air for 6–8 h. Water was added at
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials 71

Fine aggregate Bottom ash

100 99.45 100

94.25
Percentage Passing 84.85
80 76.5

60

40 40.8

20

6
0
100 1000 10000
Sieve Size(microns)
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Figure 1. Grading curves for fine aggregates (sand and bottom ash).

Table 2. Composition of various mixes.

Fly
Cement Fly ash ash C.A. F.A. Sand B.A. S.P.
Mix (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (%) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (%) w/p
F15BA0 465 85 15 590 910 910 0 1.95 0.41
F15BA10 465 85 15 590 910 819 91 1.85 0.47
F15BA20 465 85 15 590 910 728 182 1.90 0.51
F15BA30 465 85 15 590 910 640 270 1.80 0.55
F25BA0 415 135 25 590 910 910 0 1.80 0.42
F25BA10 415 135 25 590 910 819 91 1.50 0.48
F25BA20 415 135 25 590 910 728 182 1.40 0.54
F25BA30 415 135 25 590 910 640 270 2.00 0.56
F35BA0 355 195 35 590 910 910 0 1.80 0.44
F35BA10 355 195 35 590 910 819 91 1.70 0.50
F35BA20 355 195 35 590 910 728 182 1.60 0.58
F35BA30 355 195 35 590 910 640 270 1.30 0.62

each cycle as necessary to maintain the diameter and T50 cm); L-box test (ratio of
proper depth of solution. Cycle was heights at the two edges of L-box (H2/
repeated after every 24 h, flushing the sur- H1)); V-funnel test (time taken by con-
face at the end of each five cycles. After crete to flow through V-funnel after 10 s
making the visual examination, the solu- T10 s and time taken by concrete to flow
tion was replaced and the test continued through V-funnel after 5 min T5 min); and
for 50 cycles. U-box test (difference in height of
concrete in two chambers (H2–H1)) for
various mix compositions are given in
5. Results and discussion
Table 3. The slump flow test judges the
5.1. Properties of fresh concrete capability of concrete to deform under its
The results of various fresh properties own weight against the friction of the
tested by slump flow test (slump flow surface with no restraint present. A slump
 72 R. Siddique et al.

Table 3. Fresh properties of various SCC mixes.

Slump flow V-funnel

L-box U-box
Dia. T50 cm T10 s T5 min (H2/ (H1-H2) Room Conc.
Mix (mm) (s) (s) (s) H1) mm temp. temp.
F15BA0 675 4.5 7.5 15.00 0.90 20 29 27
F15BA10 675 3.5 6.6 12.5 0.80 25 31 30
F15BA20 590 6.0 6.5 8.8 0.95 30 32 28
F15BA30 625 2.5 4.0 6.5 0.82 30 34 28
F25BA0 605 4.5 7 8.5 0.60 50 33 29.5
F25BA10 625 2.2 5.2 6.8 0.8 65 32 28
F25BA20 600 1.5 7 7.9 0.6 45 32 28
F25BA30 590 2.0 4.2 9.7 0.60 30 33 30
F35BA0 635 4.0 10.0 18 0.92 20 32 28.5
F35BA10 645 3.8 9.0 18 0.90 30 32 28
F35BA20 590 2.7 8.0 16.0 0.8 50 32 28
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F35BA30 590 4.0 6.1 10.5 0.86 40 32 28

flow value ranging from 500 to 700 mm diameter was observed for 20% bottom
for a concrete to be self-compacting was ash content. The mixes with 20 and 30%
suggested [14]. All the mixes in the study bottom ash contents showed lower slump
conform to the above range. The slump flow values at all fly ash percentages
flow time for the concrete to reach the when compared to mixes with 0 and 10%
diameter of 500 mm for all the mixes was bottom ash replacements as given in
less than 6 s. The V-funnel test was also Table 4. Difference of V-funnel time
performed to assess the flowability and T10 sec and T5 min was minimum for
stability of the SCC. As is observed from F15BA20 mix. The mixes with 15% fly
the literature, V-funnel time, which is less ash of the total powder content showed
than 6 s, is recommended for concrete to the higher and consistent slump diameters
qualify as a SCC [15] and as per EFN- for 0, 10, and 30% replacements of fine
ARC [16], time ranging from 6 to 12 s is aggregates with bottom ash with mini-
considered adequate for SCC. In the mum slump flow at 20% bottom ash. The
absence of the Indian codes regarding T50 cm time was also consistent and
SCC, the V-funnel flow times in the within limits with 0, 10, 20, and 30%
range of 4–10 s were considered as con- bottom ash for all mixes. The L-box ratio
forming to the requirements of allowable for all the mixes at 15% fly ash was
flow time. Maximum size of coarse observed to be best between 0.80 and
aggregate was kept as 16 mm in order to 0.95 when compared to mixes with 25
avoid blocking effect in the L-box. The and 35% fly ash. Also, the difference in
gap between rebars in L-box test was height in U-box was observed to be
35 mm. The L-box ratio H2/H1 of all the within range for all replacements with
mixes was above 0.6. The U-box differ- bottom ash.
ence in height of concrete in two com- The mix with 25% fly ash content
partments was in the range of 20–65 mm. showed maximum slump flow diameter
The mixes with 15% fly ash showed for 10% bottom ash and decreased gradu-
maximum slump flow diameter for 10% ally with increase in bottom ash contents
bottom ash which was same as for 0% from 10 to 30%. The T50 cm was maxi-
bottom ash content. Minimum slump mum for 0% bottom ash, but was consid-
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials 73

erably less and consistent with replace- to 15%. The gain of strength at 7 days
ments with bottom ash. Difference of V- was observed to be 77–84% of 28-day
funnel time T10 s and T5 min was minimum strength, having sufficient early age
for 20% bottom ash mix. strength gain despite the presence of fly
For mixes with 35% fly ash, maxi- ash in SCC (as observed in normal con-
mum slump was observed for 10% bot- crete, i.e.70% at 7 days). The difference
tom ash and 20 and 30% bottom ash of gain of strength for various mixes was
contents showed same and lower slump observed to be 60–85% between 7 and
diameters. The V-funnel time with 35% 90 days increasing with increase in
fly ash content was maximum in all cement content. Lam et al. [17] reported
replacements with bottom ash. The mixes gain of strength between 7 and 90 days
having V-funnel time higher than the for normal concrete (slump about 75 mm)
upper limit tends to entrap air due to the as 72%. Nehdi et al. [18] observed the
high viscosity. This means that self-com- same gain of strength between 7 and
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pactibility cannot be maintained. On the 28 days and 28 and 90 days for the 50%
other hand, many researchers have pro- replacement of cement content by fly ash
posed the lower limit of V-funnel time in in total powder content in SCC mixes. In
the range of 8–10 s. It is considered that the study, the gain of strength between 7
a mixture having a V-funnel time below and 365 days was 66–91% with maxi-
this limit has a potential of stability loss. mum value for F15BA0. At the cement
Although, mix F15BA20 showed content of 360 kg/m3 (also having micro
maximum T50 cm time, the difference of silica and fly ash), increase in strength of
V-funnel times was observed to be low approximately 50% was reported at
which is also evident from the Figure 2, 270 days with reference to 28 days
giving the relationship of time required to strength for SCC [19]. Similarly, for 10%
flow through V-funnel and to reach bottom ash content, an increase of 37%
500 mm of slump flow, with good L-box strength at 28 days and 21% at 365 days
ratio and U-box difference at 0.95 and was observed with the decrease of fly ash
30 mm, respectively. The results show content from 35% to 15%. The strength
that percentage of bottom ash has played at 7 days was observed to be 74–81% of
a significant role in the workability of the 28-day strength, having sufficient
SCC mixes. The best mix was observed early age strength gain but slightly less
to be F15BA30, in terms of workability. than that observed at 0% bottom ash. The
gain of strength for various mixes was
observed to be 51–59% between 7 and
5.2. Strength properties
90 days. It was observed that the use of
5.2.1. Compressive strength fly ash and bottom ash at 10% replace-
The compressive strength and split tensile ment of fine aggregates with bottom ash
strength for different mixes are given in in SCC showed better results for 7-day
Tables 4 and 5. As a general result, the strength of 74–81% and 90-day strength
compressive and split tensile strengths of 126–133% with reference to 28-day
were observed to be increasing with a strength, as compared to the use of com-
decrease in the percentage of the fly ash bination of fly ash and bottom ash in nor-
and the water-to-cementitious materials mal concrete with strength of 63% for
ratio. 7 days and 117% for 90 days with refer-
For the mixes with 0% bottom ash, ence to 28-day strength [20]. Also, at
an increase of 18% strength at 28 days 20% bottom ash content, an increase of
and 40% at 365 days was observed with 23% strength at 28 days and 18% at
the decrease of fly ash content from 35 365 days was observed with the decrease
 74 R. Siddique et al.

Table 4. Compressive strength (MPa).

Fly ash (%) 0% Bottom ash 10% Bottom ash 20% Bottom ash 30% Bottom ash
7 days
15 29.55 25.78 22.7 20.78
25 25.52 22.13 21.21 19.18
35 22.78 20.49 18.21 15.23

28 days
15 35.19 35.07 28.89 25.77
25 31.47 27.83 25.47 21.22
35 29.62 25.44 23.33 18.22

90 days
15 58.99 46.49 39.48 36.24
25 43.77 36.94 35.52 32.33
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35 40.88 33.62 32.89 31.53

365 days
15 61.24 48.78 45.34 41.81
25% 46.47 42.20 40.00 38.47
35% 43.73 40.30 38.51 36.50

T50 vs V-funnel
5
500mm Slump flow( s)
Time required to reach

0
-1.0 1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0
Tme required to flow through V-funnel(s)

Figure 2. Relationship of time required to flow through V-funnel and to reach 500 mm of slump
flow.

of fly ash content from 35 to 15%. bottom ash but slightly less than that for
At 7 days F15BA20, F25BA20, and 0% bottom ash. The gain of strength for
F35BA20 gained 78, 83, and 79%; at various mixes was observed to be 56–
90 days gained 141, 139, and 137%; and 63% higher than that for 10% bottom ash
at 365 days gained 165, 157 and 156% of (51–59%) between 7 and 90 days increas-
28-day strength. The gain of strength at ing with increase in cement content. At
7 days was observed to be 78–83% of the the bottom ash content of 30%, a gain of
28-day strength, higher than that for 10% strength of about 41% at 28 days and
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials 75

Table 5. Split tensile strength (MPa).

Fly ash (%) 0% Bottom ash 10% Bottom ash 20% Bottom ash 30% Bottom ash
28 days
15 2.40 2.26 2.12 1.90
25 1.83 1.69 1.62 1.48
35 1.55 1.48 1.41 1.27

90 days
15 2.68 2.40 2.26 2.05
25 2.12 1.90 1.76 1.69
36 1.76 1.69 1.55 1.48

365 days
15 2.96 2.82 2.54 2.26
25 2.33 2.19 2.12 1.97
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35 2.12 1.97 1.82 1.69

14% at 365 days (as compared to 18 and 5.2.2. Split tensile strength
40% for 0% bottom ash, 37 and 21% for An increase of about 18% in split tensile
10% bottom ash, and 23% and 18 for strength at 28 days and 40% at 365 days
20% bottom ash) was observed with the was observed with the decrease of fly ash
decrease in fly ash contents from 35% content from 35 to 15%. The strength
(F35BA30) to 15% (F15BA30).These values at 7 days of F35BA0 are compara-
findings are similar to the ones by Bai ble with the results reported by Lachemi
et al. [21] in normal concrete, wherein et al. [22] for the replacements with fly
they concluded that when the bottom ash ash at 40% of total powder content. But
content was increased, the decrease in strength at 28 days was found to be lower
compressive strength could be attributed since no VMA and AEA was added to
to the increase in water demand. In nor- the SCC mixes. It was observed that the
mal concrete also the reduction in strength gain at 90 and 365 days was
strength was observed up to 30% replace- within the limits corresponding to the
ment of fine aggregate with bottom ash. amount of cement content used in
The gain of strength of mixes with the SCC mixes. For the same mix, the
replacement of 30% bottom ash at 7 days strength values corresponded to those
was 81–90% of 28-day strength, higher reported by Xie et al. [23] at 28 days age
than that observed for 0, 10, and 20% of curing. Although the amount of water
bottom ash, and the gain of strength for used for mixes in this study was higher
various mixes was observed to be 56– and no VMA was used in these mixes,
63% in comparison to 10% bottom ash sufficiently good strength could be
(51–59%) between 7 and 90 days. The obtained. An increase of about 54% of
use of fly ash and bottom ash at 30% strength at 28 days and 40% at 365 days
replacement in SCC also showed 90-day was observed with the decrease of the fly
strength of 141–173% and 365-day ash contents from 35 to 15%. As the per-
strength of 162–200% with reference to centage of fly ash in 0% bottom ash
28-day strength. The gain of strength mixes decreased, the tensile strength
increased with replacement of fine aggre- increased at all ages. The F35BA0,
gate with bottom ash and was found to F25BA0, and F15BA0 showed the gain
be comparable with the SCC mixes with- of split tensile strength to be 5.2, 5.8,
out bottom ash.
 76 R. Siddique et al.

and 6.8% of 28-day compressive strength a compressive strength of 40–50 MPa with
at 28 days; 4.3, 4.8, and 4.5% of 28-day 15–36% fly ash replacement.
compressive strength at 90 days, and 4.8,
5, and 4.8% at 365 days. The gain of split
tensile strength for various mixes was 5.3. Durability properties
observed to be between 4.3 and 5% at 28 5.3.1. Carbonation
and 90 days, increasing with increase in
Durability and, more specifically, carbon-
cement content. For 10% bottom ash
ation are of major importance for rein-
mixes, an increase of about 52% of
forced concrete structures. Before using
strength at 28 days and 43% at 365 days
new material like bottom ash in SCC, the
was observed with the decrease of the fly
carbonation behavior needs to be investi-
ash contents from 35 to 15%. As the per-
gated to study the effect of use of fly ash
centage of fly ash in 0% bottom ash
and bottom ash on SCC. Phenolphthalein
mixes decreased, the split tensile strength
indicator, which is used conventionally to
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increased at all ages. Similarly, for 20%

determine the depth of carbonation in con-
bottom ash mixes, an increase of about
crete, has a pH of approximately 9.0. The
50% strength at 28 days and 39% at
pH of all the samples tested was more
365 days was observed with the decrease
than 11. The results of carbonation depth
of the fly ash contents from 35 to 15%
in natural environment are expressed in
and an increase of about 50% strength at
Table 6, according to the square root of
28 days and 34% at 365 days was
time (T, in months). The rate of carbon-
observed with the decrease of the fly ash
ation (D) is determined by the diffusion of
contents from 35 and 15% for 30% bot-
carbon dioxide into concrete and carbon-
tom ash mixes. The mixes at 10% bottom
ated depth (X) can be expressed from
ash showed 3.5–8% strength decrease, 9–
Fick’s first law of diffusion as follows:
16% strength decrease with 20% bottom
ash, and 18–20% decrease with 30% bot-
X ¼ D
T 0:5 ð1Þ
tom ash at 28 days to corresponding to
mixes with 0% bottom ash. The mixes
Equations (2)–(5) give the various
with 10% bottom ash showed 4–10%
relationships established [24].
strength decrease, 12–18% strength
decrease with 20% bottom ash, and 16–
pH\7:5 Dc ¼ 100 ð2Þ
23% decrease with 30% bottom ash at
90 days in comparison to corresponding
mixes with 0% bottom ash. The mixes at 7:5\pH\9:0
10% bottom ash showed 4–8.5% strength ð3Þ
Dc ¼ 33:33 pH þ 349:98
decrease, 8–16% strength decrease with
20% bottom ash, and 15–23% decrease
with 30% bottom ash at 365 days in com- 9:0\pH\11:5
parison to corresponding mixes with 0% ð4Þ
Dc ¼ 20 pH þ 230
bottom ash.
For all percentages of fly ash, an
increase in compressive and split tensile pH > 11:5 Dc ¼ 0 ð5Þ
strength with age was observed. All mixes
showed strength gain beyond 28 days and The above results indicate that the
the mixes with 15 and 36% fly ash mixes zones of carbonation can be identified as
gained strength of the order of 58.99 and fully carbonated, partly carbonated, and
40.88 MPa, respectively, at 90 days. How- noncarbonated, according to the degree
ever, it was possible to produce SCC with of carbonation of the concrete, in relation
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials 77

Table 6. Carbonation depth and pH for SCC mixes in natural environment.

90 Days 365 Days

Coefficient Coefficient
Mix Xp(mm) (Xp/age0.5) pH value Xp(mm) (Xp/age0.5) pH value
F15BA0 0.83 0.472 11.70 1.33 0.384 11.27
F15BA10 0.50 0.289 11.2 0.60 0.173 11.4
F15BA20 0.83 0.479 11.72 1.33 0.384 11.41
F15BA30 1.17 0.676 11.90 1.66 0.479 11.10
F25BA0 1.00 0.577 11.2 1.50 0.433 11.52
F25BA10 0.67 0.387 11.84 0.95 0.274 11.67
F25BA20 1.00 0.577 11.81 1.74 0.502 11.65
F25BA30 2.33 1.345 11.62 3.67 1.059 11.25
F35BA0 1.33 0.768 11.36 1.78 0.514 11.69
F35BA10 1.00 0.577 11.78 1.10 0.318 11.43
F35BA20 1.33 0.768 11.72 2.10 0.606 11.27
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F35BA30 1.67 0.964 11.70 2.50 0.722 11.39

to the respective pH of the pore solution. mixes with 0% bottom ash. The replace-
The fully carbonated zone is defined by ment with 20% bottom ash has the same
the colorless depth of the phenolphthalein effect on carbonation as the replacement
indicator. In this area, the degree of car- with 0%, i.e. without bottom ash mixes
bonation exceeds 50% and the pH of the at 90 days. It was observed that 10%
pore solution in this zone is smaller than replacement of fine aggregates with bot-
9.0. In the partly carbonated zone, the tom ash was optimum level of replace-
presence of both Ca(OH) and CaCO3 is ment for carbonation and carbonation
observed and the degree of carbonation depth with 30% bottom ash exceeded for
in the specimen lies between 0 and 50%. all SCC mixes with different fly ash per-
The pH of the pore solution in the partly centages. The carbonation depth of vari-
carbonated zone lies between 9.0 and ous SCC mixes with 0, 10, 20, and 30%
11.5. For the noncarbonated zone, the pH bottom ash at 90 days and 365 days is
of the pore solution is greater than 11.5 shown in Figures 3 and 4. It can be seen
and no signs of carbonation are observed. that carbonation depth increased with
Identification of three zones of carbon- increase in age. From 25% till 35% fly
ation in concrete may help in applying ash, the carbonation depth was almost
concepts that pertain to composite materi- constant for 0, 10, and 20% bottom ash
als to the analysis of the mechanical contents at 90 days. When the bottom ash
behaviors of carbonated concrete content was 30%, the variation of carbon-
structures. However, concerning rein- ation depth was observed. Figure 3 for
forcement corrosion, the pH value using 90 days indicates that for most of the
phenolphthalein indicator is a good indi- mixes, the carbonation depth lies between
cation for corrosion initiation. 1 and 2 mm and Figure 4 for 365 days
The bottom ash and fly ash content indicates that for most of the mixes, the
seems to be the main factors governing carbonation depth lies between 0 and
the carbonation resistance of SCC mixes. 2 mm. Also, the amount of carbonation
The carbonation depth at 10% replace- material (e.g. a different type of cement,
ment of fine aggregates with bottom ash use of fly ash as filler etc.) in the con-
was observed to be less than that for the crete has a strong influence.
 78 R. Siddique et al.

90 Days Carbonation 0% Bottom ash 10% Bottom ash

20% Bottom ash 30% Bottom ash
2
Carbonation Depth
1.5

0.5

0
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10 20 30 40
Fly ash % age

Figure 3. Carbonation depth for various fly ash and bottom ash percentages (90 days).

5.3.2. Deicing salt surface scaling at 35% was considerably less than that
resistance observed at 15%, but more than that
The average cumulative mass of scaled- observed for 25%.
off material was obtained after 50 freez- For 365 days age, the weight loss was
ing–thawing cycles along with average almost consistent for all percentages of
visual surface ratings determined as per fly ash varying between 0.525 and
the ASTM C672. Results are given in 0.750 kg/m2 as indicated in Figure 5. On
Table 7. At 90 days, the maximum weight increasing the bottom ash content to
loss was observed with 15% fly ash for 10%, the variation was between 0.375
all bottom ash contents. The weight loss and 0.625 kg/m2. The 20% bottom ash

365 Days Carbonation 0% Bottom ash 10% Bottom ash

20% Bottom ash 30% Bottom ash

2.5
Carbonation Depth

1.5

0.5

0
10 20 30 40
Fly ash % age

Figure 4. Carbonation depth for various fly ash and bottom ash percentages (365 days).
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials 79

Table 7. Weight loss and visual rating for SCC mixes.

90 day 365 day

2
Mix Weight loss (kg/m ) Visual rating Weight loss (kg/m2) Visual rating
F15BA0 3.7 1 0.525 0
F15BA10 3.375 0 0.375 0
F15BA20 3.625 1 0.35 0
F15BA30 4.25 2 0.75 1
F25BA0 1.125 1 0.45 0
F25BA10 0.9 1 0.35 0
F25BA20 0.5 1 0.2 0
F25BA30 0.625 1 0.275 0
F35BA0 2.25 1 0.75 0
F35BA10 2 1 0.625 0
F35BA20 0.5 0 0.45 1
F35BA30 1.5 1 0.45 1
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content showed the weight loss between methylcellulose, and a superplasticizer on

0.350 and 0.450 kg/m2 and found to be the frost durability of fluid concrete mix-
gradually decreasing with the increase in tures (without the presence of fly ash).
bottom ash content from 0 to 20%. The He concluded that regardless of the air-
minimum weight loss was observed for spacing factor and the presence of VMA,
20% bottom ash. such fluid concrete mixtures could have
The freezing and thawing cycles in poor surface scaling resistance, which
combination with deicing salts of the was attributed to the relatively high
mixes were done for the SCC mixes [25]. porosity of the skin of the concrete. But
Khayat [26] investigated the effect of the in the present study, the visual rating as
sequence of adding an air-entraining per ASTM C 672 for most of the mixes
admixture, two commonly used VMAs, was between 0 and 1 and never exceeded
namely welan gum and hydroxypropyl 2. Also, it was observed that 20%

90 Days Weight Loss 0% Bottom ash 10% Bottom ash

20% Bottom ash 30% Bottom ash
5
Deicing Weight Loss

4
(Kg/m )

3
2

0
10 20 30 40
Fly ash % age

Figure 5. Weight loss for various fly ash and bottom ash percentages (90 days).
 80 R. Siddique et al.

365 Days Weight Loss 0% Bottom ash 10% Bottom ash

20% Bottom ash 30% Bottom ash
0.8

Deicing Weight Loss

(Kg/m ) 0.6
2

0.4

0.2

0
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10 20 30 40
Fly ash % age

Figure 6. Weight loss for various fly ash and bottom ash percentages (365 days).

replacement with bottom ash was opti- (4) A comparison between SCC with
mum level of replacement for deicing salt various fly ash contents and at vari-
surface scaling and replacement of fine ous levels of replacements of fine
aggregates by bottom ash could be easily aggregates by bottom ash showed
carried out till 20%. It can be seen that that SCC obtained compressive
weight loss decreased with increase in and split tensile strength increase
age. At 365-day age, salt frost scaling on decrease of water/powder ratio.
was less than that at 90-day age of (5) The carbonation depth for mixes
testing (Figure 6). with 10% replacement of fine
aggregates with bottom ash was
observed to be less than that for
6. Conclusions
the mixes with 0% bottom ash. It
was observed that 10% replace-
(1) The SCC mixes without bottom ment of fine aggregates with bot-
ash achieved 28-day cube com- tom ash was optimum level of
pressive strengths of 35–30 MPa replacement for carbonation.
using 15–35% fly ash. As the (6) As was expected, the carbonation
bottom ash content increased, a depth of various mixes containing
decrease in compressive strength bottom ash increased with increase
was observed for a specific age at in age.
particular fly ash content. (7) The pH measurement results
(2) The compressive strength and split showed that ash mixes exhibit
tensile strength were found to high alkalinity, indicating low cor-
increase with age for all mixes rosion potential.
with varying percentages of fly (8) At age of 90 days, the maximum
ash and bottom ash. weight loss was observed with
(3) As the bottom ash content 15% fly ash for all bottom ash
increased, decrease in split tensile contents. At age of 365 days, the
strength was observed for a specific weight loss was almost consistent
age at particular fly ash content. for all percentages of fly ash at 0%
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials 81

bottom ash varying between 0.525 ANN, fuzzy logic, etc. She is a reviewer of
and 0.750 kg/m2. The minimum seven leading International Journals.
weight loss was observed for 20%
Yogesh Aggarwal is working as an assistant
bottom ash. The weight loss
professor, Civil Engineering Department of
decreased with increase in age. National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra,
(9) Based on the materials used in India. He earned his PhD degree from
this study, the results suggested National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra,
that it is technically feasible to uti- India. His areas of interest include
investigation of concrete (normal and SCC)
lize bottom ash as a part of paste
incorporating industrial by-products and
content in the production of SCC. modeling the different properties of concrete
Besides environmental benefits, using ANN, SVM, M5-Model trees, etc.
there could be some technical and
economical advantages as well.
(10) As a general result, the presence References
of fly ash and bottom ash affects
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