Reproduction

● Perpetuation, multiplication, and replication of species at the same time

● What allows this in the cellular level is cellular reproduction
● Demands a lot of energy
Goals of Cellular Reproduction
● Procreation
○ Reproduction: perpetuation of its own kind
○ The parent must be the same with its offspring
○ In order for organisms to survive and continue, it requires continuous cell division
○ Might extinct if not reproduction
● Cell Repair
○ Repairing wounds and injuries
○ For that to happen, there is a need for cells to reproduce
● Cell Growth and Development
○ Cells that make up bones also reproduce, resulting in the increase of height
○ Allows your bone to increase in size is because of continuous cell reproduction
○ Production of hormones that increase the growth and development of secondary sex characteristics
● Production of Gametes/Gametogenesis
DNA
● Drives cellular reproduction
● Since it contains the genetic material of the parent, DNA must be duplicated before reproduction
● The genetic material from the parent must be passed to the offspring
● Since the nucleus is a microscopic organelle, there is a need for DNA to be organized into smaller
complex structure
○ DNA coils itself to histones until it becomes more compact
○ This is because DNA is a long structure
 ○ It becomes chromatin and not actively dividing
■ -not organized form (condensed)
● From nucleosome
When does chromatin become a chromosome?
● If the cell is ready to divide
● Otherwise, we would see a fiber-like structure, called chromatin
Terms
● Cell cycle
● Chromosome
○ Only found during a cell that is actively dividing, X or Y like appearance
● Chromatid
○ one of two identical halves of a replicated chromosome
● Chromatin
○ onsists of the unravelled condensed structure of DNA for the purpose of packaging into the nucleus
● Diploid number
○ the number of chromosomes required for two complete copies of the organism's genome
● Gametes
○ an organism's reproductive cells
● Germ cell
○ (other term for gametes)
● Haploid number
○ (contrast of diploid) half number of chromosomes
● Histone
○ (proteins binding dna, the initial protein in DNA organization)
● Homologous pair (meiosis)
○ Pair of chromosomes with similar binding patterns, etc which are necessary for the control of cell
division
 ● Meiosis( involving gametes)
● Mitosis (cellular division involving body cells)
● Sister chromatids
○ Called sister chromatids because each of the chromatids are the same length as one another
● Somatic cell
○ Body cells like skin cells, nerve cells, muscle cells, etc. that undergo mitotic cell division
● Gametogenesis
○ the production of gametes from haploid precursor cells
● Oogenesis
○ growth process in which the primary egg cell (or ovum) becomes a mature ovum
● Spermatogenesis
○ Genesis- start/beginning
○ origin and development of the sperm cells within the male reproductive organs

Chromosome Structure
● Centromere- binds the sister chromatids together
○ Attaches upper and lower arm
○ P(short) and Q (long) arm
● Kinetochore
○ Additional protein structure in the centromere
○ Attach to another centromere, kinetochore
■ Both function for attaching,
■ Centromere (bind arms)
■ Kinetochore (attached microtubules)
● Telomere
○ The area/segment in a chromosome found at the endpoints of the sister chromatids
○ Band patterns
 ○ Gene locus(loci) are where alleles are assigned

Types of Chromosomes
● Autosomes - determines your physical traits like skin color, hair color; determined by the genetic material
found in the autosomes, there are 22 of these pairs
● Sex chromosomes - determines the biological sex of an organism, the 23rd pair of the chromosomes is
the sex chromosomes
● Number of centromeres - there are instances where there are more than one centromere
● Location of centromeres - there are instances where centromeres are far above or far below
● P arm - shorter arm
● Q arm - longer arm

● During meiosis there is a process that requires homologous pair and the basis of the pairs are
■ similar length; location; number of bands;
○ Otherwise they cannot be paired

How to determine the types (Karyotypes)

How do we visualize chromosomes

● The imagery of a chromosome of an organism can be visualized using karyotype

○ Synonymous of photograph
○ Show chromosome pairs 1-23
●
○ Male- has XY pair, which contains 1 short and 1 long
○ Female- has XX pair which has 2 long
● Prenatal screening - uses this imagery to detect genetic disorders
○ Also used to determine if there are less or more chromosomes
○ Prepares parents for the possibility of their child to have a disease
Number of Centromeres
● Monocentric - 1
● Dicentric - 2
● Polycentric - more than 2
● Acentric - no centromere
● Diffused or non located - there is a centromere but not prominent
Location of Centromere
● Telocentric - where the centromere is near one arm
● Acrocentric - more directed towards the p arm, A chromosome in which the centromere is very close to
one end
● Metacentric - found in the center, meaning both arms are of equal length
● Submetacentric - not too far from the center’

Function of chromosome

● Genetic Code Storage -

● Sex Determination - XY and XX
● Control of Cell division - Homologous pairing means that there is a control of cell division
● Protein Synthesis and Storage - Code storage will be transcribed and be turned to amino acids

Omnis cellula e cellula - Rudolf Virchow

● An idea that every cell comes from a pre-existing cell
● One of the foundations of the cell theory
● Three scientists that formed the statements of the cell theory
 ○ Theodore Schwann, Mattias Schleiden, Rudolf Virchow
● Every daughter cell must come from a parent cell but the origins of the parent cell is still a point of
controversy

Cell Cycle

1. Interphase
a. Growth stage; longest stage; time when cells grow in size and DNA is duplicated; formation of
relevant proteins
b. Divided into 3 stages
i. G1 -- S -- G2
c. G1 - amino acids are formed
d. S-phase- Before passing on, it requires duplication so that the daugther cell would be identical and
to ensure the identity
 e. G2- Several checkpoints are being done to determine if the cells are correct, and if chromosomes
are properly duplicated
f. If all errors are corrected, and the quality is okay, then that will be the only time the cell would
proceed to mitosis; It is only applicable to body cells
2. Mitosis
a. P - M - A - T
b. Chromosomes are checked, if it is duplicated, and there are equal points; only then the cytokinesis
will occur
c. If there is an error in mitosis It would just lead to cell death or apoptosis
i. Disintegration of the cell, but not entirely, and some organelles is assembled in the cell
3. Cytokinesis
● If the cell has errors, it will perform apoptosis, or programmed cell death, to not waste energy or undergo
energy-extensive repairs
● After G1, there are some cases where cells go to G0 which is cell cycle arrest such as if the cell is not yet
ready to divide
● Sex cells
○ Germ cells would undergo meiosis, instead of mitosis
○ Checkpoint
■ Ensure daughter cell would have nuclear envelope and is complete

Checkpoints
1. Cell Growth Checkpoint
● Occurs toward the end of growth phase (G1)
● Checks whether the cell is big enough and has made the proper proteins for the synthesis
● If not, the cell goes through a resting phase (G0) until it is ready to divide
2. DNA Synthesis Checkpoint
● Occurs during the synthesis phase (s)
 ● Checks whether the DNA has been replicated correctly
● If so, the cell continues on to mitosis (M)
3. Mitosis Checkpoint
● Occurs during the mitosis phase (M)
● Checks whether mitosis is complete
● If so, the cell divides and cycle repeats

Cell Division
● Nuclear - If the nucleus is divided, then it is nuclear division; There will be 2 nucleus
○ Mitosis - results in two identical diploid (2n) daughter cells; Occurs in somatic cells
○ Meiosis -
■ results in four haploid (n) daughter cells
● 46 into 23
■ Occurs in sex (germ) cells
■ Begin with 1 parent cell with a diploid number 46
■ Division of the cell happens twice
● 1 parent cell would produce 4 daughter cells

● Cytoplasmic
○ Cytokinesis - the splitting of the cytoplasm; Karyokinesis

Mitosis
● 4 phases ( P - M - A - T)
○ Prophase
1. Chromatin condenses into chromosomes
 2. The nuclear membrane disappears
3. Spindle fibers begin to form and attach to the Chromosome
○ Metaphase
1. Sister chromatids are pulled by motor proteins
a. Goes to middle
2. The spindle fibers will push and pull the kinetochores
3. The chromatids will be aligned in the middle (equatorial or metaphase plate) ensuring that the
split will be equal
○ Anaphase
1. Microtubules shorten
2. Sister chromatids will separate
3. Microtubules move the chromosomes toward opposite poles
○ Telophase
1. Chromosomes arrive at the poles and decondense
2. Nuclear membrane begins to form
3. Nucleoli reappear
4. Spindle apparatus disassembles
5. Some microtubules are recycled to build cytoskeleton
○ Cytokinesis
■ In animal cells, the cleavage for splitting is called cleavage furrow
■ In plant cells, a cell plate is formed because it cannot be pinched or split
■ The result is a cell with a diploid number of chromosomes
1. Division of 1 nucleus into 2 nuclei and 2 separate daughter cells
2. Millions of cells divide providing repair

●
 ●

Meiosis
● More on reproduction of gametes
● Particularly occurs twice
○ The subsequent events are divided into 2
■ The number of daughter cells will be halved (haploid)

Series of events occurring in meiosis

● The P - M - A - T occurs twice, named I or II
● In between telophase 1 and cytokinesis there is no interphase
Meiosis I

● Reduction Division of chromosomes

○ From Diploid number to Haploid number
○ Diploid is the whole number of chromosomes (46 for humans) also represented as 2n
○ After meiosis 1 the diploid number of the cell would be reduced and be in half : haploid number (23)
○ Thus the term reduction
 ● Also occurs in animals that perform sexual reproduction

Prophase I
● After interphase there is growth and duplication of the dna, the loosely organized chromatin will begin to condense, thus
chromosomes (organized version) will be visible
● Kinetochore: where the microtubules are attached at the end of prophase
● The sister chromatids will pair up each other
○ Called homologous pairing

○
○ Paired based on their similar characteristics
■ Depending on the length of the chromosome, position and number of centromere (in example both only have
1), classification of centromeres,
● There is an instance that there is an overlap between sister chromatids which is called as crossing over
○
■ The letters are referred to as alleles, with each has a pair
■ A part of the original allele will be exchanged between the others
■ At the end, there will be recombination of the protein

○
●
○ More visible in karyotype, arranged
■ The band pattern (locus) = allele
● Homologous chromosome are tetrads
○ Means that they are formed by four chromatids
○ Bivalent - 1 pair of the chromatids in the tetrad
 ○
○ Overlapping sister chromatids
Metaphase
● eventually forming double alignment at metaphase state
● What allows the double alignment is the microtubules
○ in homologous pairs the spindle fiber is attached to only 1 pole in each to chromatid
Anaphase
● Only 1 is attached,
○ It will not pull apart both, sister chromatids will remain and not singular
Telophase
● New appearance of nucleus
○ Already reduced in half
○ 6 chromatids
■ Led to reduction of sister chromatids in each of the resulting daughter cells
Cytokinesis
 ● Haploid number of chromosomes
●
Meiosis II
● Only continuation of meiosis
● The haploid number of chromosomes is retained
● Just like mitosis
Prophase II

●
Metaphase II
●

●
● Instead of a plain sister chromatids, what we have is recombinant
 ○ Clear differences of their DNa
Anaphase II

●
Telophase II

Cytokinesis II
● 4 haploid daughter cells, with each of the daughter cells contain recombinant daughter cell, and increased genetic cell
diversity
○ The deciding factor for sexual reproduction

● Chromosome
○ Highly organized form of dna actively dividing cell
 ○
● Chromatid
○ Synonymously referred to as sister chromatids
● Chromatin
○ Loosely organized chromosok
○ Interphase Early prophase

ropical Kiss (09:25)

– Wagaya no Liliana-san (20:35)

– Shikkoku no Shaga (22:15)
– Mother Knows Breast (33:15)
– Harem Time (43:35)
– Houkago no Yuutousei (56:14)
– Anata wa Watashi no Mono: Do S Kanojo to Do M Kareshi (1:11:22)
– Overflow (1:19:55)
– Joshi Ochi! 2-kai kara Onnanoko ga... Futte Kita!? (1:21:10)
– Kuroinu (1:23:35)
– Kansen Sodom (1:41:55)
– Hitozuma, Mitsu to Niku (1:55:00)

Also they talked about "Succubus Stayed Life" quite frequently.