pn Junction I-V Characteristics

Semiconductor Devices and Circuits

(ECE 181302)
21st August 2023

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Review

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Forward Biased pn Junction
• The applied external voltage VF is in the
direction that subtracts from the barrier
(built-in) voltage V0.
• Reduces the barrier voltage to V0−VF.
• Narrower depletion-region width W.
• More holes diffuse from p to n and more
electrons to diffuse from n to p.
• Diffusion current ID becomes much larger
than the drift current IS.
• The current I in the external circuit from p
to n is: I = ID – IS

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Current–Voltage (I-V) Relationship of the Forward
Biased Junction
• Under the forward-bias voltage the
concentration of holes injected into the
n region at the edge of the depletion
region increases considerably.
• The concentration of the minority holes
increases from the equilibrium value of
pn0 to a much larger value determined
by the value of V, and it is given by:

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• Relationship between V0 and the doping concentrations on each side of the junction
uses the equilibrium in the drift and diffusion current equations.
• The drift and diffusion components of the hole current cancel at equilibrium:
𝑑𝑝(𝑥)
𝐽𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑞 𝜇𝑝 𝑝 𝑥 𝐸 (𝑥) − 𝐷𝑝 =0
𝑑𝑥
• Rearranging:
𝜇𝑝 1 𝑑𝑝(𝑥)
𝐸(𝑥) =
𝐷𝑝 𝑝(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
• The electric field written in terms of the gradient in the potential:
𝑑𝑉(𝑥) Remember the Einstein relationship:
𝐸 𝑥 =− • VT = kT/q where VT is known as the
𝑑𝑥
thermal voltage.
𝑞 𝑑𝑉 𝑥 1 𝑑𝑝(𝑥) • At room temperature, T = 300 K
− = and VT = 25.9 mV.
𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

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• Integrating on both sides:
𝑉𝑛 𝑝𝑛
𝑞 1
− න 𝑑𝑉 = න 𝑑𝑝
𝑘𝑇 𝑉𝑝 𝑝𝑝 𝑝
𝑞
− 𝑉𝑛 − 𝑉𝑝 = 𝐼𝑛 𝑝𝑛 − 𝐼𝑝 𝑝𝑝
𝑘𝑇
• The potential difference Vn - Vp is the barrier potential V0 .
• V0 in terms of the equilibrium hole concentrations on either
side of the junction:
𝑘𝑇 𝑝𝑝
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐼𝑛
𝑞 𝑝𝑛
• Which is also:
𝑝𝑝
= 𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝑜 Τ𝑘𝑇
𝑝𝑛
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Minority-carrier distribution in a forward-biased pn junction. The p region is more heavily doped than the n
region; NA >> ND.
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• The forward-bias voltage VF results in an excess concentration of minority holes
at x = xn, which is given by;
Excess concentration

• As the injected holes diffuse into the n material, some will recombine with the
majority electrons and disappear.
• The excess hole concentration will decay exponentially with distance and as a
result the total hole concentration in the n material becomes:

• The exponential decay is characterized by the constant Lp, which is called the
diffusion length of holes in the n material.

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Diffusion Current Density
• Diffusion current equation due to the concentration gradient of holes in the n region;

• Jp(x) is highest at x = xn and decays exponentially for x > xn, as the minority holes
recombine with the majority electrons.

• Recombination means that the majority electrons will have to be replenished by a

current that injects electrons from the external circuit into the n region of the junction.
• Similarly, for electrons injected from the n to the p region, results in an electron diffusion
current:

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Junction Current Equation
• The two current densities due to diffusion of holes and electrons add and when
they are multiplied by the junction area A give the total current I in the junction:

• Substituting for and for gives

• For a negative V (reverse bias) with a magnitude of a few times VT (25.9 mV), the
exponential term becomes essentially zero, and the current across the junction
becomes negative and constant.
and

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pn Junction I-V Characteristics

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 Diode Equation: Shockley’s Equation
• Describes the current passing through an ideal pn
junction diode due to applying a voltage VD

  qv D     v  
i D = I S  exp  − 1 = I S  exp D  −1
  nkT     nVT  

where IS = reverse saturation current (A)

vD = voltage applied to diode (V)
 q = electronic charge (1.60 x 10-19 C) kT
k = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K) VT = VT  26 mV
q
T = absolute temperature
n = nonideality factor (dimensionless)
VT = kT/q = thermal voltage (V) (25 mV at room temp.)
IS is typically between 10-18 and 10-9 A, and is strongly temperature dependent due to its dependence on ni2. The
nonideality factor is typically close to 1, but approaches 2 for devices with high current densities. It is generally12
taken as 1.
 I–V Characteristic: Mathematical Approximation

  v    v 
i D = I S  exp D
 − 1  I S exp D 
  nVT    nVT 

 Forward current due to

diffusion of majority
carriers

Reverse leakage
current due to drift of
thermally generated
minority carriers

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   v    v 
i D = I S  exp D
 − 1  I S exp D 
  nVT    nVT 

  v  
i D = I S  exp D  − 1  I S 0 − 1  −I S
  nVT  

  v  
i D = I S  exp D  − 1  I S 1 − 1  0
  nVT  

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
Diode Characteristics
• A plot of a current passing through a
diode against an applied voltage is
referred to as Current-Voltage (I-V)
characteristics of the diode.
• The current density passing through an
ideal pn-junction diode due to applying
a voltage (V) is described by the
Shockley’s Equation.
• Diodes conduct current when “Forward
Biased” ( Zero resistance).
• Diodes do not conduct when Reverse
Biased (Infinite resistance).
• Diode always conducts in one direction.

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I-V Characteristics
• Two different regions are seen: forward
and reverse region.
• Forward current is zero at zero-bias
condition.
• The current increases slightly until
reaches approximately 0.7 V at the knee
of the curve.
• After knee voltage the forward current
increases rapidly.
• The forward voltage is approximately
equal to the built-in-voltage.
• Different sections of the I-V characteristic
curve also represent different
resistances. Can you identify?

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Diode Equivalent Circuits
• Three different approximations can be
used when analyzing diode circuits.
• The one used depends on the desired
accuracy of your circuit calculations.
• These approximations are referred to
as:
1. The first approximation
2. The second approximation
3. The third approximation

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1. The First Approximation

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Ideal Diode Model
The first approximation treats a forward-biased diode like a closed switch with a
voltage drop of zero volts.

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2. The Second Approximation
• Constant Voltage Drop (CVD) Model

➢ Replace the junction diode

with two devices – an ideal
diode in series with a 0.7 V
voltage source

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The second approximation treats a forward-biased diode like an ideal diode in
series with a battery:

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3. The Third Approximation
• Piece-Wise Linear (PWL) model

➢Replace the junction diode with

three devices - an ideal diode, in
series with a voltage source and
a resistor

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PWL Diode Model

• Step 1 - Replace each junction diode with the three devices

of the PWL model.
• Step 2 - Analyze the IDEAL diode circuit. Determine and
for each IDEAL diode.
• Step 3 – Determine the approximate values and of
the junction diode from the ideal diode values and

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First Derivative of the Diode Equation

• The slope of the curve at one particular point—the bias point.

• The derivative function at that point.
• Numeric value of the slope at our bias point.

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▪ The third approximation of a diode includes the bulk resistance, rB.
▪ The bulk resistance, rB is the resistance of the p and n materials.

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References:

• Microelectronic Circuits, 7th edition by Adel S. Sedra Kenneth C. Smith.

• G. Streetman, and S. K. Banerjee, “Solid State Electronic Devices,” 7th
edition, Pearson,2014.
• D. Neamen, D. Biswas, "Semiconductor Physics and Devices," McGraw-Hill
Education.
• Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory 11th Edition by Boylestad, Robert . L,
Louis Nashelskyl.
• http://ecee.colorado.edu/~bart/book/book/contents.htm
• http://www.ecse.rpi.edu/~schubert/Course-ECSE-2210-Microelectronics-
Technology-2010/

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