Introduction

Chapter 5 Section 1

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 Introduction: Diodes
• Diodes: two-terminal devices
• In semiconductors, made by junctions between
two different materials
– Homojunctions: junctions between two differently
doped regions of the same semiconductor material
– Heterojunctions: junctions between two different
types of materials (usually means semiconductor
materials)
– Metal-semiconductor junctions
• But not all metal-semiconductor junctions are diodes
 Diodes
• Diodes can act as switches
• For one polarity of applied voltage, current flows
(nearly a short circuit)
• For other polarity, current does not flow (nearly an
open circuit)

Silicon homojunction:
turns on at around 0.7V
 Circuit equivalent
• Open circuit (for V<0.7 • Looks like a power
V) supply: 0.7 V and
supplies current
 Circuit symbol
• Ideal diode:
– For V<0, no current flows
– For V>0, short circuit
• More realistic silicon
diode:
– For V>≈0.7 V, current
flows (current increases
exponentially with
voltage)
– For V<0.7 V, current flow
is neglible
 Rectifier circuit example
• Let input be AC signal of
60 Hz, with 5 volt
amplitude
• Take output voltage
across the resistor
– Let R=2KΩ
• Let the diode be
represented by
equivalent circuit shown
• Plot the input and
output waveforms
 Input
voltage

Voltage:
• Remains 0 until input reaches 0.7 V
• Then Vout= Vin-0.7V until Vin returns to
0 (0.7 V dropped across the diode)
• Vout stays at zero until Vin>0.7 V

Current:
• Is zero until input reaches 0.7
V
• Then
Vout 5sin ( 377t ) - 0.7
I= =
R 2 ´ 10 3
 How we’ll proceed
• Operation of semiconductor diode junctions will
be explained using energy band diagrams
– Draw diagrams in electrical neutrality first, lining up
vacuum levels
– Let regions come into contact (in your imagination);
charges flow until equilibrium is reached
– At equilibrium, Ef is a constant
– Redraw with Fermi levels lined up
• Then we’ll investigate influence of applied voltages
 Prototype pn homojunctions
• Junction between n-type and p-type of same
kind of semiconductor
• Example: start with a p-type substrate
• Implant phosphorus atoms (donors) in certain
region
• Junction occurs along B-B’ cross section
 Doping profile
• Background acceptor concentration is
constant (NA)
• Typical donor concentration profile shown
• We’ll approximate as step function
• Junction occurs at x0
 Step junction model
• Assume doping profile is a step function
– On the n-side, ND’=ND-NA (constant)
– On the p-side, NA’=NA-ND (constant)
• Assume all impurities are ionized
– Then n0 on the n side is n0=ND’
– Then p0 on the p side is p0=NA’
• Neglect impurity-induced band gap narrowing for this
model
– If either side of junction is degenerate, take Ef to be at band
edge EC0 or EV0 if ND’ or NA’ is greater than 1018 cm-3
 Key points
• A pn junction will be a diode
– Two-terminal device
– Diode conducts current in one
direction but not the other
• Will analyze using step
junction approximation
• Will understand using
energy band diagrams
Prototype pn Junctions
(Qualitative)- Energy
Band Diagrams Part A
Chapter 5 Section 2.1

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 Introduction
• We’ll assemble the energy band diagram of a
pn junction
• There will be a built-in voltage
• There will be an internal electric field
• Two parts: Part A: Equilibrium, Part B: under
bias
• This section is all qualitative- understand the
physics
Step 1: Electrical neutrality
 Step 2: Join sides
• When the sides are “joined,”
charges flow from one side to
the other
• As electrons flow, they leave
behind (positively charged)
ionized donors
– Donors cannot move
• Holes flow, leaving behind
(negatively charged) ionized
acceptors
• Separation of charges sets up
electric field
 Currents
é ù
ê ú
dn ê kT dn ú
J n =qm n nE + qDn =qmn n +
dx ê q dx ú
ê ú
ë û
dp é kT dp ù
J p =qm p pE - qD p =qm p êpE -
dx ë q dx ú
û

Drift currents Diffusion currents

Equilibrium
 The built-in field
• Near interface, electrons from
n-side fill holes on p-side
– Results in negative charges on p-
side (un-neutralized acceptors)
• Electrons annihilate holes that
diffused into n-side
– Results in positive charges on p-
side (un-neutralized donors)
• Results in a built-in electric
field near junction
 The band edges are parallel
• Quantities γ, ϕ, and χ are
constants of the material
– Therefore EC is parallel to Evac
and EV
• An electron at EC on n-side
must acquire χ energy to
escape to vacuum level on n-
side- but to escape to vacuum
level on p-side must also
acquire additional energy qVbi
 The space charge region
• On each side is a region of
uncompensated charge:
space charge region
• Width on each side
depends on impurity
concentration on each
side and amount of
charge needed to
equalize the Fermi levels
 The depletion region
• In the space charge region,
there is an electric field
– Will accelerate mobile
charges out of region
– Mobile charges are
depleted here
• Space charge region also
called the “depletion
region”
 The built-in voltage
• Total space charge on either
side of the junction is equal
(but with opposite sign)
• There exists a built-in
potential energy barrier qVbi
– Vbi is called the built-in
voltage
– Always taken as positive (by
convention)
qVbi = F p - F n
 The junction width
• Potential energy barrier is the
same in EC as for EV
• Thus barrier is the same for
electrons as for holes
• If doping concentration is same
on both sides (NA’=ND’), width
of junction is same on both
sides
– When doping is unequal, width is
wider on the more lightly doped
side
 The band bending
• As doping increases,
built-in voltage increases
– Work functions increase,
so bands have to bend
more to align Fermi levels
 The electric field
• Electric field proportional
to slope of Evac
1 dEvac
E =
q dx

• Is steepest at
metallurgical junction
• Built-in voltage is mostly
on lightly-doped side
 One-sided junction
• When one side
is degenerately
doped, most of
junction
appears on
lightly doped
side
• Called “one-
sided junction”
 Key points
• Constructed the energy band diagram under
equilibrium
• There is a built-in voltage created by uncovered
donors and acceptors
– Space charge region
• There is an electric field in space charge region that
sweeps out electrons and holes, depleting them
– Space charge region= depletion region
• Next: what happens when you apply a voltage?
Prototype pn Junctions
(Qualitative)- Energy
Band Diagrams Part B
Chapter 5 Section 2.1

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 Introduction
• We saw how to draw the energy band diagram
at equilibrium
• What happens when we apply a bias?
 Apply a voltage Va
• Applied voltage by
convention measured
from p to n
• When VA is positive,
junction is forward-
biased
• When VA is negative,
junction is reverse-
biased
 Reverse bias
• Let Va =-1 V
• Consider pn junction in three regions: n,
p, and junction
• On n-side number of donors is equal to
number of electrons (no field)- hence
called quasi-neutral region
• There is another quasi-neutral region
on p-side
Equilibrium
• Depletion region contains ions but diagram
virtually no free carriers repeated here
Consider diode as series connection of three
resistances of these regions
• On the n-side: ρn is inversely proportional to
nn0 (subcript n means on n-side)
• On p-side: ρp inversely proportional to pp0
• In transition region, almost no free carriers
– Resistance therefore high
– Therefore applied voltage dropped almost entirely
across transition region
 To adjust energy band diagram
• Use Evac at
metallurgical junction
as reference
• Pivot bands around
this point
• The p-side is
electrically more
negative, so
represents a higher
potential energy for
electrons
• Thus p-side moves up
on diagram
• The n-side moves
down
 The junction voltage
• Junction
voltage Vj is
increased
V j =Vbi - Va
• (increased
because
recall Va is
negative)
• Greater field
at junction
 The junction voltage
• Greater field
means more
charge on either
side
• Charges are un-
neutralized donors
and acceptors
• Space charge
region gets wider
(to uncover more
of them)
• Mobile carriers are
swept out by field
Under forward voltage
• Now Va is
positive
• Space charge
region gets
smaller
• Evac not
shown-no new
information
there
 Key points
• Learned how to draw energy band diagrams
under bias
• Applied fields change internal electric fields
• Applied fields change width of depletion
region
• Next: what about the current?
Description of Current
Flow in a pn Prototype
Homojunction
Chapter 5 Section 2.2

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 Introduction
• We previously saw how to draw the energy
band diagram of a pn junction
• Learned how to modify it for the case of
applied bias
• Now we’ll see how to use the energy band
diagram to predict the behavior of the
electrons and holes
– Get a qualitative description of the current
Start with equilibrium
 Diffusion and drift
• Electrons diffuse to regions of
lower concentration (n to p)
• Holes diffuse to regions of lower
concentration (p to n)
• Electrons are accelerated by
built-in field (toward downhill
side)
• Holes accelerated by built-in
field (toward uphill side)
• At equilibrium, these current
cancel out
• Net current is zero
 Generation and recombination
• In the quasi-neutral regions, generation
and recombination rates are equal
– No fields. no concentration gradients, thus no
current flow
• In depletion region, EHPS are generated–
and there IS a field
– Electrons accelerated to left (generation
current to right)
– Holes accelerated to right (generation current
to right)
• Electrons in depletion region can
recombine with holes in depletion region
– Results in regeneration current to the left
• In any region, net G-R current is zero at
equilibrium
 Reverse bias- drift and diffusion
• Electrons trying to diffuse to p-
side are turned back by the
field
– Same for holes
– Negligible current
• Small number of electrons on
p-side that wander (diffuse)
near junction are swept over
– Similarly for holes
– Result is a net current- but small,
few carriers available
– Called minority diffusion current
 Reverse bias, generation/recombination and
tunneling
• Generation: electron
accelerated to left, hole to
right- results in net current
• Neglect recombination in
depletion region- number of
carriers miniscule
• Tunneling from VB on p-side
directly into CB on n-side can
happen
– Net tunneling current to the right
– Increases rapidly with reverse
bias voltage
 Total reverse current
• Small minority carrier diffusion current
• Small generation current
• Tunneling current can be large
• Multiplication current
– EHPs generated in depletion region can collide
– Crashing knocks more electrons and holes loose
– They also get accelerated
– Will discuss more later
 Forward bias

• Electrons trying to diffuse to p-side have lowered barrier- lots of

them get across
• Minority electrons on p-side that diffuse into space charge region
get swept across- but there aren’t many of them
• Result is large diffusion current
 Forward bias, recombination

• Many electrons and holes crossing through

depletion region- opportunities to recombine are
plentiful
• Result is net current to the left
 More on forward bias

• When electrons are injected into p-side, their charge is neutralized by

holes almost instantly (dielectric relaxation time)
• Holes are supplied ultimately by contact at p-terminal
• No net charge distribution (very small) so no electric field
– Hence p-side is quasi-neutral
– Similarly for n-side
 Excess carriers

• Excess carriers (Δn and Δp) injected across junction

• They recombine as they move, so excess minority carrier
concentration decays exponentially with distance away from
junction
• Away from junction, E ≈0, so no drift- current flow is by diffusion
 Away from junction?
• Excess carriers have recombined, so no
diffusion (no concentration gradient)
• We said no field in quasi-neutral region
– But there is a small field
– Resistance is small but not zero, so some voltage
dropped across QNR’s
– Small field but low resistance means current can
flow
– Result: in QNRs current flows by drift
 Tunneling?
• Not possible
– No empty states in
one band at same
energy as occupied
state in another
band
 Forward current
• Primarily diffusion across
junction
• Recall carrier concentration
with energy decreases as
energy increases
• As energy barrier lowered,
number of carriers that can
cross increases exponentially
• Thus current increase
exponentially with applied
voltage
 Forward current summary
• When forward voltage applied, electrons and
holes are injected across depletion region
• Become minority carriers on other side
• Diffuse away from junction, recombine
• Majority carriers provided for recombination
are resupplied from contacts
• Majority carrier current powered by drift
– Field small but carrier concentrations large
 Key points
• Under reverse bias, there is a small
leakage current due to minority
carriers being swept across junction
– Small generation current
– Tunneling possible at higher voltages
• Under forward bias, minority carriers
diffuse across junction (minority
carrier diffusion current)
– Minority carriers replaced by majority
carriers
– Away from junction, current propelled
by drift of majority carriers
Tunnel Diodes

Chapter 5 Section 2.3

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 Introduction
• Tunnel diodes (also known as Esaki diodes)
have both side degenerately doped
– Ef is generally inside the conduction and valence
band edges
• They demonstrate quantum-mechanical
tunneling really exists
Typical I-V
 Energy Band Diagram

E » 10 6 V / cm

≈10 nm
 Assumptions

• Current is primarily electrons from n going to

empty states on p side
• Electrons cross the forbidden region but
remain at same energy (conservation of
energy)
• Electrons occupy states at same K before and
after tunneling
I-V characteristic

qV
h kT
I =Ce
 Figure of Merit
• Peak-to-Valley ratio
• Values of IP/IV ≈ 20 have been observed in
GaAs tunnel diodes
 Can be used as an oscillator
• Negative resistance can be used to make an
oscillator
– Pretty stable
• Can be used as a switch
– Valley current tends to increase over time
(degradation)
 We said K was conserved
• Implies direct-gap semiconductors
• In Si (indirect), this assumption is violated
– Negative resistance is still observed
– Peak-to-valley ratio is much lower (≈4)
– Probably simultaneous emission or absorption of
phonons
• Ge is indirect but has a relative minimum at K=0
– Peak-to-Valley ratios ≈16
 Key points
• When both sides of
pn junction are
heavily doped, can
get tunneling
• Results in negative
resistance region in
I-V
Prototype pn Homojunctions
(Quantitative): Energy Band
Diagram at Equilibrium-Step
Junction
Chapter 5 Section 3.1

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 Introduction
• We examined qualitatively how current flows in pn junction
– Reverse bias
– Forward bias
• Considered
– Majority and minority carrier currents
– Drift and diffusion
– Generation and recombination
– Tunneling
– Touched on multiplication current
• Next: quantitative analysis
 Find Vbi
• Recall qVbi = F p - F n
• Express as
(
qVbi =Eg - d n + d p )
where on the n-side (non
degenerate)
NC NC
d n =EC - E f =kT ln =kT ln '
nno ND
• If n-side is degenerate
• Take Ef=EC and δn=0
 Similary for p-type
• Non-degenerate
NV NV
d p =E f - EV =kT ln =kT ln '
p po NA

• Degenerate:
δp=0
 Combine
NC NC
(
qVbi =Eg - dn + d p) dn =EC - E f =kT ln =kT ln '
nno ND
NV NV
• To get d p =E f - EV =kT ln =kT ln '
p po NA
é æ NC NV ö ù
qVbi =êEg - kT ç ln ' + ln ' ÷ú p-n junction
ê
ë è ND N A øú
û
• For one-sided junctions (n+-p or p+-n)
é NV ù
qVbi =êEg - kT ln ' ú n + -p junction
ë NA û
é NC ù
qVbi =êEg - kT ln ' ú p + -n junction
ë ND û
For non-degenerate semiconductor
- Eg

ni2 =N C NV e kT And we had

• Recall é æ NC NV ö ù
N C NV
Eg =kT ln qVbi =êEg - kT ç ln ' + ln ' ÷ú
ni2 ê
ë è ND N A øú
û
• Thus

kT N D' N A'
Vbi = ln pn junction
q ni2
'
kT NV N D
Vbi = ln p + -n junction
q ni2
kT N C N A'
Vbi = ln n + -p junction
q ni2
 For pn junction
• Can also express Vbi as
Eg kT N C NV
Vbi = - ln ' ' p-n junction
q q NDN A

• This says that as ND’ and NA’ approach NC and

NV, Vbi approached the band gap
• If you include impurity-induced band gap
narrowing, could be slightly less than Eg
 Example
• Find the built-in voltage for a silicon
homojunction with ND’=1016 cm-3 and NV’ =
1015 cm-3
• Solution:
– The onset of degenerate doping in Si is ≈4x1018
cm-3, so neither side is degenerately doped
– Therefore use
' '
kT N D N A
Vbi = ln pn junction
q ni2
 Solution
é ù
kT é N A N D ù 0.026eV i1.6 ´ 10- 19 J / eV ê 10161015 ú
' '
Vbi = ln ê ú= ln ê ú
q ê n 2 19 2
ë i ú ê 10 ú
-
1.6 ´ 10 C
û
ê
ë(1.08 ´ 10 ) ú
û
=0.026V ln é
ê8.57 ´ 1010 ù
ú =0.655V
ë û
• If you have studied diodes in circuits class, you
will recognize that this is close to 0.7 V, the
typical turn-on voltage for silicon diodes
 What if it were a one-sided junction?

• Then we’d use one of these

'
kT NV N D
Vbi = ln p + -n junction
q ni2
kT N C N A'
Vbi = ln n + -p junction
q ni2

• Could happen a lot- let’s plot these to avoid

repeating the same calculations over and over
 Vbi for one-sided junctions

Curves for n+-p and p+-n are

indistinguishable
 Note
• If impurity-induced band gap narrowing is
considered, reduce result from previous plot
by amount of apparent band-gap narrowing
ΔEg*
 Key points
• We derived an expression to find Vbi
• The built-in voltage depends on the doping on
both sides of the junction
• Found Vbi≈0.7 V for a typical silicon diode
• Next: quantitative energy band diagram with
applied voltage
Energy band diagram with
applied voltage: Part A

Chapter 5 Section 3.2

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 Introduction
• Here we will quantitatively determine the
features and shapes of the energy band diagram
for a pn homojunction
• We’ll start with variation of charge with position
• Use that to find the electric field
• Use the field to calculate the variation of voltage
V(x) with position
• Potential energy is qV(x)– gives us the band
shapes
Coordinate system
 Charges in a step junction
• We approximate the
charges on either side as
constant
• The n-side is more heavily
doped
• Donors (ND’) are positively
charged
• Acceptors (NA’) are
negatively charged
• No uncompensated
charges outside depletion
region
 Find the electric field E
• Use Poisson’s equation (works for equilibrium
and also under bias)
dE QV (x)
=
dx e

• Here Qv(x) is the charge per unit volume as a

function of position; ε is permittivity
• Need to know all the charges
– Electrons, holes, ionized donors, ionized acceptors
 Very few electrons or holes in depletion
region
• Depletion approximation: n=p=0
• Next, write down QV(x)
• On the n-side
x n < x < xo QV =qN D'
• On the p-side
x0 £x £ x p QV =- qN A'
• Outside depletion region, QV =0
 dE QV (x)
Integrate dx
=
e to solve
E (x) x
• On n-side N D'
òo dE =xòq e dx
n

N D'
E (x) =q ( x - xn ) xn £x £ x0
e
0 xp
• On p-side N A'
ò d =- òq dx
E (x) x
e

N A'
E (x) =q
e
(
xp - x ) x0 £ x £ x p
 But electric field has to be continuous

• We had N D' N A'

E (x) =q
e
( x - xn ) E (x) =q
e
(xp - x )
• Set the solutions equal at x=x0
qN D' (xo - xn ) =qN A' (x p - xo )

Charge:

Field:
 Space charge widths
• Earlier we predicted that the junction would
extend further into lightly doped side?
• Let wn be the width of the depletion region on
the n-side, e.g. wn=x0-xn and wp be the width
on the p-side
' '
• From qN D
(x o
- x n
) =qN A
(x p - xo )

wn ( xo - xn ) N A' Checks
= = '
We can write wp ( )
x p - xo ND out!
 Next find voltage distribution
• We use dV
E =-
dx

• For n-side, integrate

V (x) x x
qN D'
ò dV =- òE (x) dx =- ò (x - xn ) dx
V (x ) x x
e
n n n

• And get qN D' 2

V (x) - V (xn ) =- ( x - xn ) x n £ x £ xo
2e

• For p-side qN A' 2

V (x p ) - V (x) =-
2e
(
xp - x ) xo £ x £ x p
 Find the total voltage
• Voltage accumulated on n side:
' '
qN 2 qN
V (xn ) - V (xo ) =V jn = D ( xo - xn ) = D wn2
2e 2e

• On p-side
'
qN 2 qN A' 2
( )
V ( xo ) - V x p (
=V jp = A x p - xo
2e
) =
2e
wp

• Total voltage is
q
V j =V +V j = éëN D' (xo - xn )2 + N A' (x p - xo ) 2 ùû
n p
j
2e
 Voltage has to be continuous
• Set solutions equal at junction
qN D' 2 qN A' 2
V (xo ) =V (xn ) -
2e
( xo - xn ) =V (x p ) +
2e
(
x p - xo )
• Take previous results and take ratio
n
V (xn ) - V (x0 ) V j N D' wn2
= p= ' 2
V (x0 ) - V (x p ) V j N A wp

wn N A' V jn N A'
= ' = '
• Recalling wp N D , we get Vj p
ND

Most of voltage dropped across more lightly doped side

Plot of voltage
 Key points
• We started with the charge on either side of the
junction
• We integrated the charge to get the electric field
(Poisson’s Equation)
• We integrated the field to get the voltage
• Next episode:
– We’ll find the widths of the space charge region
– We’ll calculate the actual shape of the energy band
diagram
Energy band diagram with
applied voltage: Part B

Chapter 5 Section 3.2

Copyright © 2016
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Permission required for
presentation or display
 Introduction
• In Part A we found the charge, field and voltage

• Next, junction widths and energy band diagram

 Find expressions for junction widths
' '
qN 2 qN
V (xn ) - V (xo ) =V jn = D ( xo - xn ) = D wn2
• Combine: 2e 2e
qN D' 2 qN A' 2
V (xo ) =V (xn ) -
2e
( xo - xn ) =V (x p ) +
2e
(x p - xo )
n
V (xn ) - V (x0 ) V j N D' wn2 wn N A'
= p= ' 2 = '
V (x0 ) - V (x p ) V j N A wp wp N D
• To find
1

1
é ù
2

ê ú
é2eV jn ù 2
ê 2eV j ú
wn =( xo - xn ) =ê ' ú =ê ú
ë qN D ú
ê û æ N '
ö
êqN D' ç1+ D' ÷ú
ê
ë è NA øú û
 Similarly for p, and total width
• For the p-side 1

1
é ù
2

ê ú
é2eV jp ù 2
ê 2eV j ú
( )
wp = x p - x0 =ê ' ú =ê
æ ö ú
ë qN A ú
'
ê û N
êqN A' ç1+ 'A ÷ú
ê
ë è N D øú û
• And the total junction width is
1

w =wn + wp = ê j(
é2eV N ' + N '
A D ) ùú
2

' '
ê qN A N D ú pn junction
ë û
 We had
1
é2eV N ' + N ' ( ) ùú
2

w =wn + wp = ê j
'
A
'
D

ê qN A N D ú
ë û
• Solve for junction voltage Vj
qN D' N A' w2
Vj = pn junction
(
2e N + N
'
D
'
A )

• For one-sided
1 junction, e.g. n+-p, 1w≈wp since in
é2eV j ù2 é2eV j ù2
w =this
ê case
' ú N(n
D ’>>N
-p)
+
A’ and w =ê ' ú (p -n) +

ë qN A ú
ê û ëqN D ú
ê û
 Maximum electric field
N D' qN D' N A' w2
• Combine E (x) =q
e
( x - xn ) Vj =
1
(
2e N D' + N A' )
é2eV N ' + N '
( ) ùú 2

w =wn + wp =ê
j A D
' '
ê qN A N D ú
ë û
• To find
1/2
qN D' qN A' é 2qV N N ' ' ù 2V j
j D A
E max = wn = wp =ê ú =
e e (
êe N D' + N A ' ) ú w
ë û
Potential energy related to electric potential

• And EC is the potential energy for electrons in

the conduction band
dE P dV dEC dEV
=- q = =
dx dx dx dx

• Thus, EC(x) looks like Vj(x) except inverted

• And Ev is parallel to EC
So resulting energy band diagram is
Junction width for one-sided junction as
function of voltage
Junction width for one-sided junction as
function of doping
 Key points
• We quantitatively derived expressions for the
charge, electric field, voltage, potential energy,
and energy band diagram for a step junction
– Charge was constant on either side (step junction)
– Integrate charge to get the field
– Integrate the field to get the voltage
– Potential energy is qV
– Potential energy is Ec (for electron in CB)
– Band gap is constant so EV is parallel to EC
Final result
Current-Voltage
Characteristics of pn
Homojunctions (Excess
minority carrier
concentrations)
Chapter 5 Section 3.3 Part A
Copyright © 2016
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Permission required for
presentation or display
 Introduction
• We’ll obtain I-V characteristics
– pn junctions first
– One-sided junctions later
• Assumptions:
– Minority carrier concentration is much less than majority
carrier concentration n p p p @ N A'
pn nn @ N D'

– In bulk, majority carrier concentration ≈ equilibrium value

(space charge neutrality Δn=Δp and low '
nn @injection
nno =Ncondition)
D
p p @ p po =N 'A
 More assumptions
dn p
• For minority carriers, can J np =qDn
dx
neglect drift in quasi-neutral dpn
J pn =- qD p
regions dx
• Semiconductor is non-
degenerate (can use
æ EC - E f ö
Boltzmann statistics) -ç
è kT ø
÷
no =N C e
• Current is defined as positive if æ E f - EV ö
-ç
Va is positive po =NV e è kT ø
÷

– For positive current, electrons

flow from n to p and holes flow
from p to n
 Consider long-base diode
• Both quasi-neutral regions are much longer
than minority carrier diffusion lengths Ln or Lp
– Minority carriers are recombining in QNR’s, not
reaching contacts
• We’ll do short-base diode later on
• Most important current mechanism is
minority carrier injection or extraction current
at junction
 Diffusion current
• Begin with continuity equations
¶n ¶Dn 1 æ¶J n ö æ Dn ö
= = ç + çGop -
¶t ¶t ÷
q è ¶x ø è tn ÷
ø

¶p ¶Dp 1 æ¶J p ö æ Dp ö
= =- ç ÷+ çGop - ÷
¶x ¶x q è ¶x ø è tp ø

• Quantities Δn and Δp are excess carrier

concentrations
– Thus n=n0+Δn and p=p0+Δp
 Electrons on p-side of junction
• Electrons are minority carriers
• From assumption that we can neglect their
drift in QNR dn
J n =J n diff =qDn
dx
• Combine with
¶n ¶Dn 1 æ¶J n ö æ Dn ö
= = ç + çGop -
¶t ¶t ÷
q è ¶x ø è tn ÷
ø

• To get ¶n ¶Dn ¶2 n Dn
= =Dn 2 -
¶t ¶t ¶x tn
 In steady state
¶n ¶Dn ¶2 n Dn
• We had ¶t
=
¶t
=Dn 2 -
¶x tn
• But in steady state ¶n / ¶t =0
• Thus
¶2 n d 2 n Dn Dn
2
= 2 = = 2
¶x dx Dnt n Ln

• Where minority carrier diffusion length Ln is

Ln = Dnt n
 But np=np0+Δnp
¶n ¶Dn ¶2 n Dn
• We had ¶t
=
¶t
=Dn 2 -
¶x tn

¶2 n p d 2 Dn p Dn p
• And np0 is constant, so 2
= 2
=
¶x dx L2n
x -x

• Solution is Ln
Dn p =Ae + Be Ln
 x -x

Solution was Ln
Dn p =Ae + Be
Ln

• Boundary conditions: There are no excess

minority carriers away from junction (they
have all recombined, so Δnp=0 at x=∞ gives
A=0
• At x=xp, B.C. is
(
- x- x p )
Ln
Dn(x p ) =Be
giving xp

B =Dn(x p )e Ln
- ( x- x p )
Ln
And therefore Dn(x) =Dn(x p )e
 Substituting
- ( x- x p )
Ln dn dD n
• Substitute Dn(x) =Dn(x p )e into J n =qDn =qDn
dx dx
• And obtain the electron current - ( x- x p )
qDn
Jn = Dn(x p )e Ln
Ln
• So electron (diffusion) current is decreasing as you move
away form the junction, but total current has to be constant
(Kirchhoff current law)
– Difference is made p by increasing hole current
– Hole current is drift caused by the small electric field in the quasi-
neutral region
 Key points
• That was a general derivation of the excess
minority carrier concentration as a function of
position- when there are excess carriers
present (non-equilibrium)
– Excess carriers injected across junction decay
exponentially away from junction
 Next up
• It would be useful to obtain expressions for
the minority carrier concentrations at either
end of the transition region
• We’ll do this in Part B of this section
Current-Voltage
Characteristics of pn
Homojunctions (Diffusion
current, forward bias)
Chapter 5 Section 3.3 Part B
Copyright © 2016
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Permission required for
presentation or display
 Introduction
• We had derived expressions for the excess
minority carrier concentration Δn(xp) and the
functional form away from the junction
(exponential decay)
• How does Δn(xp) vary with applied voltage?
– Start with equilibrium case
 Energy band diagram at equilibrium

• On the n side:
' ni2
nno =N D pno =
'
ND
• On the p side
ni2
p po =N 'A n po =
N 'A
• Barrier for both electrons and hole is qVbi
 Let’s relate Vbi to doping
æ ECp - E f ö
-ç ÷
• Neutral p-region n po =N C e è kT ø

ECn ECn
- +
• Multiply by e kT e kT to obtain
æ ECn - E f ö æ ECp - ECn ö
-ç ÷ -ç ÷
è kT ø è kT ø
n po =N C e e

• But barrier qVbi=(Ecp-Ecn),

so
é - æç ECn - E f ö÷ù - æçqVbi ö÷
ê
n po = N C e è kT ø ú è kT ø
e
ê ú
ë û
 Result from last slide
é ÷ù - ç bi ÷
æ ECn - E f ö
-ç
æqV ö
ê
n po = N C e è kT ø ú è kT ø
e
ê ú
ë û
• But part in square brackets is nn0, so qVbi qVbi
- -
n p (x p ) =n po =N D' e kT
=nn0 e kT

• And similarly the minority carrier density

qV
on p-side
qV
is
- bi - bi
'
pn (xn ) = pno =N e A
kT
= p p0e kT

• Minority carrier concentrations at edges of depletion region are

functions of the doping on the other side
• Don’t forget Vbi contains information about doping on both sides
 Now consider forward bias

• Barrier has now changed to ECp-Ecn=q(Vbi-Va)

• More electrons have enough energy to diffuse to p-side (injection of minority carriers)
• More holes have enough energy to diffuse to n-side (injection of minority carriers)
• Result is net current flow
 Now consider forward bias

• At edges of depletion region

_
(
q Vbi - Va ) qVa
n p (x p ) =N D' e kT
n p (x p ) =n po e kT

-
(
q Vbi - Va ) or qVa
pn (xn ) =N A' e kT
pn (xn ) = pno e kT
 Under forward bias
• Excess electrons are
injected into p side
– They become minority
carriers
– They diffuse to the right
– They recombine as they go
– The excess carrier
concentration decays
exponentially with distance
• Holes injected to the n-side,
diffuse to the left, same
thing
 Excess carrier concentrations
• Let Δnp be excess
carrier concentration on
p-side
• Let Δpn be excess carrier
concentration on p-sideqV
a

• Then from n p (x p ) =n po e kT Dn p (x p ) =n p (x p ) - n po
• We can write Dpn (xn ) = pn (xn ) - pno
æ qVa ö
D n p (x p ) =n po ç e kT - 1÷
• And similarly è ø
æ qVa ö
Dpn (xn ) = pno çe kT - 1÷
è ø
 The excess carriers diffuse
• They diffuse to regions
of lower concentration
(away from junction)
• We already solved for
the distribution
-
( x- x p ) • Note that varying
Ln
Dn p (x) =Dn p (x p )e distribution means
• And on n-side, for holes diffusion currents
( xn - x )
-
Lp
Dpn (x) =Dpn (xn )e
 Diffusion currents
• On p-side:
dn dD n
J n =qDn =qDn
dx dx
• Now combine with
( x- x p )
-
Ln
Dn p (x) =Dn p (x p )e To obtain
Dn æ qVa ö
and J n (x p ) =q n po ç e kT - 1÷
Ln è ø
æ qVa ö
Dn p (x p ) =n po ç e kT - 1÷ Similarly
è ø Dp æ qVa ö
J p (xn ) =q pno çe kT - 1÷
Lp è ø
 Electron injection
• Recall we’re neglecting generation,
recombination
• Thus all excess electrons on p-side had to come
from n-side
– They had to cross xn as well as xp
• Recall we also assumed negligible drift in the
junction
• Therefore, all minority current across junction is
due to diffusion
 Similarly for holes

• Thus total current across junction is sum of minority

carrier diffusion currents
 Total current picture (fwd. bias)

• Outside the junction, total current is still constant

– Minority carrier diffusion current decreasing
– Thus majority carrier current must increase
– Majority carrier current is by drift
– Electric field is small, but there are lots of majority
carriers
 Total current density
• We know J =J n (x p ) + J p (xn ) æ qVa ö
Dn
• And we had J n (x p ) =q n po çe kT - 1÷
Ln è ø
Dp æ qVa ö
J p (xn ) =q pno çe kT - 1÷
Lp è ø

• Thus æ Dn n po D p pno öæ qVa ö

J =q ç + ÷çe kT
- 1÷
è Ln Lp øè ø

æ qVa ö æ Dn n po D p pno ö
• Or J =J o çe kT - 1÷ where J o =q ç + ÷
è ø è nL L p ø
 Repeating previous results
æ Dn n po D p pno ö
J o =q ç + ÷
è nL L p ø
ni2 ni2
Ln = Dnt n , Lp = D ptp , n p0 = ' and pn0 = '
NA ND

• These yield
æ D 1 D 1 ö
p
J 0 =qni2 ç n
× ' + × ' ÷
ç
è tn N A tp N D ÷ø

• Point: J0 is proportional to ni2

 Diode equation
æ qVa ö
• We derived J =J o çe kT - 1÷
è ø

• This is diode current equation used in circuits

courses
• Current flow is due to lowering of potential
barriers
• Current flow is due to diffusion of minority
carriers(!)
 Ratio of electron to hole current
J n (x p ) Dn n po Lp Dn Lp N D'
= i = i i '
J p (xn ) Ln D p pno D p Ln N A

• Ratio depends on ratio of doping on n-side

(ND’) to doping on p-side (NA’)
• This result important to bipolar junction
transistors
 Diode characteristic, forward bias
æ qVa ö
• We had J =J o çe kT - 1÷(current density J=I/A)
è ø
æ qVa ö
• Thus I =I o çe kT - 1÷
è ø
qVa
I » I0e kT
• When Va>> kT/q,
• For current to change by factor of 10:
kT I kT
Va = ln = ( ln I - ln I 0 )
q I0 q
• Then ln(I)=ln(10)=2.3, so Va varies by factor of 2.3
 Key points
• We found expressions for excess carrier
concentrations on either side of junction
under forward bias
• We derived the diode equation

æ qVa ö
I =I o çe kT - 1÷
è ø

• Next: look at reverse bias

Current-Voltage
Characteristics of pn
Homojunctions (Reverse
Bias)
Chapter 5 Section 3.3 Part C
Copyright © 2016
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Permission required for
presentation or display
 Introduction
• We had derived expressions for current
through a diode for forward bias
• We found
æ qVa ö æ Dn n po D p pno ö
J =J o çe kT - 1÷ J o =q ç + ÷
è ø è nL L p ø
• Now let’s look at reverse bias
 Energy band diagram
• Minority carriers
diffuse
• If they wander to
close to the
depletion region,
they feel electric
field
• Minority carriers
get swept over
• Extraction
 At edge of depletion region, minority carrier
concentration ≈ 0
• Excess carrier
concentration:
• p-side: D n p (x p ) =n p (x p ) - np0 =0 - np0 =- n p0
• n-side: Dpn (xn ) = pn (xn ) - pn0 =- pn0
• Now net diffusion is
toward junction
 These equations still valid
• We derived (forward bias)
æ qVa ö æ Dn n po D p pno ö
J =J o çe kT - 1÷ J o =q ç + ÷
è ø è nL L p ø
• For Va<-3kT, exponential term 0 and
J » - J0
• Quantity J0 called “reverse leakage current”
But what if it’s a short-base diode?
• What if one side is • Forward bias: carrier
shorter than a diffusion injection process is the
length? same
– Happens in “base” of • But, on short side, carriers
transistor, hence the don’t have a chance to
name recombine “naturally”
• Their excess
concentrations forced to
zero by presence of
contact
 Short base diode, continued
dn dDn
• Diffusion current is still J n =qDn
dx
=qDn
dx
• But now concentration gradient nearly linear,
or dD n Dn p (x p )
=
dx WB
Dn æ qVa ö
• So, from (we had before) J n (x p ) =q n po çe kT - 1÷
Ln è ø

• We now have Dn æ qVa ö

J n (x p ) =q n po çe kT - 1÷
WB è ø
æ Dn n po D p pno ö
J o =q ç + ÷
è B W L p ø
 Short-base diode result
Dn æ qVa ö
• We had (last slide) J n (x p ) =q n po çe kT - 1÷ (short
WB è ø
side)
• Total current is (long (n) side is normal, p-side
short:)
æ Dn n po D p pno ö
J o =q ç + ÷
è BW L p ø

• If both sides are short,

æ Dn n po D p pno ö
J o =q ç + ÷
W
è B( p ) W ( n) ø
 Current ratios
• If both sides short, electron-to-hole current
ratio is
J n Dn W( n) N D'
= i i '
J p D p WB( p) N A
 Key points

• Under reverse bias, carriers are

extracted
• Resulting current is very small
• We also looked at short-base diodes
– One side or both so short that carriers
don’t have time to recombine (forward
bias) or be generated (reverse bias)
between depletion region and contact

All results so far are for non-degenerate materials!

 Next up
• We still need to consider effects of
regeneration and recombination: Parts D&E
• There are also more considerations about
reverse bias, like tunneling and carrier
multiplication: Part F
Current-Voltage
Characteristics of pn
Homojunctions (Generation
and recombination currents,
reverse bias)
Chapter 5 Section 3.3 Part D
Copyright © 2016
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Permission required for
presentation or display
 Introduction
• We had derived expressions for current
through a diode
• We considered diffusion of minority carriers
across junction
– Forward bias: injection
– Reverse bias: extraction
• Now we consider effects of generation and
recombination
 Recall G-R
• Primarily happens via interband (trap) states
ET near Ei
• Suppose there are trap states in our diode
• For simplicity, assume lifetimes t n =tp =to
• Then net recombination rate is
np - ni2
R- G =
to (n + ni + p + ni )

• At equilibrium, np=ni2 and R=G=0 as expected✔

 Net recombination rate
• Depends on numbers of available electrons and holes
• At position x inside the transition region
- [EC (x)- EC (xn )]
n(x) =nno e kT

[EV (x)- EV (x p )]
p(x) = p poe kT

• Thus n decreases rapidly as you approach the p-side,

and p decreases rapidly as you approach the n-side
Energy band diagram under reverse bias
• Recall transition
region widens
(compared to
equilibrium)
• Means more
opportunities for G-R
in depletion region
• But, not many
carriers there
because electric field
sweeps them out
 The depletion approximation
• Depletion approximation: assume
n and p can be neglected for
xn<x<xp
• If no carriers, no recombination,
so neglect that (reverse bias only)
ni
R =0, G=
2t o
• Implies generation rate constant
in depletion region
 Current density
qni w
• Generation current density is J G =- qGw =-
2to
• And depletion region width w for step junction
is 1
é2e N + N ( V - V ) ù
'
( '
) 2

w =ê ú
D A bi a
' '
ê qN D N A ú
ë û

• Thus (reverse bias)

1
é e ( V - Va ) ù
)
A ( bi
' ' 2
ni q N + N
J G =- ê ú
D
' '
to ê 2N D N A ú
ë û
 Example: Estimate the value of generation current
relative to the diffusion current for a typical Si pn
junction under reverse bias conditions.
• Solution: assume a protype junction with
N A' =1017 cm -3
N D' =1017 cm -3
t n @ tp =to @ 6 ´ 10 - 6 s
V j =( Vbi - Va ) =5V

• From graph find D’s

Dn =20 cm 2 /s
D p =11 cm 2 /s
 Example, continued
Lp

• Also find L’s from graph Ln

Lp =102 m m
Ln =73 mm

• Minority carrier concentrations are

np0=pn0=ni2/1017=1.16 x103 cm-3
• Built-in voltage is
' ' æ 17 17 ö
kT N N 10 ´ 10
Vbi = ln D
=0.026V ln ç
A ÷=0.83V
q 2
ni ç 1.08 ´ 1010 2
è ( ) ÷
ø
 We said we’d assume Vj=5V
• Vj=5V=Vbi-Va=0.83-Va or Va=-4.17V
• Next, find diffusion current- find leakage
current first
æ Dn n po D p pno ö
J o =q ç + ÷
è nL L p ø
éæ cm2 ö æ cm2 ö ù
êç
è
20
s ÷
ø
(
1.16 ´ 10 3
cm )
-3
ç
è
11
s ÷
ø
(
1.16 ´ 10 3
cm -3
) ú
- 19
=1.6 ´ 10 C ê + ú
ê -4
73 ´ 10 cm 102 ´ 10- 4 cm ú
ê ú
ê
ë ú
û
=7.1´ 10- 13 A / cm2
 æ qVa ö
Plug result into J =J o çe kT - 1÷
è ø

æ qVa
ö æ 1.6´ 10- 19 C´ (- 4.17V ) ö
- 1÷=7.1´ 10 - 13 A / cm2 çe 0.026×1.6´ 10 J /eV -
- 19
J diff =J 0 ç e kT
1÷@ - J 0
è ø è ø
=- 7.1´ 10 - 13 A / cm2 =- 7.1´ 10 - 21 A / m m2

• For generation current, use

J G =-
qni w
=-
( )(
1.6 ´ 10- 19 C 1.08 ´ 1010 cm- 3 0.36 ´ 10- 4 cm )
2to (
2 6 ´ 10 =6 s )
=- 5.2 ´ 10- 9 A / cm2 =5.2 ´ 10 - 17 A / m m2
 Ratio
J G 5.2 ´ 10 - 17
@ =7.3 ´ 10 3

J diff 7.1´ 10 - 21

• We find Jdiff<<JG so under reverse bias, we can

safely neglect diffusion current
 Key points
• Under reverse bias, there are essentially no
free carriers in depletion region (they are
swept out by the field)
– Therefore negligible recombination
– There is generation current in depletion region
• Diffusion current negligible under reverse bias
• Next: what happens under forward bias?
Current-Voltage
Characteristics of pn
Homojunctions (Generation
and recombination currents,
forward bias)
Chapter 5 Section 3.3 Part E
Copyright © 2016
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Permission required for
presentation or display
 Introduction
• We are examining generation and
recombination currents in pn homojunctions
• Under reverse bias, found that diffusion
current was negliglible
• Negligible recombination current
• There was some generation current (small)
• Here we will consider forward bias
 GR current under forward bias

• Here, electrons in transition region are in thermal equilibrium

with n-side
• Holes in transition region in thermal equilibrium with p-side
• Can show ( E ( x )- ECn )
- C -
( EVp - EV ( x ))
n(x) =nn0 e kT
and p(x) = p p0 e kT
 Then the np product
-
( EC ( x )- ECn ) -
(E
Vp - EV ( x ) )
• We had n(x) =nn0e kT and p(x) = p p0 e kT

' '
kT N D N A
• And we recall Vbi = ln 2
q ni

• Can show that

qVa
2 kT
np =n e i
 Then the np product
-
( EC ( x )- ECn ) -
(E
Vp - EV ( x ) )
• We had n(x) =nn0e kT and p(x) = p p0 e kT

' '
kT N D N A
• And we recall Vbi = ln 2
q ni

qVa
2 kT
np =n e i
 For reasonable forward bias…
qVa

• We had np =n e 2 kT
i

• When Va≥3kT/q, recombination current is

large compared to generation current
– Lots of electrons crossing the transition regions
– Lots of holes crossing the other way
– Same place, same time, recombination likely
 Forward bias
• Since under forward bias
2
np>>ni2 , from
np - ni
R- G =
to (n + ni + p + ni )
• We can write qVa
2 kT
np ne
R= = i

to ( n + p ) to ( n + p )

• And max recombination rate is where dR/dn=0

– More convenient: d(1/R)/dn=0
 Where is recombination rate greatest?
qVa
2 kT
ne
• We had R= i

to ( n + p)

ni2 qVa

• Set slope=0, use p = e kT

n

qVa
qVa
ni e
2kT
n = p =ni e 2kT
Rmax =
• Result is where or 2t o
More on recombination in junction
• Most of the recombination occurs where
R≈Rmax
– Therefore “barrier” to recombination current
looks like half the potential barrier for diffusion
æ Vbi - Va ö
çè 2 ÷ ø

– G-R current often approximated by

æ qV
a ö
J GR =J GR0 çe - 1÷ where JGR0 is slightly voltage
2kT

è ø
dependent
 Leakage currents
• Compare JGR0 to J0(diff) (and recall that under
reverse bias J=-J0
• From reverse bias discussions 1 we had
é (e ) ù
A ( bi a)
' ' 2
ni q N + N V - V
J GR0 =- ê ú
D

to ê '
2N D N A'
ú
ë û
æ D 1 D 1 ö
p
J 0( diff ) =qni2 ç n × ' + × ' ÷
è tn N A
ç tp N D ÷ ø

• So we see that J GR0 µ ni while J 0(diff ) µ ni2

 Total current density
æ qVa ö æ qVa ö
J =J GR + J diff =J GR0 ç e 2kT - 1÷+ J 0 çe kT - 1÷
è ø è ø

• And usually JGR0>>J0

• For forward bias (Va>3kT/q),
qVa qVa
J =J GRo e 2kT
+ J oe kT

• At small Va, recombination current

predominates because JGR0>>J0 but at larger Va
diffusion dominates
 Compare
• Over some range of
current, generally
approximated as
qVa
J =J s (e nkT
- 1)
• Where n is the
“quality factor” and
usually varies
between 1 and 2.
 Key points

• Under forward bias, recombination current

occurs in junction due to high numbers of
carriers crossing the depletion region
– Dominates under small forward bias
• Diffusion current also significant
– Dominates under “normal” forward bias
 Next up
• Tunneling under reverse bias
• Current amplification under reverse bias
(avalanche)
Current-Voltage
Characteristics of pn
Homojunctions (Tunneling and
current amplification, reverse
bias)
Chapter 5 Section 3.3 Part F
Copyright © 2016
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Permission required for
presentation or display
 Introduction
• We have considered diffusion and drift
• We have examined generation and
recombination
• Two more effects: tunneling and current
amplification under reverse bias
 Reverse bias tunneling
• Remember
electrons tunnel to
empty states at the
same energy
• If forbidden region
is not too thick
• Here “barrier” is
the forbidden gap
 Tunneling
• There is a finite probability that electrons will
cross the forbidden gap
• Also called “Zener tunneling”
• Tunneling probability for electron at energy E
normally incident on forbidden region is
T =e ò
- 2 a dx

1
é2m* * ù 2
M* is some average of effective masses for

ë 
( )
a =ê 2 E P (x) - E ú
û
both bands
EP* is effective potential energy
 Effective potential energy
• Recall potential energy for electron in
conduction band is EC
• Potential energy for hole in valence band is EV
• Both are varying with position in this case
 While electron is tunneling..
• While electron is in forbidden gap, it’s
affected by both potential energies
• Effective potential energy analogous
to resistances in parallel
( E (x) - E ) ( E - E (x) ) ( E (x) - E ) ( E - EV (x) )
( E (x) - E ) =( E (x) - E ) + ( E - E (x)) =
*
P
C V C

Eg
C V
 Can show
• Tunneling probability is
æ ö
p WT m* Eg
- ç ÷
ç 3 ÷
ç
è ÷
ø
T =e 22 

Eg
• Where WT is the tunneling distance WT =
qE
• Tunneling probability depends on band gap
and reverse bias voltage, and doping and
effective mass
 Current-voltage characteristics
• We’ll discuss
avalanche
multiplication,
a different
effect, next
 Carrier multiplication
1. EHP generated thermally
2. Electron accelerated to
left (high field under
reverse bias)
3. Electron collides
1. Loses energy
2. Knocks another electron
loose, generating a
another EHP (impact
ionization)
3. Now there are three
carriers
 Carrier multiplication, continued
4. Both electrons
accelerated to
left, new collision
• Two electrons
arrived at left side
of junction while
only one entered-
multiplication of 2
Note: for multiplication, electron must gain enough energy to exceed the band gap
to generate a new EHP. This doesn’t happen at steps 4 and 5 here so there is no
further electron multiplication.
 Carrier multiplication, holes
• Holes can also
create impact
ionization (5 here)
• In this case total
multiplication is
three (if no more
impacts)
Above some critical field, process can avalanche
 Derivation of multiplication
• Let P be probability of either electron or hole
creating EHP
• Let nin be number of electrons entering depletion
region from p-side
• There will be Pnin ionizing collisions
– Result is nin(1+P) electrons reaching n-side
– Also generates Pnin holes
– Result is P(Pnin)=P2nin pairs
– Total number of carriers crossing junction is
nin (1+ P + P 2 + P3 +)
 Multiplication, continued
• We had nin (1+ P + P2 + P3 +)
nin
• Which can be expressed as
(1- P)

1
• Thus multiplication factor M is M=
(1- P)
• If P=1, M=∞, and avalanche occurs
 Breakdown
• When current
exceeds some
value, diode is in
“breakdown”
– Means the I-V
curve has broken
downward on
the graph,
– Device is not
harmed
 Reverse breakdown in silicon
• For Si, if Vbr is greater than about
8 V, breakdown mechanism is
primarily avalanche
• If Vbr is less than around 6V, is
Zener tunneling
• When you buy a “Zener diode,”
not necessarily breaking down
via tunneling mechanism- in
fact, probably not
 Key points

• Under reverse bias, diodes can break down

– Not destructive, means the curve breaks down
• Two mechanisms
– Tunneling
– Carrier multiplication
• If multiplication large, can have avalanche
Reverse Bias Breakdown

Chapter 5 Section 3.4

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Permission required for
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 Introduction
• We saw that a diode doesn’t conduct much for
reverse voltages- up to a point
• At some voltage, current starts to flow and the I-
V characteristics turns downward
– Called reverse breakdown
– Does not mean the device is damaged
• Breakdown mechanism can be via:
– Tunneling (Zener breakdown)
– Avalanche
Breakdown
vs doping
 Explanation: avalanche

• For avalanche to occur, need a big enough field that electrons gain Eg or more to
create ionizing impacts
• Takes a larger field (reverse voltage) to get there
• With increasing doping, junction width gets smaller so field increases for a given
voltage
 Avalanche breakdown
• For one-sided junctions
3
-
Vbr ( avalanche ) =CN 4

Semiconductor Bandgap (eV) C

Ge 0.67 2.4 x 1013
Si 1.12 5.3 x 1013
GaAs 1.43 7.0 x 1013
4H-SiC 3.26 3.0 x 1015
GaN 3.44 6.1 x 1015
 Explanation: tunneling

• Tunneling probability increases with decreasing width

• Gap narrows with decreasing band gap, so probability increases and
tunneling happens at lower voltages
• Increased doping means increased field; higher slope decreases WT
 Example: Estimate the tunneling distance for
appreciable tunnel current. Consider a p+-n Si junction
with ND’=8.0 x 1017 cm-3 (8.0 x 1023 m-3).
• Tunneling begins at breakdown, so find the
junction voltage at breakdown.
• One-sided junction, so use plot to find Vbi

Vbi=1.04 V
 Find
breakdown
voltage

• Vbr =4 V
(Va=4V)
4V
Find maximum field and junction width

• Junction width: ( we used Vj=Vbi-Va=1.04-(-

4)=5.04V)
1 1

é2eV j ù é2 ´ 11.8 ´ 8.85 ´ 10 - 12 F / m ´ ( 5.04V ) ù

2
( ) 2

w =ê ' ú =ê ú
ëqN D ú
ê û ê ë ( - 19
) (
1.6 ´ 10 C ´ 8 ´ 10 m 23 - 3
) ú
û
=9.1´ 10 - 8 m =91nm

• Maximum electric field:

2V j2 ´ 5.04V 8
E max = = -8
=1.1´ 10 V /m
w 9.1´ 10 m
 Now to find the tunneling width
Eg (eV )
WT =
qE max
1.12eV
=
æ 1eV ö
( 1.6 ´ 10 - 19
)( 8
)
C 1.1´ 10 V / m ç
è1.6 ´ 10 - 19V ÷
ø
=1.0 ´ 10- 8 m =10nm.

Thus, for silicon, an appreciable

tunneling current flows for WT<10
nm
 Key points
• Breakdown voltage increases
with increasing band gap
– Important for power devices
that must withstand large
voltages- wide band gap
materials advantageous
• Breakdown voltage
decreases with increasing
doping
– Provides a way to “engineer”
reverse breakdown devices
Small signal impedance of
prototype homojunctions-
Junction Resistance
Chapter 5 Section 4.1

Copyright © 2016
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Permission required for
presentation or display
 Introduction
• We have looked at I-V characteristics in detail
• Now look at small-signal ac response
• Bias at some DC voltage
• Vary voltage by small amount around that
point
 Small signal equivalent
• Series resistance RS (constant with voltage,
contact resistance plus resistance of QNR)
• Differential resistance RP varies with voltage
• Two capacitances:
– Junction capacitance Cj
– Stored charge capacitance Csc
– Both associated with the junction
 Junction conductance
• Small signal conductance GP:
dI
GP =
• Is slope of I-VdV
curve
a
at a
given voltage
• For small variation of input
voltage, can determine
output current
– Small so slope is a constant in
the vicinity
 Junction resistance
• Resistance is reciprocal of conductance, or

-1
1 é dI ù
RP = =ê ú
GP ëdVa û
 Example: Find the junction resistance of a diode at
forward currents of 1 mA and 1 μA. Assume the ideality
factor is unity and RS = 0.
-1
• We had é dI ù
RP =ê ú
dV
ë aû

• And we know for reasonable forward bias

æ qVa ö qVa qVa
I =I 0 çe kT - 1÷=I 0 e kT - I0 @ I 0 e kT
è ø
qVa
• “Reasonable” means e kT
>> 1

qVa
• Then dI q qI 1
= I0e = =
kT
dVa kT kT RP
 Example, continued
qV
dI q a
qI
• We had = I0 e =
kT
dVa kT kT

kT
• Thus RP = .
qI

• Since kT/q=0.026V:
– At I=1 mA, RP=26 Ω
– At I=1 μA, RP=26 KΩ
 Key points
• Small signal resistance is reciprocal of the local
slope at the bias point
• There is also a series resistance due to
contacts and quasi-neutral regions

• Next up: junction capacitance

Small signal impedance of
prototype homojunctions-
Junction Capacitance
Chapter 5 Section 4.2

Copyright © 2016
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Permission required for
presentation or display
 Introduction
• We were looking at the small-signal model of
a prototype homojunction
• We looked at the junction resistance (and
mentioned the series resistance)
• Two capacitances to take into account
– Junction capacitance
– Stored charge capacitance
Recall there are charges on either side of the
transition region
• Charges are due to ionized impurities
• Number of charges depends on depletion
width
– Varies with voltage
– Change in charge on either side of a dielectric
region with voltage is capacitance
 As voltage changes…
• Suppose applied voltage changes by dVA
• Charge on one side changes by dQ
• Charge on other side changes by –dQ
• As applied voltage changes, mobile charges move
– They move out of junction if reverse bias
– They move into junction if forward bias
• Electrons and holes moving=current
• Must be an equal displacement current flowing
across the junction
 Differential junction capacitance
• Also called small-signal junction capacitance
dQ
Cj º
dVa
• Already some charge on either side of junction at
equilibrium
• When voltage changes, charge is added or
subtracted in sheets at edges of depletion region
• Looks like parallel plates
A=junction area
eA ε=permittivity of material
Cj = w=junction width
w
 But, w depends on √(voltage)
• Thus Cj is not linear with voltage
• Expression for w (pn junction):
1
é2eV N ' + N '
( ) ùú 2

w =wn + wp = ê j
'
A
'
D

ê qN A N D ú
ë û
• So (pn junction)
1 1

eA é qeN D' N A' ù2 é qeN ' N ' ù

2

Cj = =A ê ú =A ê D A ú
w
ë (' '
)
ê2 N D + N A ( Vbi - Va ) ú
û ë ( ' '
)
ê2 N D + N A V j ú
û
 Results
• For pn junction (repeated)
1
é qe N ' N ' ù 2

C j =A ê D A ú
ë
'
(
ê2 N D + N A V j ú
'
û )
• For one-sided step junction
1 1
é qeN ' ù 2éqeN ' ù 2
C j =A ê ú =A ê ú
ë2 ( Vbi - Va ) ú
ê û ë 2V j ú
ê û

N’ is the net doping concentration on the lightly doped side

 Junction capacitance per unit area for one-
sided junction
• Reverse bias shown
 What if Va approaches Vbi?
1 1
é qeN ' ù 2 éqeN ' ù2
C j =A ê ú =A ê ú
ë2 ( Vbi - Va ) ú
ê û ë 2V j ú
ê û

• Cj appears to go infinite
– But as Va increases, current increases
– Have IRs drop across series resistance
– Junction voltage is
V j =Vbi - ( Va - IRS )

– So in practice Vj is always greater than zero

 Key points
• Junction capacitance arises because of ionized donors
and acceptors in transition region
• As voltage is applied, depletion region gets wider (or
narrower)
• Sheets of charge are added or removed
• Sheets of charge look like a parallel plate capacitor
• Junction capacitance is smallish for large reverse bias,
increases nonlinearly as voltage becomes more positive
• Next: stored charge capacitance
Small signal impedance of
prototype homojunctions-
Stored Charge Capacitance
Chapter 5 Section 4.3

Copyright © 2016
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Permission required for
presentation or display
 Introduction
• There are two kinds of capacitance associated
with pn junctions
• We already looked at junction capacitance
– Caused by ionized donors and acceptors on each
side of junction
• Now we’ll investigate stored-charge
capacitance
– Caused by change in minority carrier density
 Consider an n p junction
+

• Take the case of forward

bias
• For n+p, have injection of
electrons primarily
• When you change the
bias, the amount of
injected carriers changes
• Change in charge caused
capacitance
 First, steady state
• We already know the density of excess electrons on
p-side is -
x- x p
Ln
Dn p (x) =Dn p (x p )e
• In steady state, this concentration remains constant
in time (still varies with distance)
– Electrons are constantly diffusing across junction
– Electrons are constantly diffusing into p-region and
recombining
– There is a constant “pile” of charge
on p-side
 When the voltage changes
• The amount of injection changes
– The size of the “pile” changes
– Change in charge “stored” in the pile is
capacitance
– Total charge stored is integral of injection pile
¥

Qs =- qA òDn p (x) dx =qADn p (x p )Ln

xp

– Will relate this to current

 Current is by diffusion of minority carriers
(primarily)
• So current across x=xp is
dDn p (x) Dn p (x p )
I x =qADn =- qADn
p dx Ln
xp

• Combine with
¥

Qs =- qA òDn p (x) dx =qADn p (x p )Ln Ln = Dntn

xp

• Result
IL2n
Qs = =It n
Dn
 Now change voltage by dVa abruptly

• Size of pile changes

• Since qVa

( )
Dn x p µ e kT
then Δn(xp) changes abruptly
• But the rest of the
distribution can’t change • the stored electrons will diffuse to
left and right of peak
instantaneously
• The ones that diffuse to the right
• Now peak concentration is recombine and disappear
not at xp but to right of it • Only the ones that diffuse to the
• Since dn left flow into external circuit and
J n =qDn contribute to the capacitance
dx
Referred to as reclaimable stored charge
 Let δ be the fraction of charge that is
reclaimable
• Then Qsr is reclaimable stored charge and recalling that
Qs =It n
qVa
• and
Dn p (x p ) n p0e kT
I x =- qADn =- qADn
p Ln Ln
• We obtain
dQsr dQs q
Csc = =d = d Itn
dVa dVa kT
• For prototype step junction, δ=0.5
– For graded doping, δ depends on the profile
– We’ll visit in more detail when we talk about bipolar junction transistors
(Chapter 10)
 Stored-charge capacitance µ diffusion current

• Thus Csc increases exponentially

qV
with Va
q q a

Csc = d Itn = d n p0e kT tn

kT kT
• But junction capacitance goes as square root of Va
qeN A
C j =A
2 ( Vbi - Va )
• Therefore, for reverse bias and small forward bias,
junction capacitance dominates µ
• For large forward bias, stored-charge capacitance
dominates
Example: Compare the junction capacitance and stored
charge capacitance under reverse (Va=-5V) and forward
bias (Va =+0.75V).
• Consider a prototype n+-p junction with
NA’=NA=1017 cm-3, with junction area A=100
μm2 and fractional reclaimable charge δ =0.5
• Junction capacitance:
1
é qeN ù
2

C j =A ê A
ú
ë2 ( Vbi - Va ) ú
ê û
 First find Vbi
• Find Vbi from chart for one-sided junction

Vbi=0.98V
 Calculate Cj’s
qeN A
• For Va=-5V C j =A
2 ( Vbi - Va )
æ 2 10 -8
cm 2
ö
C j (- 5) =ç100 m m 2 ÷x
i
è 1m m ø
1
é æ - 14 F ö
ù
2

ê(1.6 ´ 10 - 19
C) ( 11.8 ) çè8.85 ´ 10
cm
(
÷
ø
1017
cm -3
) ú
xi ê ú
ê 2 ( 0.98 + 5) ú
ê ú
ë û
=0.053pF

• and for Va=0.75V

C j (0.75) =0.27 pF
 For stored-charge capacitance
dQsr dQs q
Csc = =d = d Itn
dVa dVa kT
• Need to find I
– Use the diffusion current
æ qVa ö æ Dn n p0 öæ qVa ö
I =I 0 çe kT - 1÷=qA ç ÷çe kT
- 1÷
è ø è Ln øè ø

– Generation/recombination current does not

contributed to stored-charge capacitance
• We find
ni2 (1.08 ´ 1010 cm- 3 )2 3 -3
n p0 = ' = =1.17 ´ 10 cm
NA 1017 cm- 3
 æ qVa ö æ Dn n p0 öæ qVa ö
I =I 0 çe kT - 1÷=qA ç ÷çe kT
- 1÷
è ø è Ln øè ø

• Look up Dn (minority carriers on p-side)

Dn=20 cm2/s
 Find Ln

Lp
Ln=70 μm
Ln
 Find τn

τn=3 µs
 So I0 becomes
æ Dn n p0 ö
I0 =qA ç ÷
L
è n ø
æ cm2 3 -3ö
ç 20 ×1.17 ´ 10 cm ÷
=1.6 ´ 10- 19 C ×
100 ´ 10 - 8 cm2 ´ ç s
70 ´ 10 -4
cm ÷
ç ÷
è ø
=5.3 ´ 10- 19 A
• and I at Va=-5V is -5.3 x 10-19 A
• At Va=+0.75V,
qV
æ kTa ö æ 0.75
ö
I =I 0 çe - 1÷=5.3 ´ 10 - 19 A çe 0.026 - 1÷=1.8 m A
è ø è ø
 Stored-charge capacitances
• At Va=-5V:
q
Csc (- 5) = d It n
kT
æ 1 ö - 19 -6 - 23
=ç ÷(0.5)(5.3 ´ 10 A)(3´ 10 s) =3.1´ 10 F@0
è0.026V ø

• At Va=+0.75V
q
Csc (0.75) = d It n
kT
æ 1 ö -6 -6
=ç ÷(0.5)(1.8 ´ 10 A)(3´ 10 s) =100 pF
è0.026V ø
 Compare results
Cj Csc

Va= -5 V 0.053 pF ≈0
Va= +0.75 V 0.27 pF 100 pF
 Key points
• Under forward bias, as voltage changes, the amount of
charge “stored” in the injection changes, leading to
capacitance
• When voltage is changed, not all the “stored” charge is
recovered- reclaimable fraction is δ=1/2 for step
junction
• Under reverse bias, junction capacitance dominates
• Under large forward bias, stored-charge capacitance
dominates
• Next: we’ll look at transient behavior of diodes
Turn-off transient

Chapter 5 Section 5.1

Copyright © 2016
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Permission required for
presentation or display
 Introduction
• A pn junction is often used as a switch
– Change state from “on” (forward bias, VF) to “off”
(reverse bias, VR)
• Junction has capacitance
– Cannot change state instantly
– There will be turn-on and turn-off transients
• Investigate turn-off transient first
 Here is the situation

• We’ll assume that both VF and VR are larger

than Vbi
• Assume R1>>Rs (so we can neglect internal
series resistance of diode)
 Take an n -p junction
+

• Then can ignore stored hole charge on n-side

• At time t=0, the diode is on
x- x p
-
• Vj(on)<Vbi Dn p (x,t =0) =Dn p (x p ,0)e Ln

• VF>>Vbi>Vj
• Thus forward
current IF is (up
to t=0)
VF
I F (0) @
R1
 At t=0 switch voltage to VR
• Excess carrier
concentration goes
from injection to
extraction
• Some carriers diffuse
to the right (not all are
reclaimed)
• Notice slope of Δnp is
constant near junction
during transition
 Find the current
• Recall current crossing the plane xp is same as the
current anywhere else in the device
– But it’s easy to evaluate here- it’s entirely due to diffusion
• Since slope is constant during the
switch, current is constant until
t=ts (ts is storage time)
VR
IR @
R1
• After that, slope flattens to steady
state
• Current decays to steady state
value (reverse current ≈0)
 The derivation is involved
• But approximate solution is
æ IF ö
ts @ t n ln ç1+ ÷
è I R ø

• For VF=VR, |IF|≈|IR| and

ts =t n ln 2 =0.68tn

• Note IR is zero in steady state, only reaches |IF|

during transition
To shorten turn-off time, reduce charge in p-
region
IF
• Can do this by decreasing (adjust voltages in
IR
circuit)
• Can do this by reducing electron lifetime
– By doping with traps such as Au or Cu
– Traps, however, increase G current in the off state
• Increases power consumption
– Shortening lifetime also decreases diffusion length Ln
• Can also reduce thickness of more lightly doped side
• Can also grade doping- more in Chapter 9
 Key points
• When switching from “on” to “off”, initial
condition is injected charge stored on lightly
doped side of one-sided junction
• When voltage is reversed, takes time to deplete
the excess charge (source of capacitance)
• On turn-off, current is constant for storage time
ts, then decays
• To speed up turn-off: shorten lifetime via traps
states, adjust on/off voltages
Turn-on transient

Chapter 5 Section 5.2

Copyright © 2016
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Permission required for
presentation or display
 Introduction
• We looked at the turn-off transient for a step-
junction diode
• Now we’ll consider turn-on
• Transient associated with going from VR back
to VF
Now must build up stored charge
• Slopes constant again
• Current IF constant
• Reach steady state when
injection rate equals
recombination rate
 Effects of the two capacitances
• For turn-on, beginning state is reverse bias
– Junction capacitance important there
– Amount of charge needed to discharge the small

junction capacitance small compared to amount

needed to fill stored charge pile
– Stored charge established by diffusion (slow)
• Thus turn-on time determined mostly by time
needed to set up the minority carrier steady-
state distribution large
 When switching from high to low
• Current switches from
VF/R1 to VR/R1 VOLTAGE
IN
• During storage time,
diode voltage constant
(current is constant)
DIODE
• Real diode: series CURRENT

resistance Rs not
really 0
DIODE
VOLTAGE
Voltage drop across series resistance of diode

• Diode voltage is
junction voltage plus Diode
model
voltage across Rs
• Voltage across diode
terminals goes from
DIODE
(Vj(on)+IFRS) to (Vj(on) CURRENT

+IRRS)
– Remember IF is
DIODE
positive, IR is negative VOLTAGE
 After storage time…
• Current flow decays to
“off” value VOLTAGE
• Voltage across terminals IN

of diode decays to VR
• Notice turn-on time very
short compared to turn- DIODE
CURRENT
off
• Maximum switching
frequency limited by DIODE
VOLTAGE
turn-off
 Real life
• Usually use V=0 for off voltage (not a negative voltage)
• Junction capacitance and stored-charge capacitance
vary with voltage
• Messy
• Simulate with SPICE or equivalent
 For short-base diode
• WB<<Ln
• Recombination mostly happens at contact
(neglect recombination in p-QNR)
æ x ö
Dn p (x) =Dn p (0) ç1- ÷
• and è WB ø
dDn qADn Dn(0)
I n =qADn =-
dx WB
 Excess charge in short base is
WB
Qs =- qADn(0) ix =I ntT
2
• where tT is transit time across the short QNR
(“base transit time”)
• Base transit time given by
2

tT =
( W )
B

2Dn
 Example: Compare the amount of minority carrier
stored charge in a forward-biased short-base diode
with that in a long-base diode.
• Solution: We had 2
WB tT =
( W )
B
Qs =- qADn(0) ix =I ntT short
2 2Dn
IL2n
Qs = =Itn L2n =Dnt n long
Dn
• So we can write
2
Qs (short - base) 1 æWB ö
= ix ç ÷
Qs (long - base) 2 è Ln ø
 Let WB≈0.1 μm, Ln=31 μm
• This value of WB typical for the base of a
transistor
2
Qs (Short-Base) 1 x æ0.1 ö
@ i ç ÷ @ 5 ´ 10- 6
Qs (Long Base) 2 è 31 ø

• Can speed up switching time by about 5

million by using a short-based diode
 Key points
• Turn-off time is much slower than
turn-on time
• Switching frequency limited by turn-off
• Reduce time, increase frequency by
shortening the width of the lightly
doped side
• Can also introduce trap states to speed
up recombination but that incurs a
power penalty
Effects of temperature

Chapter 5 Section 6

Copyright © 2016
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Permission required for
presentation or display
 Introduction
• When designing a diode (or any component)
have to consider the temperature range over
which it has to operate
– Commercial grade products might have to operate
over 0 C to 70 C
– Military grade: -55 C up to 125 C
 Current in an n -p diode +
-E
q Dn 2 q Dn g

J0 = ' ni = ' N C NV e kT
NA tn NA tn

• Quantities Dn , τn , NC , NV , and Eg all vary with

temperature
• Setting those aside, have kT in exponent
• Compare fractional change in J0 to J0
æ - Eg ö
ç de kT ÷
æ dJ 0 ö ç
ç ç dT ÷
÷
è dT ø è ø æ Eg ö Eg 1
÷
= -E =ç 2 ÷= ×
J0 g
è kT ø kT T
e kT
 Fractional change for Si
æ - Eg ö
ç de kT ÷
æ dJ 0 ö ç
ç ç dT ÷
÷
è dT ø è ø æ Eg ö Eg 1
÷
= -E =ç 2 ÷= ×
J0 g
è kT ø kT T
e kT

• For Si,
1.12 1
× =0.14
0.026 300

• or J0 varies by 14% per °C!

 What about JGR0?
• That depends on ni rather than ni2 (J0 depends
on ni2)
• Recall - Eg

ni2 =N C NV e kT

• So JGR0 changes with temperature at about half

the rate of J0
 And the voltage
• Suppose a diode is biased at a constant
forward current in typical range 0.1 to 1 mA
• Diode voltage increases about 2 mV per
degree C
 Key points
• Diode current and voltages vary with
temperature
• Have to take into account when designing
devices
Summary

Chapter 5 Section 7

Copyright © 2016
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Permission required for
presentation or display
 Introduction
• We considered prototype pn junctions
– Real diodes have complex doping gradients
– Have to solve equations numerically- provides little insight
• We chose step junction to illustrate physical processes
• We considered
– pn junctions (neither side degenerate)
– one-sided junctions (one side is degenerate)
• n+-p
• p+-n
 Fermi levels
• Non-degenerate n and p regions:
NC N D'
E f =EC - kT ln ' =Ei + kT ln n-region
ND ni
NV N A'
E f =EV + kT ln ' =Ei - kT ln p-region
NA ni

• Degenerate: can often assume that

E f @ EC n + -region
E f @ EV p + -region
 Built-in voltage
in general:
1
(
Vbi = F p - F n
q
)

1é N C NV ù kT N D' N A'
Vbi = êEg - kT ln ' ' ú = ln prototype pn junction
që NDNA û q ni2
1é NV ù kT NV N A'
Vbi = êEg - kT ln ' ú= ln prototype n + -p junction
që NA û q ni2
1é N C ù kT N C N D'
Vbi = êEg - kT ln ' ú= ln prototype p + -n junction
që ND û q ni2
 Junction width

• Width of region where there are uncompensated ions

• No free carriers
– Depletion region
– Transition region
– Space charge region
 Junction width equations
1
é2eV ( N + N ) ù' ' 2
• pn w =w + w =ê
n p
j
úA D

ê qN A' N D' ú
1
ë û
é2eV j ù 2
• n -p
+
w =ê ' ú
ëqN A ú
ê û
1
• p -n
+
é2eV j ù 2
Vj I the junction voltage
w =ê ' ú
ëqN D ú
Vj=Vbi-Va
ê û
Va is the applied voltage
 Junction width
• Most of the junction width appears on the
lightly doped side
wn ( xo - xn ) N A'
= = '
wp (
x p - xo) ND
• Most of the voltage is dropped across the
lightly doped side

V jn N A'
p
= '
Vj ND
 Three current mechanisms
• Drift (caused by electric field)
• Diffusion (caused by gradients in carrier
concentrations)
• Generation/recombination
• Total current density is
æ qVa ö æ qVa ö
J =J GR + J diff @ J GRo çe 2kT - 1÷+ J o çe kT - 1÷
è ø è ø

• if evaluated at edge of transition region where you

can neglect drift
 Diode current density
æ qVa ö
J diff =J o çe kT - 1÷
è ø

• J0=J0diff+JGR0
• J0 increases by about 14% per °C
• J increases by factor of 10 for Va increase of 60
mV (room temperature)
• Total current is I=AJ where A is the cross-
sectional area of the junction
 Leakage currents
qni w Transition width w goes as √Vj
J GRo @
2t o
æ Dn n po D p pno ö Long base diode
J o =q ç + ÷
è nL L p ø
æ Dn n po D p pno ö
J o =q ç + Short base diode (p-side short)
÷
è BW L p ø

æ Dn n p0 D p pn0 ö
J 0 =q ç + Both sides short
÷
è WB( p) W( n) ø
 Leakage current comments
• Usually JGR0>>J0
– JGR0 important for reverse bias and small forward
bias
– J0 important for larger forward bias
 Junction breakdown
• Two mechanisms
– Tunneling (Zener breakdown) æ ö
p wT m* Eg
-ç ÷
ç 3 ÷
ç
è ÷
ø
J e
2
2 

– Avalanche multiplication 1
M=
(1- P)

– Zener is softer breakdown, occurs in heavily doped junctions

– Avalanche sharper breakdown, comes with lightly doped
junctions
 Capacitance
• Two kinds
– Junction capacitance (variation in ionized charges
in depletion region)
– Stored charge capacitance (variation in charge in
excess carriers near junction)
 Junction Capacitance
• Junction capacitance (variation in ionized
charges in depletion region)
1
é qeN D' N A' ù
2

C j =A ê ú
ë ( ' '
)
ê2 N D + N A ( Vbi - Va ) ú
û
• Goes as Va-1/2
• Predominates under reverse bias and low
forward bias
 Stored Charge Capacitance
• Stored charge capacitance (variation in charge
in excess carriers near junction)

q q q æ WB2 ö
Csc = d It n (long base) Csc = d ItT = d I ç ÷ (short base)
kT kT kT è2Dn ø

• Dominates under large forward bias

 Transient effects
• Switching time determined by how quickly you
can charge/discharge internal capacitances
• Turn-on time small compared to turn-off
• Operating frequency limited by turn-off
– Use short-base diode to improve
 Key points
• Prototype (step) junction greatly simplified
• Does provide great physical insight
• Will refine the model in Chapter 6
• See also Supplement to Part II which has
additional information