Endocrine System Overview

Endocrine System Nervous System Similarities

Chemical messenger is Chemical messenger is Both control organs/systems
hormone neurotransmitter to maintain homeostasis
Messenger travels long Messengers travel a very Both use chemical
distances – intercellular short distance. Just travels messengers
communication across the synaptic cleft.
Made up of glands/tissues Composed of brain, spinal Negative feedback
and organs. The structures cord and nerves. They are
are not connected. all connected. “Wired
“Wireless system” system”
ES is not connected to NS is connected to target Both have target cell
target organs organs specificity (ligand-receptor
specificity)
Targets pretty much all cells NS has target cell Some chemical messengers
in the body specificity are the same (NE)
Requires blood stream for Target cells of the NS are
transport muscle, neurons, adipose
and glands
Slower than NS. Some are Faster than ES.
seconds, but most are Milliseconds!
minutes, hours or even days
Duration of action is longer Activities controlled are
than NS skeletal muscle, reflexes,
rapid activities
Types of activities
controlled = pretty much
everything not controlled by
the NS. Growth, metabolic
activity…things that require
duration.

Endocrine System Overview

Endocrinology is the study of endocrine cells/organs, the hormones secreted, regulation
of hormone secretion and the effects of hormones on their target
cells/organs. Lumen is
the inside of
Endocrine vs. Exocrine tissues the duct.
Endocrine secretes hormones, while exocrine secretes all the other stuff
(mucus, enzymes, sweat). Endocrine secretes into the surrounding ISF then into the
blood, while exocrine secretes outside the body (skin, digestive tract).
Functional anatomy of the Endocrine System
Most of the secretory cells are endocrine cells except for the HOMEOSTASIS EXAMPLE
neurohormones. These use the blood stream for transport like ADH is released in response to
all hormones do, but are secreted from a neuron rather than an low blood volume or low blood
endocrine cell (ex: ADH). Hormones are transported via the pressure. When volume goes up,
blood and have target cells, which are the effectors. The blood pressure goes up. When
effectors are hormone specific and lead to hormone effects to volume goes down, blood
maintain homeostasis. pressure goes down.

Secretory (endocrine) cells include these:

Endocrine glands
o Pituitary glands (6 from the anterior lobe/2 from the posterior)
o Pineal Melatonin
o Thyroid Thyroid Hormone (TH, T3 & T4)
Calcitonin
o Thymus Thymosins
o Parathyroid PTH (parathyroid hormone)
o Adrenal 2 categories—catecholamines and corticosteroids

Endocrine tissues (within mixed glands)

o Pancreatic islets The two biggies are insulin and glucagon
o Ovaries (theca interna) Estrogens and progestins (progesterone)
o Testes (testes) Androgens (main one is testosterone)

Neurosecretory neurons What secretes NE from

o Hypothalamus ADH, oxytocin and regulatory Hs the adrenal medulla?
o Adrenal medulla NE Post-ganglionic
(not epithelial cells, actually modified neurons) sympathetic neurons.

Diffuse endocrine cells

o Heart ANP, BNP
o Enteroendocrine cells of GI tract
o Liver IGF (insulin-like growth factor)
Angiotencinogen
Thrombopoietin Calcitriol is the
o Kidney Calcitriol active form of
Erythropoietin Vitamin D!
o Placenta Estrogen, progesterone, HCG
o Adipose Leptin, resistin, grehlin
o Skin Vitamin D (the active form)

Hormones/Neurohormones Classifications
Hormones are organized into classes based on their biochemical structure.
o Amines (modified amino acids). They start as AAs (tryptophan or tyrosine), then
add side groups and voila! The amine group includes the catecholamines (NE, E,
melatonin and TH)
 o Peptide/protein hormones represent the largest class.
o Steroid hormones (all derived from cholesterol). Steroids only come from the
gonads, adrenal cortex and the kidneys (calcitriol)

Some hormones are tropic! Tropic hormones are nourishing. Tropic

hormones target another gland and is usually necessary to maintain Tropic = nourishing.
the target tissue. Tropics ALWAYS target endocrine cells. Tropics
are present when H cause the secretion of other Hs.
Ex: TRH stimulates release of TSH stimulates release of TH

Synthesis, storage, secretion and distribution of hormones

The processes for each class are similar, and are determined by biochemical structure and
resulting solubility (lipophobic/hydrophilic or lipophilic/hydrophobic).

Peptide/Protein Hormones
o Solubility: Water soluble (hydrophilic/lipophobic)
o Synthesis: Same general process of protein synthesis. Details not on the
test.
o Storage: Proteins are stored in vesicles because they cannot get across the
vesicle membrane. They are stored until signaled for secretion
o Secretion: Exocytosis upon stimulation
o Transport: Proteins are transported in the plasma as dissolved particles b/c
hydrophilic.

Steroid Hormones
o Solubility: Lipid soluble (lipophilic/hydrophobic)
o Synthesis: Steroids are made from cholesterol. Enzymes modify the
cholesterol into steroids such as progesterone, estradiol and testosterone.
o Storage: No storage, b/c the molecules would just diffuse across the
membrane…they cannot be trapped!
o Secretion: Diffusion…can just diffuse across the membrane
o Transport: Bound to protein carriers in the blood. Albumin is the most
common carrier.

Catecholamines (derivatives of tyrosine) of the Amine Hormones

o Solubility: Water soluble (hydrophilic/lipophobic)
o Synthesis: Starts with an AA and enzymes modify it.
o Storage: Stored in vesicles
o Secretion: Exocytosis (NE and E are stimulated via APs from
preganglionic axon)
o Transport: In the blood as dissolved particles. Note that some bind to
proteins in the blood, but this is more so they can be stored…don’t have to
bind to proteins.
 Thyroid Hormones of the Amine Hormones
o Solubility: Lipid soluble (lipophilic/hydrophobic)
o Synthesis: We’ll go over this later
o Storage: Yes, stored in thyroid follicles (more details later)
o Secretion: Diffusion (more to come later)
o Transport: Bound to carriers
o General: TH behaves as a steroid!

Melatonin (derivative of tryptophan) of the Amine Hormones

o Not much to say here.

MECHANISM OF ACTION (MOA) & HORMONE EFFECTS

Hormones bind to specific receptors causing changes in target cell protein activity to
produce a cellular response…leading to a tissue, organ and organ system response. The
types of protein activity affected are:
o Protein channels
o Protein synthesis
o Turning enzymes on or off

Hormone receptors are either on the exterior surface of the cell (used by hydrophilic
hormones, which are the amines and proteins), or inside the cell (these receptors are used
by lipophilic hormones, which are the steroids and thyroid hormone.) The fastest way a
hormone could have an affect on a cell is to open a channel, so this role belongs to the
hydrophilic amines and proteins.

Membrane proteins are cell surface receptors that can be stimulated in one of 3 ways:
1. Membrane protein is part of a fast ligand-gated channel membrane channel. In
this case the protein is the channel AND the receptor, so the hormone just binds to
the channel itself to cause its effect. OPENS ONLY! The opening of the channel
is a brief and immediate response, which changes the permeability of the cell
inducing a cellular response.
2. Membrane protein can be part of a G-protein linked, slow ligand-gated channel.
This channel opens and closes slooooowwwly. The hormone binds to the
receptor, but the receptor has to communicate with other proteins to open the
channel. He has to call the handyman to get the door open! This also changes the
permeability and electrical properties of the cell.
3. Membrane protein can be part of a 2nd messenger pathway, many of which are
mediated by G-proteins. The major 2nd messengers are”
a. cAMP
b. cGMP
c. Ca++

The process usually results in the activation or deactivation of enzymes…but

could also result in indirect, slow opening or closing of membrane channels.
When there are changes in enzymatic activity and thus cellular metabolism, this
produces a cellular response.
 The use of a second-messenger results
in amplification of the signal from the
first messenger, which is the hormone. This explains how one hormone can cause
the phosphorylation of up to millions of proteins/enzymes.

Intracellular receptors come into play when lipophilic hormones are involved. These
receptors are located in the cytosol or the nucleus, which the lipophilic hormone (steroids
or TH) can just diffuse right on into. Once attached to the receptor, it forms a hormone-
receptor complex that binds to HRE (hormone response element) on the DNA. From this
position it affects gene activation (enhances or inhibits), to enhance or inhibit protein
synthesis of a specific protein, which leads to the presence or absence of a cellular
response. One example is the building of Na-K pumps…most of the time this process
involves building proteins.

POP QUIZ! Rank these MOAs from fastest to slowest:

a. change membrane permeability via ligand-gated channels
b. change protein synthesis Answer: A, C, B; B, C, A
c. alter the rate of enzymatic reactions via 2nd messengers

What about duration??? Which will have the longest-lasting effects?

FACTORS AFFECTING HORMONE ACTIONS AT TARGET CELLS

Recall that hormones often target different types of cells and produce different cellular
responses. Also most cells are responsive to more than one hormone. The end result is
that one hormone can have a variety of effects (ADH conserves water AND it
vasoconstricts), and that any target cell can have receptors for more than one hormone
(ADH and Aldosterone both target the same cells.)

Hormone actions are proportional to the concentration of free hormone levels in the
blood (slide 32). Hormone concentration depends on four factors:
1. The rate of secretion (detailed below)
2. The rate of metabolic activation
a. Note that some hormones are not secreted in their final form. TH is
secreted as T4, which must be converted to T3 before it can be utilized.
3. The amount of hormone bound to carriers (if any).
a. Only FREE hormones can bind. Since all lipophilic hormones bind to
carriers, only a very small percentage is ready to bind to the receptor and
induce its effects. An equilibrium exists between the bound hormones and
the amount of free (available) hormone in the blood. As free hormones get
used, it disturbs equilibrium and allows more bound hormones to be
unbound and become available.
4. The rate of removal (metabolic degradation and/or excretion)
a. All hormones are broken down at some point. Where this gets interesting
is with liver and kidney disease. Because these organs break things down,
 hormone levels will rise if the kidney or liver is not functioning properly.
Note that free hormones are broken down faster. The fact that that
lipophilic hormones bind to a carrier is one way of “preserving” the
hormone and keeping it at the ready.

Time perios for hormone action are important to consider when POP QUIZ!
administering HRT (exogenous hormones). Things to consider are: Rank the hormone
o Half-life…the time it takes for half of the secreted hormone to be classes from shortest
removed from circulation. This tells you how often to administer to longest half –life.
the hormone, and it depends on how quickly the hormone is
degraded once in circulation. Rank the hormone
o Onset…the time it takes for the hormone actions to appear. This classes from fastest
depends on the MOA for each hormone. Catecholamines act to slowest onset.
quickly, while steroids/TH act slowly.
o Duration…how long cellular responses last once they appear. This Rank the hormone
also depends on the MOA for each hormone. classes from shortest
to longest-lasting
For any given hormone, the effects can be fine-tuned by varying the number effects.
of available receptors at the target cell. The more receptors you have, the
more pronounced of an effect the hormone will have on that cell.
o Up-regulation increases target cell sensitivity by adding more Answer: A, P, S / A, P, S / A P S
receptors. This occurs when cells must adapt to chronic low levels
of hormone.
o Down-regulation decreases target cell sensitivity by producing fewer
receptors. This occurs when cells must adapt to chronic high levels of
hormone.
o EX: Eating too much high sugar foods causes the pancrease to release
high levels of insulin. Cells down regulate to avoid overstimulation
and Type II Diabetes results.
o EX: When one takes opiates, the cell down-regulates the number of
receptors for natural endorphins. When the opiates are stopped, the
natural endorphins now do not have their regular number of receptors
and withdrawal symptoms occur.

The interaction of hormones at the same target cell can be synergistic, additive,
antagonistic or permissive.
o Synergistic = working together. The hormones produce the same effect, which is
amplified…the effect is greater than the sum of the individual effects (5+5=15)
o EX: Glucagon + Epi leads to amplified liver glycogenolysis
o Additive = working together. Different hormones produce the same effect, which
are combined to equal the sum of the individual effects (5+5=10)
o Antagonistic = working in opposition. Possibly no effect!
o Permissive = One hormone must be present for another to exert its full effects.
This is often by affecting the number of receptors.
o EX: TH is permissive for many hormone actions, including
catecholamines in the maintenance of BP.
Endocrine system disorders
Endocrine system disorders result from abnormal hormone actions. There are two general
categories of abnormal hormone actions:
1. Abnormal target cell responsiveness. This is usually a problem with the receptor
or receptor-mediated response in a 2nd messenger pathway. EX: Type II Diabetes
Mellitus
2. Abnormal secretion.
a. Hyposecretion…insufficient hormone secretion
b. Hypersecretion…excessive hormone secretion

Hyposecretion Hypersecretion
Primary Problem with endocrine cells/gland Problem with endocrine cells/gland
Secondary Insufficient secretion of TOPIC Excessive secretion of TOPIC hormone,
hormone, leading to insufficient leading to excessive stimulation of
stimulation of endocrine cells endocrine cells
Treatment HRT Removal of abnormal cells/gland (often a
tumor*) + HRT if necessary
Receptor antagonist
Some examples:
What might cause hyposecretion of TH? Something is wrong with the cells…the thyroid gland does not
have the materials to make TH.
If the problem is with the TSH or TRH (in the case of thyroid problems), then it is called a secondary
problem. *NOTE THAT TUMORS DO NOT RESPOND TO NEGATIVE FEEDBACK.

Control of Hormone Secretion

Control of hormone secretion is regulated by negative feedback. This is an endocrine
reflex that keeps levels within an acceptable range to maintain homeostasis. The set point
for the negative feedback loop is influenced by the circadian rhythm, and can be
overridden during a stress response.

Endocrine reflexes are analogous to neural reflexes, with varying degrees of complexity.
Most reflexes involve one or three hormones…one is simple, three is complex.
o Simple, one-hormone reflex (slide 33) examples are:
o Insulin responds to high blood glucose (beta-cells monitor and act as
control center and receptor)
o PTH responds to low plasma calcium
o Three-hormone pathways involve the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary and various
peripheral endocrine glands. (slide 34). Examples are:
o TRH causes release of TSH causes release of TH
o CRH causes release of ACTH which causes release of Cortisol

The negative feedback mechanism with a three-hormone pathway can be long-loop or

short-loop. It’s long loop if the feedback goes all the way back to the hypothalamus,
short-loop if it goes back to the pituitary gland.
In some conditions, the endocrine cells/gland no longer respond to negative feedback
(slide 35). This is the case when the gland has a tumor…this can create primary or
secondary hypersecretion, depending on the gland affected.

The diurnal/circadian rhythm causes fluctuations in hormone levels (the set point)
according to the 24-hour light/dark cycle.

There are three types of stimuli for hormone secretion

1. Humoral. This is a change in ECF (body fluid) composition such as glucose,
electrolytes, oxygen, CO2, etc…
2. Hormonal. This stimulus is sent via tropic hormones from the hypothalamus and
anterior pituitary.
3. Neural. This involves neural input to the hypothalamus, adrenal medulla and
pineal gland.
The hypothalamus receives all three types of input! (ex: ADH provides all three types)

The hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is the master endocrine gland, and it controls the rest of the endocrine
system in three ways.
1. It secretes regulatory hormones that target/regulate the anterior pituitary. These
hormones can be stimulating or inhibiting. (TROPIC)
2. It produces neurohormones (ADH and Oxytocin), which are secreted from the
posterior pituitary…these are NOT TROPIC hormones.
3. Its autonomic centers stimulate secretion of Catecholamines from the adrenal
medulla.
A brief review:
The HYPOTHALAMUS does not control the parathyroid gland. The parathyroid gland
only cares about CA++ levels in the blood. Nothing else.
The HYPO sends neural signals to the adrenal medulla. (E, NE)
The HYPO produces ADH and Oxytocin (1-hormone pathway)
The HYPO releases a bunch of regulatory hormones.

Short-loop pathways invove the 3rd hormone looping back to the 2nd hormone
Long-loop pathways involve the 3rd hormone looping back to the 1st hormone.

Some hormones just do short loops, some do short and long…and some probably just do
long, but I have no idea on that one. Maybe not. An example of one that loops back to
both is CORTISOL.
If you take your foot off the
Increased Negative Feedback = Inhibition of secretion brakes, the car is going to
Decreased Negative Feedback = Stimulation of secretion MOVE. If you press hard on
the brakes (increased
Insulin is released by BETA-CELLS negative feedback) it’s going
Glucagon is released by ALPHA-CELLS to STOP everything.
THE PITUITARY GLAND (AKA Hypophysis)
The PG is located in the sphenoid bone, where it sits in the sella turcia. It is connected to
the hypothalamus via the infundibulum.

The PG develops from grandular and nervous tissue, based on embryological

development. During development, the diencephalons and Rathke’s patch are separate,
but as development continues they get closer and closer, and eventually Rathke’s patch
(which is epithelial tissue) pinches off and joins forces with the neural diencephalon
tissue.

Posterior = Neural portion = neurohypophysis (inf. to mamillary body) = pars nervosa

Anterior = Glandular portion = adenohypophysis (inferior to optic chiasm)

The anterior lobe is made up of three regions:

1. pars distalis
2. pars tuberalis (infundibulum area)
3. pars intermedia (between pars distalis and pars nervosa)

…and three cell types, based on their histology:

o Acidophiils (stain with acidic dyes) Somatotropes (GH)
Mammotropes (PRL)
o Basophils (stain with basic dyes) Thyrotropes (TSH)
Gonadotropes (LH, FSH)
Adrenocorticotropes (ACTH)
o Chromophobes No hormone production
HISTOLOGY NOTE: On the posterior portion you will see few cells. The cells you do
see are the glial cells, called PITUICYTES. The neurons here are actually hypothalamic
neurons because the cell body is in the hypothalamus. Neurohormones (ADH and
Oxytocin) are secreted from the axon terminals, but are produced in the hypothalamus.

The hypothalamus has several nuclei…recall that nuclei are groups of cells in the CNS.
o Supraoptic nuclei are above the optic chiasm (SON) – ADH is produced here
o Paraventricular nuclei (PVN) – Oxytocin is produced here
o Ventral hypothalamic nuclei (VHN) – Regulatory hormones are produced here

Connections
The HYPO and Posterior PG (neurohypophysis) are connected via the hypothalamic
hypophyseal tract…which is neural (recall that tracts are axons!)

The HYPO and Anterior PG (adenohypophys) are connected via the hypophyseal portal
system, which is vascular.

Hypothalamus & Neurohypophysis A portal system

Note that OT and ADH are produced in cell bodies of specialized neurons is when you have
in the hypothalamus. NEXT STEPS ARE: capillary to vein
to capillary.
 1. They travel down large axons that run through the infundibulum, which is
collectively called the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract.
2. They are then secreted from the axon terminals in the neurohypophysis
3. Enter the hypophyseal capillaries, which are fed by the inferior hypophyseal
artery.
4. They exit the pituitary via the hypophyseal vein
5. Enter general circulation to reach target cells.

Oxytocin (OT)
Produced where: Pareventricular nuclei (PVN of hypothalamus)
Secreted from: Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)
Pathway used: Neuroendocrine reflex
Cell type: Neurohormone
Stimulus: Neuroendocrine stretch reflex
Target organ: Uterus, Breasts
Target cells: Smooth muscle cells
Action: Smooth muscle contraction
Result: Milk ejection, uterine contraction

Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH…aka Vasopressin)

Produced where: Supraoptic nuclei (SON)
Secreted from: Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)
Stimulus: Low BP or high blood osmolarity
Action: Increased blood volume (this increased BP)
Reduce blood osmolarity
more on this later…

Hypothalamus & Adenohypophysis (fig 18.5-18.9, table 18-2, slides 45-47)

The ventral hypothalamic nuclei (VHN) secrete releasing & inhibiting hormones
(regulatory hormones) that target the endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary via the
hypophyseal portal system.

The hypophyseal portal system is a vascular system that is made up of a primary

capillary bed leading to veins that lead to a secondary capillary bed. The hormones that
are stored and secreted from axon terminals in the median eminance follow this pathway
to get to the anterior pituitary gland (adenohypophysis)
1. Hypophyseal capillaries (fed by superior hypophyseal artery)
2. Travel through the hypophyseal portal veins into..
3. The secondary hypophyseal capillaries
4. Then on to target cells
The hormones of the VHN are:
o TRH (regulates TSH secretion)
o CRH (regulates ACTH secretion)
o GnRH (regulates FSH & LH secretion..inhibited by estrogens, progestins, androgens)
 o PRH & PIH (regulate PRL secretion)
o GHRH & GHIH (regulate GH secretion)

The adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) secretes a lot of Adenohypophysis

hormones! They are all peptide/proteins whose affects are mediated by Hormones
cAMP, so they all utilize a 2nd messenger pathway! TSH
ACTH
TSH (Thyrotripin) LH/FSH
Cell type: Thyrotrope cells GH
Stain: Basophils PRL
Action: Regulates TH secretion from the thyroid gland (MSH)
Stimulus: TRH stimulates release of TSH
Released: Anterior pituitary
Target: Thyroid gland
Hypo: Deficient levels of TH
Myxdema (lower metabolic rate)
Overweight, sluggish, cold
Hyper: Grave’s Disease (secondary hypersecretion due to TSI)
Thyroid gland gets overstimulated, produces goiter
See THYROID DISORDERS table

ACTH (Corticotropin)
Cell type: Adrenocorticotrope cells
Stain: Basophils
Stimulus: CRH from VHN of hypothalamus
Released: Anterior pituitary
Target: Adrenal cortex
Action: Regulates Cortisol secretion from the adrenal cortex
…and thus glucose metabolism
Regulation: NF
Hypo: Addison’s Disease (hypotension, weight loss, pigmentation, hypoglycemia)
Hyper: Cushing’s Disease (fat redistribution, loss of muscle, hypertension, poor would
healing, susceptibility to infection and fractures)

LH & FSH (Gonadotropins)

Cell type: Gonadotrope cells
Stain: Basophil
Release: Anterior pituitary
Target: Gonads
Stimulus: Stimulated by GnRH from VNH of hypothalamus
Action: LH: Regulate secretion of sex hormones (testosterone, estrogens, progestins)
LH: Regulate sperm/egg maturation
FSH: Promotes follicle development, stims secretion of estrogens
FSH: Stims physical matural of sperm
Regulation: Negative feedback
Hypo: Hypogonadism, retarded growth and sexual development
Hyper: Excessive growth and precocious puberty

PRL (Prolactin)
Cell type: Mammotrope cells
Stain: Acidophil PRL is milk production
Stimulus: Suckling reflex triggers hypothalamus to release PRF OT is “let down”
Release: Anterior pituitary
Target: Mammary glands
Action: Stimulate mammary gland development and milk production
(may stimulate interstitial cells to LH in males, regulating testosterone
production)
Regulation: Circulating PRL stimulates PIH, which inhibits PRL by inhibiting PRF
Hypo: Poor milk secretion
Hyper: Persistent milk secretion; cessation of menses; impotence Gluconeogenesis =
making new glucose

Growth Hormone (GH) Glycolysis =

Cell type: Somatotrope cells breaking down
Type effect: Tropic and non-tropic glycogen for glucose
Stimulus: Acute stimulus: stress and hypoglycemia
Actions: Indirectly regulates body growth via somatomedins from the liver. This
makes GH a tropic hormone. (skeletal muscles, cartilage, bone)
Directly influences intermediary metabolism (fats, proteins, glucose)
DirectResult: General: Increased cellular uptake of AAs
Protein synthesis

Adipose: Lipolysis (this increases the use of FFA levels for fuel…it
is a “glucose-sparing effect”
Liver: Stimulates glucogenesis which results in increased blood
glucose levels
Hypo: Dwarfism in children
Decreased muscle mass and bone density in adults (includes weak heart)
Hyper: Gigantism in children; Acromegaly in adults
Growth hormone continued:
Regulation: NF. GHIH and GHRH from the VHN of hypothalamus.
No opposing or acute stimulus for growth.
Set point: GH levels are higher when asleep (circadian rhythm)

The PINEAL GLAND is part of the diencephalon. It sits right above the corpora
quadragemina and is made up of pinealocytes. These cells make and secrete melatonin,
which is a hormone that is associated with day/night from visual input.

Melatonin
Actions: Contribute to circadian rhythm
 Protect CNS neurons against free radicals (antioxidant)
Suppress reproductive function until puberty
Regulation: Light inhibits melatonin
Dark stimulates melatonin (higher at night)

The THYROID GLAND has hollow spheres which are follicles. The lumen is inside the
hollow structure, and it is full of colloid. THYROGLOBULIN is the docking protein for
T3 and T4. Recall that TH is a steroid so it has to dock to a protein, otherwise it just
diffues out of the cell. The follicle cells produce/secrete TH. Located just outside the
follicle cells are c-cells, which secrete calictonin.

Thyroid Hormone (TH) is synthezied from tyrosine and iodine. It is either three or four
iodines, which is where T3 and T4 come from. T4 is the most widely secreted, but it must
be converted into T3 in order to be usable (via liver, kidney.) So the tyrosine and iodine
are brought together and they attach on the thyroglobulin. The whole thing is shipped to
the colloid where it hangs out until TH is needed. The cell is stimulated by TSH and the
thyroglobulin complex is brought in to the follicle via endocytosis. The TH is cleaved
from the thyroglobulin via lysosomal enzymes and the TH is then secreted via diffusion.
The thyroglobulin is then recycled.

Thyroid Hormone (TH)

Produced: Follicle cells of thyroid gland
Stimulus: TSH from anterior pituitary
Stress (b/c when in stress need extra nutrients or need to spare fuel for brain)
Actions: Regulate (increases) metabolic rate
Increased ATP turnover (“calorigenic effect”)
Enhancement of sympathetic activity, it is permissive for catecholamines
Essential for normal growth and nervous system development in children
and normal NS activity in adults.
Increased heat production
NOTE: Increased TH ups metabolic rate, so you use more fuel for acute stress
Lowered TH lowers metabolic rate, spares fuel during chronic stress
In infants, TH is a way to generate heat (brown fat)

Calcitonin (CT)
Released: Parafollicular cells of thyroid gland
Stimulus: High blood Ca++
Targets: Bone and kidney
Action: Lowers blood calcium
How: Inhibits osteoclasts
Stimulates osteoblasts
Regulated: Humoral control, NF
The PARATHYROID GLAND consists of four (usually) glandular areas on the
posterior thyroid. The parathyroid gland does not rely on the hypothalamus or pituitary
for control. It is strictly a slave to blood calcium levels. It secretes PTH!
PTH and Calcitriol work
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) together at digestive tract.
Produced: Chief cells of parathyroid gland
Stimulus: Low blood Ca++ Calcitonin always works alone
Target: Digestive tract, bone, kidney
Affect: Raises blood Ca++
How: Works with calcitriol to increase digestive absorption of Ca++
Stimulates osteoblasts
Inhibits osteoclasts
Lowers excretion of Ca++, enhances resportion from filtrate

The ADRENAL GLANDS are perched atop each kidney. The cortex is made up of three
zones. The adrenocortical cells produce/secrete corticosteroids.

Zona glomerulosa - mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

Zona fasciculate - glucocorticoids (cortisol)
Zona reticularis - androgens (more later)

Note that the cortex is glandular tissue, while the medulla is modified neural tissue
(chromaffin cells.)

Aldosterone Brain uses

Region: Zona glomurulosa glucose only
Type: Mineralocorticoids
Stimulus: Low BP (leads to Ang 2) Others can use
High K+ fatty acids instead
Targets: Kidneys
Effect: Raises blood pressure
Lowers blood K+
How: Stimulates kidneys to increase salt resorption. Volume goes up.

Cortisol
Region: Zona fasciculate
Type: Glucocorticoids
Stimulus: Stress, exercise
Hypoglycemia
Regulated: NF (but circadian rhythm changes the set point, highest in morning)
Pathway: CRH to ACTH to Cortisol
Effects: Helps us deal with stress, need to make fuel!
Actions: Stimulates proteolysis and gluconeogenesis to raise glucose
Stimulates lipolysis to raise blood FFA (glucose sparing effect)
Permissive for normal vasoconstriction (via SNS epi, AngII)
Hypo: Addison’s Disease (weakness, weight loss, low BP, melanin up)
Hyper: Cushing’s Disease (hump, poor wound healing, glucose down, muscle
wasting, thin skin)

Androgens
Region: Zona reticularis
Actions: Main ones are related to onset of puberty, libido in females
Note: Less is secreted here than in gonads. More later.

The ADRENAL MEDULLA is involved in the immediate response to stress.

Preganglionic sympathetic fibers synapse at the medulla, causing the release of E and NE
to send input all over the body.

Catecholamines (E, NE)

Location: Adrenal medulla
Secreted: Chromafin cells (modified post-ganglionic sympathetic neurons)
Stimulus: Stress activates the SNS
Targets: Liver, adipose, skeletal muscle, smooth muscle
Actions: Collectively prepares the body for action…
Mobilize energy reserves (glycogenolysis & gluconeogenesis in liver)
Lipolysis in adipose (glucose sparing effect)
Increased skeletal muscle cell metabolism (more ATP turnover)
Increased cardiac output
Bronchodilation
Inhibits GI function…don’t need to digest food right now.

The PANCREAS is a mixed gland. It has both endocrine and Alpha cells = glucagon
exocrine functions. On the histology slide, look for islands of Beta cells = insulin
cells…these are the Pancreatic Islets. The islets are made up of
alpha cells and beta cells, which secrete insulin and glucagon.

Glucagon Glycogenolysis
Secreted by: Alpha cells of pancreas Breakdown of glycogen
Stimulus: Low blood glucose levels (hypgoglycemia in post-
absorptive state) Gluconeogenesis
Also stimulated by SNS and high AA levels Building new glucose
Targets: Liver and adipose
Affect: Raises blood glucose Glycogenesis
Actions: Liver: stimulates glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis Building glycogen
and proteolysis
Inhibits glycogenesis and protein synthesis Proteolysis
Adipose: stimulates lipolysis, inhibits lipogenesis Breakdown of protein

Insulin Lipolysis
Secreted by: Beta cells of pancreas Breakdown of fat stores
Stimulus: High blood glucose (absorptive state)
Lipogenesis
Convert glucose to FFA
 Note, it is inhibited by SNS to keep glucose levels up in times of stress.

Targets: Most cells of the body

Liver
Skeletal muscle
Adipose
Affect: Lowers blood glucose
Action: In most cells, stimulates celluar uptake and utilization
of glucose (inserts GLUT-4 transporters)
In liver and skeletal muscle, stimulates glycogenesis
(glucose to glycogen), and inhibits glycogenolysis.
In most cells, stimulates cellular uptake and utilization
of AAs for protein synthesis, and inhibits proteolysis
In adipose, stimulates synthesis of triglycerides and inhibits lipolysis.
Hypo: Type 1 DM
Note: Insulin is needed for normal growth and development, cell repair

Reproductive Organs (more detail to come)

Organ: Gonads
Hormone: (M) Androgens (testosterone) and Inhibin
(F) Estrogens, Progestins, Inhibin

Organ: Corpus Luteum (in ovaries)

Hormone: Progestins (some estrogen)

Organ: Placenta
Hormone: hCG and other placental hormones

MISCELLANEOUS HORMONES FROM VARIOUS TISSUES

Endocrine Producing Tissues

Tissue: Thymus
Hormone: Thymosins
Affect: Essential for T-lymphocyte development and activity

Tissue: Heart
Hormone: ANP & BNP
Affect: Both reduce BV and BP (ex: increased salt/water excretion via
kidneys)
Tissue: Kidneys
Hormone: Erythropoietin (EPO)
Affect: Enhanced red blood cell formation in bone marrow

Tissue: Digestive System

Hormones: Gastrin, secretin and CCK

Tissue: Skin
Hormone: Cholecalciferol (inactive Vitamin D)
Affect: Cholecalciferol is converted to calcitriol via the liver and kidneys

Tissue: Adipose
Hormone: Leptin and Resistin (levels increase as adipocytes take up glucose
and lipids for energy storage)
Affect: Leptin: associated with nutrient balance and sensation of satiety
Resistin: decreased insulin sensitivity of body cells
Note: Ghrelin increases hunger. Levels are high just before meal, fall
after meal.
After gastric bypass, levels tend to be lower!

Role of Hormones in Growth

The body needs hormones to signal cells to take up nutrients, and to go through mitosis.
The anabolic hormones (GH, TH, Insulin, Gonadal Hs, PTH and Calcitriol) all work
together to produce normal anabolic activities. This leads to increased size and
development of soft tissue (muscle, CT, nervous tissue) and the skeleton (cartilage and
bone formation.)
o GH works indirectly through somatomedins (secreted from liver)
o Insulin tells cells to take up raw materials so they can build things
o TH is permissive for the other hormones. Must be present!
o PTH/Calcitriol are necessary for normal skeletal growth
o Sex hormones allow for gender specific growth

Hyposecretion and developmental dysfunctions:

o GH = dwarfism
o Insulin = slowed growth due to inadequate glucose and ATP
o TH = incomplete development of nervous and skeletal system
o PTH/Calcitriol = weak bones (inadequate mineralization)
o Sex Hs = affects gender specific development and normal secondary
characteristics

Hormones and Stress!

General Adaptation Syndrom (GAS) consists of an alarm phase and the resistance phase.

The alarm phase is the “fight-or-flight” response of the SNS, and it last seconds to
minutes. In this stage the catecholamines prepare the body for physical action by
mobilizing nutrients for increased utilization. Recall that the SNS also stimulates
GLUCAGON secretion, to keep blood glucose levels high (and inhibits insulin so that it
does not negate this helpful effect.)

The resistance phase lasts for minutes/hours. The main hormones of this phase are
CORTISOL, GH, ADH, ALDOSTERONE.
o GH & Cortisol both work to maintain elevated blood glucose and elevated FFA
levels to ensure the CNS and muscles have adequate energy supply.
o ADH & Aldosterone work to conserve salt and water to maintain BV and BP.
This ensures we have adequate nutrient delivery during this time of increased
cellular demands.

Effects of Aging on Hormone Production and Actions

There are two consequences of aging on the endocrine sytem.
1. Declines in blood levels of GH and gonadal hormones. So, older people lose
bone and muscle mass. Exercise can help!
2. Target cells become less sensitive to their hormones, so responses aren’t as
strong.
Marieb, E. N. (2006). Essentials of human anatomy & physiology (8th ed.). San Francisco:
Pearson/Benjamin Cummings.

Martini, F., & Ober, W. C. (2006). Fundamentals of anatomy & physiology (7th ed.). San
Francisco, CA: Pearson Benjamin Cummings.