Introduction for ES

Endocrine Glands
1. Pituitary
2. Pancreas → islet of Langerhans.
3. Thyroid & parathyroid.
4. Thymus.
5. Adrenal → Medulla and cortex.
6. Gonads → Ovary & testes.

- There are many organs perform some endocrine

function: liver, kidney, GIT and hypothalamus.

Endocrine System Importance

- Although often overshadowed by the brain and nerves, the Endocrine system is also involved in
the information business.
• They control body processes at every level, from energy uptake of a single cell to the
whole body’s rate of growth and development.
• Hormones regulate processes such as:
1. The breakdown of chemical substances in metabolism of what we eat and drink
2. Fluid balance and urine production
3. The body’s growth and development
4. Sexual reproduction.

- There are 50 hormones, which are the body’s chemical messengers, and they are made by 12
different Endocrine glands.
- These glands have no ducts but secrete their hormones directly into the blood, by which means
they reach every cell in the body.
• Hormones carry essential messages that have far-reaching effects.
• Hormones affect certain target tissues or organs and regulate their activities

Endocrine System and the Nervous System

- The Endocrine system and the Nervous system work together to integrate into the brain and
complement each other, but they tend to work at different speeds.
• Nerves respond within seconds but their action soon fades
• Some hormones have longer-lasting effects and act over hours, weeks, and years.

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)

- The pituitary is the most influential gland in the endocrine system (the master of endocrine
glands).
- The pituitary gland also called the Hypophysis cerebri.
- It is a small oval structure 1 cm in diameter.

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 Pituitary in Adult & During Pregnancy
- In adult life
• It reaches a weight of 500 mg.
• Has an antero-posterior diameter of 8 mm and a transverse diameter of 12 mm.
• There is a discrepancy between the size of the gland in males and females.

- During pregnancy
• It almost doubles in size as the pars distalis enlarges as part of the anterior pituitary.

Location of Pituitary Gland

- It lies in the middle cranial fossa.

• It is well protected in sella turcica.
- The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland are part of the
diencephalon region of the brain.
- It lies between optic chiasma (anteriorly) & mammillary
bodies (posteriorly).
• Optic chiasma is just a crossing of the optic nerve.

Sella Turcica (Hypophyseal Fossa)

- It’s a concave indentation in the superior aspect of the body of sphenoid bone.
- Hypophyseal fossa is present near the center at the base of the cranium and is fibro-osseous.

- Boundaries of sella turcica:

• Anterior wall: Tuberculum sellae.
→ Anterosuperior to the tuberculum is the sulcus
chiasmatic.

• Posterior wall: Dorsum sellae.

• Floor: The roof of the sphenoid sinus.
• Roof: The Diaphragma sellae (incompletely, due to
the central aperture, next section).
• The lateral walls: are made of dura mater, and it contains the cavernous sinus.
• The cavernous sinus and the suprasellar cistern encompass the parasellar region.

- Notice that the bony walls of the sella turcica surround

the fossa in the anterior, posterior, and inferior
margins.
- The pituitary gland, along with the sella turcica,
constitutes the “sellar region”.

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 Pituitary Gland Relations

- Superiorly: Diaphragma sellae (green line in pic). How the

Diaphragma sellae formed?
• The reflection of dura mater bound the fossa laterally
and superiorly.
• The dura in this way will cover the pituitary gland
forming a “Diaphragma sellae”.
o So, diaphragma sellae is a fold of dura mater that
covers the pituitary gland.
o At the top of diaphragma sella, there is the central aperture through stalk of pituitary
and BVs can pass.
o By diaphragm, the anterior lobe is separated from the optic chiasm

- Antero-superiorly → optic chiasm.

- Posteriorly: mamillary bodies
- Inferior (antero-inferiorly)
• Sphenoidal air sinuses → at
inferior aspect of sphenoid bone.
- Lateral “most imp relation”: (VAN)
• Cavernous Venous sinuses.
• Internal carotid Artery.
• Abducens Nerve.

- Clinical note:
• If you want to make surgery in Hypophysis, the best approach is to enter through inferior
aspect: Nose → sphenoid sinus → inferior aspect of Sella turacica → pituitary gland.
• And never go from lateral aspect because they contain internal carotid artery, cavernous
sinus then may hit them and cause hemorrhage.

Parts of pituitary gland:

1) Adenohypophysis (AH, the cellular tissue)

- It’s called the anterior lobe of pituitary, forms 80% of the

gland volume (the biggest).
- Anterior lobe manufactures 7 major hormones and releases
them into the bloodstream.

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- It’s Have 3 regions:

A. Pars tuberalis:
• It is a funnel shaped structure, extends from
pars distalis.
• It’s like a U shape structure wrapped around
the infundibulum (part of NH).
• Contains Gonadotropic Cells: secretes LH and
FSH.
• The tubular stalk is divided into 1pars
tuberalis anteriorly and 2pars tuberalis
posteriorly (look to the 2 red arrows).

B. Pars intermedia (we will talk about it later on ☺)

C. Pars distalis:
• This is located at the distal part of the gland, and most of the hormones get secreted from
this region.
• It forms the major bulk of the anterior pituitary.
• It is composed of follicles of varied sizes
1) Chromophils
2) Chromophobe

1. Chromophils: make the most of structure in pars distalis.

A. Acidophil (ά – cells)
• Are the most abundant cells, possessing large
cytoplasmic orange to red granules.
• It’s have cytoplasmic process through which
communicate with each other

• There are two types of Acidophil:

a. Somatotrophs (50%)
o Secrete somatotropin
o Euchromatic nuclei, eccentric nuclei (at
periphery)
o Well-developed Golgi complexes
o Contains cytoplasmic secretory granules
that are found in clumps and clusters
(two blue arrows indicate granule)
o Rod shaped mitochondria (orange arrow).
→ Rod mitochondria: it’s mitochondria stalk to each other.

b. Mammotrophs (20%)
o Same microscopic appearance with somatotrophs
o Shape → small polygonal cells
o Normally, organelles are ill-defined
o Function → Release prolactin

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 o State of secretion:
▪ Male: not fully developed
▪ Female after birth: Became more active in female
▪ During lactation:
→ Organelles increase in size and number
→ Cell size increases, but NOT the number.

B. Basophils (β - cells) → cytoplasm stains blue to purple in color, less number compared to
acidophil cell.
a. Corticotrophs (15-20%)
o They are scattered round to ovoid cells, that have an eccentric nucleus with few
organelles.
o They secrete ACTH, that stimulates secretion of adrenal cortex hormones and
regulates lipid metabolism.

b. Thyrotrophs (5%): Small secretory granules which contain TSH

c. Gonadotrophs 5-10%
o They are round cells with Cytoplasm that contains well developed Golgi, many rER.
o Secretory granules vary in diameter and secrete FSH and LH

2. Chromophobes

• Color:
o They have little histological Staining uptake
with H&E (pale, white in color) and are
thought to be degranulated cells that no
longer secrete hormones.
o If you want to stain it will not be stained
because there is no granule
→ So, no staining and no secretory granules
with less cytoplasm
→ Another theory said that these cells have
fat granule, preventing the cytoplasm to
take a stain.

• These cells have an acinar arrangement, supported by an extracellular collagen matrix.

• Other Heterogeneous population of Nonspecific stem cells:
1. Un-differentiated progenitor cells
2. De-granulated chromophils.

2) Neurohypophysis (NH, the nervous tissue)

- The NH form 20% of the gland.

- Also called pars nervosa, form the posterior lobe of the gland.
- The neurohypophysis is a downward extension of the hypothalamic neural tissue from
the median eminence of the infundibulum and stalk.

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- NH is made of Neural tissue and Unmyelinated axons
- The NH is composed of 2 parts:
1. Pars nervosa: posterior lobe proper.
2. Infundibulum:
o Connection between hypothalamus and pars nervosa,
it’s connected to hypothalamus through hypothalamic
sac.
o The tuber cinereum and median eminence of the
hypothalamus give origin to an infundibulum.
o Infundibulum passes directly from hypothalamus to
posterior pituitary gland → Direct neural connection
between NH and hypothalamus

3) Pars intermedia (it’s also part of AH)

- Its intermediate part between AH & NH, separate between anterior and posterior pituitary.
- Smallest part → < 5% of the pituitary volume.
- Function:
• Mostly nonfunctioning.
• They produce melanocyte-stimulating hormones, endorphins and have some
pituitary stem cell

- Contains:
1. Cysts with colloid matrix.
o Lined with cuboidal cells
o Resemble thyroid follicles

2. Remainder of the Rathke's pouch cleft.

o Rathke's cleft cyst (RCCs): are
benign (non-cancerous) fluid-filled
growths that develop between the
parts of the pituitary gland at the
base of the brain).

3. Cords of basophils along the capillaries networks that invade pars intermedia.
o Pars intermedia are more vascularized, two portal Hypophysis are located here (next
section).

• Remember when we studied the

Blood Supply & Venous Drainage circle of Willis, we said it
surrounded the optic chiasm and
pituitary gland.
- The hypophysis must be highly vascularized in order to • Remember also that it was formed
sense concentration of hormone in plasma then change by the internal carotid and basilar
the rate of their secretion. arteries. So the circle of Willis will
- Arteries: Superior & inferior hypophyseal arteries give a branch (from the internal
(branches from internal carotid artery). carotid) to the pituitary gland.

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 1. Superior Hypophyseal:
• Supplies infundibulum, pars intermedia and anterior
lobe.
• Forms a capillary network from which vessels pass
downward & form sinusoids into the anterior lobe of
pituitary gland “hypophyseal portal system”.
o A portal system: is a system of blood vessels
between 2 capillary beds, just like the one in the
liver.
o Superior and inferior hypophyseal arteries are
interconnected through portal system, and the
portal system eventually end drain into
“hypophyseal veins”.

Portal system in pituitary gland Portal system in liver

Contain hormone releasing factor. Carry the nutrient to liver.
Contains artery and veins. Start with artery. Contain veins only.

2. Inferior Hypophyseal:
• Supplies posterior lobe of pituitary gland.

- Veins:
• Hypophyseal veins drain into cavernous sinuses.
• Portal system → Hypophyseal vein → cavernous sinus → internal jugular vein.

Hypothalamus

How does Hypothalamus Work?

- The hypothalamus connects the nervous system to the endocrine system.
• It receives and processes signals from other brain regions and pathways and translates
them into hormones (the chemical messengers of the endocrine system).
• These hormones flow to the pituitary gland by the infundibulum.

- Some hormones are stored in the pituitary stores for later release; others enhance pituitary to
secrete its own hormones.

Hypothalamus & Anterior Pituitary Gland

- All of the hormones produced by the pituitary gland are controlled by the hypothalamus, How?
• Hypothalamus gland produces Hormone releasing & inhibiting factors → that increase
or decrease the rate of secretion of pituitary gland hormone.

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 • The main releasing and inhibitory hormones (factors) are:
1. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
2. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH
3. Somatotropin-releasing hormone (SRH)
4. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
5. Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)
6. Prolactin inhibitory factor (PIF)

- How such factors reach the anterior pituitary gland?

• Produced by neurosecretory cells of hypothalamus, then from the axon of these cells to
hypophyseal portal system of vessels to reach the anterior lobe of pituitary gland.

Hypothalamus & Posterior Pituitary Gland

- Two hormones (ADH and oxytocin) are produced in hypothalamic nuclei, then transported to
the posterior lobe through the Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal tract
• So, ADH and oxytocin are formed within the hypothalamus, pass through the hypothalamo-
hypophysial tract, and are stored in the NH

A. Supraoptic nuclei: most of ADH (Vasopressin) released from it → target the

adrenal gland.
o ADH facilitates resorption of water from the distal tubules and collecting ducts of the
kidney by altering the permeability of the cells to water.

B. Paraventricular nuclei: most oxytocin is released from it → target uterus.

o Oxytocin promotes the contraction of smooth muscles of the uterus and myoepithelial
cells of the breast.

- Pituicytes:
• The cell bodies of these neurons are located in the
hypothalamus and their unmyelinated axons extend to
the posterior lobe
• Occupy most of the infundibular stalk
• Its resemble astrocyte in brain
• Infundibular stem (look 1st pic) composed of
unmyelinated axons from the hypothalamic nuclei

• These axons have terminal swellings called herring bodies

(arrow)
o Which are the dilated hypothalamic nerve terminals in
the posterior pituitary
o How they are formed?
→ The hormones oxytocin and vasopressin accumulate
in these axons.
→ These secretory products are surrounded by a
membrane and bound to neurophysin.
→ Forming ovoid eosinophilic swellings along the infundibular stem
→ Nerve impulses trigger the release of peptides from these neurosecretory bodies.

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 Penial Gland

- The pineal gland is small and pinecone-shaped,

(which is how it got its name)
- Located at the back of the diencephalon region in
the brain
- It is influenced by the light and dark periods of the day.
• At night, in the absence of light, the pineal gland secretes the hormone melatonin.
o Melatonin regulates the body’s sleep patterns in both circadian (daily) and seasonal
patterns.

• In the morning, when light hits the eye, photoreceptors in the retina send signals to the
pineal gland, which then decreases melatonin production and increases serotonin → we
wake up.

- The cells of this gland are:

a. Pinealocytes:
o Basophilic with euchromatic eccentric nuclei
o Cytoplasmic processes with dilated ends
o Produce Melatonin and Serotonin

b. Interstitial cells:
o Astrocyte-like neuroglia
o It’s the supporting cells.

If you have any questions don’t hesitate to contact us

The End

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