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Why in General Relativity the Energy Density of the Gravitational Field must be
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 Parana Journal of Science and Education, v.7, n.1, (1-9), February 1, 2021
PJSE, ISSN 2447-6153, © 2015-2021
https://sites.google.com/site/pjsciencea/
Received: January 8, 2021; Accepted: January 28, 2021; Published: February 1, 2021.
http://tiny.cc/PJSE24476153v7i1p001-009

Why in General Relativity the Energy Density of the

Gravitational Field must be Localizable
Stefan Bernhard Rüster1 *

Abstract
In this article, the author derives the Poisson equation, the Poisson integral, the gravitational potential energy as
well as its density, and the energy of the gravitational field as well as its density within the framework of Newtonian
gravitational theory by using the work concept. It is shown, that the gravitational potential energy density as
well as the energy density of the gravitational field are localizable in Newtonian gravitational theory. The author
demonstrates, that the gravitational potential energy density and the energy density of the gravitational field
are also existent and localizable in the theory of General Relativity (GR). Since GR in contrast to Newtonian
gravitational theory is highly non-linear and non-Abelian, the work concept is not valid in GR, wherefore the
gravitational potential energy density and the energy density of the gravitational field in GR do not originate from
the same quantity, the work, as this is in case in Newtonian gravity.
Keywords
Newtonian gravitational theory, work concept, gravitational potential energy, gravitational potential energy density,
energy of the gravitational field, energy density of the gravitational field, General Relativity, conservation law,
correspondence principle.
1 Am Wiebelsberg 12, 63579 Freigericht, Germany.
*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Contents 3.4 The gravitational field energy-momentum density

tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1 Introduction 2
4 Discussion 6
2 Theory Part I 2 4.1 Gravitational potential energy and energy of the
2.1 Poisson equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 gravitational field and their respective densities . 6
2.2 Gravitational potential of a point-like mass . . . . .2 4.2 Conservation laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Poisson integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 5 Conclusions 7
2.4 Gravitational potential energy density . . . . . . . .3 Appendix 8
2.5 Energy density of the gravitational field . . . . . . .3 Solution to exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Exercises
Solution to exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3 Theory Part II 4
Acknowledgments 8
3.1 General Relativity Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
References 8
3.2 Newtonian limit of General Relativity Theory . . . 5
3.3 Gravitational potential energy and its density in the
theory of General Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
 Why in General Relativity the Energy Density of the Gravitational Field must be Localizable — 2/9

1. Introduction the Poisson equation of Newtonian gravity,

With respect to the vanishing covariant divergence of the ∆Φ = 4πGρ , (3)
energy-momentum density tensor of matter, T ki;k = 0, it is
justifiably stated in § 96 of Ref. [1]: is obtained, where G is the gravitational constant and ρ is the
In this form, however, this equation does not mass density, which is also called mass distribution.
generally express any conservation law whatever.
This is related to the fact that in a gravitational 2.2 Gravitational potential of a point-like mass
field the four-momentum of the matter alone must By considering a point-like mass, the gravitational accelera-
not be conserved, but rather the four-momentum tion consequently must be isotropic,
of matter plus gravitational field; the latter is not
a(r) = a (r) r̂ , a (r) = a(r) · r̂ , (4)
included in the expression for Tik .
Also in Sec. 89 of Ref. [2] it is stated, that the gravitational where r = |r|, and the hat symbol denotes a unit vector, r̂ =
field itself possesses energy, which does not enter the energy- r/r. The gravitational field equation (2) of a point-like mass M
momentum density tensor of matter explicitly, but which must, reads,
nevertheless, be included in the general balance.
In electrodynamics, the electromagnetic field is no source ∇ · a(r) = −4πGMδ (r) ,
in the Maxwell equations. The reason for this is, that it carries
no electrical charges. In gravity, the situation is completely wherein the Dirac δ function is utilized. By making use of
different: Besides the energy-momentum density tensor of Gauss law, one obtains with Eqs. (4),
matter, that is defined as the tensor, which contains the en- Z I
ergy and momentum densities of all kinds of matter and fields ∇ · a(r) dV = a(r) · r̂ dS = 4πr2 a(r) = −4πGM ,
V ∂V
except those of the gravitational field, there must exist the
energy-momentum density tensor of the gravitational field. so that the Newtonian gravitational acceleration of a point-like
The sum of the energy-momentum density tensor of mat- mass amounts to
ter and the energy-momentum density tensor of the gravita- GM GM GM
tional field equals the total energy-momentum density tensor. a(r) = − , a(r) = − r̂ = − 3 r . (5)
r2 r 2 r
Exactly this expresses the above mentioned balance and is
nothing else than the fundamental and necessarily existing Because of Eq. (1), the Newtonian gravitational potential of a
conservation law in GR, that indeed is feasible and correct, point-like mass reads,
see Ref. [3].
Contrary to these essential findings it is stated in Sec. 3.4 GM GM
Φ(r) = − , Φ(r) = − . (6)
of Ref. [4] and in § 20.4. of Ref. [5], that there is no energy- r |r|
momentum tensor for the gravitational field and that there In case the point-like mass is not located in the origin r = 0,
is no way to localize its energy. “The equivalence principle but at r = r0 , one obtains with the substitution r → r − r0 in
forbids.” Moreover, it is written in Sec. 3.4 of Ref. [4], that a Eqs. (5) and (6) the gravitational acceleration
general conservation law of energy and momentum does not
exist in GR. r − r0
a(r) = −GM ,
|r − r0 |3
2. Theory Part I
and the gravitational potential
By using the Newtonian gravitational field equation, the Pois-
son equation as well as the Poisson integral, the gravitational GM
Φ(r) = − . (7)
potential energy density, and the energy density of the gravita- |r − r0 |
tional field are obtained. For these derivations, well-known
knowledge from electrostatics [6, 7], in particular the work 2.3 Poisson integral
concept, has been transferred to Newtonian gravitational the- By making use of the Dirac δ function, the mass distribution
ory. can be written in form of a volume integral,
Z
2.1 Poisson equation ρ(r) = ρ(r0 )δ (r − r0 ) dV 0 .
The gravitational acceleration is given by
a = −∇
∇Φ , (1) The gravitational potential in the Poisson equation (3) is now
where Φ is the Newtonian gravitational potential. By using replaced by the free Green’s function, so that Eq. (3) becomes
the Newtonian gravitational field equation, the specific Poisson equation,

∇ · a = −4πGρ , (2) ∆r G 0 (r − r0 ) = 4πGδ (r − r0 ) ,

 Why in General Relativity the Energy Density of the Gravitational Field must be Localizable — 3/9

which contains a point-like unit mass located at r0 as the so that the gravitational potential energy of the mass mi is
source. The index r at the Laplace operator indicates differen-
n−1
tiation with respect to r and not to r0 . Because of the linearity mj
Ei = −Gmi ∑ |ri − r j | .
of this differential equation, the gravitational potential, j=1
Z
Φ(r) = G 0 (r − r0 )ρ(r0 ) dV 0 , (8) The gravitational potential energy of the total mass distribu-
tion is then given by
fulfills the Poisson equation (3), n
mj
E = −G ∑ mi ∑ ,
j<i i − r j |
|r
Z
∆r Φ(r) = ∆r G 0 (r − r0 )ρ(r0 ) dV 0 i=1

Z which can be transformed to

= 4πG ρ(r0 )δ (r − r0 ) dV 0 = 4πGρ(r) .
G mi m j
E =− ,
The free Green’s function is nothing else than the gravitational 2∑i, j |ri − r j|
i6= j
potential of a unit mass, which is located at r0 , cf. Eq. (7),
wherein the contributions of infinite self energies are omitted.
G
G 0 (r − r0 ) = − . The gravitational potential energy is also obtained by replac-
|r − r0 |
ing the discrete masses with continuous mass distributions
By inserting the free Green’s function into Eq. (8), one obtains and the double sum with a double integration over the whole
the Poisson integral of Newtonian gravity, space,

ρ(r0 ) dV 0 G ρ(r)ρ(r0 )
Z ZZ
Φ(r) = −G . (9) E =− dV dV 0 .
|r − r0 | 2 |r − r0 |
For one of the integrals, the expression for the gravitational
2.4 Gravitational potential energy density
potential (9) can be used, so that the gravitational potential
The gravitational force acting on a mass m is given by New-
energy simplifies to
ton’s law,
1
Z Z
F = m a = −m∇
∇Φ . (10) E= ρ(r)Φ(r) dV = u(r) dV , (11)
2
The work done by moving the mass from point A to point B whereof the gravitational potential energy density,
reads
1
Z B u(r) = ρ(r)Φ(r) , (12)
W =− F · dr , 2
A can be read off.
which can be written in the following form by making use of
Eq. (10), 2.5 Energy density of the gravitational field
An alternative approach is to emphasize the gravitational field
Z B
and to interpret the energy as being stored in the gravitational
W =m ∇ Φ · dr = m (ΦB − ΦA ) .
A field surrounding the masses. In Newtonian gravitational
theory, the energy of the gravitational field equals the gravi-
One recognizes that the work W = m Φ equals the gravita-
tational potential energy (11) and is obtained by solving the
tional potential energy of the mass m, which is located in the
Poisson equation (3) for the mass density,
gravitational field.
If a point-like mass mi is transported from infinity, where 1
ρ(r) = ∆Φ(r) ,
the gravitational potential vanishes, to a point ri within a 4πG
gravitational field, the work done on this mass, and hence its
and by substituting this expression into Eq. (11),
gravitational potential energy, amounts to
1
Z
Ei = mi Φ(ri ) . E= Φ(r) ∆Φ(r) dV . (13)
8πG
The gravitational potential Φ can be considered to be gen- By solving the relation,
erated by n − 1 masses m j , where 1 ≤ j ≤ n − 1, which are
located at r j , ∇ · [Φ(r)∇ ∇Φ(r)]2 + Φ(r) ∆Φ(r) ,
∇Φ(r)] = [∇

n−1 for the term,

mj
Φ(ri ) = −G ∑ ,
j=1 i − r j |
|r Φ(r) ∆Φ(r) = ∇ · [Φ(r)∇ ∇Φ(r)]2 ,
∇Φ(r)] − [∇
 Why in General Relativity the Energy Density of the Gravitational Field must be Localizable — 4/9

and inserting this into Eq. (13), the expression 3. Theory Part II
1
Z n
In Ref. [3], the author derives the fundamental and neces-
o
E= ∇ · [Φ(r)∇
∇Φ(r)] − [∇ ∇Φ(r)]2 dV (14)
8πG sarily existing conservation law in GR. Thereby, the energy-
momentum density tensor of the gravitational field is found.
is yielded. Therein, the volume integral over the first term in
Additionally, the cosmological constant takes on a completely
the curly brackets can be transformed to a surface integral by
new meaning, which solves the cosmological constant prob-
making use of Gauss law,
lem. This new interpretation of the cosmological constant also
explains the dark energy and the dark matter phenomenon.
Z I
∇ · [Φ(r)∇
∇Φ(r)] dV = ∇Φ(r)] · dS . (15)
[Φ(r)∇ The gravitational potential energy and the energy of the
V ∂V
gravitational field as well as their respective densities are
The volume integration is performed over whole space. By identified within the framework of GR in the following.
utilizing spherical coordinates, one integrates over the whole
unlimited three dimensional spatial sphere, the radius R of 3.1 General Relativity Theory
which approaches infinity, so that the surface integral simpli- By using the metric signature (−, +, +, +), Einstein’s field
fies to equations with the cosmological constant Λ read [4],
I I
∂ Φ(r)
∇Φ(r)] · dS =
[Φ(r)∇ Φ(r) dS , Gµν = κTµν − Λgµν , (19)
∂V ∂V ∂r
where dS = 4πR2 . Since R → ∞, only the monopole contribu- where Gµν is the Einstein tensor, gµν is the metric tensor,
tion of the multipole expansion of the gravitational potential κ = 8πG/c4 is Einstein’s gravitational constant, G is the
plays the dominant role, so that higher orders can be neglected, gravitational constant, and c is the speed of light. For the
energy-momentum density tensor of matter Tµν , which con-
∂ Φ(R) tains the energy and momentum densities of all kinds of matter
Φ(R) ∝ R−1 , ∝ R−2 ,
∂R and fields except those of the gravitational field, the energy-
momentum density tensor of a perfect fluid,
whereby the surface integral is proportional to R−1 and hence
becomes zero in the limit R → ∞. Thus, also the volume
 
P
integral (15) vanishes. Thus, Eq. (14) simplifies to Tµν = ρ + 2 uµ uν + Pgµν , (20)
c
1
Z Z
E =− ∇Φ(r)]2 dV =
[∇ ε(r) dV , (16) is utilized, since other fields than matter are out of the scope
8πG of this article. Therein, ρ is the mass density, P is the pressure,
which is the energy of the gravitational field, whereof the and uµ is the four-velocity of the fluid. Its scalar is given by
energy density of the gravitational field,
T = gµν Tµν = −ρc2 + 3P .
1
ε(r) = − ∇Φ(r)]2 ,
[∇ (17) By utilizing a reference frame, wherein ui = 0, the energy-
8πG
momentum density tensor of matter (20) in mixed-tensor rep-
can be read off. resentation reads
Exercises
T ν = diag −ρc2 , P, P, P ,
µ

(21)
The interested reader may solve the following two exercises
within the framework of Newtonian gravitational theory, the which does not depend on any metric coefficients.
solutions of which are important in Sec. (3.3). The Einstein tensor,
1. Determine the gravitational potential of an isotropic R
mass distribution. Gµν = Rµν − gµν ,
2
2. Calculate the gravitational potential energy as well as is formed by the Ricci scalar R = gµν Rµν and the Ricci tensor,
its density and the energy of the gravitational field as
well as its density of a globular star with homogeneous Rµν = Γλ µν,λ − Γλ µλ ,ν + Γσ µν Γλ σ λ − Γσ µλ Γλ σ ν ,
mass density ρ0 ,
( in which appear the Christoffel symbols of the second kind,
ρ0 (r ≤ R)
ρ(r) = , (18)
0 (r > R) gλ σ

Γλ µν = gνσ ,µ + gµσ ,ν − gµν,σ .
2
where R is the radius of the star.
Unless mentioned otherwise, in this article with Einstein’s
The solutions are shown in the appendix. field equations are always meant those ones, wherein the
 Why in General Relativity the Energy Density of the Gravitational Field must be Localizable — 5/9

cosmological term is included. Because of Lovelock’s the- wherein ηµν is the Minkowski metric, and with
orem [8], Eqs. (19) show Einstein’s field equations in their  
most possible modified form. 2Φ
g00 ' − 1 + 2
Einstein’s field equations (19) can be algebraically trans- c
formed into the mixed-tensor representation, in the Newtonian limit, the expression
−1 µ µ −1 µ
κ Λδ ν =T ν −κ G , (22) κ
R00 ' c−2 ∆Φ = ρc2 + 3P − Λ ,
ν


2
which represent the necessarily existing conservation law in
GR, see Ref. [3], wherein is yielded [4, 11], so that the modified Poisson equation reads
 
µ 3P
• T ν is the energy-momentum density tensor of matter, ∆Φ = 4πG ρ + 2 − 2ρΛ ,
c
• −κ −1 G ν is the energy-momentum density tensor of
µ

the gravitational field, where Λ = κρΛ c2 . On short distances, the cosmological con-
stant can be neglected, since in this domain its contribution
• κ −1 Λ δ
µ
ν is the total energy-momentum density tensor, is tiny, and in the non-relativistic case P  ρc2 , so that the
Newtonian Poisson equation of gravity (3) is obtained.
so that the total energy-momentum density tensor equals the
energy-momentum density tensor of matter plus the energy- 3.3 Gravitational potential energy and its density in
momentum density tensor of the gravitational field. the theory of General Relativity
By integrating Einstein’s field equations in mixed-tensor The gravitational potential energy, which is highly related to
representation (22) over a certain volume in Euclidean space, the gravitational binding energy [12], is given by
one obtains
Z Z Epot = (M − Mc ) c2 , (25)
−1
T ν − κ −1 G ν dV .
µ µ µ

κ Λ δ ν dV = (23)
where M is the mass and Mc the constituent mass of the ce-
By taking the time derivative, the conservation law of total lestial object under consideration. The mass M is the effect-
energy, momentum, and stress becomes apparent, ing and hence the gravitating mass, whereas the constituent
mass Mc is the mass with respect to the metric under con-
sideration, which is the one without the contribution of the
Z Z
∂ ∂
κ −1 Λ δ − κ −1 G
µ µ µ

ν dV = T ν ν dV = 0 . (24)
∂t ∂t gravitational potential energy and thus the unbound mass.
In the following, this is exemplified by a globular star
The cosmological constant Λ is a constant parameter, that
with radius R, which consists of a homogeneous mass distribu-
is proportional to the total energy density with respect to the
tion ρ0 as is shown in Eq. (18), cf. Ref. [13]. For this purpose,
metric under consideration, which means, that there are differ-
one neglects the cosmological constant, since its contribution
ent cosmological constants with respect to different metrics.
is negligibly small on distances of stellar radii. Hence, one
The cosmological constant with respect to the Friedmann-
uses the inner Schwarzschild metric,
Lemaı̂tre-Robertson-Walker (FLRW) metric is positive (de Sit-
gµν = diag −B(r), A(r), r2 , r2 sin2 θ ,
 
ter space [9]), whereas it is always negative with respect to
the metric of a celestial object (anti-de Sitter space [10]), see
Ref. [3]. Hence, the cosmological constant in general has with the metric coefficient
absolutely nothing to do with cosmology except in case the 
2GM (r) −1
 
rs r2
−1
whole universe is considered by using the FLRW metric. A(r) = 1 − = 1− 3 ,
c2 r R
3.2 Newtonian limit of General Relativity Theory where Eq. (34) and the Schwarzschild radius rs = 2GM/c2
Newtonian gravitational theory can be derived from Einstein’s are utilized. The mass of the star amounts to
field equations (19). Therefore, one contracts them by using
1
ZZZ
the inverse metric tensor, M=− T 00 r2 sin θ dr dθ dφ , (26)
c2
−R = κT − 4Λ , while its constituent mass is
1 √
ZZZ
and thereby rewrites them in the form
Mc = − T 00 g11 g22 g33 dr dθ dφ . (27)
  c2
T
Rµν = κ Tµν − gµν + Λgµν . According to Eq. (25), the gravitational potential energy den-
2
sity can be read off from the difference of Eqs. (26) and (27),
Hence, by using weak fields hµν ,
hp i
gµν = ηµν + hµν , |hµν |  1 , u(r) = T 00 A(r) − 1 , (28)
 Why in General Relativity the Energy Density of the Gravitational Field must be Localizable — 6/9

so that with Eqs. (21) and (33) the gravitational potential representation local earth
energy becomes
ZZZ covariant − κ1 Gµν = Λκ ηµν − κ1 G̃µν = Λκ gµν
2
− κ1 G − κ1 G̃
µ µ µ µ
Epot = u(r) r sin θ dr dθ dφ mixed ν = Λκ δ ν ν = Λκ δ ν
 
3
Z R
dr r 2 Table 1. Einstein’s field equations in empty space-time in co-
= −Mc2  3 q − 1 . variant and in mixed-tensor representation in a local
R 0 1 − rs r
2
R3 free-falling and in the earth’s reference frame. De-
tailed explications with respect to this table are made
p can be solved with the substitution q = xr/R,
The integral in Sec. 3.4.
where x = rs /R, and by using 4.4.64 and 4.4.65 in Ref. [14],
!
3
Z x
dq q 2
Epot = −Mc2 −1 transformation by making use of the Jacobi matrix. The form
x3 0
p
1 − q2 of representation is changed by multiplying with the metric

3  p   tensor or its inverse, respectively. In the earth’s reference
= −Mc2 arcsin x − x 1 − x 2 −1 .
frame, the Einstein tensor is shown with a tilde in order to
2x3
distinguish it from that one in the local free-falling reference
With 4.4.40 and 3.6.11 in Ref. [14], frame.
x3 3x5 p x2 x4 It is of great importance, to recognize, that only in the
arcsin x ≈ x + + , 1 − x2 ≈ 1 − − , mixed-tensor representation, the field equations are equal in
6 40 2 8
empty space-time, see Tab. 1. Exactly this property makes
where x  1, the expression for the gravitational potential
the energy and momentum density of the gravitational field
energy becomes
localizable and demonstrates, that the field equations in mixed-
3 3 GM 2 tensor representation (22) are not only an algebraic transfor-
Epot = − Mc2 x2 = − , mation of Einstein’s field equations (19), but also a representa-
10 5 R
tion, wherein the respective energy and momentum densities
which is in agreement with Eq. (35).
can be assigned to the respective tensors in Einstein’s field
3.4 The gravitational field energy-momentum den- equations. As one can see in Tab. 1, Einstein’s field equations
sity tensor in their mixed-tensor representation (22) are independent of
In Sec. 3.2 it is shown, that Newtonian gravitational the- the frame of reference in empty space-time.
µ
ory is derivable from GR in the weak field approximation. While reference frames are required, wherein the T ν are
Consequently in GR, there exist the potential energy den- equal in order to achieve a unique value for the gravitational
sity, cf. Eq. (28), and the energy density of the gravitational field energy density within matter, such a restriction is redun-
field, since they also occur in Newtonian theory, see Eqs. (12) dant in empty space-time.
Since −κ −1 G ν represents the energy-momentum density
µ
and (17). Moreover, the solution of Problem 1 in § 106 of
Ref. [1] demonstrates, that the Newtonian expression for the tensor of the gravitational field, which is an established and
energy density of the gravitational field (17) is even obtained essential element of Einstein’s field equations, the statements
within the framework of GR. made in Refs. [4, 5], that are shown in Sec. 1 in this article,
In order to be localizable in empty space-time, the value become redundant.
of the energy density of the gravitational field must be the
same under the change of the reference frame. Hence, the 4. Discussion
energy-momentum density tensor of the gravitational field
has to be a true tensor, which is form-invariant under coordi- 4.1 Gravitational potential energy and energy of the
nate transformations. Consequently, a pseudotensor, which gravitational field and their respective densities
does not have this property [15], is completely useless in this Although in Newtonian gravitational theory the gravitational
context. potential energy (11) equals the energy of the gravitational
In Ref. [3] it is shown, that the energy-momentum density field (16), the gravitational potential energy is a physical quan-
tensor of the gravitational field is given by −κ −1 G ν , since
µ
tity, which depends on the mass distribution and therefore
it fulfills all the necessary requirements listed in Sec. 3 of emphasizes the interactions between masses via gravitational
Ref. [3]. Because of the conservation law (22), the energy- forces, whereas the energy of the gravitational field is a com-
momentum density tensor of the gravitational field equals the pletely different physical quantity, which expresses the storage
total energy-momentum density tensor in empty space-time. of gravitational energy in the gravitational field surrounding
In Tab. 1, Einstein’s field equations in empty space-time the masses.
are considered in a local free-falling and in the earth’s ref- While the gravitational potential energy and the gravi-
erence frame in covariant as well as in mixed-tensor repre- tational field energy cannot be localized, because they are
sentation. The reference frame is changed by a coordinate obtained by integration over space, this is completely differ-
 Why in General Relativity the Energy Density of the Gravitational Field must be Localizable — 7/9

ent for their respective densities, since the latter ones depend . . . , one still has approximate conservation of
on the place. Within a matter distribution, the gravitational po- energy, momentum and angular momentum in a
tential energy density is always negative. In empty space-time small region of space-time.
it is zero. The energy density of the gravitational field is of
course always negative within a matter distribution as well as It is clear, that with such approximate conservation laws of
outside of it, except the whole universe is considered by using energy and momentum as shown in Ref. [16], which are nei-
the FLRW metric, where the energy density of the gravita- ther satisfying nor sufficient, one would not live in a cosmos,
tional field is positive, see Ref. [3]. The gravitational potential but rather in a chaos.
energy density and the energy density of the gravitational Regarding Einstein’s field equations without the cosmo-
field are two completely different physical quantities, which logical term,
according to their respective energies also have a different
Gµν = κTµν , (30)
meaning.
Albert Einstein made the following famous statement, which
4.2 Conservation laws can be found on page 311 in Ref. [17]:
In Yang-Mills theories, there exist local conservation laws,
the conservation of charge and mass, the latter of which must But it is similar to a building, one wing of which
not be mixed up with conservation of total energy. Of course, is made of fine marble (left part of the equation),
mass is a kind of energy. However, this is not the total energy, but the other wing of which is built of low-grade
since the mass does not contain the contribution of the energy wood (right side of equation).
of the gravitational field. Hence, the conservation law of total
energy is missing in Yang-Mills theories and therefore must In fact, this expresses the incompleteness of Einstein’s field
occur in GR [3], which is the roof on the building of Yang- equations (30), since the cosmological term is missing therein.
Mills theories. While it is true, that GR is a non-Abelian By incorporating it, his field equations become complete and
theory, it is no Yang-Mills theory. One easily recognizes this, form the necessarily existing conservation law of energy, mo-
because in GR, there occur no such generators, which are mentum, and stress in GR, so that the total energy-momentum
essential to Yang-Mills theories. density tensor equals the energy-momentum density tensor
With the findings in this article, the total energy, which of matter plus the energy-momentum density tensor of the
is the 00-component of Eqs. (23), is composed as follows: gravitational field, cf. Ref. [3].
Since the integration is performed over a certain volume in
Euclidean space, one obtains the total energy, which is con- 5. Conclusions
tained within it, The gravitational potential energy density and the energy den-
Z
sity of the gravitational field are localizable, because they
Etot = κ −1 Λ δ 00 dV .
depend on the place.
Within the same volume, this total energy consists of the Since it is well-known that the gravitational potential en-
energy of the mass, ergy density as well as the energy density of the gravitational
Z field exist and moreover are localizable in Newtonian gravita-
Emass = −Mc2 = T 00 dV , (29) tional theory, consequently also in GR, these physical quan-
tities are existent and of course localizable, too. They must
cf. Eq. (26), and the energy of the gravitational field, already exist in GR, otherwise one could not obtain them
Z in Newtonian gravitational theory. This is a logical conse-
−κ −1 G00 dV , quence, because Newtonian theory is derivable from GR as


Egrav =
an approximation in the weak field limit. In other words,
so that the 00-component of Eqs. (23) can be written in the the correspondence principle is applicable in these cases. In
form Ref. [18] it is stated with respect to the topic correspondence
principle:
Etot = Emass + Egrav .
The term codifies the idea that a new theory
For this consideration, a reference frame is utilized, wherein should reproduce under some conditions the re-
the fluid velocity ui = 0, so that the energy-momentum den- sults of older well-established theories in those
sity tensor of matter in mixed-tensor representation is given domains where the old theories work.
by Eq. (21). The mass M in Eq. (29) itself consists of the
constituent mass Mc as well as of the potential energy Epot , The term “correspondence principle” is used in
cf. Eq. (25). Since the total energy within this volume is con- a more general sense to mean the reduction of a
stant, its time derivative vanishes, which is necessary in order new scientific theory to an earlier scientific the-
to have a conservation law of total energy, cf. Eqs. (24). ory in appropriate circumstances. This requires
Contrary, on p. 63 of Ref. [16] it is stated: that the new theory explain all the phenomena
 Why in General Relativity the Energy Density of the Gravitational Field must be Localizable — 8/9

under circumstances for which the preceding the- Solution to exercise 2

ory was known to be valid, the “correspondence By using Eq. (32), the total mass of the star is given by
limit”.
4
M = πR3 ρ0 , (33)
These statements rule out the non-existence and the non- 3
locatability of the energy density of the gravitational field
in GR. Moreover, the energy density of the gravitational while the mass inside the radius r of the star amounts to
field (17) is obtained within the framework of GR, see the
4 r3
solution of Problem 1 in § 106 of Ref. [1]. M (r) = πr3 ρ0 = M 3 . (34)
In GR, the gravitational potential energy density and the 3 R
energy density of the gravitational field do not originate from The gravitational potential (31) simplifies to
the same quantity, the work, as this is in case in Newtonian
gravity. The reason for this is, that GR in contrast to Newto-  
 GM r22 − 3

nian gravitational theory is highly non-linear and non-Abelian. 2R R
(r ≤ R)
Φ(r) = ,
In the latter one, the energy density of the gravitational field − GM (r > R)
r
is no source in the Poisson equation (3). Moreover, the work
concept, which is shown in Sec. 2, is not valid in GR. Nonethe- and its derivative with respect to r reads
less, because of the correspondence principle, the physical
quantities, which appear in Newtonian gravity, of course also ( GMr
∂ Φ(r) R3
(r ≤ R)
have to occur in GR. This also includes their locatability. = .
∂r GM
r2
(r > R)

Appendix The gravitational potential energy density (12) therefore is

For the sake of clarity, the author shows only the main steps  
3GM 2 r2
(
of the solutions of the exercises given on page 4. 16πR4 R2
−3 (r ≤ R)
u(r) = ,
0 (r > R)
Solution to exercise 1
By using spherical coordinates, the Poisson integral (9) of an and the gravitational potential energy (11) amounts to
isotropic mass distribution reads
3 GM 2
Z R
Z ∞
0 02 0
Z π
dθ 0 sin θ 0 E = 4π dr r2 u(r) = − . (35)
Φ(r) = −2πG dr r ρ(r ) √ . 0 5 R
0 0 r2 + r02 − 2rr0 cos θ 0
The energy density of the gravitational field (17) is
With the substitution q = cos θ 0 and further simplifications,
one obtains ( GM2 r2
− 8πR6 (r ≤ R)
ε(r) = 2 ,
2πG ∞
Z
Φ(r) = dr0 r0 |r − r0 | − r − r 0


. − GM
8πr4
(r > R)
r 0
and the energy of the gravitational field (16) reads
The absolute value in the integrand can be expressed by using
the Heaviside function Θ(x), Z ∞
E = 4π dr r2 ε(r)
0
|x| = x [Θ(x) − Θ(−x)] .
GM 2 GM 2 3 GM 2
Z R
dr
Z ∞
=− dr r4 − =− .
The respective integrals can be summed up in order to get 2R6 0 2 R r2 5 R
the result for the gravitational potential of an isotropic mass
As to be expected, the value of the energy of the gravitational
distribution,
field equals the one of the gravitational potential energy. It
GM (r)
Z ∞ is important to compare the results in this exercise with the
Φ(r) = − − 4πG dr0 r0 ρ(r0 ) , (31) statements made in Sec. 4.1.
r r

where
Z r Acknowledgments
0 02 0
M (r) = 4π dr r ρ(r ) (32) The author would like to thank Valery Borisovich Morozov for
0
his improvement suggestions and for arranging the publication
is the mass inside the radius r. of the present article in PJSE.
 Why in General Relativity the Energy Density of the Gravitational Field must be Localizable — 9/9

[18]
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