Modified Polytropic Models for Charged

Anisotropic Compact Objects

By

Hameeza Saeed

00000402933

A thesis

submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

Master of Science

in

Mathematics

Supervisor

Prof. Tooba Feroze

School of Natural Sciences (SNS)

National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)

Islamabad, Pakistan (2024)

This thesis is dedicated to my beloved parents.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am deeply grateful to Allah Almighty for His countless blessings and for granting
me the strength to complete this work.
I sincerely thank my supervisor Prof. Tooba Feroze, for her guidance, encourage-
ment, and support throughout this research, which were essential in bringing this
work to completion.
I am also profoundly grateful to my family, particularly my parents, for their unwa-
vering love, support, and sacrifices. Their constant encouragement has meant every-
thing to me.

I
Contents

LIST OF FIGURES V

ABSTRACT VI

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Historical Overview of General Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Role of Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Special Theory of Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 General Theory of Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Metric Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Curvature Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3 Einstein Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.4 Maxwell Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.5 Stress-Energy Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Derivation of the Einstein Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Solutions of Einstein Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.1 The Schwarzschild Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.2 The Reissner-Nordström Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Compact Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Charged Compact Objects with Generalized Polytropic Equation of State 15

2.1 Generalized Polytropic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3 Charged Compact Objects with pr = βρ + αρΓ + γρ2 27

3.1 Exact Solutions with Modified Generalized Polytropic Equation of State 27
3.1.1 Modified Generalized Polytropic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3 Physical Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4 Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

II
4 Conclusion 48

A 1 52

III
List of Figures

2.1 The radial and tangential pressures both are well defined and non-
negative and plotted by taking a = 1, b = 0.772, c = 0, d = 0.0804,
and α = 0.025. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Variation of energy density and anisotropy are plotted by taking the
same values of the constants mentioned in Fig 2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.1 Metric potential e2ν as a function of r when a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0,

d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2 Electric field intensity E 2 and energy density ρ as functions of r when
a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0, d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69. . . . . . . . 37
3.3 Radial and tangential pressures as functions of r when a = 1, b = 0.15,
c = 0, d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.4 Pressure-density ratios as functions of r when a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0,
d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.5 Density and pressure gradients as functions of r when a = 1, b = 0.15,
c = 0, d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.6 Trace of energy-momentum tensor and anisotropy as functions of r
when a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0, d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69. . . . . 40
3.7 Mass M (r) and compactness factor µ as functions of r when a = 1,
b = 0.15, c = 0, d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69. . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.8 Gravitational redshift as a function of r when a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0,
d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.9 weak, strong, and dominant energy conditions as functions of r when
a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0, d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69. . . . . . . . 43
3.10 Radial and tangential speed of sound as functions of r when a = 1,
b = 0.15, c = 0, d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69. . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.11 Stability factor as a function of r when a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0, d =
0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.12 Adiabatic index as a function of r when a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0,
d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

IV
3.13 Graph of different forces as functions of r when a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0,
d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

V
Abstract

In this thesis, we present new solutions for charged anisotropic matter distributions
by modifying the generalized polytropic equation of state. Using the Einstein-Maxwell
equations in static and spherically symmetric spacetimes, we obtain solutions with non-
singular metric potentials, densities, and pressures. These exact solutions for different
variations of the adjustable parameters satisfy all physically admissible conditions. The
Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff equation, the relativistic adiabatic index, and Abreu’s
criterion are used to verify stability. The anisotropy factor starts at zero at the center
and increases outward. Additionally, we study the behaviour of redshifts, compaction
factors, and mass, all of which are found to be in acceptable ranges.

VI
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Historical Overview of General Relativity

More than three centuries ago, Isaac Newton proposed his well-known theory of gravity,
which provides a comprehensive understanding of the universe. This theory applies the
same principles and laws to describe the motion of both celestial bodies and objects on
Earth. According to this theory, the world has three-dimensional Euclidean geometry
and is an unbounded flat space. Three spatial coordinates, x1 , x2 , and x3 as well as
time, may be used to describe any event in this geometry. According to this view,
time (t), is unchangeable, meaning it flows uniformly throughout the universe. It
doesn’t matter where you are or how you’re moving; time passes at the same rate
for everyone. If you and a friend have perfect clocks, they would always show the
same time, even if your friend travelled far away or moved very quickly. This idea of
absolute, unchangeable time helped scientists predict how things would behave in space
and on Earth, making the universe seem very orderly. In the late 18th century, Joseph-
Louis Lagrange extended Newtonian mechanics by introducing Lagrangian mechanics,
using the principle of least action. This approach provided generalized framework
for analyzing physical systems. Following this, in the 19th century, William Rowan
Hamilton further developed classical mechanics, establishing a deeper mathematical
foundation that not only enhanced the understanding of mechanical systems but also
laid the groundwork for future advancements in fields such as electrodynamics [1].

1.1.1 Role of Electrodynamics

Our perspective of the universe was fundamentally altered by Maxwell’s revolution-
ary discovery in 1864, which combined electricity, magnetism, and light into a single
framework known as electromagnetism [2]. This great accomplishment was captured
in a series of formulas that are now acknowledged as Maxwell’s equations. These are

1
set of coupled partial differential equations given as

∇ · E = ρ,
∇ · B = 0,
∇ × E + ∂t B = 0,
∇ × B − ∂t E = j,

where ρ is the electric charge density, j is the current density, E is the electric field,
B is the magnetic field, and ∂t represents the derivative with respect to t. These
equations completely changed our understanding of the basic forces in nature. The
presence of electromagnetic waves was predicted by Maxwell’s equations, which also
offered a mathematical framework for understanding their transmission. The speed
of electromagnetic waves is represented by the formula c = √ 1 , where µ0 is the
(µ0 ϵ0 )
vacuum’s permeability and ϵ0 is its permittivity. Maxwell’s groundbreaking theory
challenged the Newtonian mechanics and raised profound questions about the nature
of space and time [3]. The relationship between the constants µ0 , ϵ0 , and the speed of
light emphasised how different aspects of physics are connected. This made scientists
rethink basic ideas, such as the nature of the vacuum and the existence of an absolute
frame of reference. Maxwell’s contributions provided the foundation for modern elec-
tromagnetism and played a crucial role in the development of later theories, such as
the Special Theory of Relativity (SR).

1.1.2 Special Theory of Relativity

In his well-known study "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies," published in
1905, Albert Einstein proposed his SR [4]. The following two postulates served as the
foundation for Einstein’s hypothesis.

• Whenever two inertial frames are travelling in the same direction at a constant
speed, all of the laws of physics apply.

• The speed of light, c, remains constant across all inertial frames.

For all coordinate systems in inertial frames, the first postulate suggests that all phys-
ical laws are the same. Thus, it may be concluded that there is no preferred set of
coordinates for time and space. For instance, everything in the world appears to be
moving in the opposite direction to an observer sitting still in a train travelling at
an constant speed and looking out the window. On the other hand, an additional
observer sitting outside the train will see that the first observer is travelling at the
train’s speed while everything else is still. The question is, how can the coordinates
of the observer inside the train and the observer outside the train be defined? The

2
time and distance are measured by both observers using their own frames of reference.
The SR only applies to frames of reference that are travelling relative to one another
at a constant velocity, v, meaning that there is no acceleration [5]. According to the
second postulate, c, the speed of light, remains constant throughout all internal frames.
We may argue that each observer has their own clock since various observers see time
differently, meaning that time is not absolute for all of them.

1.1.3 General Theory of Relativity

Albert Einstein generalized his SR and gave a new theory called, General theory of
Relativity (GR), which describes gravity as a geometric property of spacetime. In this
theory, massive objects like planets and stars warp the fabric of spacetime, causing
other objects to follow curved paths. This means that gravity is not simply a force
pulling objects together; rather, it is the result of the curvature of spacetime created
by mass and energy. The mathematical formulation of GR was significantly influenced
by the work of mathematicians such as Marcel Grossmann, who introduced Einstein to
Riemannian geometry, essential for understanding the curvature of spacetime [1]. The
Einstein field equations are central to GR, as they mathematically relate the curvature
of spacetime to the energy and momentum of the matter present. One of the key
concepts in GR is the equivalence principle, which states that the effects of gravity are
locally similar to acceleration. This principle leads to the understanding that the laws
of physics are the same for all observers, regardless of their state of motion. The theory
predicts several phenomena that have been confirmed by experiments and observations,
such as the bending of light around massive objects and the existence of black holes [6].
The gravitational deflection of light was famously confirmed during a solar eclipse in
1919 by Arthur Eddington, providing one of the first experimental validations of GR.
This observation demonstrated how light follows the curvature of spacetime around
massive objects, confirming Einstein’s predictions [7].

1.2 Tensors
A tensor is a mathematical object that generalizes the concepts of scalars, vectors,
and matrices to higher dimensions. Tensors are defined as multilinear maps from
vectors and dual vectors to real numbers, and they remain invariant under coordinate
transformations. This invariance makes tensors fundamental in describing physical
laws in a way that is independent of the choice of coordinate system. The number of
indices that a tensor has, which can be classified as contravariant (higher indices) or
covariant (lower indices), determines its rank.
···ir
T = Tji11···j s
. (1.1)

3
In this case, Tji11···j
···ir
s
indicates a tensor with ’r’ contravariant and ’s’ covariant indices.

To span the tensor space, we use a combination of basis vectors êi and dual vectors v̂j
as
···ir i1
T = Tji11···j s
e ⊗ · · · ⊗ eir ⊗ vj1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ vjs , (1.2)
where the symbol ⊗ stands for the tensor product, which is a basic tensor algebra
operation. The elements of a tensor transform in accordance with specific guidelines
while shifting between coordinate systems, making sure that the physical descriptions
they offer stay constant.
r ′ s
i′ ...i′
Y ∂xik Y ∂xjl
Tj ′1...js′r = Tji11...j
...ir
′. (1.3)
1 s
k=1
∂xik l=1 ∂xjl

According to the eq (1.3), the fundamental descriptions of physical phenomena stay

the same even when the observer’s viewpoint or coordinate system changes. Tensors
can be manipulated through various operations such as addition, subtraction, and mul-
tiplication, which are defined for tensors of compatible types and ranks. Furthermore,
tensor contraction, which is an operation that sums over matched pairs of upper and
lower indices to reduce a tensor rank, can be used to simplify tensor expressions

Sγαβ = Tγη
αηβ
. (1.4)

Contracting indices η simplifies the tensor, reducing its complexity and focusing on
essential features. The symmetric and skew-symmetric components of a tensor are
defined as follows
1 X
T(i1 ...in ) = Ti ...i , (1.5)
n! σ∈S σ(1) σ(n)
n

here, σ represents a permutation of the set {1, . . . , n}, and Sn is the symmetric group,
which includes all possible permutations of n elements.
1 X
T[i1 ...in ] = (sgn(σ))Tiσ(1) ...iσ(n) . (1.6)
n! σ∈S
n

The function sgn(σ) denotes the sign of the permutation σ, which is +1 for an even
permutation and −1 for an odd permutation.

1.2.1 Metric Tensor

The metric tensor emerges as the fundamental tensor for analysing the geometry of
spacetime. This tensor is useful for measuring angles and distances as well as for con-
verting other tensors and vectors between their covariant and contravariant forms. This

4
symmetric rank−2 tensor, sometimes referred to as the metric, is essential for charac-
terising gravitational fields. The usual matrix representation of the components of the
metric tensor is gαβ , where α and β are span from 0 to 3. This matrix’s components
are as follows  
g00 g01 g02 g03
g10 g11 g12 g13 
 
gαβ =  . (1.7)
g20 g21 g22 g23 
g30 g31 g32 g33
The metric tensor transforms between different coordinate systems according to
∂xρ ∂xσ
gαβ = gρσ . (1.8)
∂xα ∂xβ
This equation shows how the components of the metric tensor change under coordinate
transformations. The metric tensor is used to define the line element, which represents
the infinitesimal distance between two events in spacetime

ds2 = gαβ , dxα , dxβ . (1.9)

This line element is crucial for computing intervals and distances in spacetime.
The contravariant metric tensor, g αβ , is the inverse of the matrix (1.7). The link
between the metric tensor and its inverse in tensor algebra guarantees that the identity
matrix, represented by the Kronecker Delta, is produced when the metric and its inverse
are multiplied.
g αγ gγβ = δβα = gβγ g γα , (1.10)
where δβα is the Kronecker Delta, which is defined as
(
1 if α = β,
δβα =
0 if α ̸= β.

The formula of Einstein’s field equations is dependent on the determinant of the metric
tensor, or g, which is essential in determining volume components in spacetime

g = det(gαβ ). (1.11)

1.2.2 Curvature Tensor

The curvature tensor provides a mathematical description of the curvature of spacetime
caused by the presence of matter and energy. Christoffel symbols are used in the
derivation of this tensor, which is essential in understanding the warping and bending
of spacetime due to gravitational forces. The Christoffel symbols, denoted by Γαβγ , are

5
essential for defining geometry and measuring curvature on curved spacetime surfaces.
They are named after Elwin Bruno Christoffel. The metric tensor components are used
to express them mathematically
1
Γαβγ = g αη (gηβ,γ + gηγ,β − gβγ,η ). (1.12)
2
The Riemann curvature tensor is then defined as

Rαβγδ = Γαβδ,γ − Γαβγ,δ + Γαγξ Γξβδ − Γαδξ Γξβγ , (1.13)

where the partial derivative is denoted by “,”. To convert Rαβγδ into covariant tensor
form, use the transformation
Rαβγη = gαξ Rξβγη , (1.14)
in general, Rαβγη ̸= Rαβγη . Using some algebra, the covariant curvature tensor may be
expressed explicitly as
1  
gηα,βγ + gβγ,ηα − gβη,αγ − gγα,βη + gξζ Γζηα Γξγβ − Γζγα Γξηβ . (1.15)


Rαβγη =
2

This tensor has a number of important properties and symmetries

• It is skew-symmetrical if the first two indices or the order of the last two are
switched.
Rαβγη = −Rβαγη , Rαβγη = −Rαβηγ . (1.16)

• If the first two pairs of indices swap with the last two, then it is symmetric

Rαβγδ = Rγδαβ . (1.17)

• It satisfies the first and second kinds of Bianchi’s identification, which are de-
scribed as

Rα[βγη] = Rαβγη + Rαηβγ + Rαγηβ = 0, (1.18)

α
Rp[βγ;η] α
= Rpβγ;η α
+ Rpηβ;γ α
+ Rpγη;β = 0. (1.19)

Contracting the components of the Riemann tensor allows for the construction of the
Ricci tensor
γ
Rαβ = Rαγβ , (1.20)
and the Ricci scalar, which is the trace of the Ricci tensor, provides a scalar measure
of curvature
R = g αβ Rαβ . (1.21)

6
Being invariant under coordinate transformations, the Ricci scalar has an interesting
property in that it determines the nature of a singularity together with other invariants.
There are two types of singularities coordinate and essential, one arises with a bad
choice of coordinates and is removable, the other occurs due to a problem in geometry
that can not be removed. The nature of singularity can be determined by looking at
the invariant quantities that are mentioned in eqs (1.22) to (1.25). The singularity is a
coordinate singularity if the curvature invariants are finite and an essential singularity
otherwise.

R1 = R, (1.22)
R2 = Rαβ γη
γη R αβ , (1.23)
R3 = Rαβ γη ξζ
γη R ξζ R αβ , (1.24)
R4 = Rαβ γη ξζ ωρ
γη R ξζ R ωρ R αβ . (1.25)

1.2.3 Einstein Tensor

The Einstein tensor is a fundamental geometric object in general relativity. It is an
order-two tensor that plays a crucial role in describing the curvature of spacetime. The
components of the Einstein tensor are written as [8]
1
Gαβ = Rαβ − Rgαβ . (1.26)
2
One of the defining characteristics of the Einstein tensor is its symmetry

Gαβ = Gβα . (1.27)

The Einstein tensor is also divergence-free, in component form

Gαβ;β = 0. (1.28)

1.2.4 Maxwell Tensor

The electromagnetic field is described by the Faraday tensor, also known as the elec-
tromagnetic field tensor or Maxwell tensor [9]. It is constructed from the four-vector
potential Aα as follows
Aα = (ϕ, −A), (1.29)
where the vector potential is indicated by A and the scalar potential is represented
by ϕ. The component of electromagnetic field tensor Fαβ is expressed using these
potentials as follows
Fαβ = ∂α Aβ − ∂β Aα . (1.30)

7
From the scalar and vector potentials, the electric (E) and magnetic (B) fields are
found as

E = −∇ϕ − ∂t A, (1.31)
B = ∇ × A. (1.32)

From the eqs (1.30) to (1.32), we get F0j = Ej and Fij = ϵijk B k where i, j, k = 1, 2, 3
and ϵijk is the Levi-Civita tensor, defined as follows

+1 if ijk is an even permutation of 123,


ϵijk = −1 if ijk is an odd permutation of 123, (1.33)
otherwise.

0


Consequently, the components of the electromagnetic field tensor are given as

 
0 E1 E2 E3
−E1 0 B3 −B2 
 
Fαβ =  . (1.34)
−E2 −B3 0 B1 
−E3 B2 −B1 0

The representation of the metric tensor component in its contravariant form is as follows

F αβ = g αγ g βη Fγη . (1.35)

1.2.5 Stress-Energy Tensor

The fundamental second-rank symmetric tensor, in its component form Tαβ = Tβα is
the stress-energy tensor, commonly referred to as the energy-momentum tensor. This
tensor measures the distribution of energy, momentum, and stress within a specific
region of spacetime. The elements of the stress-energy tensor are organised in a 4 × 4
matrix in a four-dimensional spacetime.
 
T 00 T 01 T 02 T 03
 10
T T 11 T 12 T 13 

αβ
T =  20 . (1.36)
T T 21 T 22 T 23 
T 30 T 31 T 32 T 33

Each component in this matrix has a distinct physical meaning.

• The energy density of the matter is represented by T 00 .

• In the ith direction, energy flux ×c−1 is represented by T 0i .

8
 • In the ith direction, momentum density ×c is represented by T i0 .

• The ith component of momentum per unit area flows in the j th direction is de-
scribed by T ij

The spatial coordinates are represented by the indices i and j in this case. The covariant
form of the stress-energy tensor is presented by

Tαβ = T γη gγα gηβ , (1.37)

and in the mixed form as

Tβα = T αγ gγβ . (1.38)

1.3 Derivation of the Einstein Field Equations

First we define the general form of the Einstein-Hilbert action, from which the Einstein
field equations (EFEs) can be derived
√
Z
S = L −g d4 x. (1.39)

The Lagrangian L for the gravitational field and matter is expressed as L = LG + Lm .

1 √ √
Z Z
S= R −g d x + Lm −g d4 x.
4
(1.40)
2κ

The gravitational Lagrangian LG is given by LG = 2κ 1

R and κ = 8πG
c4
. Throughout this
discussion, we will assume that the gravitational constant G and the speed of light c
are both equal to 1.
We take δS = 0 to apply the principle of least action, using this and eq (1.21) in (1.40)
gives
√ √ √
Z
1
δS = (Rαβ g αβ δ −g + Rαβ −gδg αβ + −gg αβ (δRαβ )) d4 x
2κ
(1.41)
√ √
Z
4
+ (Lm δ −g + −gδ(Lm )) d x = 0.

At an arbitrary point P where Γαβγ = 0, the Riemann tensor simplifies as

Rγαηβ = Γγαβ,η − Γγαη,β , (1.42)

or
δRγαηβ = δΓγαβ,η − δΓγαη,β . (1.43)

9
At a point where the partial derivative is equivalent to the covariant derivative and
commutes with variation, the well-known Palatini equation is obtained, given as

δRγαηβ = δΓγαβ;η − δΓγαη;β . (1.44)

Contraction of the γ and η gives

δRαβ = δΓγαβ;γ − δΓγαγ;β , (1.45)

or

g αβ δRαβ = g αβ δΓγαβ;γ − g αβ δΓγαγ;β , (1.46)

= g δΓγαβ;γ − g αγ δΓβαβ;γ ,
αβ
(1.47)
= (g αβ δΓγαβ − g αγ δΓβαβ );γ . (1.48)

Writing
Aγ = g αβ δΓγαβ − g αγ δΓβαβ , (1.49)
further simplification and integration over the volume v on both sides of eq (1.48) yields
√ √
Z Z
αβ
g δRαβ −g d x = Aγ;γ −g d4 x,
4
(1.50)
v v

Applying the divergence theorem, eq (1.50) gives

√
Z
g αβ δRαβ −g d4 x = 0. (1.51)
v
√ √
Following the substitution of the identity δ −g = − 12 −ggαβ δg αβ and eq (1.51), eq
(1.41) takes on the following form
!
√ √
Z  
1 1
Rαβ g αβ − −ggαβ δg αβ + Rαβ −gδg αβ d4 x
2κ v 2
! (1.52)
1√ √
Z  
+ Lm − −ggαβ δg αβ + −gδ(Lm ) d4 x = 0.
v 2

∂Lm αβ
As Lm = Lm (gαβ ), this implies δLm = δg , thus substituting it in the eq (1.41)
∂g αβ
√
Z  
1 1 αβ αβ
− Rgαβ δg + Rαβ δg −g d4 x
2κ v 2
(1.53)
√
Z  
1 ∂Lm αβ 4
− −2 αβ + Lm gαβ δg −g d x = 0.
2 v ∂g

10
In terms of Lagrangian, the energy momentum tensor is defined as
∂Lm
Tαβ = −2 αβ + Lm gαβ . (1.54)
∂g
Therefore, eq (1.53) has this form
√
Z  
1 1
Rαβ − gαβ R − κTαβ δg αβ −g d4 x = 0. (1.55)
2κ v 2
We use the fundamental lemma of the calculus of variations, which states that if an
integral of a product of a function and an arbitrary variation equals zero, then the
integrand must be zero. Thus, setting the integrand of our integral to zero, we obtain
1
Rαβ − gαβ R = κTαβ . (1.56)
2
Eq (1.56) represents the EFEs. On the left side, the curvature determines the presence
of a gravitational source, while on the right side, the energy-momentum tensor describes
the matter content.

1.4 Solutions of Einstein Field Equations

This section discusses well-known black hole solutions to the EFEs.

1.4.1 The Schwarzschild Solution

German physicist Karl Schwarzschild solved EFEs for the first time in 1916. This
static vacuum solution, which assumes a zero stress tensor (Tαβ = 0), represents the
geometry around a spherically symmetric empty region surrounding a huge spherical
body [10]. For this solution, the metric in curvature coordinates is given by
   −1
2m 2 2 2m GM
2
dr2 − r2 dθ2 + sin2 θ dϕ2 , m = 2 . (1.57)


ds = 1 − c dt − 1 −
r r c
The mass of the source field is denoted by M in this case. The metric is not dependent
on the time component that is why it is called static. The Schwarzschild radius,
r = 2m, is the location of the horizon determined by setting grr = 0. Coordinate and
essential singularities are indicated at r = 2m and r = 0, respectively, by grr → ∞ and
gtt → ∞. Although the coordinate singularity can be removed by selecting suitable
coordinates, the essential singularity cannot be removed. One of the characteristics
that distinguishes a Schwarzschild black hole is the Schwarzschild radius r = 2m,
which denotes the event horizon beyond which nothing can escape, not even light [10].
The solution is also asymptotically flat, which is far away from the source; the metric
reduces to the flat Minkowski spacetime. Mathematically, this is expressed as
r → ∞ ⇒ ds2 = c2 dt2 − dr2 − r2 dθ2 + sin2 θ dϕ2 . (1.58)

11
1.4.2 The Reissner-Nordström Solution
This Schwarzschild metric is extended by the Reissner-Nordström solution by adding
charge. The region surrounding a charged spherical body is described by the geometry
around it in this static solution. The Maxwell field equations must also be taken into
consideration in order to account for the charge. Two parameters, total mass M and
total charge Q, define this solution. The metric for this solution is as follows [11]
! !−1
2m Q2 2m Q2
ds2 = 1 − + 2 c2 dt2 − 1− + 2 dr2
r r r r (1.59)
GM
− r2 dθ2 + sin2 θ dϕ2 , m = 2 .


c
 
Q2
For r = 0, gtt → ∞ is the essential singularity, and for 1 − 2m r
+ r 2 = 0, grr → ∞
is the coordinate singularity. The location of the horizons is determined by solving
!
2m Q2
1− + 2 = 0, (1.60)
r r

or
r2 − 2mr + Q2 = 0. (1.61)
The above equation has the following solution
p
r± = m ± m2 − Q2 . (1.62)

The radii of the black hole’s inner (r− ) and outer (r+ ) horizons are represented by these
solutions. When m < Q, a naked singularity occurs, as no coordinate singularities exist,
and this situation is often considered physically unrealistic. For m > Q, the standard
Reissner-Nordström black hole forms with two coordinate singularities at the surfaces
r = r± . In the case where m = Q, an extremal Reissner-Nordström black hole forms
with a single horizon and the region between r− and r+ is removed. We will consider
only the non-extremal case for our purpose. The solution is also asymptotically flat,
which is far away from the source; the metric reduces to the flat Minkowski spacetime
[10]. Mathematically, this is expressed as

r → ∞ ⇒ ds2 = c2 dt2 − dr2 − r2 dθ2 + sin2 θ dϕ2 .

The metric reduces to the Schwarzschild solution if the charge is set to zero (Q = 0).

12
1.5 Compact Objects
Laplace presented the theoretical idea of a large object whose gravitational field blocks
any particle, "even light," from escaping earlier in 1798. However, because of its strange
properties, the idea did not attract much attention. But because of its unique prop-
erties, gravity has gained attention. Astronomers believe that gaseous mass collapses
under the force of gravity to generate stars. It was referred to as Laplace’s nebular
hypothesis in the 18th century, but the solar nebular disk model overruled it in the
1970s, mostly because of its lack of information about the dissemination of angular
momentum between planets and the sun. Nebulae, which are massive disk-like struc-
tures of interstellar dust and gas in the form of molecular clouds mostly made up of
hydrogen (75%) and helium (23%) [12], are what lead to star formation. The conser-
vation of momentum from the movement of the particles causes this cloud to begin
spinning, and the rapid rotation flattens the cloud into a protoplanetary disk. As ar-
eas of increased gravity let gas and dust condense, they collapsed under the increased
gravitational field, raising the temperature and eventually leading to the creation of a
protostar [13]. The star would eventually stay in that state for thousands of years until
the compressed hydrogen atoms were ignited by fusion to make helium, then carbon
to form iron. There is no energy generated during the fusion process that makes iron.
Because the collapse of the star’s core, a process caused by gravity, occurs during nu-
clear fusion when the gravitational force of inward pressure is greater than the pressure
pushed outward [14]. The formation of stars, sometimes known as "compact objects,"
starts at this stage. The different kinds of compact objects are white dwarfs, neutron
stars, and black holes.

• White Dwarfs:
A star turns into a white dwarf after a long period of stellar evolution, typically
spanning millions to billions of years. Smaller stars, up to 1.4 solar masses,
become white dwarfs due to a lack of their nuclear fuel, and they shrink because
of their own gravitational pull. With masses equal to the sun’s, white dwarfs are
very dense objects. These objects have a volume comparable to that of Earth.
Sirius B is one of the closest known white dwarfs to Earth [15]. It is approximately
the size of Earth but has a mass nearly equal to that of the Sun. This white dwarf
is an excellent example of a dense stellar remnant left after a star has exhausted
its nuclear fuel.

• Neutron Stars:
Neutron stars form when the core of a massive star undergoes gravitational col-
lapse after a supernova explosion. For a core with a mass greater than approxi-
mately 1.4 solar masses (the Chandrasekhar limit), the force of gravity will cause
the star to collapse into a neutron star instead of becoming a white dwarf [16].

13
 Neutron stars have radii of about 10 kilometers and masses ranging from 1.4 to
around 3 solar masses. They are among the densest objects in the universe. PSR
J1614-2230 is a heavy neutron star, with a mass of about 1.97 solar masses [17].

• Black Holes:
Among the most important findings of general relativity are black holes. In 1916,
Albert Einstein made his first prediction about them. The term "black hole" was
first used in 1967 by American theorist John Wheeler. Among the weirdest and
most interesting phenomena in the universe are black holes. A black hole is a
region of space with so much gravity inside of it that light cannot escape. Gravity
is incredibly powerful because much of the matter has been crammed into a very
small region. When a star dies, this can happen. According to Einstein’s theory
of relativity, "nothing can travel faster than light." Because of this, everything is
dragged back by the gravitational field; if light cannot escape, then neither can
anything else. So, one has a series of occurrences in a region of space from which
one cannot leave to reach a distant observer. We now refer to this region as a
black hole [10, 18]. A black hole, sometimes referred to as a star’s last stage, is
the result of a star’s death. Since black holes do not emit light, they are invisible
to the naked eye. By catching the light of the accretion disk from various angles,
space telescopes such as the Event Horizon Telescope, working in collaboration
with several other telescopes at various places, can create a combined image of
a black hole. Black holes range in size from the size of an atom to the size of a
galaxy. Stellar black holes, which are found in large numbers in our galaxy Milky
1
Way, have masses between 10 2 and 102 solar masses. Massive black holes, known
as supermassive black holes, are found at the centres of the largest galaxies.
A recent discovery reveals that Sagittarius A*, a supermassive black hole with a
mass of approximately 4 million times that of the Sun [19], is located at the centre
of our galaxy, the Milky Way. Intermediate black holes, ranging from 103 to 105
solar masses, are believed to form through star cluster collisions, though their
existence is still debated. Supermassive black holes, located at galaxy centers,
form from the merger of numerous stellar and intermediate black holes, typically
ranging from 106 to 109 solar masses.

14
Chapter 2

Charged Compact Objects with

Generalized Polytropic Equation of
State

Compact objects like white dwarfs and neutron stars have long been modelled using
linear and quadratic polytropic equations of state, dating back to the seminal work
of Lane [20], and further developed by Chandrasekhar [21] and Tooper [22]. More
recently, generalised polytropic equations of state (GPEoS) have been researched as a
GR model for charged anisotropic compact objects. Noureen et al. [23] used GPEoS
for different polytropic indices n to develop new solutions for charged compact objects.
After examining models with n = 1, 2, 32 , and 12 , they were able to obtain exact solutions
for the Einstein-Maxwell field equations. By varying n, the authors were able to model
different types of compact objects and regain masses matching observed strange stars.
The authors were able to create mathematical models that represented various types
of dense stellar objects by varying the polytropic index n. These models successfully
reproduced the measured masses of known strange stars, which are a hypothetical
type of ultra-dense star. Their work builds on earlier studies of polytropes in general
relativity by authors like Tooper [24, 25] and more recent explorations of charged
anisotropic models by researchers such as Takisa and Maharaj [26].
We will examine Noureen et al. [23] application of GPEoS to charged compact objects.
The spacetime is considered to be static and spherically symmetric, described by the
following metric
h
i
ds2 = e2ν(r) dt2 − e2λ(r) dr2 + r2 dθ2 + sin2 θ dϕ2 . (2.1)

Metric tensor of line element (2.1) can be written as

 
gαβ = diag e2ν(r) , −e2λ(r) , −r2 e2λ(r) , −r2 e2λ(r) sin2 θ , (2.2)

15
and inverse metric tensor for line element (2.1) can be written as
!
e−2λ(r) e−2λ(r)
g αβ = diag e−2ν(r) , −e−2λ(r) , − 2 , − 2 2 . (2.3)
r r sin θ

The gravitational potential is represented in the static radial coordinate r by the func-
tions ν(r) and λ(r).
The line element (2.1) has the following Christofell symbols

Γ001 = ν ′ , (2.4)
Γ100 = ν ′ e2(ν−λ) , (2.5)
Γ111 = λ′ , (2.6)
Γ122 = −r − λ′ r2 , (2.7)
Γ133 = −r sin2 θ(λ′ r + 1), (2.8)
1
Γ212 = Γ313 = λ′ + , (2.9)
r
Γ233 = − sin θ cos θ, (2.10)
Γ332 = cot θ. (2.11)

So the non-vanishing components of the Ricci curvature tensor are

−e2(ν−λ) ′ ′
ν λ r + ν ′2 r + ν ′′ r + 2ν ′ , (2.12)


R00 =
r
1 ′ ′
= − λ ν r − ν ′2 r − ν ′′ r − 2λ′′ r − 2λ′ , (2.13)


R11
r
R22 = λ′2 r2 + λ′ ν ′ r2 + λ′′ r2 + 3λ′ r + ν ′ r, (2.14)
R33 = R22 sin2 θ, (2.15)

and the Ricci scalar is

−2 ′2 ′ ′ ′2 ′′ ′′ ′ ′
(2.16)


R= λ r + λ ν r + ν r + ν r + 2λ r + 4λ + 2ν .
e2λ r
In the equations, the primes denote differentiation with respect to r.
The distribution of matter inside the core of this star is described by the energy-
momentum tensor. The energy momentum tensor with charge for anisotropic fluid is
as follows  
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Tαβ = diag −ρ − E , pr − E , pt + E , pt + E . (2.17)
2 2 2 2
E represents the intensity of the electric field, while ρ denotes the energy density. pt
is the tangential pressure, while pr is the radial pressure.

16
Thus, the Einstein-Maxwell equations become

4λ′
 
1 2 1
8πρ + E = − 2λ λ + 2λ + ′2 ′′
, (2.18)
2 e r
2λ′ 2ν ′
 
1 2 1 ′2
8πpr − E = 2λ λ + 2λ ν + ′ ′
+ , (2.19)
2 e r r
λ′ ν ′
 
1 2 1 ′2
8πpt + E = 2λ ν + λ + ν + + ′′ ′′
, (2.20)
2 e r r
1
′
σ= 2 λ
r2 E . (2.21)
4πr e
Assuming the transformations are

x = r2 , L = e−λ(r) , G = Leν(r) . (2.22)

Applying the set of transformed equations (2.22) in eqs (2.18)-(2.21)

1
8πρ + E 2 = 4[2xLLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ], (2.23)
2
1 Gx
8πpr + E 2 = 4L(L − 2xLx ) − 4(2L − 3xLx )Lx , (2.24)
2 G
1 Gxx Gx
8πpt + E 2 = 4xL2 + 4L(L − 2xLx ) − 4(2L − 3xLx )Lx − 8xLLxx , (2.25)
2 G G
1
σ2 = L2 (E + xEx )2 . (2.26)
4πx2
Considering the polytropic equation of state
1
pr = βρ + αρ1+ n . (2.27)

The system of the eqs (2.23)-(2.26) with the polytropic equation becomes
1
8πρ = 4(2xLLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ) − E 2 , (2.28)
2
! !1+ n1
2 2
8(2xLLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ) − E 8(2xLLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ) − E
pr = β +α ,
16π 16π
(2.29)
∆
pt = + pr , (2.30)
8π

17
 Gxx Gx 1 β
∆ = 4xL2 + 4L(L − 2xLx ) − 4(2L − 3xLx )Lx − 8xLLxx − E 2 −
G G 2 2
!1+ n1
2

8(2xLLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ) − E 2
8(2xLLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ) − E − 8πα ,
16π
(2.31)
Gx β 2απ
8(2xLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ) − E 2 +


=
G 8L(L − 2xLx ) L(L − 2xLx )
!1+ n1
8(2xLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ) − E 2
 
1 1 2
+ 4(2L − 3xLx )Lx − E ,
16π 4L(L − 2xLx ) 2
(2.32)
1
σ 2 = 2 L2 (E + xEx )2 , (2.33)
4π x
where ∆ is the ansiotropic factor and σ is the charge density. There are some typing
errors in [23]. The corrected version is given by eq (2.32).
A physically reasonable form of gravitational potential L and electric field intensity E
are chosen i.e.

L = a + bx, (2.34)
E 2 = c + dx, (2.35)

where a, b, c, and d are real constants. We choose L and E 2 to be a linear function in

the variable x. This ensures that the potential and the charge are finite at the centre
and are regular in the interior.
Therefore, the eqs (2.28), (2.29), (2.32) and (2.33) by substituting L and E become
 
24ab − c xd
8πρ = − , (2.36)
2 2
   1+ n1
24ab − c − xd 24ab − c − xd
pr = β +α , (2.37)
16π 16π
!
 1+ n1
16πα 24ab−c−dx
16π
+ β(24ab − c − dx) + 16ab − 8b2 x − c − dx
Gx
= , (2.38)
G 8(a + bx)(a − bx)
(a + bx)2 (2c + 3xd)2
σ2 = . (2.39)
16π 2 x(c + xd)

18
2.1 Generalized Polytropic Models
2
The models presented in this article are derived by varying the values of n as 1, 2, ,
3
1
and .
2

Model 1
The radial and tangential pressures for n = 1 are as follows
   2
24ab − c − xd 24ab − c − xd
pr = β +α , (2.40)
16π 16π
"
1
pt = 3 2
(36864a4 b2 α(2π + 9b2 xα) − 6144a3 b cα(π + 9b2 xα)
32768π (a − bx)


+ 2π(dxα − 4πβ) + 3b xα 3dxα − 8π(1 + 3β) − 32abx 3c3 α2 + c2 α (9dxα
2

−8π(7 + 9β) + c 192b2 πxα + 9d2 x2 α2 + 128π 2 β(4 + 3β) − 16dπxα(7 + 9β)





+x 3d x α − 1536b π β + 128dπ β(4 + 3β) − 8d πxα(7 + 9β) + x c4 α2
3 2 2 2 2 2 2


+4c3 α dxα − 8π(1 + β) + 2c2 3d2 x2 α2 + 128π 2 (1 + β)2 + 16πxα 4b2 − 3d(1

 
2 
+β) + dx2 −128b2 π (16π + dxα) + d dxα − 16π(1 + β) + 4cx −512b2 π 2 (2

2 2 2 2 2


+ β) + d d x α − 24dπxα(1 + β) + 128π (1 + β) + 128a2 c2 α(π + 27b2 xα)


−2c −27b2 dx2 α2 + 8π 2 (2 + β) + 2πxα −d + 12b2 (5 + 9β) + x 576b4 πxα
+dπ 3dxα − 16π(3 + 2β) + 3b2 9d2 x2 α2 − 16dπxα(5 + 9β) + 128π 2 (1


#

+2β + 3β 2 )


.

(2.41)

Integrating eq (2.38) for n = 1 yields the gravitational potential G

G = D1 (a + bx)H (a − bx)P exp(N (x)), (2.42)

19
where D1 is integration constant. The constants H and P and the variable N (x) are
given as
1 
2
α 24ab2 + ad − bc + 16πbβ 24ab2 + ad − bc


H= 3
256πab
2


+16πb 24ab + ad − bc ,
1 
2

2 2


P = −α 24ab − ad − bc − 16πbβ 24ab − ad − bc
256πab3


−16πb 8ab2 − ad − bc ,
αd2 x
N (x) = − .
128πb2
For D12 = k1 the eq (2.1) becomes
h
i
2 2 2(H−1) 2 2P 2 2 2 −2 2 2 2 2 2
ds = k1 (a+br ) (a−br ) exp(2N (r )) dt −(a+br ) dr + r dθ + sin θ dϕ .
(2.43)

Model 2
The radial and tangential pressures for n = 2 are as follows
 3
f (x) f (x) 2
pr = β +α , (2.44)
16π 16π
"
1 3
p 
Pt = 2 2
768a b πf (x)α + 18b xα + 4πβ + x −c3 α2
2 2
2048π (a − bx)
 p 
+c −3dxα + 8 πf (x)α(1 + β) + 16π(1 + β) + dx2 −16b2 (8π
2 2 2

p   p 
2 2
− πf (x)α + d −dxα + 8 πf (x)α(1 + β) + 16π(1 + β) + cx
   p
p
× d −3dxα2 + 16 πf (x)α(1 + β) + 32π(1 + β)2 − 32b2 πf (x)α
√ p
 

 
+4π(2 + β) + 8abx 9c2 α2 − 2c −9dxα2 + 8 π f (x)α(2 + 3β)
 p  
2
p
πf (x)α + 4πβ + d 9dxα2 − 16 πf (x)α


+16πβ(4 + 3β) + x 96b
  

 2
p
×(2 + 3β) − 32πβ(4 + 3β) − 16a 2c πf (x)α + 54b2 xα2 + 4π(2

20
  p p
+β) + x 5d πf (x)α + 8dπ(3 + 2β) − 12b2 −9dxα2 + 8 πf (x)α(1


# (2.45)
+3β) + 16π(1 + β(2 + 3β)) .

Integrating eq (2.38) for n = 2 yields the gravitational potential G

Ω
γ
G = D2 (a + bx)H (a − bx)P U (x) V (x) exp(N (x)), (2.46)

where D2 is integration constant. The constants H, P , Ω, and γ and the variables f (x)
U (x), V (x), and N (x) are given as
1
(β + 1) 24ab2 + ad − bc ,


H= 2
16ab
1  2

2

P = β ad − 24ab + bc + ad − 8ab + bc ,
16ab2
"
3 # 12
α a(24b2 − d) − bc
Ω= ,
64a πb5
"
3 # 12
α a(24b2 + d) − bc
γ= ,
64a πb5
f (x) = 24ab − c − dx,
 1
1
a(24b2 − d) − bc 2 + bf (x) 2
U (x) =  1
1 ,
a(24b2 − d) − bc 2 − bf (x) 2
 1
1
a(24b2 + d) − bc 2 − bf (x) 2
V (x) =  1
1 ,
a(24b2 + d) − bc 2 + bf (x) 2
" # 12
dα f (x)
N (x) = .
16b2 π

For D22 = k2 the eq (2.1) becomes

2Ω
2γ
ds2 = k2 (a + br2 )2(H−1) (a − br2 )2P U (r2 ) V (r2 ) exp(2N (r2 )) dt2
2 −2
h
2 2 2 2 2

i (2.47)
− (a + br ) dr + r dθ + sin θ dϕ .

21
Model 3
The radial and tangential pressures for n = 2
3
are as follows
  52
βf (x) f (x)
pr = +α , (2.48)
16π 16π
"
1 5 5 2 4 2
 p
pt = 4 2
7962624a b xα + 36864a b α 8π 3/2 f (x) − 45b2 x
524288π (a − bx)
 
p p
×(c + dx)α + 3072a b −18dπ 3/2 x f (x)α + 45b2 c2 xα2 + c −8π 3/2 f (x)α
3

 p 
2 2 2 3 2 2 2 3/2


+90b dx α + 256π β + 3b xα 15d x α + 64π × f (x)(1 + 3β)
  
5 2 4 2 3 2 2 3/2
p
− x c α + 5c dxα + 2c α 5d x α + 64π f (x)(1 + β) − 2c2 −5d3 x3 α2
p
 
+2048π 3 (1 + β)2 + 64π 3/2 x f (x)α 4b2 − 3d(1 + β) + dx2 256b2 128π 3
p   p 
3/2 3 3 2 3/2 3 2
+3dπ x f (x)α + d d x α + 128dπ x f (x)α(1 + β) − 4096π (1 + β)
   
p
+cx d 5d3 x3 α2 + 384dπ 3/2 x f (x)α(1 + β) − 8192π 3 (1 + β)2 + 256b2 dπ 3/2
!
p  
×x f (x)α + 128π 3 (2 + β) + 8abx 15c4 α2 + 60c3 dxα2 + 2c2 α 45d2 x2 α
p   p
3/2
+64π f (x)(7 + 9β) − 4c 768b2 π 3/2 x f (x)α − 15d3 x3 α2 + 2048π 3 β(4 + 3β)
   
p p
−64dπ x f (x)α(7 + 9β) + x 768b2 dπ 3/2 x f (x)α + 128π 3 β + d 15d3 x3 α2
3/2

!
p 
−8192π 3 β(4 + 3β) + 128dπ 3/2 x f (x)α(7 + 9β) − 128a2 45b2 c3 xα2
 p  
+c2 α −4π 3/2 f (x) + 135b2 dx2 α + c 135b2 d2 x3 α2 + 256π 3 (2 + β) + 6π 3/2
p
  p
×x f (x)α −3d + 32b (5 + 9β) + x −2304b4 π 3/2 x f (x)α − 14d2 π 3/2
2

p  p
×x f (x)α + 256dπ 3 (3 + 2β) − 3b2 −15d3 x3 α2 − 64dπ 3/2 x f (x)α(5 + 9β)
#

+2048π 3 (1 + 2β + 3β 2 )


.

(2.49)

22
Integrating eq (2.38) for n = 2
3
yields the gravitational potential G

Ω
γ
G = D3 (a + bx)H (a − bx)P U (x) V (x) exp(N (x)), (2.50)

where D3 is integration constant. The constants H, P , Ω, and γ and the variables

f (x), U (x), V (x), and N (x) are given as
1 2


H= (β + 1) 24ab + ad − bc ,
16ab2
1  2

2

P = β ad − 24ab + bc + ad − 8ab + bc ,
16ab2
"
2

5 # 21
α a(24b − d) − bc
Ω= ,
1024a π 3 b7
"
2

5 # 12
α a(24b + d) − bc
γ= ,
1024a π 3 b7
f (x) = 24ab − c − dx,
 1
1
a(24b2 − d) − bc 2 + bf (x) 2
U (x) =  1
1 ,
a(24b2 − d) − bc 2 − bf (x) 2
 1
1
a(24b2 + d) − bc 2 − bf (x) 2
V (x) =  1
1 ,
a(24b2 + d) − bc 2 + bf (x) 2
" # 12
dα f (x)
N (x) = [168ab − 7c − dx].
768b2 π 3

For D32 = k3 the eq (2.1) becomes

2Ω
2γ
ds2 = k3 (a + br2 )2(H−1) (a − br2 )2P U (r2 ) V (r2 ) exp(2N (r2 )) dt2
h
i (2.51)
− (a + br2 )−2 dr2 + r2 dθ2 + sin2 θ dϕ2 .

Model 4
The radial and tangential pressures for n = 1
2
are as follows
   3
24ab − c − xd 24ab − c − xd
pr = β +α , (2.52)
16π 16π

23
 "
1
pt = 191102976a6 b6 xα2 − 1769472a5 b3 α(−16π 2 + 27b2 x(c + dx)α)
8388608π 5 (a − bx)2
+ 110592a4 b2 α(−64dπ 2 x + 45b2 c2 xα + c(−32π 2 + 90b2 dx2 α) + b2 x(45d2 x2 α
+ 512π 2 (1 + 3β))) − 16abx(9c5 α2 + 45c4 dxα2 + 2c3 α(45d2 x2 α + 256π 2 (5 + 6β))
+ 6c2 xα(−1536b2 π 2 + 15d3 x2 α + 256dπ 2 (5 + 6β)) + c(45d4 x4 α2 + 65536π 4 β(4
+ 48b2 x + 3β) + 1536d2 π 2 x2 α(5 + 6β)) + x(9d5 x4 α2 + 65536dπ 4 β(4 + 3β)
+ 512d3 π 2 x2 α(5 + 6β) + 3072b2 (3d2 π 2 x2 α + 256π 4 β + 512dπ 4 xβ)))
+ 6144a3 b(4608b4 π 2 x2 α − 45b2 c3 xα2 + 3c2 α(8π 2 − 45b2 dx2 α) + 8(9d2 π 2 x2 α
+ 256π 4 β − 512dπ 4 xβ) − 9b2 dx2 α(5d2 x2 α + 256π 2 (1 + 2β)) − 3cxα(−32dπ 2
+ 3b2 (15d2 x2 α + 256π 2 (1 + 2β)))) + x(c6 α2 + 6c5 dxα2 + c4 α(15d2 x2 α + 512π 2 (1 + β))
+ 4c3 xα(−512b2 π 2 + 5d3 x2 α + 512dπ 2 (1 + β)) + c2 (15d4 x4 α2 + 3072d2 π 2 x2 α(1 + β)
+ 65536π 4 (1 + 2(1 + 8b2 x)β + β 2 )) + dx2 (4096b2 (d2 π 2 x2 α + 128π 4 (−1 + β)) + d(d2 x2 α
+ 256π 2 (1 + β))2 ) + 2cx(3d5 x4 α2 + 1024d3 π 2 x2 α(1 + β) + 65536dπ 4 (1 + β)2
+ 1024b2 (3d2 π 2 x2 α + 256π 4 (−2 + β + 2dxβ)))) + 64a2 (135b2 c4 xα2 + 4c3 α(−8π 2
+ 135b2 dx2 α) + 4c(135b2 d3 x4 α2 + 2048π 4 (−2 + (−1 + 2dx)β) − 72π 2 x2 α(192b4 + d2
− 64b2 d(2 + 3β))) + 6c2 xα(−32dπ 2 + 3b2 (45d2 x2 α + 512π 2 (2 + 3β)))
+ x(9437184b4 π 4 xβ − 128dπ 2 (d2 x2 α − 64π 2 (−3 − β + 2dxβ)) + 3b2 (45d4 x4 α2
#
+ 3072d2 π 2 x2 α(2 + 3β) + 65536π 4 (1 + 2β + 3β 2 )))) .

(2.53)

Integrating eq (2.38) for n = 1

2
yields the gravitational potential G

G = D4 (a + bx)H (a − bx)P exp(N (x)), (2.54)

where D4 is integration constant. The constants H and P and the variable N (x) are
given as
 
1 2

3
2 2

2


H= α a 24b + d − bc + 256π b β a 24b + d − bc
4096π 2 ab4
 
2 2 2


+256π b a 24b + d − bc ,
 
1 2

3
2 2

2


P = α a d − 24b + bc + 256π b β a d − 24b + bc
4096π 2 ab4
 
2 2 2


+256π b a d − 8b + bc ,

24
 αd2 x[6(c − 24ab) + xd]
N (x) = .
4096π 2 b2
For D42 = k4 the eq (2.1) becomes
h
i
ds2 = k4 (a+br2 )2(H−1) (a−br2 )2P exp(2N (r2 )) dt2 −(a+br2 )−2 dr2 + r2 dθ2 + sin2 θ dϕ2 .
(2.55)
In order to understand the internal structure and stability of charged compact ob-
jects, we present several key graphical representations from the study. Through visual
analysis of these distributions, we may gain a better understanding of how charge and
anisotropy affect these objects’ gravitational behaviour and what this means for their
physical viability. The variation of radial pressure, pr , and tangential pressure, pt , are
shown in Fig 2.1, both pr and pt decrease radially outward. Fig 2.2 shows the graph
of density and anisotropy, density decreases with increase in radius and anisotropy is
zero at the centre and positive otherwise.

(a) pr (b) pt

Figure 2.1: The radial and tangential pressures both are well defined and non-
negative and plotted by taking a = 1, b = 0.772, c = 0, d = 0.0804, and α = 0.025.

25
Figure 2.2: Variation of energy density and anisotropy are plotted by taking the
same values of the constants mentioned in Fig 2.1.

Discussion
In [23], the authors used a GPEoS to present exact solutions to the EMFEs. Their
main area of focus is how charge and anisotropy affect the interior structure of ex-
tremely dense stars. According to the study, tangential pressure and anisotropy in-
crease towards the star’s boundary, while energy density and radial pressure decrease
monotonically from the star’s centre to its boundary. Furthermore, the model satisfies
all the energy conditions, which are necessary. The stability factor and adiabatic index
fall within the limits.

26
Chapter 3

Charged Compact Objects with

pr = βρ + αρΓ + γρ2

3.1 Exact Solutions with Modified Generalized Poly-

tropic Equation of State
In this chapter, we present a solution of the EMFEs for a charged anisotropic matter
distribution. Our aim is to extend the work of Noureen et al. [23] by incorporating an
additional quadratic term in the generalized polytropic equation of state. The equation
of state of our model is chosen as

pr = βρ + αρΓ + γρ2 , (3.1)

where α, β and γ are arbitrary constants. The system of the eqs (2.23)-(2.26) with the
polytropic equation becomes
1
8πρ = 4(2xLLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ) − E 2 , (3.2)
2 !
8(2xLLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ) − E 2
pr = β
16π
!1+ n1
8(2xLLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ) − E 2
+α (3.3)
16π
!2
8(2xLLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ) − E 2
+γ ,
16π
∆
pt = + pr , (3.4)
8π

27
 Gxx Gx 1 β
∆ =4xL2 + 4L(L − 2xLx ) − 4(2L − 3xLx )Lx − 8xLLxx − E 2 −
G G 2 2
2 γ
2
8(2xLLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ) − E 2


8(2xLLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ) − E −
32π
!1+ n1
2
8(2xLLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ) − E
− 8πα ,
16π
(3.5)
Gx β 2απ
8(2xLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ) − E 2 +


=
G 8L(L − 2xLx ) L(L − 2xLx )
!1+ n1
8(2xLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ) − E 2
 
1 1 2
+ 4(2L − 3xLx )Lx − E
16π 4L(L − 2xLx ) 2
γ
2
+ 8(2xLxx − 3(xLx − L)Lx ) − E 2 ,
128πL(L − 2xLx )
(3.6)
1
σ 2 = 2 L2 (E + xEx )2 . (3.7)
4π x
Substituting the expressions of L and E given by eq (2.34) and eq (2.35) respectively
in eq (3.6), we get
"  1+ n1
Gx 1 24ab − c − dx
= 16πα + β(24ab − c − dx)
G 8(a + bx)(a − bx) 16π
# (3.8)
γ 2 2
+ (24ab − c − dx) + 16ab − 8b x − c − dx .
16π
The expressions of energy density, pr and charge density take the form
 
24ab − c xd
8πρ = − , (3.9)
2 2
   1+ n1  2
24ab − c − xd 24ab − c − xd 24ab − c − xd
pr = β +α +γ , (3.10)
16π 16π 16π
(a + bx)2 (2c + 3xd)2
σ2 = . (3.11)
16π 2 x(c + xd)
The total mass within the radius ‘r’ of the sphere is given by
Z x " #
1 E2
M (x) = 2π √ τ ρ(τ ) + dτ. (3.12)
0 τ 8π
By using eqs (3.9) and (2.35) within eq (3.12), the expression for the mass function is
1√
M (x) = x(120abx − 5c(x − 6) + dx(10 − 3x)). (3.13)
60
28
3.1.1 Modified Generalized Polytropic Models
In this section, exact solutions to field equations using polytropic indices n = 1, 2, 23 ,
and 12 are presented.

MODEL I
When n = 1, Model 1 of the [23] is recovered, since in this case
   2
24ab − c − xd 24ab − c − xd
pr = β + (α + γ) . (3.14)
16π 16π

Model II
When n = 2, radial and tangential pressures are given as
    23  2
24ab − c − xd 24ab − c − xd 24ab − c − xd
pr = β +α +γ , (3.15)
16π 16π 16π
"
1 4 2 2 3

3/2
p
pt = 36864a b γ(2π + 9b xγ) + 6144a b 2π f (x)α + 8π 2 β
32768π 3 (a − bx)2
p 
−π(c + 2dx)γ + 18b2 x πf (x)αγ − 9b2 x(c + dx)γ 2 + 12b2 πx(3α2 + 2γ + 6βγ)
  p   p
+ x c4 γ 2 − 4c3 2 πf (x)αγ − dxγ 2 + 4π(α2 + 2(1 + β)γ) + 2c2 64π 3/2 f (x)
p
×α(1 + β) + 128π 2 (1 + β)2 − 12dx πf (x)αγ + 3d2 x2 γ 2 − 8πx(−8b2 γ + 3d(α2
 
p p
+2(1 + β)γ)) + dx −128b π(16π − 2 πf (x)α + dxγ) + d 128π 3/2 f (x)α(1
2 2

p 
2 2 2 2 2 2
+β) + 256π (1 + β) − 8dx πf (x)αγ + d x γ − 16dπx(α + 2(1 + β)γ)
 
p p
+4cx −128b2 (π 3/2 f (x)α + 4π 2 (2 + β)) + d 64π 3/2 f (x)α(1 + β) + 128π 2 (1 + β)2
!
p 
−6dx πf (x)αγ + d2 x2 γ 2 − 12dπx(α2 + 2(1 + β)γ) − 128a2 −c2 γ(π + 27b2 xγ)
 p p
+2c 2π 3/2 f (x)α + 8π 2 (2 + β) + 54b2 x πf (x)αγ − 27b2 dx2 γ 2 + 2πx(−dγ + 6b2
 p
×(9α + 2(5 + 9β)γ)) + x −576b4 πxγ + dπ(10 πf (x)α + 16π(3 + 2β) − 3dxγ)
2

29
  p p
−3b2 64π 3/2 f (x)α(1 + 3β) + 128π 2 (1 + 2β + 3β 2 ) − 36dx πf (x)αγ + 9d2 x2 γ 2
 
2

  p
−8dπx(9α + 2(5 + 9β)γ) + 32abx −3c γ + c 36πα2 + 18 πf (x)αγ
3 2 2

 p
+8π(7 + 9β)γ − 9dxγ 2 + c −64π 3/2 f (x)α(2 + 3β) − 128π 2 β(4 + 3β) + 36dx

p   p
× πf (x)αγ − 9d2 x2 γ 2 + 8πx(9dα2 − 24b2 γ + 2d(7 + 9β)γ) + x 384b2 (π 3/2 f (x)α
 p p
+4π β) + d −64π 3/2 f (x)α(2 + 3β) − 128π 2 β(4 + 3β) + 18dx πf (x)αγ
2

#

−3d2 x2 γ 2 + 4dπx(9α2 + 2(7 + 9β)γ)


.

(3.16)

Integrating eq (3.8) by substituting n = 32 , we get the gravitational potential G as

Ω
ζ
G = K2 (a + bx)I (a − bx)W U (x) V (x) exp(Z(x)), (3.17)

where K2 is the integration constant. The constants I, W , Ω, and ζ and the variables
f (x), U (x), V (x), and Z(x) are given as
1 2 γ
(−24ab2 − ad + bc)2 ,


I= 2
(β + 1) 24ab + ad − bc + 3
16ab 256ab π
1  2 2
 γ
(−24ab2 + ad + bc)2 ,


W = 2
β ad − 24ab + bc + ad − 8ab + bc − 3
16ab 256ab π
"
3
# 21
α 24ab2 − da − bc
Ω= ,
64a πb5
"
3 # 12
α 24ab2 + da − bc
ζ= ,
64a πb5
f (x) = 24ab − c − dx,
 1
1
24ab2 − da − bc 2 + bf (x) 2
U (x) = 1
1 ,
[24ab2 − da − bc] 2 − bf (x) 2
 1
1
24ab2 + da − bc 2 − bf (x) 2
V (x) = 1
1 ,
[24ab2 + da − bc] 2 + bf (x) 2
" # 12
dα f (x) d2 r 2 γ
Z(x) = − .
16b2 π 128b2 π

30
 The line element (2.1) becomes

2Ω
2ζ
ds2 = K22 (a + br2 )2(I−1) (a − br2 )2W U (r2 ) V (r2 ) exp(2Z(r2 )) dt2
h
i (3.18)
− (a + br2 )−2 dr2 + r2 dθ2 + sin2 θ dϕ2 .

Model III
When n = 32 , radial and tangential pressures are given as
    25  2
24ab − c − xd 24ab − c − xd 24ab − c − xd
pr = β +α +γ , (3.19)
16π 16π 16π
"
1 5 5 2 4 2

3/2
p
pt = 7962624a b xα + 36864a b 8π f (x)α − 45b2 x(c + dx)α2
524288π 4 (a − bx)2
√ p   p
+32π 2 γ + 72b2 πx f (x)αγ + 144b2 πxγ 2 − 3072a3 b 18dπ 3/2 x f (x)α − 45b2 c2 xα2
 p √ p
−256π β + 64dπ xγ + 2c 4π 3/2 f (x)α − 45b2 dx2 α2 + 16π 2 γ + 72b2 πx f (x)αγ
3 2

 p √ p
+144b2 πxγ 2 − 3b2 x 15d2 x2 α2 + 64π 3/2 f (x)α(1 + 3β) − 48d πx f (x)αγ




  p
−96dπxγ + 256π (γ + 3βγ) − x c5 α2 + 2c3 5d2 x2 α2 + 64π 3/2 f (x)α(1 + β)
2 2

√ p 
−16d πx f (x)αγ + 256π (1 + β)γ − 32dπxγ − 2c2 −5d3 x3 α2 + 2048π 3 (1 + β)2
2 2

p √ p
+64π 3/2 x f (x)α(4b2 − 3d(1 + β)) + 24d2 πx2 f (x)αγ + 256π 2 x(4b2 − 3d(1 + β))γ
√ p
    p
+48d πx γ + c 5dxα − 8( π f (x)αγ + 2πγ ) + cx 256b2 dπ 3/2 x f (x)α
2 2 2 4 2 2

 p
+128π 3 (2 + β) + d 5d3 x3 α2 + 384dπ 3/2 x f (x)α(1 + β) − 8192π 3 (1 + β)2 − 32d2

p   
2 2 2 2 2
×x πf (x)αγ + 1536dπ x(1 + β)γ − 64d πx γ + dx 256b2 128π 3 + 3dπ 3/2
2

p   p
×x f (x)α + 8dπ xγ + d d3 x3 α2 + 128dπ 3/2 x f (x)α(1 + β) − 4096π 3 (1 + β)2
2

!
√ p 
−8d2 πx2 f (x)αγ + 512dπ 2 x(1 + β)γ − 16d2 πx2 γ 2 − 128a2 45b2 c3 xα2 − c2
 p √ p 
× 4π 3/2 f (x)α − 135b2 dx2 α2 + 16π 2 γ + 216b2 πx f (x)αγ + 432b2 πxγ 2
 p
+c 135b2 d2 x3 α2 + 256π 3 (2 + β) + 6π 3/2 x f (x)α(−3d + 32b2 (5 + 9β)) − 432b2 d
p 
×x2 πf (x)αγ + 64π 2 x(−d + 12b2 (5 + 9β))γ − 864b2 dπx2 γ 2 + x 256dπ 3 (3 + 2β)

31
 p p
−2304b4 (π 3/2 x f (x)α + 4π 2 xγ) − 2d2 (7π 3/2 x f (x)α + 24π 2 xγ) − 3b2 −15d3 x3 α2
p √ p
−64dπ 3/2 x f (x)α(5 + 9β) + 2048π 3 (1 + 2β + 3β 2 ) + 72d2 πx2 f (x)αγ − 256dπ 2
 
2 2 2

  p
×x(5 + 9β)γ + 144d πx γ + 8abx 15c4 α2 + c2 90d2 x2 α2 + 128π 3/2 f (x)α(7
√ p 
+9β) − 288d πx f (x)αγ + 512π (7 + 9β)γ − 576dπxγ − 4c −15d3 x3 α2 + 2048π 3
2 2

√ p √ p √
×β(4 + 3β) + 72d2 πx2 γ( f (x)α + 2 πγ) − 64dπ 3/2 x(7 + 9β)( f (x)α + 4 πγ)
p   √ p
+768b2 (π 3/2 x f (x)α + 4π 2 xγ) + 12c3 5dxα2 − 8( π f (x)αγ
  
p
+2πγ ) + x 768b2 dπ 3/2 x f (x)α + 128π 3 β + d 15d3 x3 α2 − 8192π 3 β(4 + 3β)
2

!#
√ p √ p √ 
−96d2 πx2 γ( f (x)α + 2 πγ) + 128dπ 3/2 x(7 + 9β)( f (x)α + 4 πγ) .

(3.20)

Integrating eq (3.8) by substituting n = 23 , we get the gravitational potential G as

ξ
χ
G = K3 (a + bx)S (a − bx)J F (x) T (x) exp(D(x)), (3.21)

where K3 is the integration constant. The constants H, P , Ω, and ζ and the variables
f (x), U (x), V (x), and N (x) are given as
1 γ
(β + 1) 24ab2 + ad − bc + (−24ab2 − ad + bc)2 ,


S= 2
16ab 256ab3 π
1  2 2
 γ
(−24ab2 + ad + bc)2 ,


J= 2
β ad − 24ab + bc + ad − 8ab + bc −
16ab 256ab3 π
"
5 # 21
α 24ab2 − ad − bc
ξ= ,
1024a π 3 b7
"
5 # 12
α 24ab2 + ad − bc
χ= ,
1024a π 3 b7
f (x) = 24ab − c − dx,
 1
1
24ab2 − ad − bc 2 + bf (x) 2
F (x) = 1
21 ,
[24ab2 − ad − bc] 2 − bf (x)
 1
1
24ab2 + ad − bc 2 − bf (x) 2
T (x) = 1
12 ,
[24ab2 + ad − bc] 2 + bf (x)

32
 " #
d
12 √
D(x) = 3 f (x) (168ab − 7c − dx)α − 6dx πγ .
768b2 π 2

The line element (2.1) becomes

2ξ
2χ
ds2 = K32 (a + br2 )2(S−1) (a − br2 )2J F (r2 ) T (r2 ) exp(2D(r2 )) dt2
2 −2
h
2 2 2 2 2

i (3.22)
− (a + br ) dr + r dθ + sin θ dϕ .

Model IV
When n = 21 , radial and tangential pressures are given as
   3  2
24ab − c − xd 24ab − c − xd 24ab − c − xd
pr = β +α +γ , (3.23)
16π 16π 16π
1
pt = 5 2
[191102976a6 b6 xα2 + 1769472a5 b3 α(16π 2 − 27b2 x(c + dx)α
8388608π (a − bx)
+ 144b2 πxγ) + 36864a4 b2 (135b2 c2 xα2 + 64π 2 (−3dxα + 8πγ) + 6cα(−16π 2 + 45b2 dx2 α
. − 240b2 πxγ) + 3b2 x(45d2 x2 α2 − 480dπxαγ + 256π 2 (2α + 6αβ + 3γ 2 ))) + 6144a3 b
× (4608b4 π 2 x2 α − 45b2 c3 xα2 + 3c2 α(8π 2 − 45b2 dx2 α + 240b2 πxγ) + 8π 2 (9d2 x2 α
+ 256π 2 β − 64dπxγ) − 3b2 x(15d3 x3 α2 − 240d2 πx2 αγ − 2048π 3 (1 + 3β)γ + 768dπ 2 x
× (α + 2αβ + γ 2 )) − c(32π 2 (−3dxα + 8πγ) + 9b2 x(15d2 x2 α2 − 160dπxαγ + 256π 2
× (α + 2αβ + γ 2 )))) + x(c6 α2 + 2c5 α(3dxα − 16πγ) + dx2 (d(d2 x2 α + 256π 2 (1 + β)
− 16dπxγ)2 − 4096b2 π 2 (128π 2 − d2 x2 α + 8dπxγ)) + c4 (15d2 x2 α2 − 160dπxαγ + 256π 2
× (2α(1 + β) + γ 2 )) − 4c3 (512b2 π 2 xα − 5d3 x3 α2 + 80d2 πx2 αγ + 2048π 3 (1 + β)γ
− 256dπ 2 x(2α(1 + β) + γ 2 )) + c2 (15d4 x4 α2 + 65536π 4 (1 + β)2 − 320d3 πx3 αγ + 8192π 3 x
× (4b2 − 3d(1 + β))γ + 1536d2 π 2 x2 (2α(1 + β) + γ 2 )) + 2cx(−1024b2 × (−3d2 π 2 x2 α
+ 256π 4 (2 + β)) + d(3d4 x4 α2 + 65536π 4 (1 + β)2 − 80d3 πx3 αγ − 12288dπ 3 x(1 + β)γ
× πxγ) − 4c(−135b2 d3 x4 α2 + 2048π 4 (2 + β) + 2160b2 d2 πx3 αγ + 512π 3 x(−d + 12b2 (5
+ 9β))γ + 72π 2 x2 (192b4 α + d2 α − 32b2 d(4α + 6αβ + 3γ 2 ))) + 2c2 (32π 2 (−3dxα + 8πγ)
+ 9b2 x(45d2 x2 α2 − 480dπxαγ + 256π 2 (4α + 6αβ + 3γ 2 ))) + x(294912b4 π 3 xγ − 128dπ 2
× (d2 x2 α + 64π 2 (3 + 2β) − 12dπxγ) + 3b2 (45d4 x4 α2 + 65536π 4 (1 + 2β + 3β)2 − 960d3 π
× x3 αγ − 8192dπ 3 x(5 + 9β)γ + 1536d2 π 2 x2 (4α + 6αβ + 3γ 2 )))) − 16abx(9c5 α2 + 15c4 α
× (3dxα − 16πγ) + c2 (−9216b2 π 2 xα + 90d3 x3 α2 − 1440d2 πx2 αγ − 4096π 3 (7 + 9β)γ
+ 1536dπ 2 x(5α + 6αβ + 3γ 2 )) + 2c3 (45d2 x2 α2 − 480dπxαγ + 256π 2 (α(5 + 6β) + 3γ 2 ))
+ c(45d4 x4 α2 − 960d3 πx3 αγ − 8192dπ 3 x(7 + 9β)γ + 32768π 3 (2πβ(4 + 3β) + 3b2 xγ)
+ 1536d2 π 2 x2 (α(5 + 6β) + 3γ 2 )) + x(3072b2 (3d2 π 2 x2 α − 256π 4 β) + d(9d4 x4 α2 + 65536

33
× π 4 β(4 + 3β) − 240d3 πx3 αγ − 4096dπ 3 x(7 + 9β)γ + 512d2 π 2 x2 (5α + 6αβ + 3γ 2 ))))].
(3.24)
Integrating eq (3.8) by substituting n = 12 , we get the gravitational potential G as
G = K4 (a + bx)Y (a − bx)O exp(κ(x)), (3.25)
where K4 is the integration constant. The constants O and Y and the variable κ(x)
are given as
1 
3
α 24ab2 + da − bc + 256π 2 b2 β 24ab2 + ad − bc


Y = 2 4
4096π ab 
2 2 2 2 2


+256π b 24ab + ad − bc + 16bπγ(−24ab − ad + bc) ,

1 
2

3 2 2 2


O= α ad − 24ab + bc + 256π b β ad − 24ab + bc
4096π 2 ab4 
+256π 2 b2 ad − 8ab2 ) + bc − 16bπγ(−24ab2 − +ad + bc)2 ,

d2 x[α(6(c − 24ab) + xd) − 32πγ]

κ(x) = .
4096π 2 b2
The line element (2.1) becomes
h
i
ds2 = K42 (a+br2 )2(Y −1) (a−br2 )2O exp(2κ(r2 )) dt2 −(a+br2 )−2 dr2 + r2 dθ2 + sin2 θ dϕ2 .
(3.26)

3.2 Boundary Conditions

We ensure boundary conditions by requiring that the metric coefficients and their first
derivatives are continuous in both the interior and exterior solutions up to and on the
boundary. The continuity of metric coefficients defines the first fundamental form, while
the continuity of their derivatives defines the second fundamental form [27, 28]. By
matching the first and second fundamental forms for the interior spacetime metric (2.1)
and the exterior spacetime metric (1.59), we obtain the conditions at the boundary.
These conditions are given by
Rs = rs e2λs , (3.27)
 
2M
2νs
e = 1− 2 2
+ E Rs , (3.28)
Rs
  21
2M
′
(1 + rλ )s = 1 − 2 2
+ E Rs , (3.29)
Rs
  −1
M 2M
′
rs (ν )s = − E Rs2 2
1− 2 2
+ E Rs , (3.30)
Rs Rs

34
where the subscript “s” denotes the boundary of the star. The total mass in our case
by using the eq (3.29) which is
  
2

2
2 2
Rs   2bRs a + bRs
 + Rs2 c + dRs2 + 1 (3.31)


M= − 1 − 2 .
2 a (a + bRs2 ) + bRs2

Applying the boundary condition yields the integration constant for all models.

2
2
a + bRs2 a − 2bRs2 + bRs2
−2Ω
K22 =  2 (a + bRs2 )−2(I−1) (a − bRs2 )−2W U (Rs2 )
a (a + bRs2 )2 + bRs2

−2ζ
V (Rs2 ) exp(−2Z(Rs2 )),
(3.32)
 2

2

a + bRs2 a − 2bRs2 + bRs2
−2ξ
2
K3 =  2 (a + bRs2 )−2(S−1) (a − bRs2 )−2J F (Rs2 )
a (a + bRs2 )2 + bRs2

−2χ
T (Rs2 ) exp(−2D(Rs2 )),
(3.33)

2
2
a+ bRs2 a− 2bRs2 +bRs2
K42 =  2 (a + bRs2 )−2(Y −1) (a − bRs2 )−2O exp(−2κ(Rs2 )).
a (a + bRs2 )2 + bRs2
(3.34)
By using the boundary condition pr (rs = Rs ) = 0, we get
! n1 !
24ab − c − dRs2 24ab − c − dRs2
β = −α −γ . (3.35)
16π 16π

To ensure the physical viability of the models, the parameter c is set to zero, eliminating
the singularity in the charge density equation at r = 0. This choice transforms the eq
(3.11) to the well-behaved form

d[3(a + br2 )]2

σ2 = . (3.36)
(4π)2

For our analysis, we adopt the parameter values as a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0, d = 0.1757,

α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69. We examine the models over 0 ≤ r ≤ 1. The parameters β and
the constant of integration for the four models are determined using eqs (3.32)-(3.34).

35
 Models β K
II.(n = 2) −0.1018170771 0.7101238658 − 0.1049644613i
III.(n = 23 ) −0.0507397379 0.6403356786 − 0.0045403350i
IV.(n = 12 ) −0.0479803487 0.6315680368

Table 3.1. Values of the parameters β and K.

3.3 Physical Conditions

Metric potential
There should be no singularity in metric potential within the radius of the object. The
metric potential e2ν is monotonically increasing. The behaviour of metric potentials
for different values of n is shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Metric potential e2ν as a function of r when a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0,

d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69.

Electric Field Intensity

The electric field intensity, as shown in Figure 3.2, starts at zero at the star’s center
and increases as one moves towards the boundary.

36
Figure 3.2: Electric field intensity E 2 and energy density ρ as functions of r when
a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0, d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69.

Density and Pressures

The density and pressures in the model do not exhibit any singularities. At r = 0, the
density and pressures are given by
24ab − c
ρ(r = 0) = > 0,
16π
   Γ  2
24ab − c 24ab − c 24ab − c
pr (r = 0) = pt (r = 0) = β +α +γ > 0.
16π 16π 16π
Here, the radial and tangential pressures are equal and positive at the center. Figures
3.2 and 3.3 illustrate the energy density and pressures, which decrease monotonically.
Additionally, the radial pressure at the surface, pr (r = R), is zero. The model satisfies
Zeldovich’s [29] criteria, which state that the pressure-density ratio must be less than
1 throughout the compact object, as shown in Figure 3.4.

37
 (a) pr (b) pt

Figure 3.3: Radial and tangential pressures as functions of r when a = 1, b = 0.15,

c = 0, d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69.

(a) pr /ρ (b) pt /ρ

Figure 3.4: Pressure-density ratios as functions of r when a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0,

d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69.

38
Gradients
The gradients decrease when we use appropriate parameter values. The generalized
expressions for density gradient and radial pressure gradient are as follows
dρ dr
=− , (3.37)
dr 8π
dpr drβ
=− − 21−4Γ dπ −Γ r(24ab − c − dr2 )−1+Γ (α + γ)Γ, (3.38)
dr 8π
and the expression for tangential pressure gradient is shown in Appendix A1. Figure
3.5 displays graphs showing how the gradients change for different values of n.

(a) dρ/dr (b) dpr /dr

(c) dpt /dr

Figure 3.5: Density and pressure gradients as functions of r when a = 1, b = 0.15,

c = 0, d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69.

39
Trace of the Energy-Momentum Tensor
According to Bondi’s [30] condition for an anisotropic fluid sphere, compact objects
are only suitable if the energy-momentum tensor trace is positive. The condition
ρ − pr − 2pt > 0 is satisfied for our model, and a graph is shown in Figure 3.6.

Anisotropy
The anisotropic factor, defined as ∆ = 8π(pt − pr ), quantifies the difference between
tangential and radial pressures in a compact object. For a physically viable model,
∆ must be zero at the center and increase outward. Our calculations show that this
condition is met, as shown in Figure 3.6. The graph shows ∆ starting at zero at the
object’s center and increasing towards its boundary, validating our model’s physical
consistency.

Figure 3.6: Trace of energy-momentum tensor and anisotropy as functions of r when

a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0, d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69.

Mass-Radius Relation
We previously determined the mass function using eq (3.31). According to Buchdal
[31], the ratio of mass to radius for a compact star should not exceed 4/9 (i.e., M
R
< 49 ).
In our current models, the mass-to-radius ratio is M R
= 0.32, which is within this limit,
as shown in Figure 3.7. This figure illustrates the mass function, which is positive and

40
smoothly varying throughout the interior of the star. The compactness factor for our
model is given by
M (r)
µ(r) = .
r
Figure 3.7 displays the profile of this factor, which increases monotonically and re-
mains below the 4/9 limit. Our models are therefore consistent with the theoretical
constraints for stable stars. The results suggest that the star’s structure remains phys-
ically plausible and stable under these conditions.
The gravitational redshift is expressed as

z = e−ν − 1

The gravitational redshift (z) shown in Figure 3.8 has a decreasing nature for our
model.

Figure 3.7: Mass M (r) and compactness factor µ as functions of r when a = 1, b =

0.15, c = 0, d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69.

41
Figure 3.8: Gravitational redshift as a function of r when a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0,
d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69.

3.4 Stability Analysis

Energy Conditions
To ensure that the system is physically viable, it must satisfy the following energy
conditions throughout the stellar interior.

• Null Energy Condition: ρ(r) ≥ 0,

• Weak Energy Condition: ρ + pr ≥ 0 and ρ + pt ≥ 0,

• Strong Energy Condition: ρ + pr + 2pt ≥ 0,

• Dominant Energy Condition: ρ ≥ |pr + 2pt |.

Figure 3.9 illustrate that these energy conditions are well-satisfied in our model, indi-
cating a stable configuration.

42
Figure 3.9: weak, strong, and dominant energy conditions as functions of r when a =
1, b = 0.15, c = 0, d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69.

43
Causality Condition
The speed of sound, vα2 , in an anisotropic fluid distribution is defined as
 
2 dpα dpα /dr
vα = = .
dρ dρ/dr

The generalized expression for radial velocity is

Γ−1
vr2 = Γ(16π)1−Γ (α + γ) 24ab − c − dr2 + β, (3.39)

and the expression for tangential velocity is shown in Appendix A1. The speed of sound
in the radial and tangential directions inside the compact object must be less than 1,
i.e., 0 < vr2 , vt2 < 1. Figure 3.10 illustrates the graphs of the radial and tangential speeds
of sound, indicating that these speeds fall within the range of 0 to 1, thereby satisfying
the causality condition. Additionally, our model satisfies the condition 0 ≤ |vt2 −vr2 | ≤ 1,
as demonstrated in Figure 3.11.

(a) vr2 (b) vt2

Figure 3.10: Radial and tangential speed of sound as functions of r when a = 1,

b = 0.15, c = 0, d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69.

Herrera[32] and Abreu [33] introduced the concept of "Cracking," which identifies po-
tentially stable and unstable regions in anisotropic matter distributions. The com-
pact object is stable if 0 ≤ |vt2 − vr2 | ≤ 1. Specifically, it is potentially stable when
−1 ≤ vt2 − vr2 ≤ 0 and potentially unstable when 0 ≤ vt2 − vr2 ≤ +1. Figure 3.11

44
illustrates the stability parameter, indicating large stable regions and some unstable
areas. By choosing suitable values for parameter n, nearly complete stability can be
achieved.

(a) vt2 − vr2 (b) vt2 − vr2

Figure 3.11: Stability factor as a function of r when a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0, d =

0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69.

Adiabatic Index
The adiabatic index is denoted by Γα . Chen et al. [34] explained the two specific heat
ratios for stable systems, which are
ρ + pα dpα
Γα = . (3.40)
pα dρ
For our model to be physically acceptable, it must maintain a Γα value exceeding
4/3. This condition is necessary to ensure the model’s stability against gravitational
collapse, as indicated by Chandrasekhar [34] and further supported by Tooper [22].
Our analysis demonstrates that the proposed model satisfies these crucial criteria. To
illustrate this, we have provided graphical representations of the adiabatic index in
Figure 3.12, which visually confirm the model’s stability across various conditions.

45
 (a) Γr (b) Γt

Figure 3.12: Adiabatic index as a function of r when a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0, d =

0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69.

Forces in Stellar Equilibrium

A stellar configuration is in equilibrium if the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff (TOV)
equation, given by [35, 36], is satisfied.

2 dpr (ρ + pr )ν ′
(pt − pr ) − + σEeλ/2 − = 0. (3.41)
r dr 2
This equation can be expressed as

Fa + Fh + Fg + Fe = 0, (3.42)

where Fa , Fh , Fe , and Fg represent anisotropic, hydrostatic, electric, and gravitational

forces respectively, defined as

2 dpr (ρ + pr )ν ′
Fa = (pt − pr ), Fh = − , Fe = σEeλ/2 , Fg = − .
r dr 2
We may conclude that the configuration of our compact object is in static equilibrium
because the above four forces counterbalance each other.

46
 (a) n = 2 (b) n = 2/3

(c) n = 1/2

Figure 3.13: Graph of different forces as functions of r when a = 1, b = 0.15, c = 0,

d = 0.1757, α = 0.21, and γ = 0.69.

47
Chapter 4

Conclusion

In this thesis, we began by exploring the historical development of the concept of space-
time and tracing its evolution to the formulation of general relativity by Einstein. The
Einstein-Maxwell field equations and exact solutions of field equations are discussed in
detail. Afterward, tensors are also discussed in Chapter 1. In Chapter 2, models of
charged compact objects having a generalized polytropic equation of state are exam-
ined.
In Chapter 3, the properties of charged compact objects using a modified generalized
polytropic equation of state given by pr = βρ + αρΓ + γρ2 are explored. To ensure
a physically viable model, the analysis is conducted under the framework of general
relativity with specific gravitational potentials and electric field intensities. It is shown
through the calculations that the density ρ, radial pressure pr , and tangential pressure
pt are positive at the center and monotonically decrease towards the boundary. The
negative gradients of these quantities confirm this behaviour. The parameters such
as anisotropy, mass, and compactness factors exhibit an increasing trend towards the
boundary, which is consistent with the requirements for a physically acceptable config-
uration. Moreover, all energy conditions are satisfied by the proposed model, indicating
its physical viability. The configuration’s stability is confirmed by the stability factor,
showing that the stability criteria are within acceptable limits. The forces acting on
the charged matter distribution are in equilibrium, resulting in a static and stable
structure. The addition of the γρ2 term in the radial pressure equation enhances the
central pressure, leading to a steeper pressure gradient. This modification leads to a
more compact, stable configuration, with all energy conditions satisfied and forces in
equilibrium.

48
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51
Appendix A

1
"
dpt 4−4Γ−7 π −2Γ−3 r 9+4Γ 7 6 2Γ 2
= 3 2 729 · 4 a b π Γ + 27 · 2562+Γ a6 b3 π 2Γ Γ
dr 2
(a − br ) (−24ab + c + dr ) 2


−4dπ + 108b r Γ + 3b 16π(2 + 3β) − 3(3c + 5dr )Γ + 9 · 163+Γ a5 b2 π Γ
4 2 2 2

  
7d2 r2 Γ 41+2Γ π 1+Γ + 45b2 (16π)Γ r2 Γ − 21+4Γ dπ Γ 16π 2 (3 + 2β) − 12π(c

 
−32b2 r2 (2 + 3β))Γ + 9b2 r2 (−25c + 24b2 r2 )Γ2 + 3b2 45+2Γ π 2+Γ β + 1536
×π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ − 25+4Γ π 1+Γ −24b2 r2 (2 + 3β) + c(11 + 15β) Γ




−27 · 161+Γ b2 cπ Γ r2 Γ2 + (16π)Γ 256π 2 (1 + 3β 2 ) + 45c2 Γ2 + 3 · 211+4Γ a4 bπ Γ ×
 
18b r 45+2Γ π 2+Γ β + 1536π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ − 25+4Γ π 1+Γ 2dr2 (2 + 3β)
4 2

+c(11 + 15β) Γ + 15 · 21+4Γ cdπ Γ r2 Γ2 + (16π)Γ 256π 2 (1 + 3β 2 ) + 15(3c2 − d2


4 2

 2 Γ

3+4Γ 1+Γ Γ 2


×r )Γ + 2dπ −3c (16π) Γ + c 3 · 2 π + (16π) 16πβ − 7dr Γ
 
1+4Γ 1+Γ 2 2 Γ 4 2 2 Γ
+4 2 dπ r (3 + 2β) − d (16π) r Γ − 32π (24ab − c − dr ) αΓ − 3b2

× −2048π 3 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α(2 + 3β) − 23+4Γ d2 π 1+Γ r4 (47 + 66β)Γ + 15c3


(16π)Γ Γ2 + 45d3 (16π)Γ r6 Γ2 − 3c2 Γ 43+2Γ π 1+Γ + 5(16π)Γ 16πβ − 5dr2 Γ

+3c 27+4Γ π 2+Γ (1 + 3β) + 512π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ − 43+2Γ dπ 1+Γ r2 (3 + 4β)Γ

 
+(16π)Γ 256π 2 β 2 + 35d2 r4 Γ2 + 64dπ 2 r2 5(16π)Γ + 21+4Γ π Γ β(13 + 9β) + 6
 
2 Γ
×(24ab − c − dr ) αΓ(6 + Γ) + br2 256Γ c6 π 2Γ Γ2 + 21+8Γ c5 π 2Γ Γ −16π(1

52
 
+β) + dr Γ + c (16π) 29+4Γ π 2+Γ β + 512π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ − 43+2Γ dπ 1+Γ r2
2 4 Γ

 
×(1 + β)Γ + (16π)Γ 256π 2 (1 + β 2 ) − 5d2 r4 Γ2 + c2 65536π 4 (24ab − c − dr2 )2Γ α2
+2561+Γ d3 π 1+2Γ r6 (1 + β)Γ − 25 · 256Γ d4 π 2Γ r8 Γ2 + 2561+Γ b2 dπ 1+2Γ r4 8π + dr2 Γ

+213+4Γ dπ 3+Γ r2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α(1 + β)(−2 + Γ) − 3 · 29+4Γ d2 π 2+Γ r4 (24ab − c

 
2 Γ 1+2Γ 3 Γ
−dr ) αΓΓ + 4 c π −2048π 3 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α(1 + β) + d2 (16π)1+Γ r4 (1

+β)Γ − 5d3 (16π)Γ r6 Γ2 + 128dπ 2 r2 (16π)Γ + 21+4Γ π Γ β + (16π)Γ β 2 + 2(24ab − c
 
2 Γ 2 Γ
−dr ) αΓ − (24ab − c − dr ) αΓΓ − 2cdr2 −7d3 (16π)1+2Γ r6 (1 + β)Γ + 7 · 256Γ

×d4 π 2Γ r8 Γ2 − 2561+Γ b2 dπ 1+2Γ r4 8π + dr2 Γ + 65536π 4 (24ab − c − dr2 )2Γ α2 (−1

  
+Γ) + 4096dπ 3 r2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α(1 + β) (16π)Γ − 21+4Γ π Γ Γ + 256d2 π 2 r4 256Γ

2Γ 2 1+4Γ Γ 2 Γ Γ 2 Γ 2
π (1 + β) + 2 π (24ab − c − dr ) αΓ + 3(16π) (24ab − c − dr ) αΓ + d2
 
4
× r 16 b π r 23+4Γ dπ 1+Γ r2 + d2 (16π)Γ r4 Γ + 128π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α(−1
2+Γ 2 1+Γ 2

 
+Γ)Γ − −256π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α + d(16π)1+Γ r2 (1 + β) − d2 (16π)Γ r4 Γ (d

1+Γ 2 2 Γ 4 2 2 Γ
×(16π) r (1 + β) − 3d (16π) r Γ − 256π (24ab − c − dr ) α(−1 + 2Γ) − 64
 
3
× a 9 · 25+4Γ b4 π Γ r2 −2048π 3 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α(2 + 3β) + 23+4Γ d2 π 1+Γ r4 (7 + 6
 
3 Γ 2 3 Γ 6 2 2 3+2Γ 1+Γ Γ 2
×β)Γ + 15c (16π) Γ − 15d (16π) r Γ − 3c Γ 4 π + 5(16π) (16πβ − dr Γ)

+3c 27+4Γ π 2+Γ (1 + 3β) + 512π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ − 43+2Γ dπ 1+Γ r2 βΓ + (16π)Γ

 
256π 2 β 2 − 48dπr2 Γ − 5d2 r4 Γ2 + 64dπ 2 r2 5(16π)Γ + 21+4Γ π Γ β(4 + 3β) − 6(24ab
  
2 Γ 1+2Γ 1+Γ 1+4Γ 3 Γ
−c − dr ) αΓ(−2 + Γ) +4 dπ −2 c π Γ + c 3 · 23+4Γ π 1+Γ + (16π)Γ
2


(16πβ − 7dr2 Γ) + 8c 21+4Γ dπ 1+Γ r2 (3 + 2β) − d2 (16π)Γ r4 Γ − 32π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ



αΓ) + dr2 23+4Γ dπ 1+Γ r2 (3 + 2β) − 3d2 (16π)Γ r4 Γ − 128π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ(1

 
+Γ) − 3b 196608π 4 (24ab − c − dr2 )2Γ α2 − 3 · 43+4Γ d3 π 1+2Γ r6 (11 + 14β)Γ + 45
2

×256Γ c4 π 2Γ Γ2 + 165 · 256Γ d4 π 2Γ r8 Γ2 + 41+4Γ c3 π 2Γ Γ −16π(13 + 15β) + 75dr2 Γ + 3


1+4Γ 2 Γ
×2 c π 29+4Γ π 2+Γ + 1536π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ − 27+4Γ dπ 1+Γ r2 (5 + 6β)Γ

53
 Γ 2 2 4 2


+ × (16π) 256π β(5 + 3β) + 105d r Γ − 213+4Γ dπ 3+Γ r2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α (10

+Γ + 3β(4 + Γ) + 29+4Γ d2 π 2+Γ r4 29(16π)Γ β + 21+4Γ π Γ (4 + 9β 2 ) + 9(24ab − c


 
−dr2 )Γ αΓ(4 + Γ) + 41+2Γ cπ Γ −2048π 3 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α(7 + 9β) − 16d2 πr4 (5
 
×16 π + 99(16π) β Γ + 135d (16π) r Γ + 128dπ r 27(16π)Γ β 2 + 21+4Γ π Γ (7
1+Γ Γ Γ 3 Γ 6 2 2 2

!
 
+22β) + 9(24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ(6 + Γ) + a 256Γ c6 π 2Γ Γ2 − 21+8Γ c5 π 2Γ Γ 16π(1

Γ
+β) + (72b2 − 5d)r2 Γ + c4 (16π)Γ 29+4Γ π 2+Γ β + 512π 2 24ab − c − dr2 αΓ + 162+Γ

π 1+Γ r2 −d(1 + β) + b2 (14 + 15β) Γ − 15161+Γ b2 dπ Γ r4 Γ2 + (16π)Γ 256π 2 (1 + β 2 )

 
Γ
+35d2 r4 Γ2 − 41+2Γ c3 π Γ 2048π 3 24ab − c − dr2 α(1 + β) + 11d2 (16π)1+Γ r4 (1

Γ
Γ 6 2
+ β)Γ − 15d (16π) r Γ + 8b r 27+4Γ π 2+Γ (5 + 11β) + 1536π 2 24ab − c − dr2 αΓ
3 2 2

 
−343+2Γ dπ 1+Γ r2 βΓ + (16π)Γ 768π 2 β 2 − 176dπr2 Γ − 15d2 r4 Γ2 − 128dπ 2 r2 3 (16π)Γ

Γ
Γ 
+321+4Γ π Γ β + 3 (16π)Γ β 2 + 6 24ab − c − dr2 αΓ + 24ab − c − dr2 αΓΓ − c2

2Γ 2
−65536π 4 24ab − c − dr2 α + 727+8Γ d3 π 1+2Γ r6 (1 + β)Γ − 55256Γ d4 π 2Γ r8 Γ2

Γ
+25+4Γ b2 π Γ r2 −2048π 3 24ab − c − dr2 α(8 + 9β) + 23+4Γ d2 π 1+Γ r4 (19 + 18β)Γ

Γ
−45d (16π) r Γ + 64dπ r 17 (16π)Γ + 21+4Γ π Γ β(16 + 9β) − 18 24ab − c − dr2
3 Γ 6 2 2 2


Γ
αΓ(−2 + Γ) + 213+4Γ dπ 3+Γ r2 24ab − c − dr2 α(1 + β)(4 + Γ) − 329+4Γ d2 π 2+Γ r4
  
1+4Γ Γ 2 2 Γ
− 2cr2 3211+8Γ b4 dπ 1+2Γ r4 (8π


× 2 π (1 + β) + 24ab − c − dr αΓ(4 + Γ)

2Γ 2
+dr2 Γ − 8b2 −196608π 4 24ab − c − dr2 α − 32561+Γ d3 π 1+2Γ r6 (1 + β)Γ + 75

Γ 
×256Γ d4 π 2Γ r8 Γ2 − 4096dπ 3 r2 24ab − c − dr2 α 21+4Γ π Γ −5 + 3β(−2 + Γ) + 5

  
Γ 2 2+Γ 4 1+4Γ Γ Γ 2 Γ


× (16π) Γ + d (16π) r −2 π + (16π) β + 18 24ab − c − dr αΓ
 
Γ
+ dr −3163+2Γ b4 dπ 1+2Γ r4 8π + dr2 Γ + d 256π 2 24ab − c − dr2 α − d (16π)1+Γ
4


r (1 + β) + d (16π) r Γ −3d (16π)1+Γ r2 (1 + β) + 5d2 (16π)Γ r4 Γ + 256π 2 (24ab
2 2 Γ 4

Γ  
−c − dr2 α(1 + 2Γ) + 16b2 −21d3 (16π)1+2Γ r6 (1 + β)Γ + 21256Γ d4 π 2Γ r8 Γ2

2Γ 2
Γ
+ 196608π 4 24ab − c − dr2 α (−1 + Γ) − 211+4Γ dπ 3+Γ r2 24ab − c − dr2 α

54
 
−4 + 9Γ + Γ2 + 6β (−1 + 2Γ) ) + 327+4Γ d2 π 2+Γ r4 (16π)Γ + 21+4Γ π Γ β (2 + β)
  
2 Γ
αΓ (2 + 3Γ) 16a b −9 · 256 c π Γ + c Γ 7 · 25+8Γ π 1+2Γ
2 Γ 5 2Γ 2 4


+2 24ab − c − dr
 
+15(16π)1+2Γ β + 15 · 256Γ (36b2 − 5d)π 2Γ r2 Γ − 21+4Γ c3 π Γ 27+4Γ π 2+Γ (5 + 11β)
+1536π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ + 43+2Γ π 1+Γ r2 −d(11 + 12β) + b2 (78 + 90β) Γ − 45



 
×23+4Γ b2 dπ Γ r4 Γ2 + 3(16π)Γ 256π 2 β 2 + 35d2 r4 Γ2 + c −196608π 4 (24ab − c − dr2 )2Γ
α2 + 3 · 25+8Γ d3 π 1+2Γ r6 (25 + 28β)Γ − 165 · 256Γ d4 π 2Γ r8 Γ2 + 3 · 161+Γ b2 π Γ r2 −2048π 3
 
×(24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α(7 + 9β) + 16d2 πr4 5 · 21+4Γ π Γ + 9(16π)Γ β Γ − 45d3 (16π)Γ r6
 
2 2 2 Γ 2 1+4Γ Γ 2 Γ
Γ + 128dπ r 9(16π) β + 2 π (4 + 7β) − 9(24ab − c − dr ) αΓ(−2 + Γ)

13+4Γ 3+Γ 2 2 Γ 2 2+Γ 4
r 65(16π)Γ


+2 dπ r (24ab − c − dr ) α 11 + 2Γ + 3β(4 + Γ) − d (16π)

×β + 21+4Γ π Γ (13 + 18β 2 ) + 18(24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ(4 + Γ) + c2 4096π 3 (24ab − c
 
−dr2 )Γ α 23+4Γ π Γ + 9(16π)Γ β + d2 (16π)1+2Γ r4 (179 + 198β) Γ − 135 · 21+8Γ d3 π 2Γ

6 2 3+4Γ 2 Γ 2
× r Γ + 92 b π r 29+4Γ π 2+Γ + 1536π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ − 25+4Γ dπ 1+Γ r2 (5

 
+6β)Γ + (16π)Γ 256π 2 β(5 + 3β) − 15d2 r4 Γ2 − 27+4Γ dπ 2+Γ r2 41(16π)Γ + 21+4Γ
 
π Γ β(49 + 27β) + 18(24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ(6 + Γ) + r2 9 · 45+4Γ b4 dπ 1+2Γ r4 (8π + dr2

×Γ) − 12b −196608π 4 (24ab − c − dr2 )2Γ α2 − 3 · 2561+Γ d3 π 1+2Γ r6 (1 + β)Γ + 75
2

× 256Γ d4 π 2Γ r8 Γ2 − 213+4Γ dπ 3+Γ r2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α (2 + 3β) (−2 + Γ) + 29+4Γ d2

  
π 2+Γ r4 −21+4Γ π Γ + (16π)Γ β + 9(24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ − d −3d3 (16π)1+2Γ r6 (15
+17β)Γ + 39 · 256Γ d4 π 2Γ r8 Γ2 + 196608π 4 (24ab − c − dr2 )2Γ α2 (1 + Γ) + 211+4Γ dπ 3+Γ

r2 (24 × ab − c − dr2 )Γ α −28 − 9Γ + Γ2 − 6β(5 + 2Γ) + 3 · 27+4Γ d2 π 2+Γ r4 7(16π)Γ


#

+21+4Γ × π Γ β(9 + 5β) + 2(24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ(10 + 3Γ)

(A.1)

55
 "
−4Γ−7 −2Γ−2
8 · 4 π r
vt2 = − 3 2 729 · 4
9+4Γ 7 6 2Γ 2
a b π Γ + 27 · 2562+Γ a6 b3 π 2Γ
2
rd (a − br ) (−24ab + c + dr ) 2


Γ −4dπ + 108b r Γ + 3b 16π(2 + 3β) − 3(3c + 5dr )Γ + 9 · 163+Γ a5 b2 π Γ
4 2 2 2

  
2 2 1+2Γ 1+Γ
7d r Γ 4 π + 45b (16π) r Γ − 21+4Γ dπ Γ 16π 2 (3 + 2β) − 12π(c
2 Γ 2

 
−32b2 r2 (2 + 3β))Γ + 9b2 r2 (−25c + 24b2 r2 )Γ2 + 3b2 45+2Γ π 2+Γ β + 1536
×π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ − 25+4Γ π 1+Γ −24b2 r2 (2 + 3β) + c(11 + 15β) Γ




−27 · 161+Γ b2 cπ Γ r2 Γ2 + (16π)Γ 256π 2 (1 + 3β 2 ) + 45c2 Γ2 + 3 · 211+4Γ a4 bπ Γ ×
 
18b4 r2 45+2Γ π 2+Γ β + 1536π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ − 25+4Γ π 1+Γ 2dr2 (2 + 3β)

+c(11 + 15β) Γ + 15 · 21+4Γ cdπ Γ r2 Γ2 + (16π)Γ 256π 2 (1 + 3β 2 ) + 15(3c2 − d2


4 2

 

×r )Γ + 2dπ −3c2 (16π)Γ Γ + c 3 · 23+4Γ π 1+Γ + (16π)Γ 16πβ − 7dr2 Γ
 
1+4Γ 1+Γ 2 2 Γ 4 2 2 Γ
+4 2 dπ r (3 + 2β) − d (16π) r Γ − 32π (24ab − c − dr ) αΓ − 3b2

× −2048π 3 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α(2 + 3β) − 23+4Γ d2 π 1+Γ r4 (47 + 66β)Γ + 15c3


(16π)Γ Γ2 + 45d3 (16π)Γ r6 Γ2 − 3c2 Γ 43+2Γ π 1+Γ + 5(16π)Γ 16πβ − 5dr2 Γ

+3c 27+4Γ π 2+Γ (1 + 3β) + 512π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ − 43+2Γ dπ 1+Γ r2 (3 + 4β)Γ
Γ 2 2 2 4 2

 
+(16π) 256π β + 35d r Γ + 64dπ r 5(16π)Γ + 21+4Γ π Γ β(13 + 9β) + 6
2 2

 
2 Γ
×(24ab − c − dr ) αΓ(6 + Γ) + br2 256Γ c6 π 2Γ Γ2 + 21+8Γ c5 π 2Γ Γ −16π(1

+β) + dr2 Γ + c4 (16π)Γ 29+4Γ π 2+Γ β + 512π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ − 43+2Γ dπ 1+Γ r2

Γ 2 2 2 4 2

 
×(1 + β)Γ + (16π) 256π (1 + β ) − 5d r Γ + c 65536π 4 (24ab − c − dr2 )2Γ α2
2

+2561+Γ d3 π 1+2Γ r6 (1 + β)Γ − 25 · 256Γ d4 π 2Γ r8 Γ2 + 2561+Γ b2 dπ 1+2Γ r4 8π + dr2 Γ

+213+4Γ dπ 3+Γ r2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α(1 + β)(−2 + Γ) − 3 · 29+4Γ d2 π 2+Γ r4 (24ab − c

 
−dr2 )Γ αΓΓ + 41+2Γ c3 π Γ −2048π 3 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α(1 + β) + d2 (16π)1+Γ r4 (1

+β)Γ − 5d3 (16π)Γ r6 Γ2 + 128dπ 2 r2 (16π)Γ + 21+4Γ π Γ β + (16π)Γ β 2 + 2(24ab − c
 
2 Γ 2 Γ
−dr ) αΓ − (24ab − c − dr ) αΓΓ − 2cdr2 −7d3 (16π)1+2Γ r6 (1 + β)Γ + 7 · 256Γ

×d4 π 2Γ r8 Γ2 − 2561+Γ b2 dπ 1+2Γ r4 8π + dr2 Γ + 65536π 4 (24ab − c − dr2 )2Γ α2 (−1

56
   
3 2 2 Γ Γ 1+4Γ Γ
+Γ) + 4096dπ r (24ab − c − dr ) α(1 + β) (16π) − 2 π Γ + 256d π r 256Γ
2 2 4


2Γ 2 1+4Γ Γ 2 Γ Γ 2 Γ 2
π (1 + β) + 2 π (24ab − c − dr ) αΓ + 3(16π) (24ab − c − dr ) αΓ + d2
 
× r 162+Γ b2 π 1+Γ r2 23+4Γ dπ 1+Γ r2 + d2 (16π)Γ r4 Γ + 128π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α(−1
4

 2 2 Γ 1+Γ 2 2 Γ 4

+Γ)Γ − −256π (24ab − c − dr ) α + d(16π) r (1 + β) − d (16π) r Γ (d

1+Γ 2 2 Γ 4 2 2 Γ
×(16π) r (1 + β) − 3d (16π) r Γ − 256π (24ab − c − dr ) α(−1 + 2Γ) − 64
 
× a 9 · 25+4Γ b4 π Γ r2 −2048π 3 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α(2 + 3β) + 23+4Γ d2 π 1+Γ r4 (7 + 6
3

 
×β)Γ + 15c3 (16π)Γ Γ2 − 15d3 (16π)Γ r6 Γ2 − 3c2 Γ 43+2Γ π 1+Γ + 5(16π)Γ (16πβ − dr2 Γ)

+3c 27+4Γ π 2+Γ (1 + 3β) + 512π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ − 43+2Γ dπ 1+Γ r2 βΓ + (16π)Γ

 
256π 2 β 2 − 48dπr2 Γ − 5d2 r4 Γ2 + 64dπ 2 r2 5(16π)Γ + 21+4Γ π Γ β(4 + 3β) − 6(24ab
  
2 Γ 1+2Γ 1+Γ
−c − dr ) αΓ(−2 + Γ) +4 dπ −21+4Γ c3 π Γ Γ + c2 3 · 23+4Γ π 1+Γ + (16π)Γ

(16πβ − 7dr Γ) + 8c 21+4Γ dπ 1+Γ r2 (3 + 2β) − d2 (16π)Γ r4 Γ − 32π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ
2



αΓ) + dr2 23+4Γ dπ 1+Γ r2 (3 + 2β) − 3d2 (16π)Γ r4 Γ − 128π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ(1

 
+Γ) − 3b2 196608π 4 (24ab − c − dr2 )2Γ α2 − 3 · 43+4Γ d3 π 1+2Γ r6 (11 + 14β)Γ + 45
×256Γ c4 π 2Γ Γ2 + 165 · 256Γ d4 π 2Γ r8 Γ2 + 41+4Γ c3 π 2Γ Γ −16π(13 + 15β) + 75dr2 Γ + 3



×21+4Γ c2 π Γ 29+4Γ π 2+Γ + 1536π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ − 27+4Γ dπ 1+Γ r2 (5 + 6β)Γ
Γ 2 2 4 2


+ × (16π) 256π β(5 + 3β) + 105d r Γ − 213+4Γ dπ 3+Γ r2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α (10

+Γ + 3β(4 + Γ) + 29+4Γ d2 π 2+Γ r4 29(16π)Γ β + 21+4Γ π Γ (4 + 9β 2 ) + 9(24ab − c


 
−dr2 )Γ αΓ(4 + Γ) + 41+2Γ cπ Γ −2048π 3 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α(7 + 9β) − 16d2 πr4 (5
 
×161+Γ π Γ + 99(16π)Γ β Γ + 135d3 (16π)Γ r6 Γ2 + 128dπ 2 r2 27(16π)Γ β 2 + 21+4Γ π Γ (7
!
 
+22β) + 9(24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ(6 + Γ) + a 256Γ c6 π 2Γ Γ2 − 21+8Γ c5 π 2Γ Γ 16π(1

Γ
+β) + (72b2 − 5d)r2 Γ + c4 (16π)Γ 29+4Γ π 2+Γ β + 512π 2 24ab − c − dr2 αΓ + 162+Γ

π 1+Γ r2 −d(1 + β) + b2 (14 + 15β) Γ − 15161+Γ b2 dπ Γ r4 Γ2 + (16π)Γ 256π 2 (1 + β 2 )

57

 
Γ
+35d2 r4 Γ2 − 41+2Γ c3 π Γ 2048π 3 24ab − c − dr2 α(1 + β) + 11d2 (16π)1+Γ r4 (1

Γ
Γ 6 2
+ β)Γ − 15d (16π) r Γ + 8b r 27+4Γ π 2+Γ (5 + 11β) + 1536π 2 24ab − c − dr2 αΓ
3 2 2

 
−343+2Γ dπ 1+Γ r2 βΓ + (16π)Γ 768π 2 β 2 − 176dπr2 Γ − 15d2 r4 Γ2 − 128dπ 2 r2 3 (16π)Γ

Γ
Γ 
+321+4Γ π Γ β + 3 (16π)Γ β 2 + 6 24ab − c − dr2 αΓ + 24ab − c − dr2 αΓΓ − c2

2Γ 2
−65536π 4 24ab − c − dr2 α + 727+8Γ d3 π 1+2Γ r6 (1 + β)Γ − 55256Γ d4 π 2Γ r8 Γ2

Γ
+25+4Γ b2 π Γ r2 −2048π 3 24ab − c − dr2 α(8 + 9β) + 23+4Γ d2 π 1+Γ r4 (19 + 18β)Γ

Γ
−45d3 (16π)Γ r6 Γ2 + 64dπ 2 r2 17 (16π)Γ + 21+4Γ π Γ β(16 + 9β) − 18 24ab − c − dr2


Γ
αΓ(−2 + Γ) + 213+4Γ dπ 3+Γ r2 24ab − c − dr2 α(1 + β)(4 + Γ) − 329+4Γ d2 π 2+Γ r4
  
1+4Γ Γ 2 2 Γ
− 2cr2 3211+8Γ b4 dπ 1+2Γ r4 (8π


× 2 π (1 + β) + 24ab − c − dr αΓ(4 + Γ)

2Γ 2
+dr2 Γ − 8b2 −196608π 4 24ab − c − dr2 α − 32561+Γ d3 π 1+2Γ r6 (1 + β)Γ + 75

Γ 4 2Γ 8 2 3 2

 1+4Γ Γ
2 Γ


×256 d π r Γ − 4096dπ r 24ab − c − dr α 2 π −5 + 3β(−2 + Γ) + 5
  
Γ 2 2+Γ 4 1+4Γ Γ Γ 2 Γ


× (16π) Γ + d (16π) r −2 π + (16π) β + 18 24ab − c − dr αΓ
 
Γ
+ dr −3163+2Γ b4 dπ 1+2Γ r4 8π + dr2 Γ + d 256π 2 24ab − c − dr2 α − d (16π)1+Γ
4


r2 (1 + β) + d2 (16π)Γ r4 Γ −3d (16π)1+Γ r2 (1 + β) + 5d2 (16π)Γ r4 Γ + 256π 2 (24ab

Γ  
−c − dr2 α(1 + 2Γ) + 16b2 −21d3 (16π)1+2Γ r6 (1 + β)Γ + 21256Γ d4 π 2Γ r8 Γ2

2Γ 2
Γ
+ 196608π 4 24ab − c − dr2 α (−1 + Γ) − 211+4Γ dπ 3+Γ r2 24ab − c − dr2 α
 
−4 + 9Γ + Γ2 + 6β (−1 + 2Γ) ) + 327+4Γ d2 π 2+Γ r4 (16π)Γ + 21+4Γ π Γ β (2 + β)
  
2 Γ
16a b −9 · 256Γ c5 π 2Γ Γ2 + c4 Γ 7 · 25+8Γ π 1+2Γ
2


+2 24ab − c − dr αΓ (2 + 3Γ)
 
1+2Γ Γ 2 2Γ 2 1+4Γ 3 Γ
+15(16π) β + 15 · 256 (36b − 5d)π r Γ − 2 c π 27+4Γ π 2+Γ (5 + 11β)
+1536π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ + 43+2Γ π 1+Γ r2 −d(11 + 12β) + b2 (78 + 90β) Γ − 45

3+4Γ 2 Γ 4 2 Γ 2 2 2 4 2

 
×2 b dπ r Γ + 3(16π) 256π β + 35d r Γ + c −196608π 4 (24ab − c − dr2 )2Γ
α2 + 3 · 25+8Γ d3 π 1+2Γ r6 (25 + 28β)Γ − 165 · 256Γ d4 π 2Γ r8 Γ2 + 3 · 161+Γ b2 π Γ r2 −2048π 3
 
×(24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α(7 + 9β) + 16d2 πr4 5 · 21+4Γ π Γ + 9(16π)Γ β Γ − 45d3 (16π)Γ r6
58
  
2 2 2 Γ 2 1+4Γ Γ 2 Γ
Γ + 128dπ r 9(16π) β + 2 π (4 + 7β) − 9(24ab − c − dr ) αΓ(−2 + Γ)

13+4Γ 3+Γ 2 2 Γ 2 2+Γ 4
r 65(16π)Γ


+2 dπ r (24ab − c − dr ) α 11 + 2Γ + 3β(4 + Γ) − d (16π)

×β + 21+4Γ π Γ (13 + 18β 2 ) + 18(24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ(4 + Γ) + c2 4096π 3 (24ab − c
 
−dr2 )Γ α 23+4Γ π Γ + 9(16π)Γ β + d2 (16π)1+2Γ r4 (179 + 198β) Γ − 135 · 21+8Γ d3 π 2Γ

× r6 Γ2 + 923+4Γ b2 π Γ r2 29+4Γ π 2+Γ + 1536π 2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ − 25+4Γ dπ 1+Γ r2 (5

 
+6β)Γ + (16π)Γ 256π 2 β(5 + 3β) − 15d2 r4 Γ2 − 27+4Γ dπ 2+Γ r2 41(16π)Γ + 21+4Γ
 
π β(49 + 27β) + 18(24ab − c − dr ) αΓ(6 + Γ) + r 9 · 45+4Γ b4 dπ 1+2Γ r4 (8π + dr2
Γ 2 Γ 2


×Γ) − 12b2 −196608π 4 (24ab − c − dr2 )2Γ α2 − 3 · 2561+Γ d3 π 1+2Γ r6 (1 + β)Γ + 75
× 256Γ d4 π 2Γ r8 Γ2 − 213+4Γ dπ 3+Γ r2 (24ab − c − dr2 )Γ α (2 + 3β) (−2 + Γ) + 29+4Γ d2
  
π 2+Γ r4 −21+4Γ π Γ + (16π)Γ β + 9(24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ − d −3d3 (16π)1+2Γ r6 (15
+17β)Γ + 39 · 256Γ d4 π 2Γ r8 Γ2 + 196608π 4 (24ab − c − dr2 )2Γ α2 (1 + Γ) + 211+4Γ dπ 3+Γ

r2 (24 × ab − c − dr2 )Γ α −28 − 9Γ + Γ2 − 6β(5 + 2Γ) + 3 · 27+4Γ d2 π 2+Γ r4 7(16π)Γ


#

+21+4Γ × π Γ β(9 + 5β) + 2(24ab − c − dr2 )Γ αΓ(10 + 3Γ)

(A.2)

59