German Road and Transport Research Association

Working Group Traffic Management

Guidelines for Traffic Signals R1

RiLSA
Traffic Lights for Road Traffic

Edition 2015
Translation 2021
© 2015/2021 German Road and Transport Research Association (FGSV), Cologne
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German Road and Transport Research Association

Working Group Traffic Management

Guidelines for Traffic Signals R1

RiLSA
Traffic Lights for Road Traffic

Edition 2015
Translation 2021
 Working group: Traffic management
Committee: Urban Traffic Control

Chairman:
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Bernhard Friedrich, Braunschweig
Members:
Dipl.-Ing. Joachim Bielefeld, Frankfurt/Main RBmstr. Dipl.-Ing. Wolfgang Legath, Nuremberg
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Manfred Boltze, Darmstadt Dr.-Ing. Nicola Lehnhoff, Hanover
Dipl.-Ing. Christian Book, Hamburg Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Reinhold Maier, Dresden
Dipl.-Ing. Alfred Brdlik, Hockenheim Dr. rer. nat. Paul Mathias, Aachen
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Wolfgang Gaeltzner, Magdeburg Dipl.-Ing. Jürgen Mück, Munich
Dr.-Ing. Stefan Grahl, Dresden Dipl.-Ing. Jörg Ortlepp, Berlin
Dr.-Ing. Peter Häckelmann, Ottweiler Dipl.-Ing. Klaus Pohl, Dresden
Dr.-Ing. Jürgen Harders, Neuss Dr.-Ing. Christian Priemer, Hamburg
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Birgit Hartz, Münster Dipl.-Ing. Bernd Reich, Gröbenzell
Dr.-Ing. Torsten Heine-Nims, Stuttgart Dipl.-Ing. Susanne Rosenstein, Cologne
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Günther Heinz, Wiesbaden Dipl.-Ing. Wolfram Schlothauer, Berlin
Dipl.-Ing. Paul Hoffmann, Luxembourg (L) Dipl.-Ing. Manfred Schmidt, Hanover
Dr. Dipl.-Ing. Winfried Höpfl, Graz-Puntigam (A) Dipl.-Ing. Rolf-Roland Scholze, Leipzig
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Robert Hoyer, Kassel Dipl.-Ing. Ulrich Schöttler, Frankfurt/Main
Dipl.-Ing. Michael Jonas, Munich TRDir. Dr.-Ing. Ralph Stöckert, Bonn
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Rolf Heinz Karajan, Stuttgart † Dipl.-Ing. Tobias Teichner, Cologne
Dipl.-Ing. Frank Kirmse, Dresden Dr.-Ing. Reinhard Unkhoff, Stuttgart
Dr.-Ing. Bernhard Külzer, Wiesbaden Dipl.-Math. Florian Weichenmeier, Karlsruhe
Dipl.-Geophys. Jörg Lange, Berlin

Task group: Current issues in signal control

Chairman:
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Rolf Heinz Karajan, Stuttgart †
Members:
Dipl.-Ing. Christian Book, Hamburg Dipl.-Ing. Wolfgang Höger, Berlin
Dipl.-Ing. Alfred Brdlik, Hockenheim Dipl.-Ing. Michael Jonas, Munich
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Wolfgang Gaeltzner, Magdeburg Dipl.-Ing. Bernd Schneider, Munich
Dr.-Ing. Peter Häckelmann, Ottweiler Dipl.-Ing. Ulrich Schöttler, Frankfurt/Main
Dr.-Ing. Jürgen Harders, Neuss Dipl.-Ing. Marcel Schreiber, Berlin
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Birgit Hartz, Münster Dipl.-Ing. Markus Sonnenschein, Dortmund
Dr.-Ing. Torsten Heine-Nims, Stuttgart Dipl.-Ing. Tobias Teichner, Cologne
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Günther Heinz, Wiesbaden

Preliminary remark
The edition 2015 of the "Guidelines for Traffic Signals" (RiLSA) supersedes the edition 2010. The translation 2021
­supersedes the translation 2003.
 Contents

Page

1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Criteria for the use of traffic signals and the effects that can be
achieved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.1 Road safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.2 Traffic flow quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.3 Fuel consumption and emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.4 Balancing of conflicting aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Principles of the Road Traffic Regulations and responsibilities of
the organisations involved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Traffic signals and signal sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 Signal program design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Documents and preliminary ­investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Signal program structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.1 Signal staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.1.1 General considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.1.2 Left-turning vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.1.3 Right-turning vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.1.4 Trams and buses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.1.5 Pedestrian traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.1.6 Cycle traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.2 Number of stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.3 Stage sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.4 Interstage periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 Transition periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5 Intergreen periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5.1 Calculation of clearance and approach ­distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5.2 Pass-through times and clearance times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5.3 Approach times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5.4 Checking of intergreen periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.6 Cycle time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.7 Green periods and red periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.7.1 Calculation of green periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.7.2 Return to the same stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.7.3 Maximum and minimum red periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.7.4 Minimum green periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.7.5 Head start in the conflict area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.7.6 Delayed start to the green period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.8 Signal timing plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3
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3 Interrelationships between traffic signal control and
the design of road facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.1 Straight-ahead lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.2 Left-turn lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.3 Right-turn lanes and right-turn slip lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.4 Partial public transport lanes on approaches to intersections . . . . 30
3.2.5 U-turn lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3 Management of cycle traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.4 Central reservations and traffic islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.5 Crossing facilities over track beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.6 Crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.7 Public transport stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.8 Road equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.8.1 Stop lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.8.2 Lane lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.8.3 Signage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4 Control methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.1 Overview of control methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.2 Control parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2.1 Overview of the parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2.2 Capture and processing of the parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2.2.1 Vehicle-actuated signal program selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2.2.2 Request for a green period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2.2.3 Use of intervals between vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.2.2.4 Use of the occupancy rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2.2.5 Use of congestion and congestion length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.3 Notes on using the control methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3.1 Signal program selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3.1.1 Framework conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3.1.2 Time-dependent selection of signal programs . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3.1.3 Vehicle-actuated selection of signal programs . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3.2 Formation of framework signal programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3.3 Fixed-time signal programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3.4 Signal program adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3.4.1 Green period adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3.4.2 Stage switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3.4.3 Stage requesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3.4.4 Time offset adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3.5 Signal program formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.4 Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.4.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.4.2 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4.3 Coordination at intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4.4 Coordination on sections of road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4.4.1 Structural prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4.4.2 Traffic control conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.4.4.3 Inclusion of public transport vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.4.4.4 Inclusion of cyclists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.4.5 Coordination in transport networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

4
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4.5 Planning of the control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.5.1 Rule-based implementation of the control methods . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.5.2 Standardised rule-based implementation of the control methods . 45
4.5.3 Model-based implementation of the control methods . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.5.4 Switchover methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.5.4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.5.4.2 Switchover at a specified time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.5.4.3 Switchover on the basis of shortening/lengthening . . . . . 47
4.5.4.4 Switchover without a specified switchover time . . . . . . . . 47
4.5.5 Testing the control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

5 Special forms of signalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5.1 Partially signalised intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1.2 Suitable application situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1.3 Situations for partially signalised intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1.3.1 Creation of intervals for vehicles that have to wait . . . . . . 49
5.1.3.2 Expediting and prioritisation of public transport vehicles 50
5.1.3.3 Signal protection of crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.2 Signalisation where a road narrows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2.1 Criteria for use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2.2 Calculation of signal periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2.3 Fixed-time control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.2.4 Vehicle-actuated control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.2.5 Startup programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.2.6 Peculiarities in terms of traffic management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.2.7 Information on the equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.2.8 Markings and signage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3 Lane control signalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3.1.1 Dynamic lane allocation with opposing traffic
(reversible lanes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3.1.2 Dynamic lane allocation without opposing traffic . . . . . . 54
5.3.2 Preliminary investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.3.3 Traffic control requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.3.3.1 General requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.3.3.2 Requirements to be met by stretches of road . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.3.3.3 Requirements to be met by intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.3.3.4 Inclusion of public transport vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.3.3.5 Accompanying measures on stretches of road . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.3.4 Switching of operating statuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.3.5 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.3.6 Operating plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.4 Control of inflow to sections of road with weaving or merging traffic 57
5.4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.4.2 System description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.4.3 Legal aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5
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6 Technical design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.1 Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.2 Signal lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.2.1 Lighting technology regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.2.2 Recognisability of the signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.2.3 Phantom effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.2.4 Size of the signal lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.2.5 Operating voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.2.6 Signal heads for general vehicular traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.2.7 Signal heads for pedestrians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.2.8 Audible and tactile signal indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.2.9 Signal heads for cyclists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.2.10 Signal heads for public transport vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.11 Supplementary signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.12 Lane control signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.2.13 Speed signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.2.14 Uniform design of the symbols in the signal lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.2.15 Hoods on signal heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.2.15 High-contrast backboards for signal heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.3 Detection equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.4 Number and positioning of signal heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.4.1 Signals at intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.4.2 Lane control signalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.5 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

7 Technical acceptance and operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

7.1 Preliminary remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.2 Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.3 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.3.1 Operating statuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.3.2 Switching traffic signals on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.3.3 Switching traffic signals off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.3.4 Signal safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.3.4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.3.4.2 Failure of a red signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.3.4.3 Signal period violation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.3.4.4 Invalid signal status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.3.5 Operations monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.4 Alternative measures in the event of service interruptions . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.4.1 Traffic control by the police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.4.2 Traffic control through road signs and traffic-organising
measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.4.3 Alternative form of signal control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

6
 Page
8 Quality management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.2 Objectives of quality management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.3 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.4 Quality management in traffic control planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.5 Quality management at implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.6 Quality management in operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.6.1 Transport network-related overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.6.2 Quality analysis at intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.6.3 Quality improvement measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

9 Standards and technical regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

7
 1 Fundamentals

1.1 General The different design components of the road facility, such
as the subdivision of the approaches to the intersection
Traffic signals are installed in order to improve road safety into lanes, the management of pedestrians and cyclists and
and traffic flow. the signalisation of the different traffic streams, must be
Signal control plays a critical role in how traffic develops coordinated in order to ensure safe traffic flow in all oper-
in transport networks, on stretches of road and at intersec- ating conditions and regardless of the stresses to which the
tions. It is thus an important tool in a comprehensive traf- facility is subjected.
fic management plan, in which measures to reduce pub-
lic transport journey times, manage pedestrian and cycle 1.2 Criteria for the use of traffic signals and
traffic safely and concentrate streams of vehicular traffic the effects that can be achieved
on certain routes all intermesh. Signal control is an impor-
tant and dynamic component of the traffic management 1.2.1 Road safety
toolkit. It makes sense to install traffic signals in locations where
Because traffic signals intervene directly in the traffic flow, accidents are to be expected or where accidents have oc-
alternately stopping traffic streams that share conflict ar- curred that could have been avoided through signal con-
eas and giving them right of way, particular care must be trol, and where other measures (e.g. speed limits, overtak-
taken when designing, building and operating them. ing bans or crossing facilities with structural features for
cyclists and pedestrians) have proved to be ineffective or
In some cases, the desired aims can be achieved without do not promise to be successful. Good indicators of this
introducing full signalisation for all traffic streams, pro- are:
vided the required level of road safety can still be ensured. – a cluster of right-of-way accidents (where right of way
This constitutes less of an intervention into natural traf- is violated)
fic flows and is also less costly. At the same time, traf-
fic signals are going to become increasingly important as • as a result of a large volume of traffic or excessive
a means of reducing environmental pollution in parts of speeds on the primary road;
transport networks and on sections of road. • as a result of inadequate visibility at the intersection
These guidelines incorporate fundamental traffic control or a lack of clarity as to who has right of way; or
provisions and recommendations for setting up and oper- • as a result of insufficient capacity;
ating traffic signals, and they reflect the state of the art at
– a cluster of accidents involving collisions between
the time of publication.
left-turning vehicles and opposing traffic; or
The users of these guidelines are expected to adhere to – a cluster of accidents involving collisions between mo-
the fundamental principles outlined in them in order to tor vehicles and cyclists or pedestrians crossing the
implement the standardisation that is widely envisaged. road.
However, since not all the issues that occur in practice can
be addressed in full by a set of guidelines, and since tech- If particularly vulnerable people (e.g. elderly people, dis-
nical progress and specific local factors also have to be abled people and children) who cross a road regularly at
taken into account, as appropriate, experts can use their a particular point are endangered, and it is not possible to
discretion and deviate from these established principles if cross safely within a reasonable distance of this point, a
they have justification for doing so in particular cases. The signal-controlled crossing should be installed, regardless
guidelines thus contain recommendations and suggestions of the number of vulnerable people or the accident situ-
covering a range of issues and provide a framework within ation, in cases where there is no other way of protecting
which experts can exercise their professional judgement. these people.
In addition to these guidelines, it is also necessary to take Outside of built-up areas, at-grade intersections on roads
into account related legislation, regulations and guidelines with four or more straight-ahead lanes must have traffic
(see chapter 9), to which reference is made at the appropri- signals.
ate points in this document.
The particular requirements of police vehicles, ambulanc-
The planning of a traffic signal scheme involves the design es and other emergency vehicles may also make it neces-
of the whole road facility, the design and development of sary to have traffic signals.
the signal program and a description of the signal control
to be put in place and how it is to be linked to the signal Particular attention should be given to the effect of signal
control in other parts of the network. control on road safety and traffic quality during planning,
implementation and operation, taking into account the in-
The design of the road space, the management of traffic formation and recommendations in chapter 8, "Quality
streams and the signalisation form an integrated whole. management".

9
1.2.2 Traffic flow quality When traffic signal schemes are planned, all the key re-
quirements therefore have to be taken into consideration.
Traffic signals can improve traffic flow quality in trans- Good compromises are often possible thanks to suitable
port networks, on stretches of road and at intersections. combinations of measures that address all the conflicting
In many cases, construction work on road facilities can be aims.
avoided by installing traffic signals.
The quality of the traffic flow of public transport vehicles 1.3 Principles of the Road Traffic Regula-
and non-motorised groups of road users can also be de-
tions and responsibilities of the organi-
cisively improved by means of suitable measures to give
them priority. sations involved
Traffic signals are traffic control devices, as defined by
Traffic signals can also be used to put the desired form of
section 43, paragraph 1 of the German Road Traffic Reg-
traffic management in place in transport networks.
ulations (StVO). The use of traffic signals in general and
Traffic signals can be installed with the aim of controlling the associated signal programs in particular must be con-
inflow in order to: sistent with these regulations. It is the responsibility of the
road traffic authority in a given location to ensure this. The
– prevent sections of road or parts of the network from authority can only have traffic signals installed where the
becoming overloaded; particular circumstances in a location make it imperative
– allow public transport vehicles to have priority on (section 45, paragraph 9 of the German Road Traffic Reg-
stretches of road; and ulations (StVO)). The principles governing the form taken
– keep sections of road where there are high levels of by traffic signals are derived from section 37 of the Ger-
non-traffic-related activity free of congestion. man Road Traffic Regulations (StVO) and the associated
General Administrative Regulations (VwV-StVO).
On busy motorways or motorway-like roads, traffic sig-
nals on entry slip roads can prevent the motorway from In zones with a speed limit of 30km/h, it is not permissi-
becoming overloaded. Similarly, the length of tailbacks on ble to install traffic signals to control the traffic at inter-
exit slip roads can be controlled by traffic signals (storage sections of any kind (section 45, paragraph 1c, sentence 3
area monitoring) to prevent tailbacks onto the motorway of the German Road Traffic Regulations (StVO)). On the
that could pose a danger to traffic. other hand, traffic signals installed for the safety of pedes-
trians in 30km/h zones created before 1 November 2000
On roads with very different and variable volumes of traf- continue to be permissible (section 45, paragraph 1c, sen-
fic in both directions, it can be advisable to use lane con- tence 5 of the German Road Traffic Regulations (StVO)).
trol signals to allocate more lanes to one direction than As far as pedestrian signals are concerned, the German
the other. Guidelines for the Installation and Equipment of Pedestri-
an Crossings (R-FGÜ) specify where these are to be used.
1.2.3 Fuel consumption and emissions Before taking a decision, the road traffic authority must
All measures that keep traffic flowing at a steady speed consult the road building authority and the police. The
around the level of the speed limit reduce fuel consump- costs are borne as described in section 5b, paragraph 1 of
tion and noise and pollutant emissions. Fuel consumption the German Road Traffic Act (StVG) and tie in with how
and emissions can also be reduced by minimising stopping the costs of road building, maintenance and operation are
and starting, by allowing vehicles to pass smoothly across borne generally.
multiple intersections and by influencing the routes taken. The procurement, installation, maintenance and removal
This is important particularly on stretches of road where of traffic signals is the responsibility of the authorities re-
the areas at the side of the road are used intensively and sponsible for bearing the costs of road building, mainte-
there are high volumes of pedestrians and cyclists. Signal nance and operation (section 45, paragraph 5 of the Ger-
programs that adapt to fluctuations in the traffic flow also man Road Traffic Regulations (StVO)).
help to reduce fuel consumption and emissions.
1.4 Traffic signals and signal sequences
1.2.4 Balancing of conflicting aims
Traffic signals are defined in section 37 of the German
The aims of signal control are determined primarily by Road Traffic Regulations (StVO). Signals that control the
the needs, interests and demands of the relevant authori- traffic flow at intersections and in other locations on roads
ties, road user groups, operators and affected residents and may also be referred to as traffic light signals.
business owners. Everyone wants the traffic to flow well
Descriptions of the signal lamps and their design that go
so that people can get to their destination safely and quick-
beyond the information contained in this section can be
ly, but the justifiable expectations of the different groups
found in chapter 6, "Technical design".
involved often cannot all be met at the same time. There
can also be conflicts between the desired effects: a high Traffic signals for motor vehicles have the signal sequence
level of road safety, good traffic flow, priority for public GREEN – AMBER – RED – RED/AMBER – GREEN.
transport vehicles, low fuel consumption and as little envi- For traffic signals that are only put into operation at fairly
ronmental pollution as possible from emissions. lengthy intervals, or where traffic signals are positioned in

10
rapid succession and there is a risk of confusion, the sig- The following signal sequences exist: STOP – GO (or
nal sequence BLACKOUT – AMBER – RED – BLACK- PERMISSIVE) – STOP and STOP – GO (or PERMIS-
OUT is also permitted. For left-turning vehicles, a green SIVE) – STOP SIGNAL IMMINENT – STOP.
arrow may appear on the left on the far side of the in-
Other BOStrab signals are primarily for operational con-
tersection (diagonal green) when all conflicting traffic
trol purposes. One of these is the door-closing signal, for
streams are stopped by a red light. The signal sequence
example.
is then BLACKOUT – GREEN – BLACKOUT. Two-as-
pect signal heads with the signal sequence BLACKOUT If lanes for general vehicular traffic cross a public trans-
– GREEN – AMBER – BLACKOUT are generally used port lane at the side or in the middle of the road away
to provide an additional green period for vehicles turning from intersections, or if a tram leaves a segregated track
right. In certain cases, it may be sufficient to use a sin- bed where different types of road space cross (e.g. at level
gle-aspect signal head with a green arrow. Vehicle signals crossings or by turning areas or depot access points), this
are also applicable to all other road users obliged to use the can be controlled by two-aspect signal heads for the road
carriageway unless there are dedicated signals for them. traffic with the signal sequence BLACKOUT – AMBER –
Green arrows cannot be displayed on signal heads unless RED – BLACKOUT and by BOStrab signals for the pub-
all conflicting traffic streams or permitted turning streams lic transport vehicles. The two-aspect signal head does not
are stopped by a red signal. have to be part of an overall signalisation system.
Trams and light rail vehicles covered by the German Tram Light signals for pedestrians have the signal sequence
Construction and Operations Ordinance (BOStrab) should GREEN – RED – GREEN.
be controlled by the signals described there. These signals Three-aspect signal heads for cyclists have the signal se-
can also be used for buses that use a part of the road space quence GREEN – AMBER – RED – RED/AMBER –
that is kept free of other traffic. GREEN.
A horizontal white bar indicates that these vehicles must A flashing amber light can be used to warn about danger
stop; a vertical white bar or a diagonal white bar rising to in accordance with StVO section 38. The possible symbols
the right or left gives them right of way provided there are are shown in figure 56.
no other traffic streams with priority that also have right of
way; and a white triangle with its tip pointing down indi- Lane control signals are special light signals that appear
cates that they have right of way while taking into account continuously above the lanes of a carriageway. They indi-
traffic streams that have priority (permissive signal). cate either that a lane can be used (green arrow pointing
down) or that it cannot be used (diagonal red cross). An
A transition period is indicated by a white dot, which amber arrow pointing down diagonally is used as a tran-
means "stop signal imminent". sition signal.

11
 2 Signal program design

2.1 Definitions 2.2 Documents and preliminary

A signal program describes the duration of the signal pe- ­investigations
riods and the staging arrangements at a set of traffic sig- A site plan (on a scale of 1:200 to 1:500) showing the
nals. site's key features to scale (e.g. the borders of the car-
The design of a signal program involves a series of mutu- riageways, pedestrian and cycle facilities, buildings, ac-
ally dependent steps. The documents and work steps re- cess to properties, trees, masts, hydrants, ducting, switch
quired for this are described in the following sections us- cabinets, gradients, signage, markings and traffic control
ing the example of an intersection. equipment) is fundamental to the development of a signal
program. The details of the site plan must be checked dur-
A signal group refers to one or more signal heads that ing a site inspection.
control specific traffic streams and show the same signal
at any given time. The site plan forms the basis for the subsequent creation of
the signal site plan (see figure 1).
A stage is that part of a signal program during which a
given signalisation status remains unchanged. The green The traffic loads must be known so that the traffic control
periods for the traffic streams that have right of way can method can be selected, the signal programs designed and
begin or end at different points in time. the traffic flow checked. The German Highway Capaci-
ty Manual (Handbuch für die Bemessung von Straßenver-
kehrsanlagen – HBS) describes how the data should be
compiled.

zullimit
Speed V ==50 km/h
50km/h
slg==-–3%
3%

zullimit
Speed V ==50 km/h
50km/h
slg==-–0,5%
0,5 %

Veh6b
K6b
Veh6a
K6a
bahyt
F7b
Ped7b Paarkrkinbguc
P
Controller
STG Ped7a
F7a
Veh1a
K1a
K7Z
Veh7Z F1a
Ped1a

..... K1b
Veh1b
. . . . . .. . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .. .. .. .. ....... .. .. .. ....... .. .. ....... .. .. .. .. . . . . . .
.. . . .. .
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . F6b
Ped6b
. .. .. .. ....... .. .. .. ....... .. .. ....... .. .. .. .. . . . . . . K2a
Veh2a
. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . . . .
....

Veh5b
K5b Ped1b
F1b
K2b
Veh2b

Ped6a
F6a
F2
Ped2
Veh5a
K5a F3a
Ped3a
R1
Cyc1 Ped3b
F3b K3a
Veh3a
R

Ped4
F4
K4b
Veh4b K3b
Veh3b

F5b
Ped5b N
F5a
Ped5a
Veh4a
K4a

zul V =limit
Speed 50=km/h
50km/h
s = +lg 0,5 %
= +0.5%
0 1 2 3 4 5 10 m

Kraftfahrzeugsignalgeber
Vehicle signal head
Richtungssignalgeber
Turn signal head
Parkbuc bay
ht

Fußgängersignalgeber
Pedestrian signal head
Parking

R Cycle signal head

Radfahrersignalgeber zul V =limit
50=km/h
Speed 50km/h
Steuergerät
Controller s = +lg3= %
+3%

Figure 1: Example of a signal site plan

12
The traffic densities must be separated by directions of green period for left-turning vehicles (i.e. they are given a
travel and vehicle types, and the lane utilisation must be head start), and they are notified by an additional signal (a
known. If there are multiple lanes available for a given flashing amber light) that traffic streams with priority have
direction of travel, and the lane utilisation is not known, been given right of way by a green light.
equal distribution of the traffic density across all the rel-
evant lanes can be assumed in order to obtain an approx- If a traffic stream is given right of way by a green direc-
imation. tion arrow, all other traffic streams that share conflict ar-
eas with it must be stopped. The same applies to a green
There must be an overview plan to show the location of double-headed arrow.
the intersection in relation to the transport networks as a
whole and the location of nearby sets of traffic signals. If not all lanes of an approach at an intersection are giv-
Documents describing the control of these traffic signals en right of way at the same time, there must be direction
may also be required. arrows on the signal lamps unless the lanes for travel in
different directions are segregated in such a way that there
Plans for the surrounding area, such as the arrangements can be no doubt about the direction of travel to which the
for cycle traffic and land usage, which allow conclusions signal applies.
to be drawn about the numbers of vulnerable road users
(e.g. schoolchildren or people with impaired mobility) and If a turning-off vehicle stream in a turning-off lane on an
the routes they take, are also relevant. approach to an intersection has signal lamps with direc-
tion arrows, the other lanes on this approach do not need
The results of accident investigations produced in ac- to have direction arrows on their signal lamps.
cordance with the FGSV's Information Sheet on Local
If all the traffic on an approach to an intersection with mul-
Traffic Accident Evaluation in Traffic Accident Commit-
tiple lanes goes right or left in a single direction (sign 209
tees (M Nko) should be used, in particular, when redesign-
in the German Road Traffic Regulations – StVO), traffic
ing existing sets of traffic signals.
streams running parallel to the approach (e.g. pedestrians
and cyclists) must not be treated as permitted movements.
2.3 Signal program structure
2.3.1.2 Left-turning vehicles
2.3.1 Signal staging
A protected left-turn signal is desirable for road safety
2.3.1.1 General considerations reasons, particularly outside built-up areas, and becomes
For the purpose of signal staging, distinctions have to be all the more urgent:
drawn between conflicting, non-conflicting and permit- – the faster the vehicles in the opposing stream of traffic
ted turning traffic streams. Non-conflicting traffic streams are travelling;
have no shared conflict areas and can be grouped together
– the faster the left-turning vehicles are able to complete
in a single stage. Conflicting traffic streams have a shared
their manoeuvre;
conflict area and have to be given right of way by a green
signal at different times. – the greater the volume of traffic in the left-turning
stream or in a conflicting traffic stream that it has to
Turning-off streams that have shared conflict areas with cross;
opposing traffic or with concurrent movements of pedes-
trian or cycle traffic can be given right of way together – the poorer the visibility of streams that constitute per-
with them as permitted turning streams, provided the pri- mitted movements; and
ority rules described in the German Road Traffic Regula- – the more potential conflicts of which left-turning driv-
tions (StVO) are observed. ers have to be aware (e.g. trams and multi-lane oppos-
ing traffic; or multi-lane opposing traffic, opposing
The allocation of traffic streams to lanes has an impact on right-turning traffic and parallel streams of pedestrians
signal staging. and cyclists who also have right of way).
Separate signalisation of turning-off traffic generally re- If two or more lanes are made available to left-turning ve-
quires a separate lane with direction arrows. hicles on an approach to an intersection, they must have a
protected signal.
Streams of vehicles going in different directions can only
be given a green light at different times – in other words, in Signal protection of left-turning vehicles where left-turn-
different stages – if they are separated into different lanes ing vehicles get an early start (i.e. their green period starts
(e.g. vehicles going straight ahead and vehicles turning off before that of the opposing traffic), or where there is an
in their own dedicated lanes). early cut-off of the opposing traffic's green period, allows
left-turning vehicles to proceed unimpeded by the oppos-
A traffic stream with priority cannot be added to a stage ing traffic.
in which it will conflict with a permitted turning stream
that is already under way. For example, pedestrians can- Early cut-off periods can be of any length and are unprob-
not be added to a stage in which a conflicting permitted lematic. To enable left-turning drivers to notice quickly
turning-off movement is already in progress. An excep- that opposing traffic has been stopped, it is advisable to
tion to this can be made, however, when there is a leading indicate the early cut-off by a single-aspect signal head

13
(diagonal green) on the far side of the intersection. How- At intersections with right-turn lanes, it is possible to in-
ever, a two-aspect signal head is also permissible with a clude an additional green period for right-turning vehicles
flashing amber arrow symbol above the diagonal green. in the signal program. This is generally done by means of a
This warns drivers that opposing traffic is cleared to go. two-aspect signal head with the signal sequence BLACK-
OUT – GREEN – AMBER – BLACKOUT (see figure 67).
A two-aspect signal head must always be in place for early
starts. When the diagonal green signal goes out, the flash- The start and end times of the additional green period must
ing amber arrow symbol warns the left-turning drivers that be calculated taking into account the green periods of the
the vehicles in the opposing traffic stream are moving off conflicting traffic streams before and after it.
and that adjacent cycle traffic and pedestrians also have If this period is added to the main stage by means of an ear-
clearance to cross. ly start or an early cut-off, the right-turning drivers gener-
If an early start or early cut-off is indicated to the left-turn- ally experience short interruptions in the green period. In
ing drivers by a single- or two-aspect signal head, the start the case of an early start, an intergreen period is required
and end times set for the green arrow depend on the inter- between clearing right-turners and the pedestrians or cy-
green period calculated for the vehicles in the opposing clists, who have a head start and reach the conflict area
traffic stream and the adjacent cyclists and pedestrians. If before the right-turning vehicles given right of way in the
there is any chance of the left-turning diagonal green sig- general green period. In the case of an early cut-off for the
nal being confused with the signal for the other lanes on opposing traffic stream, an intergreen period is required
the approach, the green period of the arrow must be within between opposing left-turning vehicles clearing the inter-
the green period for vehicles in the other lanes of the ap- section and the right-turning vehicles that are then given
proach. clearance to go by a turn signal (see sections 2.7.5 and
2.7.6). Interruptions do not occur in the case of an early
Left-turning movements should not be unprotected start if there is no priority pedestrian crossing or in the
by signals unless the traffic density of at least one of the case of an early cut-off if there are no opposing left-turn-
two vehicle streams is low. The left-turning vehicles in ing vehicles. In these cases, the display of the green arrow
the queue must be given enough time to clear the conflict follows on immediately from the green period for the ap-
area before the next traffic streams to receive a green sig- proach as a whole. A single-aspect signal head with the
nal arrive in it. signal sequence BLACKOUT – GREEN – BLACKOUT
is sufficient for this purpose.
If it is not sufficiently clear to left-turning drivers that
they are obliged to wait to allow pedestrians and cyclists If right-turning vehicles at approaches to intersections
to cross, a supplementary signal should be installed at with segregating triangular islands use a right-turn slip
the crossing facility with a light that continues to flash lane, this lane does not have to be signalised, in which case
throughout the clearance time for the pedestrians and cy- they are obliged to wait for a gap in the traffic before en-
clists. tering the intersecting road, which is indicated by sign 205
or 206 of the German Road Traffic Regulations (StVO). To
2.3.1.3 Right-turning vehicles improve their awareness of the right-of-way arrangement
and crossing pedestrians and cyclists, a single-aspect sup-
On approaches without a triangular island, right-turn- plementary signal (a flashing amber light) may be used.
ing traffic does not normally need signal control by means
of turn signals. Turn signals should be considered if there If signs and road markings are not enough to ensure that
are heavy parallel streams of traffic at the side of the road pedestrians and cyclists can cross the right-turn slip lane
(e.g. pedestrians, cyclists, buses or trams), or if they sig- safely, a signal-controlled crossing can be put in place
nificantly improve the signal staging arrangements at the with the signal sequence BLACKOUT – AMBER – RED
intersection. – BLACKOUT for vehicular traffic. The signalisation of
the crossing can be independent of that of the rest of the in-
If turn signals are not used, a single-aspect warning sig- tersection (for example, depending also on the traffic and
nal (flashing amber light) can be used to warn drivers of pedestrians' demands).
potential conflicts with adjacent streams of pedestrians
and cyclists whenever it is not clear that the drivers are In this case, it is also possible to draw attention to the right-
obliged to wait for them to cross. This supplementary sig- of-way arrangement by means of a supplementary signal.
nal should be positioned right by the pedestrian or cyclist If space is limited, the supplementary signal can be com-
crossing. The flashing amber light must continue to flash bined with the signal head at the pedestrian crossing.
throughout the clearance period for the pedestrians or cy- Separate signalisation for right-turning vehicles by means
clists. of three-aspect signal heads is a requirement if:
The supplementary signal may also be used if there are – there are two lanes turning off;
unusual circumstances at the intersection (for example, a – vehicles turn off at speed due to the generous propor-
particularly long distance between the stop line and the tions of the carriageway;
crossing to be crossed), and consequently the right-turn-
ing drivers no longer anticipate coming across crossing – visibility is poor; or
pedestrians or cyclists. It should be used if the crossing – there are significant streams of pedestrian and cycle
to be crossed does not have a green period in every cycle. traffic to be crossed.

14
The signal staging must ensure that there can be no oppos- no danger of the signals being confused with those aimed
ing left-turning vehicles at the end of the right-turn slip at general vehicular traffic.
lane during the green period for right-turning vehicles.
When a white bar signal is used for public transport vehi-
A green arrow sign (green arrow on a black background) cles that are turning off, a special stage with the necessary
at an intersection with traffic signals means you can turn intergreen periods is generally required. This can result in
right when there is a red light provided you have first come very short green periods and, consequently, long waiting
to a halt at the stop line and, by doing so, you are not im- times for vehicular traffic.
peding or endangering any traffic streams in their green
period. Where a permissive signal is used and the opposing traf-
fic is not too heavy, public transport vehicles can use part
The option of turning right at RED means: of the general green period to turn off in many cases, thus
– waiting times for right-turning vehicles are reduced; reducing waiting times. Longer clearance times for pub-
lic transport vehicles may have to be taken into account
– the capacity for right-turning vehicles is increased; and
when setting the time for the end of the permissive signal
– only short storage spaces are required for right-turning (see figure 4). Particularly when traffic streams involved
vehicles. in permitted movements are very heavy, road safety con-
For road safety reasons, the green arrow sign (as specified siderations may restrict the use of the permissive signal.
in the General Administrative Regulations of the Road
Traffic Regulations – VwV-StVO) cannot be used if: 2.3.1.5 Pedestrian traffic
– the opposing traffic is given a conflict-free left-turn sig- Pedestrian signals are generally operated as pushbutton
nal; systems requiring pedestrians to request a green period in
– the opposing left-turning vehicles are given signal pro- order to cross. The waiting time until pedestrian traffic is
tection by means of a diagonal green signal in an early given green should be as short as possible. An informato-
start or early cut-off scenario; ry signal can be displayed to indicate to pedestrians that a
request has been acknowledged.
– arrows in the signal heads for the right-turning vehicles
prescribe the direction of travel; The vehicular traffic signals must be configured so that the
– vehicles have to cross or drive over tracks of rail vehi- vehicle streams that intersect with the pedestrian crossing
cles when turning right; are given RED while pedestrians are crossing. This pre-
vents a situation arising in which pedestrians take their cue
– cycle traffic on the cycle path to be crossed is permit- from the stopping of the vehicular traffic in one direction
ted to travel in both directions, or there is a significant and cross the carriageway while vehicular traffic in the
volume of traffic in the opposite direction despite a ban other direction still has a GREEN signal.
on it, and it has not been possible to reduce this volume
sufficiently by means of appropriate measures; On sections of road with a green wave of traffic signals,
– there are multiple marked lanes available for the right the signal programs of the pedestrian signals must be in-
turn; or cluded in this coordinated system. The pedestrians can ei-
ther be taken into account cyclically or, if the volume of
– the primary purpose of the traffic signals is to make the pedestrian traffic is low, cyclically but only on demand.
journey to school safe. If the waiting times in long cycle times are too long, it is
The green arrow sign cannot be used unless there is ad- acceptable to interrupt the green wave in order to keep the
equate visibility of all traffic streams in their green peri- pedestrian traffic flowing. Green periods not required by
od. Visibility must already be good at the stop line of the vehicular traffic can be used to extend the pedestrian green
right-turning vehicles to prevent the drivers from blocking periods.
traffic streams that are in their green period by nudging At pedestrian signals the recommended setting is GREEN
forward to a point where they have a sight line and then for vehicles and RED for pedestrians (see figure 2).
being obliged to stop there.
The green arrow sign arrangement should not be used at This involves a full signal sequence. When a demand is
intersections that are often crossed by blind or partially made for a pedestrian green period, the traffic signals for
sighted people or people with limited mobility. Where vehicular traffic change from GREEN to AMBER and
the green arrow sign arrangement is used exceptionally then RED. At the end of the pedestrian stage, the vehicular
at intersections that are often crossed by blind or partially signals change from RED/AMBER back to the default set-
sighted people, the traffic signals must be equipped with ting (GREEN). If repeated pedestrian demands are made,
audible signals or other suitable additional features. the pedestrians are given a green period, at the earliest, af-
ter the expiry of the intergreen period and a set minimum
2.3.1.4 Trams and buses period, the safety period. This must not be shorter than the
minimum green period for the vehicles.
Trams should generally be controlled by the signals stip-
ulated in the German Tram Construction and Operations Furthermore, at a speed limit of up to 50km/h, a mode can
Ordinance (BOStrab, see section 1.4). It can also be ad- be considered in which the default setting for the signal
visable to use them for buses in stages designed to give heads for all road users is BLACKED OUT (see figure 3).
priority to public transport vehicles, because there is then A sign can be placed on the pedestrian lights to inform pe-

15
destrians that the signals are in operation. Alternatively, it Veh1b Veh1c

is also possible to select a mode in which, in the default Ped1b

setting, the signal heads for vehicular traffic display are
BLACKED OUT, while those for pedestrians are RED. Ped1a

When a demand is made for a pedestrian green period, Veh1a Veh1d

the traffic signals for vehicles change from BLACKED

OUT to AMBER and then RED. At the end of the pedes-
trian green period, the signals revert to the default setting Veh1
(BLACKED OUT). Ped1
tramp
The signalisation of pedestrians and turning-off vehi- tamb tgrn tint
cles can be separate or permissive. 1s
Request
If there are multiple turning-off lanes, adjacent pedestrians
Figure 2: Example of pedestrian signals with a default setting of
must be signalised separately. GREEN for vehicles and RED for pedestrians
Separate signalisation is recommended when:
– the turning-off traffic moves at a relatively high speed
or is heavy or there are a lot of conflict areas;
Veh1c
– the intervisibility between drivers and pedestrians is re-
Ped1b
stricted; Veh1b
Veh1d
– the pedestrian streams are heavy; or Ped1a

Veh1a
– it is difficult for left-turning drivers on roads with
Speed limit ≤ 50km/h
fast-moving traffic to estimate how much time there is
in the gaps between vehicles in the opposing stream. Veh1 Blackout Blackout

Separate signalisation gives full signal protection. Howev- Ped1 Blackout Blackout

er, it leads to longer waiting times for all road users than
5s tgrn tint
when the staging involves permitted streams (permissive 1s
signals). Request

Pedestrian green periods must not be added to an existing Figure 3: Example of pedestrian signals with a default setting of
conflicting permitted traffic stream. If they are, uncertain- BLACKOUT
ties and dangers arise because pedestrians are unable to as-
sert their priority over turning-off vehicles, and turning-off
drivers can be surprised by the unexpected appearance of
pedestrians with priority. Particular attention must be giv-

Veh1

Veh2
Veh2 Tram3
Veh3 Tram3
Veh2
Tram1

Tram2

Tram3
Ped3b

Ped3

a Left turn with bar signal

Ped3a
Veh1/Veh2 Veh3

Veh3

Tram1 Veh1
Tram1
Tram2
Tram2/Tram3

Ped3 Tram2
Tram1 Veh1
Tram2
Tram1 Veh1

b Left turn with permissive signal a b

Figure 4: Left-turning tram with a white bar signal (a) or permissive signal (b)

16
en to this requirement with vehicle-actuated controllers. of the RED signal on the central reservation or traffic is-
In exceptional cases, it is possible to deviate from this re- land can be tempted to violate the RED signal because the
quirement if left-turning vehicles are given an early start. opposing pedestrians have GREEN for longer and are still
crossing. In permissive signalisation, it is also possible
Simultaneous, progressive or separate signalisation may
for right-turning drivers to misinterpret the red pedestrian
be used on roads with central reservations or traffic is-
signal on the central reservation and assert a priority that
lands that have more than one crossing spanning their
they do not have. This must be prevented by obscuring the
width, depending on local circumstances or the demands
pedestrian signal heads from the view of these drivers by
of the traffic.
means of suitable hoods or by optical means or through the
In simultaneous signalisation, the same signal is dis- addition of a flashing supplementary signal.
played at the same time at the roadside and on the traf-
fic island. The pedestrian green periods should be at least Figure 6 shows an example of this form of signalisation
long enough for a pedestrian who starts at the side of the with three groups of signals.
road at the beginning of the green period and crosses the Separate signalisation is an option if the green period of
road at the calculated clearance speed to reach at least the one of the two successive priority pedestrian crossings
middle of the second carriageway before the end of the spanning the road has to start earlier or finish earlier than
green period. that of the other crossing. For the sake of clarity, it may
With this form of signalisation, however, it is unavoidable then make sense to give the two priority crossings a green
that pedestrians who start to cross the road in the second period only when both of them can have a green period at
half of the green period have to wait on the central reser- the same time.
vation or traffic island (see figure 5).
For the following reasons, however, it may be better to
In progressive signalisation, the aim is to prevent pedestri- give the pedestrian traffic an early start on the approach to
ans from having to wait on the central reservation or traffic the intersection on which the vehicular traffic is stopped
island, particularly when there isn't enough space there for earlier.
them. The pedestrian signal on the central reservation or
traffic island can be switched from GREEN to RED earlier – Pedestrians are not tempted to cross the road outside
than the signal on the opposite side of the road. the green period. There is a danger of this happening,
however, if the pedestrians still have a RED signal al-
However, this form of signalisation has the disadvantage though the vehicles on the relevant approach have al-
that pedestrians who remain at the side of the road because ready come to a halt.
Clearance
Clearance Pedestrian green period period
Pedestrian green period period
Ped1d

Ped1d
Dir 1 Waiting time
on refuge
Ped1c

Ped1c Ped1b

Ped1b
Waiting time
Dir 2 on refuge

Ped1a

Ped1a Clearance
Clearance Pedestrian green period period
Pedestrian green period
period

Figure 5: Simultaneous signalisation of successive crossings with a single signal group

Clearance
Pedestrian Clearance Pedestrian green period
period
green period period
Ped3

Ped3
Dir 1

Ped1b

Ped1b Ped1a

Ped1a

Dir 2

Ped2

Ped2
Pedestrian Clearance
Clearance green period period
Pedestrian green period
period

Figure 6: Progressive signalisation of successive crossings with three signal groups

17
– By means of an early start, pedestrians who start to a lower frequency than other vehicles, GREEN would be
cross the road at the beginning of the green period may indicated for a very long period and could lead pedestrians
have cleared the first crossing and already stepped onto on the outer crossings to misinterpret the signal.
the second crossing from the refuge or traffic island be-
In protected signal control of public transport vehicles,
fore the turning-off vehicles arrive at it.
blind and partially sighted people should also receive au-
Longer green periods at a crossing should not be given, dible and possibly also tactile signalisation in the area next
even if they are possible, if this would lead to waiting to the track. Full signalisation is then required for the rail
times on a narrow traffic island. vehicles (signal sequence: GO – STOP SIGNAL IMMI-
NENT – STOP).
If the green periods of the two crossings are offset in such
a way that there are always waiting times on the refuge or If the pedestrian crossings also provide access to a public
traffic island, the following measures are recommended to transport stop, the green periods for the crossings over the
improve the situation: carriageways should be set so that pedestrians waiting at
the side of the carriageway can board the public transport
– enlarging the space for waiting on the central reserva- vehicles when they arrive.
tion or traffic island by reducing the lane widths or wid-
ening the crossings, for example; Exclusive GREEN periods for pedestrians can be used
at intersections where there is heavy pedestrian traffic and
– installing guardrailing if the crossings are staggered; or
light vehicular traffic. The pedestrians at all crossings at
– reducing the waiting times by means of vehicle-actuat- the intersection are given right of way simultaneously,
ed control of the vehicular traffic. and all the traffic signals aimed at vehicles are switched
to RED. An exclusive all-GREEN period for pedestri-
If there are two signal heads within a short distance at sep-
ans with a concurrent all-RED period for vehicular traffic
arately signalised pedestrian crossings, and the red signal
means that pedestrians are not endangered by turning-off
on the central reservation or traffic island breaks down,
vehicles.
there is a danger that pedestrians will misinterpret the
green signal on the other side of the road as being appli- 2.3.1.6 Cycle traffic
cable to them. It may be advisable in such cases to have
the signal protection system switch off all the pedestrian Cyclists must comply with the traffic signals for vehicular
signals, or at least those of the affected crossing (see sec- traffic. In cases where there are dedicated cycle facilities,
tion 7.3.4.2). they must comply with the signals for cyclists.

At crossing facilities of off-road or segregated track There are three basic forms of signalisation for cycle
beds (section 16, paragraphs 6 and 7 of BOStrab), public traffic:
transport vehicle-actuated control is advisable, particular- – shared signalisation with vehicular traffic;
ly on sections of road where trams travel at high speeds. – separate signalisation of cycle traffic; and
One possible form of control is wig-wag signalisation with
two flashing amber lights arranged either side by side or – shared signalisation with pedestrian traffic with com-
one above the other. The flashing period before the arriv- bined signals for pedestrians and cyclists.
al of the vehicle at the crossing facility must be at least as
On roads with non-mandatory cycle paths, cycle traffic
long as the clearance time for pedestrians. The location
must have shared signalisation with vehicular traffic.
of the detectors for vehicle actuation is calculated on this
basis. The same basic form should be in place at approaches to
an intersection that have the same level of priority and
The following forms of signalisation are also possible:
along a main road across multiple intersections.
– a default setting of STOP for public transport vehicles
and BLACKED OUT for pedestrians. When the signals Separate signalisation for cyclists should only be used in-
are actuated by a public transport vehicle, the pedes- stead of shared signalisation with vehicular or pedestri-
trian signals change to RED, and once the pedestrian an traffic if the additional outlay is justified by associated
clearance time has expired, the vehicle is given right of benefits in terms of safety, user approval and traffic flow
way. At the end of the period in which the public trans- quality.
port vehicle has right of way, its signal reverts to the The basic structure of the signalisation should be designed
default setting of STOP, and once the intergreen period to gain the approval of cyclists, which is why:
has elapsed, the pedestrian signal reverts to its default
setting of BLACKED OUT. – waiting times should be as short as possible;
– a default setting of RED for pedestrians and GO for – they should be able to cross roads with central reserva-
public transport vehicles. Pedestrians are only cleared tions or traffic islands without stopping;
to cross when they make a demand by pressing a button – the duration of green periods should allow all cyclists
and provided there is no public transport vehicle ap- who arrive at the intersection during a single cycle to
proaching. get across in the next green period; and
Signalisation with GREEN instead of BLACKED OUT is – green periods should not be significantly shorter than
inadvisable. Because public transport vehicles pass by at those for the adjacent vehicular traffic.

18
Shared signalisation with vehicular traffic should be – long clearance distances, which would considerably re-
used: duce the length of the green periods for cycle traffic;
– if the cycle traffic shares the road space with vehicular – greater green period demand from cyclists than pedes-
traffic on the approach to the intersection; trians;
– where there are optional protection lanes for cyclists – it would otherwise be necessary to stop on a traffic is-
and advanced stop boxes for them at intersections; land or central reservation;
– in the case of cycle paths with crossings that are not set – heavy streams of pedestrians and cyclists crossing and
back or mandatory cycle lanes where separate signali- impeding each other, in particular where space for wait-
sation is not expedient; ing is limited; or
– where cyclists share bus lanes and there are no separate – an abrupt change of direction in the cycle path, which
signals for buses; and can be avoided by separating the cycle and pedestrian
– in the case of cycle paths with set-back cycle crossings crossings.
without an adjacent pedestrian crossing, where the sig-
This basic form of signalisation can also be used:
nal head for vehicular traffic is unambiguously applica-
ble to the cycle path. – on routes exclusively for cycle traffic;
– with cycle "gates" in order to give cyclists a head start
If the cycle traffic is signalled together with the vehicu-
before the green period for vehicular traffic;
lar traffic, the longer clearance times required by cyclists
must be taken into account when calculating intergreen – with set-back cycle paths where the signalisation is not
periods. clear and easy to interpret unless there is a dedicated
signal for cyclists, because the signal heads for vehic-
Shared signalisation with pedestrian traffic should be ular traffic are either not clearly applicable to the cycle
used: path or difficult to see, and there are no adjacent pedes-
– where there are shared paths for pedestrians and cy- trian crossings; or
clists, on footways or pavements where cycle traffic is – on bidirectional cycle paths where there can be no ques-
permitted and possibly also on non-mandatory cycle tion of cyclists on the left-hand side of the road (i.e. cy-
paths; cling against the direction of the vehicular traffic) shar-
– where a cycle path has an immediately adjacent pedes- ing signals with pedestrians. There should then also be
trian crossing and separate signalisation is not provid- separate signalisation for the opposite direction.
ed; and If there are multiple turning-off lanes for vehicular traffic,
– where there are bidirectional crossings around the adjacent cycle traffic must be signalised separately.
whole intersection, combined with single-direction cy- Separate signalisation for cycle traffic is not considered
cle paths on the approaches to the intersection. where motor vehicles and cycles share the road in mixed
traffic or where there is an optional protection lane for cy-
Shared signalisation of pedestrians and cyclists must be
clists.
indicated by combined symbols for pedestrians and cy-
clists on the lamps of the signal heads.
2.3.2 Number of stages
Separate signalisation of cycle traffic with three-aspect The signal staging and thus the number of stages used de-
signal heads must be used on mandatory cycle lanes and pends on whether it is decided to provide protected signal
on cycle paths whose crossings are not set back: control for the various traffic streams. If the signal pro-
– if the cycle traffic is to have its own stage or a head start grams are linked to neighbouring intersections, there are
(see section 2.7.5) so that it can reach the conflict area additional factors to consider on the basis of time-space
before turning-off vehicles, move into a mixed traffic planning for the traffic streams.
stream at the end of a cycle facility or reach a narrower
If all permitted movements are to be protected through sig-
section of road before the vehicular traffic (e.g. a nar-
nal control, at least three stages are required at T-intersec-
rower intersection exit);
tions and at least four at four-way intersections.
– at large intersections where clearance times for cyclists
are very long, and the green period for cycling traffic is In two-stage control, permitted turning streams cannot
to end earlier than that for vehicular traffic travelling in be protected by signals unless turning off across oppos-
the same direction; and ing traffic streams is not permitted. For road safety rea-
sons, controllers with more than two stages are generally
– when the cycle traffic is allocated to bus lanes where viewed more favourably.
there are special signals for buses.
It is desirable to keep the total time of the required inter-
On cycle paths with crossings that are set back significant- green periods as short as possible in order to minimise the
ly, this basic form of signalisation can be used in cases cycle time and, wherever possible, to combine non-con-
where shared signalisation with pedestrian traffic is to be flicting streams within a single stage provided they have
avoided. The reasons for this are: similar volumes of traffic.

19
2.3.3 Stage sequence
Veh1
The most favourable stage sequence in terms of capacity is
obtained from the sum of the required intergreen periods Veh2
and the critical green periods that lead to the shortest cycle
time, provided the stage sequence is not completely or par- Veh3
tially set as a result of one of the following circumstances.
– At complex intersections, the stage sequence may be Veh4
determined by the condition that certain movements
have to take place one after the other to prevent lines Ped1
of waiting vehicles from impeding other traffic at the
intersection. Ped2

– To enable heavy streams of pedestrian or cycle traffic to Ped3

cross successive crossings quickly, the sequence of the
relevant pedestrian or cycle green periods can affect the
entire stage sequence. Stage 1 IP 1.2 Stage 2
– As a result of the signal programs of neighbouring in- Figure 8: Example of an interstage period
tersections being linked, or of how public transport ve-
hicles are handled, coordinated signalling to provide The interstage period contains at least the intergreen peri-
a "green wave", for example, may affect the stage se- ods required for the switch from one stage to the next. It
quence at individual intersections. can also make sense to include conditions for green peri-
– To improve traffic flow quality, certain groups of road ods and red periods in the interstage periods (see section
users or individual traffic streams may be cleared to go 2.7).
more than once in a cycle. Vehicle-actuated interventions in the interstage periods
The stages and stage sequences that come into question are only permissible provided the intergreen periods are
can be portrayed in a stage sequence diagram (see fig- adhered to, and the signal sequence stipulated in the Ger-
ure 7). In vehicle-actuated signal control, the stages are man Road Traffic Regulations (StVO) is observed.
selected by means of logical and time-related conditions
in the controller logic.
2.4 Transition periods
Stage 1
For vehicles, the change from the right-of-way (green) pe-
riod to the period with no right of way is indicated by the
AMBER transition signal before RED. The AMBER tran-
sition period (tamb) is based on the speed limit for vehicles
on the approach to the intersection. It should be as follows:
– tamb = 3s at Vlimit = 50km/h;
3.1 2.1 = Interstage period (IP)
from stage 2 – tamb = 4s at Vlimit = 60km/h;
to stage 1
– tamb = 5s at Vlimit = 70km/h.
1.3 1.2
The amber signal periods on the different approaches can
vary in length.
3.2 For turning-off vehicles with separate signalisation
travelling no faster than 50km/h, an amber signal pe-
riod of tamb = 3s can also be set on approaches where
Stage 3 Stage 2 Vlimit = 70km/h or 60km/h.
Figure 7: Example of a stage sequence diagram
At signal groups with the signal sequence BLACKOUT
– AMBER – RED – BLACKOUT designed to keep pas-
2.3.4 Interstage periods sengers safe at tram stops where the tram track is in the
middle of the road, the amber signal period must be set
Between one stage and the next, there is an interstage pe-
riod (see figure 8). The interstage period starts when the at tamb = 3s. At all other signal groups with the signal se-
first stage ends and ends when the next stage begins. A quence BLACKOUT – AMBER – RED – BLACKOUT,
stage starts when the last of the phases to have right of way the amber signal period must be set at tamb = 5s.
during the stage is given that right of way. The stage ends For trams with separate signalisation, a transition signal
when the first of these phases with right of way during the (see figure 55) must be indicated when the tram loses right
stage loses that right of way. of way (section 51 of the German Tram Construction and

20
Operations Ordinance (BOStrab)), the duration of which The intergreen periods must be calculated for all combi-
(tamb,tram) depends on the speed limit (Vmax) for public nations of conflicting traffic streams. All road user groups
transport vehicles1) on the approach. It should be: (motor vehicles, public transport vehicles, cyclists, pedes-
trians) must be considered as separate streams, even if they
– tamb,tram = 4s at Vmax = 30km/h;
share signalling. The main (longest) intergreen periods for
– tamb,tram = 5s at Vmax = 40km/h; the associated signal groups are compiled in an intergreen
– tamb,tram = 6s at Vmax = 50km/h; period matrix (see figure 9).

– tamb,tram = 7s at Vmax = 60km/h; If a diagonal green signal is used for left-turning vehicles
with an early start or benefiting from an early cut-off of
– tamb,tram = 8s at Vmax = 70km/h. the green period for opposing traffic, the intergreen peri-
If there are separate signals for buses in accordance with ods associated with this signal between left-turning vehi-
section 51 of the German Tram Construction and Opera- cles and opposing traffic as well as conflicting pedestrian
tions Ordinance (BOStrab), the transition periods must be and cycle traffic must be shown in the intergreen period
adapted to those of the general vehicular traffic. matrix.
The assumptions specified below for the calculation of in-
The transition signal for public transport vehicles is not
tergreen periods apply to the normal case, where road us-
necessary:
ers act only in accordance with the signals aimed at them.
– if it is always mandatory to stop at the signal location; Specific local circumstances (e.g. speed limits, a steep
– if a signal change from GO to STOP within the opera- gradient on the approach to the intersection, particularly
tional stopping distance is not possible; and long vehicles) may mean that different assumptions have
to be made, which can result in longer intergreen periods.
– at a maximum speed of no more than 20km/h.
The RED/AMBER transition signal before GREEN is in- 2.5.1 Calculation of clearance and approach ­distances
dicated to prepare drivers for the subsequent right-of-way
In order to calculate the intergreen periods, the clearance
(green) signal. The transition period lasts 1s.
and approach distances have to be obtained. The centre
The switch from stop to go for public transport vehicles lines of the lanes or crossings of the traffic streams in-
is generally not indicated by a transition signal. At public volved (of vehicles, cyclists or pedestrians, for example)
transport stops before traffic signals, however, a warning are used as reference lines for the purpose of calculating
signal can be effective (e.g. a door-closing signal lasting 5s distances. In cases where, for example, left-turning vehi-
to 10s) to ensure that the public transport vehicle is ready cles in opposing directions would touch each other if only
to set off in good time. the centre lines were used, the relevant border lines should
be used instead of the centre lines.
For cycle traffic with separate signalisation, the ­AMBER
transition period should always be 2s and the RED/­ The clearance distance sclr consists of the basic clearance
AMBER transition period 1s. distance d0 and a notional vehicle length lveh. The basic

There are no transition periods in the signal sequence for

Starting signal groups
pedestrians.
Veh7ec-o
Veh1*)

Ped1
Ped2
Ped3
Ped4
Ped5
Ped6
Ped7
Cyc1
Veh2

Veh3
Veh4
Veh5
Veh6

Veh1*) 4 5 6 4 7
2.5 Intergreen periods
Veh2 5 8 5 5 4 2 8 8
The intergreen period is the period between the end of the Veh3 5 4 4 1 4 4 6
green period for one traffic stream and the beginning of the Veh4 2 2 4
green period of a subsequent conflicting stream or permit- Veh5 3 5 4 6 3
Ending signal groups

ted turning stream. Veh6 4 4 10 5 4 6 6 4

Veh7ec-o 2 3
The minimum required intergreen period tint is calculated
Cyc1 2 6 3 9 3
based on the pass-through time tpth, the clearance time tclr
Ped1 9 7 6 4
and the approach time tapp:
Ped2 6
tint = tpth + tclr – tapp Ped3 4 6 4
Ped4 4 4
The calculated intergreen periods should be rounded up Ped5 4
to full seconds. Ped6 7 8 9

1) Ped7 5 7 6
 he operational speed limit (max V) for specific stretches of road
T
or track for public transport vehicles may differ from the speed *) The signal group Veh1 contains the signal heads Veh1a and V1b.
limit specified by the German Road Traffic Regulations (StVO) . The same applies by analogy to other signal groups.
On track beds embedded in the carriageway, the speed limit that Figure 9: Example of an intergreen period matrix for the inter-
applies to other road traffic must not be exceeded. section shown in figure 1

21
clearance distance for vehicles is the distance from the This condition is designed to ensure that vehicles that do
stop line to the point of intersection with the approach path not come to a halt before the stop line within the amber
of the vehicle stream that is just starting (conflict point). signal period tG when the signal changes do not represent
For pedestrians and cyclists signalised together with them, an immediate danger to traffic streams that are starting off,
it is the distance between the start of the crossing and the particularly to pedestrians or cyclists whose conflict area
end of the conflict area. is close to the stop line.
Where a vehicle stream clears a stream of pedestrians or A total of six passing-through and clearance cases can be
cyclists on a crossing, the conflict point is assumed to be in distinguished for the purpose of calculating the intergreen
the middle of the crossing. In the case of crossings with a periods.
width of over 4m, this is 2m before the end of the crossing.
For the purpose of calculations, the clearance of the con-
flict area is assumed to take as long as is necessary to en- Case 1: Clearance of vehicles travelling straight ahead
sure safety, taking into account the duty of the approach- The pass-through time for vehicles travelling straight
ing traffic stream to exercise due care. It is assumed that ahead is set at tpth = 3s, regardless of the speed limit. A
the entire length of long and large vehicles is recognised clearance speed of vclr = 10m/s can be assumed.
when they are clearing the intersection and that they are
considered to have priority for as long as they occupy the The following values are used to calculate the intergreen
conflict area. The required minimum green periods for the periods:
approaching traffic streams must be ensured in this con-
nection (see section 2.7.4). When calculating the inter- Pass-through time: tpth = 3s
green periods, the following notional vehicle lengths are
therefore assumed: Clearance speed: vclr = 10m/s
– Bicycles:  0m Basic clearance distance: d0 = Distance [m] between
– Motor vehicles (including truck-and-trailer the stop line and the
combinations, buses, etc.):   6m conflict point, measured
along the centre line of
– Trams: 15m. the lane (see figure 10)

The approach distance (dapp) for vehicles in the traffic Vehicle length: lveh = 6m
stream just starting is the distance from the stop line to the
point at which they intersect with the clearance path of the Pass-through and d0 + 6
vehicle stream just ending or the beginning of the pedestri- tpth + tclr = 3 +
clearance time: 10
an/cycle crossing. For pedestrians and cyclists signalised
together with them, it is the distance between the begin-
ning of the crossing and the beginning of the conflict area.
If the conflict area is immediately after the starting point,
2
the approach distance is considered to be zero.
If lanes are not marked inside the intersection (e.g. for
turning-off vehicles), the intergreen periods are calculated
on the basis of the most plausible paths from a driving and
geometric perspective.
dapp

2.5.2 Pass-through times and clearance times

1
The path-through time tpth is the duration set for the cal-
culation of the intergreen period and the beginning of the lveh d0
clearance time.
The clearance time tclr is the time it takes to complete the
clearance distance sclr (see section 2.5.1) at a clearance
speed of vclr:
sclr
tclr =
vclr
The following condition must be met for vehicles travel-
ling straight ahead (case 1) or turning off (case 2): Figure 10: Example of the conflict case in which a ­vehicle
going straight ahead is clearing and a vehicle is
tpth + tclr ≥ tamb + 1 ­approaching

22
Case 2: Clearance of turning-off vehicles If the end of the right-of-way period is triggered as the ve-
hicle passes through the signal, the pass-through time can
The pass-through time for turning-off vehicles is set at tpth
be set at zero for the purpose of calculating the intergreen
= 2s. The clearance speed is assumed to be vclr = 7m/s or, if
period. If the triggering of the end of the right-of-way pe-
the inner lane border has a radius of R < 10m, vclr = 5m/s.
riod is mandatory, the pass-through time must be provided
This results in the following: for in the process logic.
Pass-through time: tpth = 2s The calculation of the pass-through and clearance times
Clearance speed: vclr = 7m/s (vclr = 5m/s must therefore be based on the following parameters:
at R < 10m) Pass-through time: tpth = 3s, 5s or 7s (depending
Basic clearance distance: d0 = distance [m] between the on Vmax)
stop line and the conflict Vmax
point, measured along Clearance speed: vclr = –––— (Vmax in [km/h])
the centre line of the 3.6
lane (see figure 11) Basic clearance distance: d0 = distance (m) between the
Vehicle length: lveh = 6m stop line and the conflict
point, measured along
Pass-through and d0 + 6
tpth + tclr = 2 + the centre line of the
clearance time: 7 lane (see figure 12)
d0 + 6
(tpth + tclr = 2 + at R < 10m) Vehicle length lveh = 15m for trams
5 lveh = 6m for buses
2
Pass-through and d0 + lveh
tpth + tclr = tpth + 3.6 ·
clearance time: Vmax

For buses whose transition periods have to be adapted

to those of the vehicular traffic, as described in section
2.4, the values of the vehicular traffic are applicable for
dapp tpth + tclr.
If, in exceptional cases, trams are signalised together with
lveh the vehicular traffic, the values of the vehicular traffic are
1 applicable for tpth + tclr. As a result, the driver of the tram
d0 must approach the intersection with caution in anticipation
of having to stop.

Figure 11: Example of the conflict case in which a turning-off

vehicle is clearing and a vehicle is approaching
dapp

Case 3: Clearance of public transport vehicles – with-

out a stop before the intersection
If public transport vehicles have separate signalisation, 1
with signal heads as stipulated in the German Tram Con-
struction and Operations Ordinance (BOStrab), that al-
lows them to clear the intersection without stopping, the d0 lveh
pass-through time assumed for them must be based on the
operating speed limit for public transport vehicles. This is
regardless of whether or not there is a signal head for indi-
cating the transition signal.
The pass-through time for trams is:
– tpth = 3s at Vmax ≤ 30km/h;
Figure 12: Example of the conflict case in which a tram
– tpth = 5s at 30km/h < Vmax ≤ 50km/h; is clearing without a tram stop and a vehicle is
– tpth = 7s at 50km/h < Vmax ≤ 70km/h. ­approaching

23
Case 4: Clearance of public transport vehicles – with a Basic clearance distance: d0 = distance (m) between
stop before the intersection the stop line and the
conflict point, measured
If public transport vehicles stop regularly before the in- along the centre line of
tersection (at a stop for passengers, for example), in addi- the lane (see figure 13)
tion to the calculation in case 3, a separate calculation is
required for the case in which the public transport vehi- Vehicle length lveh = 15m for trams
cles set off from a standing start at the end of the right-of- lveh = 6m for buses
way period and accelerate until they reach their operating Pass-through and clearance time:
speed limit. V²max
The standard rate of acceleration for trams is: a = 1.0m/s². for (d0 + lveh) ≤ –––––––––
2 · 3.6² · a
Depending on the vehicle's drive technology and power
transmission system, this value can vary from a = 0.7m/s² 2 · (d0 + lveh)
to 1.5m/s², and these values diminish as the speed increas- tpth + tclr = ––––––––––
es. a
For buses, the standard value used is: a = 1.2m/s². The rate ²
V max
for (d0 + lveh) > –––––––––
varies from a = 1.0m/s² to 1.5m/s². The upper value can be 2 · 3.6² · a
viewed as a passenger-related limit value, because buses
are capable of considerably higher rates of acceleration. V²max
d0 + lveh – –––––––––
Vmax 2 · 3.6² · a
Clearance is thus based on the following calculation as- tpth + tclr = –––––– + –––––––––––––––––
sumptions: 3.6 · a Vmax
––––
Pass-through time: tpth = 0s 3.6
Starting acceleration of trams:
a = 1.0m/s² Case 5: Clearance of cyclists
(with fluctuations from A pass-through time for cyclists of tpth = 1s is also as-
0.7m/s² to 1.5m/s²) sumed when there is no transition signal (shared signali-
Starting acceleration of buses: sation with pedestrians).
a = 1.2m/s² The clearance speed of vclr = 4m/s is assumed for cyclists.
(with fluctuations from This should be reduced if cyclists have to ride through
1.0m/s² to 1.5m/s²) very tight curves before or after the cycle crossing.
The following values are used to calculate the intergreen
periods:
Pass-through time: tpth = 1s
Clearance speed: vclr = 4m/s
(may have to be reduced)
Basic clearance distance: d0 = distance (m) between the
d0 lveh stop line and the conflict
point, measured along
the centre line of the lane
(see figure 14)
1
Vehicle length: lveh = 0
Pass-through and d0
tpth + tclr = 1 +
dapp clearance time: 4
Where cycling traffic shares signalisation with vehicular
or pedestrian traffic, potential cases of conflict between
a cyclist clearing and a cyclist approaching or between a
cyclist clearing and a pedestrian approaching can gener-
ally be viewed as compatible permitted movements and
2
therefore ignored when calculating intergreen periods.
Figure 13: Example of the conflict case in which a tram is clea- The same applies to tangential movements between cy-
ring with a tram stop and a vehicle is approaching clists and vehicles coming from the left.

24
 2

dapp

d0
d0
1
dapp
1 1
d app

2
2
Figure 14: Example of the conflict case in which a cyclist is
clearing and a vehicle is approaching Figure 15: Example of the conflict case in which a pedestrian is
clearing and a vehicle is approaching

Case 6: Clearance of pedestrians 2.5.3 Approach times

A pass-through time of tpth = 0s is set for pedestrians, be- The approach time tapp is the time it takes to cover the ap-
cause it is assumed for the purposes of calculation that proach distance dapp.
they do not step on the crossing after the end of the green
period. For motor vehicles, regardless of the speed limit and di-
rection of travel, it is assumed that the first vehicle pass-
The standard value for the clearance speed of pedestrians is es through the stop line at an approach speed of Vapp =
vclr = 1.2m/s. Variations from vclr = 1.0m/s to vclr = 1.5m/s 40km/h. The approach time is obtained as follows:
are possible.
3.6 · dapp
The lower limit value should only be used where cross- tapp = –––––––
ings are put in place primarily to protect people with lim- 40
ited mobility. It is not necessary to reduce the clearance The calculation of the approach time for left-turning ve-
speed at any other traffic signals, because blind and par- hicles given a diagonal green signal after the early cut-off
tially sighted people generally start to cross at the begin- of the opposing traffic is a special case. These vehicles are
ning of the green period and therefore are not critical when already at the intersection, resulting in an approach dis-
it comes to setting the length of the intergreen period. tance of dapp = 0m.
The maximum value of vclr = 1.5m/s should only be used Trams that do not approach the intersection regularly from
in exceptional cases. a tram stop can be handled in the same way as vehicular
The following values are used to calculate the intergreen traffic, with an approach speed of Vapp = 20km/h. Higher
periods: approach speeds at particular locations must be taken into
account.
Pass-through time: tpth = 0s
If public transport vehicles regularly approach the inter-
Clearance speed: vclr = 1.2m/s section from a public transport stop, acceleration from a
(with fluctuations from standing start at the stop line is assumed at the beginning
1.0m/s to 1.5m/s) of the green period. The approach time is obtained as fol-
Basic clearance distance: d0 = distance (m) between lows:
the beginning of the 2 · dapp
crossing and the end of tapp = ––––––
a
the conflict area, meas-
ured along the ­centre Vmax
line of the crossing for tapp ≤ ––––––
3.6 · a
(see figure 15)
d0 Cyclists controlled by signals shared with vehicular traffic
Pass-through and do not need to be taken into account when calculating the
tpth + tclr =
clearance time: vclr approach due to their low starting acceleration and speed.

25
If cyclists are expected to use cycle paths or mandatory qlane,key,i qsat,i
cycle lanes and are controlled by cycle signals, a speed of –––––––– · tcyc = ––––– · tgrn,key,i
vapp = 5m/s is assumed when they cross the stop line at the 3600 3600
beginning of the green period. qlane,key,i = traffic density (vehicles per hour) in the key
If the conflict area for pedestrians with vehicular traffic lane for stage i;
begins right at the edge of the carriageway, there is no qsat,i = saturation traffic density for this lane (vehi-
approach to take into account, and thus tapp = 0s. If the cles per hour).
clearing traffic does not use the lane at the edge of the car-
riageway, an approach speed of vapp = 1.5m/s is assumed Without taking into account stochastic fluctuations in the
for pedestrians. traffic flow, the following minimum cycle time is thus ob-
tained:
stg
2.5.4 Checking of intergreen periods
After a set of traffic signals is put into operation, the inter- Σ
i=1
tint,grn,i
green times set for them must be checked in repeated ob- tcyc,min = ––––––––––––––
stg q
lane,key,i
servations. Particular attention must be given to situations
in which left-turning vehicles are prevented from turning
1– Σ –––––––
i=1 q sat,i
off by opposing traffic. The actual clearance and approach
In order to take the stochastic fluctuations in the traffic
times of public transport vehicles must also be observed
flow into account with fixed-time controllers, in particu-
carefully and compared with the assumptions made.
lar, the maximum saturation traffic density obtained as de-
2.6 Cycle time scribed in the German Highway Capacity Manual (Hand-
buch für die Bemessung von Straßenverkehrsanlagen
Methods of calculating the cycle time are outlined below. – HBS) qsat is reduced by the capacity utilisation x to a
These serve as starting points when it comes to selecting permissible saturation traffic density qsat,perm:
the cycle time, unless it is affected by conditions in the sur-
rounding road network or at neighbouring intersections. qsat,perm = x · qsat

The cycle time of a signal program is generally obtained A value between 0.80 and 0.90 can be assumed for the
from the sum of the required green times for the key signal capacity utilisation x (see the German Highway Capacity
groups in the individual stages and the intergreen periods Manual (HBS) for more information). If Σ tgrn,key contains
required between them. only green periods for general vehicular traffic that are de-
pendent on the cycle time, the required cycle time tcyc,req
stg stg
is as follows:
tcyc = Σ
i=1
tgrn,key,i + Σt
i=1
int,req,i stg stg

tcyc = cycle time (s);

Σi=1
tint,req,i
i=1
Σ
tint,req,i
tcyc,req = –––––––––––––––––– = ––––––––––––––––––
tgrn,key,i = required green period (s) for the key signal stg q stg q
lane,key,i lane,key,i
group in a stage i;
tint,req,i = required intergreen period (s) between the key Σ
1 – ––––––– 1 – –––––––
i=1 qsat,perm,i
Σ
i=1 x · qsat,i
signal groups of the closing stage i and the If xi = 1 is set for everything in this formula, you get the
stage that follows it; relationship for the minimum cycle time tcyc,min, as already
p = number of stages. specified.
Σ tgrn,key,i consists of the green periods of the signal groups If, additionally, there are stages whose green periods are
that have to switch to green one after the other in a cycle. independent of the cycle time (e.g. minimum green pe-
The signal group with the green period tgrn,key can apply riods tgrn,min), the cycle time formula must be altered ac-
to general vehicular traffic, buses, pedestrians, cyclists or cordingly. This means that, in addition to the sum of the
trams. While the latter four groups of road users generally intergreen periods Σ tint,req, all key green periods that are
have a green period that is independent of the cycle time independent of the cycle time are added to the numerator,
in the calculation of tcyc, vehicular traffic can have a green while the key utilisation rates of those stages whose green
period that is dependent on the cycle time or one that is periods continue to depend on the cycle time remain in the
independent of it (e.g. a minimum green period tgrn,min). denominator.
stg stg2
The intergreen periods that are to be adhered to between
the key signal groups of the individual stages are to be
used as the required intergreen periods.
Σ
i=1
Σt
tint,req,i +
k=1
grn,min,k
tcyc,req = ––––––––––––––––––
stg1
If the green periods tgrn are only dependent on vehicu- qlane,key,j
lar traffic, the cycle time is obtained on the basis that the 1 – –––––––
j=1
Σ
x · qsat,j
number of vehicles that arrive during a cycle time on the
busiest lane of the key signal group for a stage should be stg = total number of stages (stg = stg1 + stg2);
equal to the number of vehicles that pass through during stg1 = number of stages dependent on the traffic density;
the green period. To simplify the calculation, it is assumed stg2 = number of stages independent of the traffic density;
that the same number of vehicles arrive in each cycle: x = capacity utilisation.

26
A further possible method of calculating the cycle time the cycle time, there are also fixed key green periods in a
minimises the waiting times for vehicular traffic. The stage, these must be added to the sum of the intergreen pe-
method is based on the assumption of random vehicle ar- riods, similarly to how the required cycle time is obtained,
rivals. Consequently, a reduction factor does not have to be as described in section 2.6.
applied in order to take into account stochastic influences.
The cycle time with waiting times optimised is calculated
as follows: 2.7.2 Return to the same stage
stg
If successive requests occur in vehicle-actuated signal
1.5 · Σt
i=1
int,req,i + 5 control, and the controller logic has already terminated the
tcyc,opt = ––––––––––––––––– green period of the first request, the full signal sequence
stg
qlane,key,i must be maintained even in the case of a return to the same
i=1
Σ
1 – –––––––
qsat,i stage before a further green period is started.

The cycle time may be affected by other factors where 2.7.3 Maximum and minimum red periods
the signal programs of multiple intersections are linked,
or where pedestrians, cyclists or public transport vehicles The specification of a maximum red period for a road
have to be taken into account. user group or traffic stream depends greatly on the control
The following guideline values apply to the cycle time: strategy and the consideration of conflicting objectives.
The factors to be taken into account here include:
– a minimum of 30s;
– a maximum of 90 (120) s. – the level of acceptance by pedestrians and cyclists;

Cycle times longer than 90s should be avoided where pos- – the available storage space for vehicles;
sible, and the maximum cycle time is 120s. If cycle times – the available waiting space for pedestrians or cyclists;
of over 90s are required to ensure the traffic flow is suf- and
ficiently good, it is important to restrict these signal pro-
grams only to those hours of operation when they are nec- – the total travel time for public transport vehicles along
essary. a stretch of road.

Furthermore, it must also be ensured that the selected red

2.7 Green periods and red periods periods permit the desired traffic flow quality in accord-
ance with the German Highway Capacity Manual (HBS).
2.7.1 Calculation of green periods
Required green periods dependent on the cycle time tgrn,req The minimum red period is 1s.
for general vehicular traffic are calculated as follows:

qlane,key,i · tU qlane,key,i · tcyc 2.7.4 Minimum green periods

tgrn,req,i = –––––––––– = –––––––––––
x · qsat,i qsat,perm,i The minimum green period is 5s.

If there is still spare time in a cycle, this can be allocated In the case of pedestrians, it must also be ensured in the
accordingly to meet specific planning objectives. These calculation that when only one crossing has to be crossed
may include, for example, the optimisation of coordina- during the green period, at least half the length of the
tion with other intersections or greater allowances made crossing can be covered. This is increased to the entire
for pedestrians. length of the crossing if it is equipped with audible signals
for blind and partially sighted people.
The allocation of all the possible green periods given the
traffic densities is obtained by means of the following for- If two successive crossings have to be crossed in the same
mula: stage, the green period should be as long as it takes to cross
stg
the longer of the two crossings, the refuge/traffic island
and half of the second crossing. If there are more than two
Σ
tcyc – tint,req,i
i=1 qlane,key,i successive crossings, the signal program should be as pe-
tgrn,i = –––––––––––––
stg
· ––––––––––
qgrn,i destrian friendly as possible. In most cases, however, co-
qlane,key,i
Σ
1 – –––––––
q
i=1 sat,i
ordination is not possible due to the large number of other
factors in play.

This distributes the green periods in such a way that the Particularly in the conflict case where a tram is clearing
capacity utilisation of the key traffic streams is the same and another road user is approaching, it must be ensured
across all stages. The prerequisite for its use is a cycle time that the road users that are just starting up are able to make
tcyc of at least the required cycle time tcyc,req (see section use of their green period. The real length of the trams must
2.6). If, in addition to green periods that are dependent on be estimated in order to do this.

27
2.7.5 Head start in the conflict area the intersection safely in the interstage period. If it is to
be expected that they will not be noticed in good time by
If a permitted turning-off movement is given a green sig-
drivers subsequently given a green signal, during such cir-
nal together with adjacent pedestrians or cyclists with a
cumstances the start of the green period of the subsequent
priority crossing, the start of the green periods of the two
conflicting traffic streams should be 2s to 4s later than is
traffic streams must be staggered to allow the pedestrians
calculated for the required intergreen period. The same ap-
or cyclists to get onto the crossing at least 1s to 2s before
plies in the case of a return to the same stage.
a turning-off vehicle arrives at it.
In the same way, unless they have their own signal stage,
public transport vehicles with a dedicated lane at the side 2.8 Signal timing plan
or in the middle of the road should also get a head start The signal timing plan (see figure 16) and the intergreen
in order to make it clear that they have priority over turn- period matrix (see figure 9) together with the signal site
ing-off vehicles. plan (see figure 1) describe a fixed-time signal program
2.7.6 Delayed start to the green period based on the traffic control calculation. In the case of ve-
hicle-actuated control methods, it is also necessary to de-
Once left-turning vehicles without signal protection have scribe the controller logic.
crossed the stop line and are prevented from turning off
by opposing traffic, it must be possible for them to clear

Signal tgrn [s]

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
group Start End Duration 72

Veh1*) 29 58 29

Veh2 26 36 10

Veh3 6 22 16

Veh4 44 4 32

Veh5 41 71 30

Veh6 6 22 16

Veh7ec-o 64 71 7 BLACKOUT

Cyc1 40 68 28

Ped1 5 19 14

Ped2 44 72 28

Ped3 44 63 19

Ped4 44 2 30

Ped5 8 40 32

Ped6 2 22 20

Ped7 28 58 30

GREEN RED BLACKOUT AMBER RED/AMBER

BLACKOUT

*) The signal group Veh1 contains the signal heads Veh1a and Veh1b. The same applies by analogy to other signal groups.

Figure 16: Example of a signal timing plan of a fixed-time signal program for the intersection shown in figure 1

28
 3 Interrelationships between traffic signal control and
the design of road facilities

3.1 Fundamentals 3.2.1 Straight-ahead lanes

The traffic flow to be achieved with the help of the traf- The number of straight-ahead lanes in the intersection area
fic signals makes specific demands of the design of the should not differ from those in the adjoining stretches of
road facility. Conversely, the design of intersections and road. Particularly in built-up areas, however, it may be
stretches of road and consideration of the surroundings of- necessary to increase the number of straight-ahead lanes
ten have important consequences for the traffic signals. on the approaches to intersections in order to achieve a
The design of the road facility and the traffic signals must better match between the capacity of the intersections and
therefore be viewed as an integrated whole and be devel- the capacity of the relevant stretches of road.
oped together in a coordinated, step-by-step approach. The minimum length l of the unchanged number of
The interests of the various road users groups have to be straight-ahead lanes on the exit arm of the intersection can
weighed up against each other, and the many possibilities be approximated as follows:
offered by traffic signal control have to be exploited as ful-
ly as possible, particularly if space is very restricted. l [m] = 3 · tgrn [s]
When new intersections with traffic signals are built, and The green period tgrn is the required green period during
the surrounding area imposes few constraints, standard peak hours. The number of lanes can only be reduced if
intersection forms should be used, which are determined there is sufficient capacity in the subsequent stretch of
largely by the requirements imposed by traffic signals. road.
The inner intersection area should not be increased in size The tapering ltap1 of the lanes should be symmetrical and
much due to how this can affect the interests of pedestrians as elongated as possible (at least ltap1 = 30m). This is the
and cyclists as well as the intergreen periods. best way to ensure a good traffic flow (see figure 17).
When intersections with traffic signals are altered, when If a straight-ahead lane has to merge into a turning-off
traffic signals are installed at existing intersections, and lane, which happens only in exceptional cases, this must
where the surroundings impose constraints, location-spe- be marked and indicated by signage clearly in good time,
cific factors are often more important than the require- since otherwise unexpected and disruptive late changes of
ments of the traffic signals, and it is only possible to lane are likely to occur.
achieve an approximation of a standard intersection form, On roads with an embedded or separate track bed, it may
and dynamic design elements become more important. be necessary to allow the track area on the approaches to
the intersection to be used by general vehicular traffic as
well in order to increase the storage space and capacity for
3.2 Lanes them. This is only possible if public transport vehicles and
general vehicular traffic are given right of way at the same
The number and distribution of lanes at an intersection de- time and if, when a public transport vehicle approaches, it
pends on the traffic load, the desired quality of the traffic is ensured by signals that the track area is cleared.
flow for all road user groups, road safety considerations
and the available space. Dynamically used straight-ahead lanes in the area of pub-
lic transport vehicle lanes can generally be cleared of ve-
Lanes can also be used dynamically. This generally neces- hicular traffic in advance on the approach of a public trans-
sitates signal-related measures and vehicle-actuated con- port vehicle, thus allowing the public transport vehicle to
trol methods to organise the timing and sequence where pass through the intersection during the same green period
there is multiple usage. and without delay.

l ltap1

Figure 17: Reducing the number of lanes after intersections

29
3.2.2 Left-turn lanes If turning left cannot be allowed at an intersection, alterna-
tive routes should be indicated in good time.
If a left-turning stream is signalised separately, there must
be a left-turn lane.
3.2.3 Right-turn lanes and right-turn slip lanes
The left-turn lane must be long enough to prevent adjacent
lanes from becoming congested with vehicles waiting to When there are separate right-turn signal stages, there
turn left.. This is considered to be the case at intersections must be right-turn lanes. Their length should be the same
planned in accordance with the German Directives for the as that for left-turn lanes.
Design of Urban Roads (RASt) when the lane exceeds the At intersections crossed by public transport vehicles at the
critical 95% congestion length specified in the German side of the road, where the volume of right-turning traffic
Highway Capacity Manual (HBS). In the case of intersec- is insignificant, only the right-turning traffic needs to be
tions planned in accordance with the German Guidelines given a red signal on the approach of a public transport ve-
for the Design of Rural Roads (RAL), the critical 90% hicle with a two-aspect primary signal. It is often possible
congestion length specified in HBS applies in addition to to do without a right-turn lane and merely provide narrow
a speed-dependent deceleration lane. waiting spaces with an arrow marking (double-headed ar-
Even if there are no separate left-turning stages provided, row pointing to the right and straight ahead).
left-turn lanes or waiting spaces should only be omitted if Right-turning slip lanes separated from the other lanes by
the left-turning vehicles can flow freely or if all left-turn- a triangular island that allow right-turning vehicles to turn
ing vehicles in a cycle can wait in the immediate area of right freely are primarily designed to increase capacity
the intersection. and are only considered in built-up areas provided the in-
If it is not possible to create a left-turn lane or waiting terests of pedestrians and cyclists are not negatively affect-
space on an approach to an intersection, and if prohibiting ed. Where appropriate, the crossing facilities over right-
left turns is not an option, the whole approach to the inter- turn lanes should be signalised, which can, however, result
section should be given right of way in a separate signal in long total crossing times and thus increase the danger
stage. of the signals being ignored. In the case of small triangu-
lar islands, it is important to make sure it is clear that the
If space is limited, it may be better to create left-turn lanes signal heads for pedestrians really are for the pedestrians.
or waiting spaces that are smaller than the standard size
than to do without them. At non-signalised right-turn slip roads, the priority ar-
rangements with cycle crossings that are not set back at
It is not permissible to separate a left-turn lane from the the beginning and end of the right-turn slip road and with
straight-ahead lane by means of a road marking if there is a zebra crossing in the middle section of the right-turn slip
a width of less than 5.50m available on the approach to the road should be made clear. In exceptional cases it is possi-
intersection; however, narrow waiting spaces with a width ble to do without the zebra crossing, but in that case there
of between 4.25m and 5.50m can be indicated by means of should also be no pedestrian crossing marked.
arrow markings (an arrow pointing left next to one point-
ing straight ahead). Alternatively, with bidirectional cycle paths or small tri-
angular islands, a priority cycle crossing with signage in-
At intersections crossed by public transport vehicles in the dicating its priority can be considered next to the zebra
middle of the road, where the volume of left-turning traf- crossing.
fic is insignificant, only the left-turning traffic needs to be
given a red signal on the approach of a public transport 3.2.4 Partial public transport lanes on approaches to
vehicle with a two-aspect primary signal. Where there are intersections
extra-wide single-lane carriageways in each direction, it
is often sufficient to do without a left-turn lane and only Partial public transport lanes at at-grade intersections al-
provide a narrow waiting space with an arrow marking (an low congestion to be bypassed and thus make public trans-
arrow point left and one pointing straight ahead). port vehicles quicker through design measures. In terms
of signalisation and signal control, the priorities are the
If left-turn lanes are located between tram tracks or bus possible additional measures for the allocation of vehi-
lanes on the approaches to intersections, which may make cle streams to directions, the control of public transport
sense for the sake of direction conformity or where there vehicles in front of approaching vehicle platoons and the
are islands with tram/bus stops after the intersections, stor- loss-free control of arrivals at and departures from public
age area monitoring is generally essential in order to elim- transport stops and of public transport lanes where they
inate disruptions to the public transport vehicles. come to an end.
Dynamically used left-turn lanes are formed if it makes A public transport stop bay on the right-hand side of the
sense on roads with lanes for public transport vehicles to road that extends to the stop line or a public transport stop
allow general vehicular traffic to also use the track area or with an island in the middle of the road can also be viewed
bus lanes in order to increase the storage area and capac- as a (partial) public transport lane.
ity. This is only possible if is ensured by means of signal
control that the track area or bus lane is cleared on the ap- The allocation of vehicle streams to directions at sig-
proach of a public transport vehicle. nal-controlled intersections is an important prerequisite

30
for minimising the number of signal stages, avoiding un- A favourable location for a U-turn lane is where gaps oc-
used public transport signal stages given a low-frequency cur in the opposing traffic stream as a result of the signal
service and fixed-time control and ensuring the highest control at nearby intersections.
possible level of overall performance.
Signal control is necessary for U-turning traffic if:
Vehicle streams can be allocated to directions by the fol-
lowing means: – the opposing traffic is too heavy to allow vehicles to do
U-turns or turn off without it;
– direction-related public transport lanes on the ap-
proaches to intersections (structural measure); – separate track beds or bus lanes in the middle of the
road have to be crossed;
– shifting of the congestion point with controlled feeding
of public transport vehicles and vehicular traffic into – there is not enough storage space for the U-turn traffic
the area where vehicle streams are allocated to direc- in the waiting lane before the U-turn lane or in the gap
tions (operational measure); or in the central reservation; or
– advanced stop lines for public transport vehicles (oper- – the visibility of the opposing traffic is inadequate.
ational measure).
The merging or turning off of buses from bus stop bays 3.3 Management of cycle traffic
and bus lanes at the side of the road on the right can be fa-
cilitated by means of a head start, a permissive signal or, There are a number of ways to manage cycle traffic on the
if there is plenty of space, an advanced stop line for buses. road and in the space at the side of the road. These have a
significant impact on the signalisation of cycle traffic and
If an advanced stop line is used, vehicular traffic is kept the management of turning-off cyclists at intersections
back by additional signals at a distance of at least 30m with traffic signals.
from the signal heads for general traffic at the intersection
(see figure 18), and the green period for buses is indicated Direct management is considered where the cyclists cy-
by signal heads as stipulated by the German Tram Con- cle on the carriageway on the stretches of road after the in-
struction and Operations Ordinance (BOStrab). tersection. They can then generally be signalised together
with vehicular traffic and turn left directly with it.
3.2.5 U-turn lanes On multi-lane approaches to intersections, there should be
a cycle lane wherever possible for cyclists turning left di-
On main roads with central reservations that cannot be rectly.
driven across, separate track beds and bus lanes in the
middle of the road, U-turn lanes should also be offered on If the cycle traffic on the subsequent stretches of road uses
stretches of road, since U-turns at intersections can have cycle paths or mandatory cycle lanes, it may be advisable
a seriously detrimental effect on safety, capacity and the to put in place advanced stop boxes for cyclists where there
quality of the traffic flow. U-turn lanes can also make up is heavy left-turning cycle traffic and on the approaches
for a lack of left-turn or crossing opportunities elsewhere. to intersections with more than one straight-ahead lane or
where there is an abrupt switch to a right-turn lane.
If it is not possible to create U-turn lanes despite demand
for a U-turn opportunity, a signal program structure should The indirect management of left-turning cyclists (see
be selected in which U-turns and other movements (in- figure 19) is considered where there are cycle paths or
cluding those of pedestrians and cyclists) do not impede mandatory cycle lanes on the subsequent stretches of road.
each other.
In many cases it makes sense to mark out a waiting space
for left-turning cyclists next to the cycle crossing. This
Vehicle signal head separate management of cyclists should be indicated by
Pedestrian signal head a sign.
Bus signal head

Veh2c Veh1c
Veh1b
Veh2b Veh1b
U
B
S

Veh2a Veh1a Ped1 Ped3

Bus1
Cyc

30m Veh1a Cyc1L

Ped2b Ped2a
Veh2b Veh2a
Veh1
Veh2
Bus1

Figure 18: Example of an advanced stop line for buses with a Figure 19: E
 xample of the management of cyclists turning off
fixed-time signal program to the left

31
Cyclists who have crossed the intersecting road and are
waiting in the waiting space for turning left should be sig-
nalised either separately or together with pedestrian traffic
going in the same direction.
The prerequisites for shared signalisation are that:
– the pedestrian crossing must not be set back too far;
– pedestrians using the pedestrian crossing must be given
an adequate head start over vehicles turning off with a
permissive signal during the same signal stage; and
– where there is a central reservation, the pedestrian
crossings across both carriageways must be given green
at the same time.

3.4 Central reservations and traffic islands

Central reservations and traffic islands help to manage ve-
hicle streams, offer protection to pedestrians and cyclists
and provide locations for equipment (lighting, road signs,
traffic signals and signposts) and greenery.
Central reservations and traffic islands on the approaches Figure 20: Example of a crossing facility with traffic signals by
to signalised intersections serve primarily as crossing fa- a track bed
cilities where they are necessary for the safety of pedestri-
ans and cyclists when the traffic signals are switched off
or where the signal program structure requires this for the On stretches of road, in particular, tram-actuated control in
protected signal control of pedestrians, in particular. the track area is advisable. This ensures that the protection
In terms of the signalisation of pedestrians and cyclists, of the track area is limited to when the tram is approach-
central reservations and traffic islands have to be assessed ing or travelling past and that a warning is always given if
according to their width: there is any danger. Section 2.3.1.5 provides information
on the signalisation of the track area.
– At widths of over 4.00m, separate signalisation of the
two crossings should not be regarded as critical, be-
cause the pedestrians consider the two successive cross- 3.6 Crossings
ings to be independent of each other. In the interests of good visibility, cycle and pedestrian
– At widths of under 4.00m, there is a danger at separate- crossings should be set back as little as possible from the
ly signalised crossings of pedestrians failing to see the road with which they run parallel.
signals, failing to understand that the signals apply to Where straight-ahead and right-turning traffic is managed
them or disregarding the signals. To prevent pedestrians together in a single lane, parallel cycle and pedestrian
from confusing which signals apply to them, the signal crossings can be set back from the edge of the road by up
heads of successive crossings should be installed on a to around 5.00m in order to provide a waiting space for ve-
pedestrian refuge. hicles that are turning off. However, the priority of cyclists
– The width of the traffic island or central reservation and pedestrians over vehicles that are turning off must be
should not be less than 2.50m, otherwise there may not clearly recognisable. On important cycle traffic routes, the
be sufficient waiting space for cycle traffic. cycle crossing should not be set back if this would entail
sharp changes of alignment in the cycle facility. Switch-
ing from a cycle path to a mandatory cycle lane on the ap-
3.5 Crossing facilities over track beds proach to an intersection and in the immediate area of the
On independent and separate track beds (section 16, par- intersection has also proved to be effective.
agraphs 6 and 7 of the German Tram Construction and The standard width of pedestrian crossings is 4.00m, and
Operations Ordinance (BOStrab)), it may be advisable on the minimum is 3.00m. Cycle crossings should be at least
stretches of road, at intersections and at tram stops to pro- as wide as the cycle facilities. At crossings with widths of
vide signal-controlled crossing facilities for pedestrians. over 8.00m, there should be a second signal head in each
direction.
Where there is a track bed in the middle of the road, there
should be a waiting space with a minimum depth of 2.50m At the edge of the road and on islands where there are pe-
on at least one side. Particularly where trams travel at high destrian crossings, there must be sufficient waiting space
speeds, the crossing facility should additionally be pro- for the pedestrians who arrive during the red period (den-
tected by guard railing (see figure 20). sity: around 2 pedestrians per m² or 1 cyclist per 1.5m²).

32
3.7 Public transport stops Vehicle signal head Pedestrian
Pedestrian signal head Detector
A range of passenger-related, operational and local fac- Tram signal head
tors have to be considered when positioning and designing
public transport stops.
The location of public transport stops around an intersec- Tram1
Veh2b Veh1b
tion has to be taken into account in signal control. If there
is a public transport stop before the intersection, this al- Veh2a Veh1a
Tram stop length
lows signal-related loss times to be used to let passengers
get on and off, and means public transport vehicles can
be given a head start in front of vehicle platoons. On the
Veh1
downside, traffic on the intersecting road often does not
Veh2
have right of way while passengers are getting on and off, BLACKOUT BLACKOUT

Tram registration
and approaching passengers are also affected by this.
Figure 21: Dynamic public transport stop with a "time island"
If only buses going straight ahead or turning off to the right
have to be considered, their stop can be located immedi- cle is at the stop and along the whole length of the public
ately before the intersection or in right-turn lanes where transport stop (see figure 21). Dynamic public transport
the traffic volume is low. Bus drivers can be given a head stops for buses or track beds in the middle of the road can
start by means of a bar signal or permissive signal, which be combined with islands, the primary purpose of which is
enables them to pull in front of the other traffic waiting at then to allow passengers to get on and off. More favoura-
the intersection once they have let their passengers get on ble for the purpose of allowing passengers to get on and off
and off. are raised carriageways around the public transport stop,
which also allow disabled people to get off more easily.
If there is a public transport stop after the intersection, a
green period can be requested for the public transport ve- The signal- and control-related requirements of dynamic
hicle and reliably granted, since there is sufficient prepa- public transport stops can be significant. This is particular-
ration time available and the vehicle's unknown length of ly true when the public transport stop is located just after
stay at the stop does not have to be taken into account. an intersection, and the flow of traffic turning in from the
intersecting road has to be coordinated with the stopping
It is also advantageous that traffic on the intersecting road of the public transport vehicles.
can be given green immediately after the public transport
vehicle has passed through and during its stay at the stop. The relevant signal heads, which are only switched on de-
mand, should have the signal sequence BLACKOUT –
If it is not possible to locate a bus stop after the intersection AMBER – RED – BLACKOUT.
for buses turning off to the left, it is advisable to create a
bus stop at least 30m before the intersection together with 3.8 Road equipment
an advanced stop line for buses. Alternatively, it is possi-
ble to program a demand-based stage for buses turning off 3.8.1 Stop lines
to the left from a bus stop bay that extends right up to the
intersection. The stop line for vehicular traffic should be at a distance of
3.00m from the signal head, and at least 2.50m from it. It
In addition to structural measures, signal- and control-re- must also be at least 1.00m from the edge of a pedestrian
lated measures should also be considered. crossing (see figure 22).

Islands for public transport stops are a good option if it To permit good intervisibility between approaching cy-
is important to allow the rest of the traffic to flow freely clists and drivers, especially drivers of heavy goods vehi-
while the vehicle is at the stop. cles, the stop lines for the cycle traffic should be located
around 3.00m in front of those for the vehicular traffic. If
The signal- and control-related requirements of such solu-
tions are generally low due to the structural separation of 3.00

public transport traffic. If the island is accessed via cross- 1.00 0.50
ings, it is desirable and in the interests of safety to make
the green periods over the carriageways dependent on the
arrival of public transport vehicles and thus allow passen-
gers waiting at the side of the road to reach a vehicle that
is stopping safely.
0.50
0.20
Dynamic public transport stops are effective where the
rest of the traffic can wait while passengers get on and off
and the waiting areas for the passengers are at the side of
the road. This ensures a signal-protected period for pas- 0.12/0.15 [m]

sengers to get on and off during the entire time the vehi- Figure 22: Stop line and crossing markings

33
there is a high volume of cycle traffic, the advanced stop
line for cyclists can be placed 4.00m to 5.00m in front of 20
that for vehicular traffic.

Setback (s) of the stop line [m]

If there is limited space available, or at T-intersections
with a sharp angle, vehicles turning off to the right have to
also use the opposing traffic's approach to the intersection, 15
the stop line on that approach has to be set back further.
0m
For the following two important vehicles used for design 3.0
b=
purposes, the setback distance of the stop line can be cal- 0m
10 3.5
culated as shown in figures 23 and 24: b = .00m
4
b = .50m
– the largest vehicle permitted by the German Road Traf- 4
fic Licensing Regulations (StVZO), which is decisive at b = 00m
5.
least at intersections on main roads and collector roads b = 50m
5 5.
(which collect local streets to main roads); and b=

h
– the three-axle refuse vehicle, which generally also rep-
resents the heavy goods vehicle and the fire engine.
b

Further special cases (such as the typical refuse vehicle 0

in a locality) can be taken into account using the relevant 50 75 100 125 150
guidelines on tractrix curves. Angle of change of direction γ [gon]
Figure 24: Setback s of the stop line for the three-axle refuse
On approaches to intersections on which there are multi- vehicle
ple lanes available for the opposing traffic, it may be ad-
visable to stagger the stop lines (see figure 25).
To guide left-turning vehicles directly at the intersection,
lane lines or broken white lines each of which has a length
3.8.2 Lane lines of 1.00m can be used at the intersections with the mark-
Lane lines at intersections with traffic signals can help to ings of the lanes being crossed.
ensure clarity and guide the different traffic streams ef- If there is limited waiting space at the intersection, it is
fectively. generally enough to guide left-turning vehicles past each
other by means of lane lines on the outside. It is important
30 to indicate the point up to which left-turning vehicles can
go without entering the lane of the opposing traffic that is
going straight ahead. It is better to indicate the left-hand
limit of the straight-ahead lanes of the opposing traffic
25 than to use a waiting line, which is also possible.
Setback s of the stop line [m]

20

m
3 .00
b=
15 0m
= 3.5 m
b .00
4
b=
m
00
5.
=
10 b m
00
6.
=
b

5
h

b
0
50 75 100 125 150
Angle of change of direction γ [gon]

Figure 23: S
 etback s of the stop line for the largest vehicle per- Figure 25: Markings and signage for an intersection with stag-
mitted on German roads (StVZO) gered stop lines

34
3.8.3 Signage wards in the German Road Traffic Regulations (StVO).
In addition to what the German Road Traffic Regulations Lane-specific signage using the direction signs from
(StVO) and the General Administrative Regulations of the 209 onwards (StVO) to confirm the direction stipulated
Road Traffic Regulations (VwV-StVO) specify, the fol- by means of the direction arrows or arrows in traffic sig-
lowing principles apply to signage at intersections with nals is not permissible. On approaches to intersections
traffic signals: with more than two lanes, the signs should generally
also appear on the left.
– Positive and negative priority signs should be provided
and always fixed to the signal mast to ensure that the – Sign 131 is only to be used in built-up areas in cases
traffic flow is still regulated even when the traffic sig- where the traffic signals cannot be seen in time to stop
nals fail or are switched off. It is generally not necessary without problems. An additional amber flashing light is
to use the signs on the left as well. generally not necessary.
– If it is not possible to continue in all directions from – Outside built-up areas, the speed limit before traffic sig-
an approach to an intersection, the permitted directions nals is no higher than 70km/h. Gradual adjustment to
must be indicated by the direction signs from 209 on- this speed is generally not necessary.

35
 4 Control methods

4.1 Overview of control methods tended periods of time. Time-dependent and vehicle-ac-
tuated selection criteria can also be combined with each
A control method describes the operation of a signal pro- other.
gram; in other words, it describes the scope of variable
control parameters and signal program elements and how The macroscopic control level generally forms the frame-
they interact. work for the microscopic control level, the methods of
which enable short-term changes to the state of the traffic
Control methods for traffic signals differ in terms of how at the intersection to be made provided signal programs
the control of the traffic streams is implemented and the with fixed signal times are not used.
degree to which the signal program elements can be influ-
enced or modified. Which control method is to be select- Methods at the microscopic control level take into account
ed should be decided primarily on the basis of stipulated short-term changes to the state of the traffic (i.e. chang-
objectives. es that take place within a period measured in seconds or
within a cycle). They can be divided up into three sub-
Table 1 shows the control methods and their possible com- groups on the basis of the modifiability of individual ele-
binations on the basis of the criterion "modifiable signal ments of the signal program:
program elements through vehicle actuation". – fixed-time signal programs (B1);
A distinction is drawn between methods at the macroscop- – signal program adjustment methods (B2, B3, B4 and
ic and microscopic control level. B5); and
Methods at the macroscopic control level respond to mac- – signal program formation methods (B6).
roscopic parameters (e.g. average congestion length, av- All three sub-groups require signal programs or at least
erage traffic densities, emission limit values) and are in- signal program sections that are calculated offline.
tended, above all, to allow long-term changes in load in
transport networks and sections of networks or at individ- Fixed-time signal programs do not permit any changes to
ual intersections to be taken into account. The signal pro- the signal program elements.
grams selected on a time-dependent basis (A1 in table 1) In the signal program adjustment control methods, indi-
or a vehicle-actuated basis (A2) or the vehicle-actuated vidual elements can be changed depending on the traffic
framework signal plan (A3) remain in operation for ex- within a signal program with a specified cycle time.
Table 1: Overview of the control methods

Modifiable elements of the signal

Control methods Activation
ID number

programs through vehicle actuation

Main characteristic of the Vehi- Stage Num-

Time-de- Cycle Green Time
Generic term modifiability of the signal cle-actu- se- ber of
pendent time periods offset
programs ated quence stages

Time-dependent selection of
A1 X
signal programs
A: Macroscopic

Signal program
control level

selection Vehicle-actuated Variable elements of the signal program

selection of signal A2 X in combination with a control method
programs from group B
Formation of the frame- Vehicle-actuated formation of
work the framework signal A3 X
signal program programs
Fixed-time signal
B1
program

Green period adjustment B2 X

B: Microscopic
control level

Stage switching B3 Activation X

Signal program based on control
adjustment methods
Stage request B4 from group A X X

Time offset adjustment B5 X

Signal program
Free modifiability B6 X X X X X
formation

36
In green period adjustment, green periods can be adjusted – Measurement points for recording traffic density must
in terms of their duration or location in the signal program be located where there are free-flowing traffic streams
to suit the traffic situation. A fixed cycle time is speci- (i.e. away from congested areas on the approaches to
fied, and the offset that defines the relative start time of intersections); where possible, they should be located
the green periods within the cycle time may only change on the edge of the area being examined and outside the
by no more than the duration of the green period adjust- areas directly influenced by traffic signals or close to
ment (B2). major traffic generators.
In stage switching, the stage sequence changes while other – Measurement points for ascertaining the occupancy
elements remain fixed (B3). rate should be located on stretches of road that are sub-
ject to congestion but outside the area in which vehicles
In a stage request, the insertion of stages on demand into normally have to stop for a red signal on an approach to
the given stage sequence at one or more points of the sig- an intersection.
nal program is enabled by temporarily shortening the
green periods of other stages (B4). It may also be possible to use the measurement points for
other control methods.
In time offset adjustment, the relative start time of the
green periods within the cycle time can vary (B5). Furthermore:
Methods B2 to B5 are frequently combined with each – To eliminate randomness in situation detection, multi-
­other. ple measurement points or multiple conditional equa-
tions should be used. Different parameters can be com-
When signal programs are created, the modifiable e­ lements
bined.
of a signal program can be programmed independently of
traffic (B6). – To prevent excessively frequent signal program
switchovers, delays should be built into the decisions.
Different methods of the macroscopic and microscopic This can be done directly by means of time conditions
control levels can be used at different times of day. that prevent another switchover within a certain period
In signal group-oriented control, the term "stage" in ­table 1 or by means of a trend counter. The trend counter does
can be replaced with "signal group" because the individual not permit a change of signal program until the same
signal group is the reference element rather than the stage, switchover request has been made n times.
as in stage-oriented control.
The implementation of the various control methods can be 4.2.2.2 Request for a green period
either rule based or model based (see section 4.5).
The presence of vehicles is registered by detectors located
just before the stop line (the detector generally starts 3m to
4.2 Control parameters 5m away), where the first vehicle to make a request is gen-
erally standing. It can be effective to indicate the position
4.2.1 Overview of the parameters of the detectors by means of markings. Signs requesting
drivers to go right up to the stop line can also be used. Ve-
Directly or indirectly measurable parameters are used to hicles can also be detected by infrared or video equipment.
control a set of traffic signals in line with the specified ob-
jectives. The traffic-related parameters that can be deter- Cyclists are detected by means of narrow inductive loops
mined directly include the length of time since the request, with direction detection that are arranged diagonally. Due
the time interval between vehicles and the occupancy rate, to the fact that modern bicycles do not contain much met-
and the parameters calculated indirectly by means of mod- al, it may be effective to detect cyclists by means of sen-
els include average waiting times and congestion lengths, sors or other detectors.
for example. In addition, it is also possible to include en-
vironmental pollution parameters in the assessment. To Pedestrians and cyclists signalised together with them
some extent, these can be derived from the above parame- generally request a green period by means of pushbuttons
ters, but some have to be obtained separately. or contact detectors.

The control methods are based on individual parameters or To enable priority to be given to public transport vehicles
a combination of different parameters. or emergency vehicles at traffic signals, they have to be
dealt with separately and individually (registered and de-
4.2.2 Capture and processing of the parameters registered). Depending on the local situation, it may be
necessary to capture the vehicle type and information on
4.2.2.1 Vehicle-actuated signal program selection the line and route.
To capture the current traffic-related parameters, measure- The following signals are generally processed in vehi-
ment points are selected in the road network that should cle-actuated control: preregistration signals in preparation
meet the following requirements: for the green periods to come, primary registration signals
– They should not be in areas where there is frequent lane for precise switching of the green period and deregistra-
changing. tion signals once the vehicles have crossed the stop line.

37
Public transport stops must be taken into account in pre-

Time
registration and primary registration or by means of ad-
ditional messages. In addition, signals can be given by
the driver (e.g. readiness to depart) or the vehicle (e.g.
door-closing contact).

4.2.2.3 Use of intervals between vehicles

IV
Where intervals between vehicles are used, the net inter-
vals between the vehicles in a traffic stream are measured
by means of a detector on the approach to the intersection. Distance
The green period is extended until the interval between Detector
two vehicles is at least as long as a specified interval (IV)
or until the longest specified green period or the latest ex-
tension point in the cycle is reached. In the controller only V
those intervals are used (see figure 26) that are at least as lD = IV ·
3.6
large as the interval (IV) after the expiry of the minimum Figure 27: Location of the detector for intervals between vehic-
green period or after the earliest end point of the green les
period (T1). However, the beginning of the intervals that
lead to the end of a green period cancellation can also oc- Table 2 shows the distances of the detector from the stop
cur during the minimum green period or before the earliest line given intervals of 2s to 3s, depending on the speeds
end point (T1). driven in the relevant lane.
An interval of 2s to 5s can be specified for the cancellation Table 2: Detector distances lD for intervals between vehicles
of the green period. At busy intersections it should be be- Detector distance for
tween 2s and 3s. Values above 3s should only be selected Speed (V)
IV = 2s IV = 3s
in exceptional cases (e.g. where the intersection geome- 30km/h 15m 25m
try is unfavourable, on inclines or where there are a lot of 40km/h 20m 35m
heavy goods vehicles in the traffic). 50km/h 30m 40m
The distance lD of the detector from the stop line depends 60km/h 35m 50m
on the selected interval, the duration of the amber period 70km/h 40m 60m
and the underlying speed V (see figure 27).
If the distance lD of the detector from the stop line is fixed,
when calculating the minimum green period tmin (see fig-
ure 28), all vehicles between the detector and the stop line
(average queue length lveh) must be able to flow through
Time

during this time (average time required treq).

T2 = latest end of
green period However, intervals can also be recorded using long detec-
tors (see figure 29) that detect all vehicles in the storage
space up to 30m before the stop line. A threshold value
> IV of at least 0.1s should be specified as a criterion indicat-
Tx = termination of
IV green period due
ing that the detector space is no longer occupied. The end
to exceeding of IV of the green period is then initiated when the last vehicle
crosses the stop line.
Vehicle
platoon
T1 = earliest end of If the detectors for calculating the intervals between ve-
in green
wave green period hicles also enable green periods to be requested, it is nec-
essary to position a further detector just before the stop
line. This ensures that vehicles can also register if they

Detector
IV

hicle
of ve
edge lD
Rear

lD
Distance t min ·t
lveh reg
Measurement section Stop line
Figure 26: C
 alculation of the green period adjustment with in- Figure 28: Calculation of the minimum green period as a fixed
tervals in a green wave (schematic diagram) value

38
were unable to get through the intersection in the previous 4.2.2.5 Use of congestion and congestion length
green period.
Critical congestion areas on approaches to intersections
When intervals between vehicles are used in green waves, can be monitored by means of detectors. The following
it must be taken into account that the first vehicles in a pla- may be critical congestion areas:
toon arrive at the measurement section before the earliest
– the beginning of a turn-off lane, if there is a risk that
point at which the green period can be ended.
the turning vehicles will queue back into the parallel
straight-ahead lanes (in this case, the detector is posi-
4.2.2.4 Use of the occupancy rate tioned at the beginning of the turn-off lane);
When the occupancy rate is used, the traffic flow is evalu- – the straight-ahead lanes around the beginning of a turn-
ated taking traffic load, speed and vehicle length into con- off lane or separate lane for public transport vehicles,
sideration. Under certain circumstances, response times if there is a risk that the turn-off lane or separate lane
can be a little slower than in interval control. In particular, cannot be reached due to a tailback of vehicles going
the longer intervals that occur when heavy goods vehicles straight ahead (in this case, the detector is positioned in
approach do not result in a premature end of the green pe- the straight-ahead lane);
riod. – the exit area of a motorway or motorway-like road;
The detection ranges are the same as for intervals between – the exit to an intersection if there are further intersec-
vehicles. They should be between 2m and 5m in length in tions in rapid succession.
the direction of travel.
– Congested vehicles in a permitted turn-off stream at the
The measured values for each lane are analysed separate- intersection can also be detected by detectors and con-
ly. The occupancy rate smoothed by means of a compen- trolled. Consequently, far-reaching design or construc-
sation method, possibly with a compensation factor for a tion measures such as the creation of left-turn lanes or
rising and falling trend of the original values, serves as the separate lanes for public transport and the widening of
parameter here (see figure 30). intersections can be avoided.

Detector

Long loop Detector

Detector

25 to 30m
3m
Figure 29: Example of a long loop

Original values per second

Occupancy rate [%]

100 Exponentially smoothed values

50

Threshold for the

0 termination of the
0 5 10 15 20 25 green period
Time [s]

Detector occupancy at the measurement section

Figure 30: Example of the utilisation-dependent ending of the green period

39
Congestion is recognised when a vehicle occupies the de- With a rule-based controller, neighbouring areas should be
tector for longer than a set threshold period. This value linked, as required, by means of the control logic so that
must not be set too low; otherwise, when there are long, it is possible to respond to events that affect a wide area.
slow-moving vehicles, it is concluded that there is con-
Once the area for signal program selection is defined,
gestion. Threshold values between 5s and 15s are recom-
comprehensive traffic analyses have to be carried out, and
mended.
characteristic traffic load statuses and traffic structures
Congestion detectors are around 0.5m to 1.0m narrower have to be captured and analysed. The signal programs for
than the lane and at least 6 metres long, thus ensuring that the different traffic situations are then developed.
they are always activated when there is congestion. The various signal programs should cover the differenc-
es in load in the course of a day (rush hours and periods
If the congestion detector is positioned on the approach of normal or low levels of traffic), a week (working days,
to the intersection, it must be outside the usual congestion Sundays and public holidays) and a year ("normal" peri-
length, since otherwise constant congestion would be de- ods, holiday periods, main shopping periods) as well as
tected and the green period would be extended. In posi- high volumes of traffic for other reasons (e.g. holiday traf-
tioning the detector, the response times of vehicle-actuat- fic, event-related traffic).
ed control methods have to be taken into account, because
the congestion may continue to build until the measures to The switchover from one signal program to another re-
reduce the congestion take effect. (Note: the nth vehicle in quires a defined switchover method to be specified or a
the congestion starts to move around n seconds after the selection to be made from a number of available methods
beginning of the green period.) (see section 4.5.4).

If different congestion lengths have to be ascertained, mul- Since vehicle-actuated signal program selection merely
tiple sections must be formed in order to be able to respond assigns the signal programs, the effectiveness of the con-
appropriately. In addition, methods of estimating conges- trol method depends on the interpretation of the traffic sit-
tion lengths, which are based on raw data from conven- uation on the basis of local measured values and the corre-
tional interval detectors and the green periods of the traffic sponding allocation of the available signal programs.
signals, are used.
4.3.1.2 Time-dependent selection of signal programs
If the controller responds to congestion as a parameter, dif-
In time-dependent signal program selection, a suitable sig-
ferent measures can be initiated:
nal program is selected from a number of predefined sig-
– extension of the green period of the corresponding ap- nal programs based on the calendar day and time of day.
proach to the intersection at the expense of curtailing a This is adequate when traffic loads are stable and predict-
green period in the preceding stage or a shorter green able over the course of each day and week.
period in the subsequent stage(s). When congestion has
been detected, the green period should be long enough The ascertainment and analysis of the parameters, the cal-
to allow all the vehicles between the stop line and de- culation of the control parameters and of the signal pro-
tector to pass through the intersection. grams and the specification of the switching times of the
traffic signals all take place offline.
– reduction of the inflow into the congested area by cur-
tailing the green periods at the preceding intersection. 4.3.1.3 Vehicle-actuated selection of signal programs
The green period can also be calculated variably by count- In vehicle-actuated signal program selection, a suitable
ing the vehicles arriving during the preceding red period. signal program is selected from a number of predefined
Counting the vehicles is effective particularly when there signal programs based on the traffic data currently being
is little traffic in secondary directions, since otherwise the captured.
result would be unnecessarily long green periods.
The prepared and generally smoothed parameters of the
current traffic flow can be combined with conditional
equations and threshold values in the controller logic in
4.3 Notes on using the control methods order to select the signal programs or serve as input pa-
4.3.1 Signal program selection rameters for model-based implementation of the control
methods.
4.3.1.1 Framework conditions
When vehicle-actuated signal program selection is put
At intersections with sufficient spare capacity, it may be into operation, measured-value and switchover protocols
possible to use a single signal program at all times of the should be created and the traffic should be monitored over
day, provided a controller that responds with flexibility is a number of days. A detailed comparison of the parame-
implemented by means of microscopic control methods. ters can then be made, and the control quality can thus be
However, if different signal programs are required to suit improved.
different traffic situations, these are activated by means of
either time-dependent or vehicle-actuated signal program
selection.

40
4.3.2 Formation of framework signal programs When stages are requested by public transport vehicles,
the vehicles must be registered as early as possible before
In the vehicle-actuated formation of framework signal
reaching the stop line. Since the request point can be up to
programs, unlike in signal program selection, in which
500m before the stop line, depending on speed and local
a prepared signal program is selected, a new framework
factors, additional query criteria are necessary if the dis-
signal program is formed on the basis of current meas-
tances around intersections or public transport stops are
ured values. The parameters for the earliest and latest start
short.
times or end times of the green periods or the stage or stage
sequence are varied, for example. The methods of the mi- By combining green period adjustment with stage request-
croscopic control level are used on the basis of a frame- ing for public transport vehicles, a largely disruption-free
work signal program like this. trip can be achieved even when public transport lanes are
only available on some sections.
4.3.3 Fixed-time signal programs
4.3.4.4 Time offset adjustment
Fixed-time signal programs meet the requirements de-
pending on local and traffic-related factors. On the basis In time offset adjustment, the starting points of all green
of the volumes of motor traffic involved and the interests periods in the cycle can be varied by a set value. This is
of the other road user groups, the specification of the cy- important, in particular, when the green periods of the in-
cle time is particularly important. Since no changes are dividual stages are to be coordinated to optimum effect
made to the signal program elements, fixed-time signal given the inflow from neighbouring signal-controlled in-
programs should preferably be used where it can be fore- tersections.
seen that loads will stay the same for an extended period. Time offset adjustment is particularly suitable for varying
traffic loads.
4.3.4 Signal program adjustment
4.3.5 Signal program formation
4.3.4.1 Green period adjustment
In signal program formation, all modifiable elements of
The green period is adjusted to suit current traffic require- a signal program are determined on the basis of current
ments in terms of the inflowing vehicles after the expiry measurements of the traffic load. This method is suitable
of the selected minimum green period or once an earliest for traffic signals at intersections that are coordinated with
point in the cycle is reached. The methods used to adjust other intersections. Priorities in traffic handling (e.g. when
green periods differ, above all, in terms of the criteria used requests are made by public transport vehicles) can be tak-
to change a current green period in order to favour a dif- en into account well in signal program formation.
ferent traffic stream. An assessment is carried out on the
basis of: The following have to be specified:
– intervals between vehicles; – the intergreen periods and possibly also the time off-
– levels of occupancy; sets;
– congestion lengths; or – the minimum and maximum durations of the green pe-
riods; and
– parameters such as waiting times or stops obtained
from models. – rules for the switching of the signal groups.
In addition, the following can be specified:
4.3.4.2 Stage switching – the interstage periods for all stage sequences;
In stage switching, a preset stage sequence is changed on – the maximum number of stages;
request, but the number of stages remains the same. This
– the maximum red period after a request; and
is effective, for example, in measures to speed up public
transport vehicle trip times if the forecast time of arrival – the most favourable stage sequences for different re-
does not fall within the time window when it is possible to quests.
adjust the green period. The variable elements of the signal program can be speci-
fied differently depending on the time of day. These speci-
4.3.4.3 Stage requesting fications must take into account the traffic handling prior-
In a stage request, a stage is inserted in a given stage se- ities and the available storage spaces for waiting vehicles,
quence only on request in order to enable traffic streams in particular.
that do not occur constantly (e.g. turning-off vehicle
streams, public transport vehicles, cyclists, pedestrians) to 4.4 Coordination
negotiate the intersection when required.
4.4.1 Objectives
In order to keep the waiting times as short as possible for
road users making a request, it should be possible to acti- Green periods of successive sets of signals can be coordi-
vate the stages not at a fixed point in the cycle but up to a nated with each other by means of suitable time offsets.
latest possible time permitted by the coordinated system. The aim of this is to allow most of the affected road users
It is good if the stage can be made available at multiple to pass through a series of sets of traffic signals without
points in the signal program. stopping.

41
Coordination is relevant at individual or neighbouring Coordination of pedestrian streams at intersections makes
traffic signals for all road user groups (i.e. motor vehi- sense when there are:
cles, public transport vehicles, cyclists and pedestrians). – successive crossing on roads with refuges/traffic is-
On sections of road or in transport networks, coordination lands;
is of particular importance for vehicular traffic and public
transport vehicles but only to a very limited extent for cy- – successive crossings for crossing multiple approaches
cling traffic due to the wider distribution of speeds. to an intersection.
The primary purpose of coordination is to reduce the jour- The various coordination options are explained in detail in
ney times of vehicles in the road network and thus also fuel section 2.3 (signal program structure).
consumption and emissions. To this end, and in order to
Cycle signals should generally be coordinated progres-
improve road safety as well, efforts are made to minimise
sively due to the higher speeds of cyclists compared to
the distribution of speeds between vehicles and the num-
pedestrians and the greater waiting space required on ref-
ber of stops made by all vehicles. This should be optimised
uges/traffic islands as well as other waiting areas where
across the whole road network.
there are successive crossings.
In addition to the traffic-related and environmental bene-
fits this brings, coordinating vehicular traffic in the form The following design principles have to be taken into ac-
of a green wave also helps to meet the urban development count where there is coordination:
objective of concentrating traffic streams on main roads – The time offset of successive cycle signals should be
and thus reducing the load on secondary roads across ex- specified for the end of the green period at a sufficiently
tensive areas. slow speed.
When coordination is planned, the interests of drivers, – The starting times of the green periods for cycle signals
public transport vehicles, pedestrians and cyclists have to should be coordinated in such a way that, even when
be taken account, as well as fire engines, police vehicles, cyclists are riding at speed, they only get to the next
ambulances and other emergency vehicles, as necessary. crossing at the start of the green period.
Appropriate consideration of different road user groups – In shared signalisation with pedestrian traffic, these
means that compromises have to be found depending on conditions should be taken into account where cycle
time-related and local factors so that no group is unfairly crossings are marked next to the pedestrian crossings.
disadvantaged. It is advantageous to agree planning objec-
tives. Depending on the planning requirements, different
4.4.4 Coordination on sections of road
types of coordination may be implemented for road users
based, for example, on possible waiting times for pedes- 4.4.4.1 Structural prerequisites
trians, on the number of stops made by motor vehicles or
on optimising the operation of public transport vehicles. When green waves are designed for vehicular traffic, the
following conditions have to be taken into account be-
4.4.2 Fundamentals cause they can have a key influence on the quality of co-
Coordination can be illustrated well in a time-space dia- ordination:
gram. This diagram shows the movement of road users in – More than one straight-ahead lane and the creation of
green waves (time-space waves). The width of the waves cycle facilities have a positive impact on the quality of
represents the number of road users coordinated. It can coordination because any cycling traffic can then be
vary along coordinated stretches of road and corresponds overtaken.
to the traffic load. Newly joining road users can be added
to the continuous green band and clearly highlighted in the – No stopping signs can prevent the quality of the traffic
time-space diagram. flow from being impaired by stopping and parking ve-
hicles.
The direction and density of the traffic streams must be
known in order to implement coordination. Important – Dedicated lanes should be provided for vehicles that are
changes to the traffic in the course of a day or when there turning off the road so as not to hinder vehicles going
are special events taking place necessitate differentiated straight ahead and to prevent rear-end collisions.
designs. – Zebra crossings (road sign number 293 of the German
Road Traffic Regulations – StVO) are not permitted on
4.4.3 Coordination at intersections roads with a green wave (see section 26 of the General
At widened intersections and large roundabouts with mul- Administrative Regulations of the Road Traffic Regu-
tiple successive sets of signals, (internal) coordination is lations – VwV-StVO).
particularly important, above all in order to keep storage – Green waves for vehicular traffic are effective for sig-
space free. This can result in constraints for the selection nal-controlled intersections up to 750m apart, and in
of the signal staging and stage sequence. particularly favourable cases up to 1,000m apart. At
In order to coordinate public transport vehicles at intersec- greater distances than that, platoons of vehicles become
tions, the same conditions apply as for regular vehicular so dispersed that it generally no longer makes sense to
traffic. In addition, the time spent at stops also has to be coordinate the traffic signals at the different intersec-
taken into account. tions.

42
4.4.4.2 Traffic control conditions The capacity utilisation must be less than 0.85 to allow
good coordination quality to be achieved. The aim must
The cycle time must be the same at all intersections in therefore be to ensure there is sufficient capacity for the
green waves. This is also referred to as the system cycle vehicular traffic at all intersections in the green wave by
time. The first step is to ascertain the best cycle times for means of suitable structural and operational measures.
the intersections on a section of road. The intersection
with the longest cycle time is decisive. The progression speed Vp is represented in the time-
space diagram as the inclination of the centre line of a
This cycle time ensures that all traffic streams at the in- green band. A progression speed of 90% to 100% of the
dividual intersections can be handled without restrictive speed limit is generally recommended.
coordination conditions. Short-term deviations from this
system cycle time, which can occur as a consequence of Factors that lead to a reduction in speed (e.g. a high pro-
green period adjustments and requests, must balance each portion of heavy goods vehicles, a large incline, tight
other out. bends, a poor road surface) must be taken into account at
the design stage.
Short cycles within the system cycle time can be used to
control the traffic flow: The progression speeds in the different directions Vp,dir1
and Vp,dir2 (in km/h in each case) are represented in green
– on roads with a low traffic load that are connected to bands for the continuous vehicle streams. These incorpo-
main roads; rate the calculated green periods for the vehicle streams to
– where there is limited storage space for waiting vehi- be coordinated and are usually shown in a time-space dia-
cles; gram (see figure 31).

– at signal-controlled pedestrian crossings; or Intersection points (IP) are characteristic points in a

– at intersections where there is a low volume of traffic on time-space diagram for green waves on a bidirectional
the intersecting road. road. They are the points of intersection of the centre lines
of two opposing green bands. The distance between neigh-
The sum of the cycle times of the short cycles must be bouring intersection points is referred to as the intersec-
equal to the system cycle time. tion point spacing lIP (m).

80
75
75
70
31 s

20 s

33 s
60 16 s
62

57

56
50
50

52
50

43
43
44

40 42

42
40

30
34

19 s*
19 s*

19 s*

32

20
18

20
22
12

12

10

10

/h
5km
=4
9

VP
2

80
2
2

75
75
70

33 s
31 s

20 s

16 s

60
62

57

56

V
=4
50
50

P
5km
52

/h
50
tcyc= 80s

43
43
44

40
42

42
40

* In a simultaneous
30
34

19 s*
19 s*
19s*

32
left turning

20

20
18

22

system
12

12

10

10
** Free

8
2

0
0
2

A B
**

Junction number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Stop line spacing
Intersection point spacing

Figure 31: Example of a time-space diagram

43
If an intersection is located exactly on an intersection – If a signal-controlled intersection is over 100m after a
point, the available duration of the green periods in both public transport stop, advance signals can be used at
directions and the required intergreen periods reaches its an appropriate distance from the intersection. These in-
maximum. The green bands overlap completely. dicate the BOStrab go signal switched in progression
if the subsequent signal-controlled intersection can be
The minimum is reached when the green bands no longer passed through at the permitted operating speed limit
overlap. The intersection is then remote from the intersec- without coming to a halt. The signal head is blacked out
tion point. if the driver should expect to have to come to a halt at
The following relationship exists between the cycle time the upcoming intersection.
tcyc, the progression speeds Vp in both directions and the
intersection point spacing lIP: 4.4.4.4 Inclusion of cyclists
On important primary routes in cycle networks, the cy-
3.6 · lIP 3.6 · lIP cling traffic should be included in coordination analyses,
tcyc [s] = –––––––– + –––––––– and the time-space lines of cyclists should be included in
Vp,dir1 Vp,dir2
the time-space diagram for vehicles. In the interests of
Speed signals show drivers the speeds to drive at in green clarity, it can also be useful to create a separate time-space
waves if they want to be able to get through the next sig- diagram for cyclists. It should be considered whether the
nal-controlled intersection without stopping. By slowing cycling traffic can be carried along in a secondary wave of
down the first vehicles and speeding up the last vehicles in the green wave of the vehicular traffic.
the same platoon, the platoon can be kept closer together One problem with cycle traffic is the wide range of speeds
until the next signal-controlled intersection, and better ca- at which cyclists ride (from around 10km/h to 25km/h),
pacity utilisation can thus be achieved. which can lead to wide dispersal of the platoon from one
Since the speeds indicated are based on the green period at intersection to the next. For planning purposes, a progres-
a subsequent signal-controlled intersection, reliable speed sion speed of between 16km/h and 20km/h can be as-
indications are only possible with fixed-time controllers. sumed.

4.4.5 Coordination in transport networks

4.4.4.3 Inclusion of public transport vehicles
Coordination is desirable in the road network when sec-
Public transport vehicles make very different progress tions of road with traffic signals intersect. The same rules
from the vehicle platoon. Due to their scheduled stops and apply as to the coordination on sections of road, particular-
the restrictions on sudden startup acceleration and braking ly with regard to the shared system cycle time.
for the safety of any passengers who are standing, pub-
lic transport vehicles' speeds are considerably lower than The problems associated with the competing requirements
those of other traffic on a section of road with a green of different groups of road users and vehicle streams that
wave. exist for intersections and sections of road are much more
complex in road networks because there are significantly
And because the time they spend at public transport stops more conflicting objectives:
varies, so does the time it takes them to arrive at a sig- – green waves on different roads come together, often at
nal-controlled intersection. central intersections with high capacity utilisation;
In order to ensure good traffic flow quality for public – there are multiple traffic streams with a high or similar
transport vehicles as well, its specific attributes must be traffic density, and a lack of traffic stability due to over-
taken into account in green wave planning. loaded intersections; and
– there are an increased number of potential conflicting
Signals in accordance with the German Tram Construc- objectives between the groups of road users in the road
tion and Operations Ordinance (BOStrab) can improve
network.
green waves for public transport vehicles:
– A door-closing signal is advantageous if the traffic sig- Larger transport networks should be divided up into small-
nals come right after a public transport stop. It reminds er sub-networks. It is important that the sub-networks
the driver to stop letting passengers on and off if possi- should have suitable transition points, wherever possible.
ble, is generally shown for 5s and ends with the signal
that gives the vehicle right of way. The traffic signals
can then be passed through without any further delay. 4.5 Planning of the control system
– If a signal-controlled intersection is up to around 100m 4.5.1 Rule-based implementation of the control
after a public transport stop, an additional signal head is
methods
recommended at the front of the stop for BOStrab sig-
nals, the signals of which are switched in progression In rule-based implementation of the control methods, a
with the signals at the intersection. Consequently, brak- flow chart is generally traversed second by second. This
ing and stopping between the public transport stop and is based on conditions and actions and leads to decisions
intersection are avoided. being taken in signal program formation on the basis of

44
the current control statuses and parameters (see figure Standardised forms of representation in accordance with
32). Comparative and threshold values such as the inter- DIN 66001 (program flow chart) or DIN 66261 (Nassi/
val between vehicles, occupancy rate and journey time or Shneiderman structograms) or decision tables are rec-
speed, but also guidelines such as the permitted green pe- ommended for describing the logic. Examples are shown
riod ranges or the delay to the start of a green period are in figure 33. Flow charts and structograms are the usual
defined by means of parameterisation. forms of documentation used for rule-based controllers.
For certain applications, such as vehicle-actuated signal
program selection in a sub-network, the decision table has
Parameter input also proved to be an effective form of documentation. It
describes under what conditions which actions have been
carried out. The three elements of a decision table are the
conditions, the rules and the actions. The rules specify
Analysis what status the conditions have to have for the associated
Decision action to be executed. All conditions, rules and actions are
assigned priorities.
Logical condition
In order not to have to formulate recurring flows and con-
trol structures multiple times, functions or sub-programs
Time-related condition should be used that can then be deployed as modules at
different intersections that control traffic in the same way.
The behaviour of these modules is controlled by means of
Status condition
parameters.

4.5.2 Standardised rule-based implementation of the

control methods
In standardised rule-based implementations, vehicle-actu-
ated controllers can also be created by supplying charac-
Switching commands
teristic parameters and control parameters.
Figure 32: Rule-based implementation of a control system The characteristic parameters include:
– requirement parameters;
The following points have proved in practice to be positive – design parameters;
for structured, clear and easily modified control: – congestion detection; and
– clear structuring of the logic into simple, manageable – public transport parameters.
functions;
The control parameters include:
– notes in the form of comments within the logic;
– minimum and maximum green and red periods;
– use of simple or one- or two-dimensional indexed pa-
– framework parameters;
rameters (parameter series and parameter fields) that
can be modified without changing the logic or the – stage sequence parameters; and
source code. – priority parameters (signal groups, streams, stages).
The links between decision elements and action elements The parameters are grouped into sets, and different pa-
can be represented in different ways. rameter sets can be allocated to different traffic situations.

Flow chart Structogram Decision table

L1 Yes L1 Rules
Yes No
Conditions R1 R2 R3 R4
IP1.2 IP1.2 IP1.3
C1 L1 Y N N N
C2
or:
C3
or:
Actions
Yes
L1 IP1.2 L1 A1 IP1.2 X
No Yes IP1.2 A2
No IP1.3 A3
IP1.3

Figure 33: Options for representing a logic query

45
4.5.3 Model-based implementation of the control The input and output variables of the control method and
methods the way in which it works must be clearly described. In
addition, all electrical installations (systems and devices),
The model-based implementation of the control methods
the model calibration and the target variables have to be
is based not directly on the parameters analysed but on the
comprehensively documented.
values that are further processed in a model. Model-based
control methods require, in addition to the traffic model, Due to the level of complexity involved, model-based and
a control model that describes the degrees of freedom of standardised rule-based implementations of the control
the control system. An optimisation algorithm systemati- methods are not documented in a flow chart or structo-
cally tests the possible control settings and evaluates them gram. Since the behaviour of these control systems is con-
in terms of the desired function on the basis of the mod- trolled by parameters, all these parameters have to be list-
elled effects. A model-based control method is formulat- ed in order to make the control system clear to the user.
ed as generally applicable to intersections and transport The individual parameterisation must be documented in
networks and is adjusted to suit specific surroundings by such a way that the traffic control objectives and the be-
means of configuration data. haviour of the control system can be understood. The pa-
Model-based control methods can be used at intersections, rameters include, for example, the traffic model parame-
on sections of road and in transport networks. By means ters and the control parameters.
of assessment methods involving multiple criteria, they The traffic model parameters include, for example:
allow the needs of the different groups of road users or
environment-related parameters to be included in optimi- – vehicle platoon dissolution;
sation. – times required for the traffic streams at the intersection;
and
The traffic is modelled on an ongoing basis in a dynamic
traffic model based on data captured at the measurement – driving times or progression speeds for individual
sections. The detailed analysis of the traffic, taking into stretches of road.
account a wide range of traffic-related parameters, enables Control parameters are:
traffic statuses to be categorised and disruptions to the traf-
fic flow to be detected in good time. – permitted cycle times;
Depending on the algorithms used, either measurement – minimum and maximum cycle times;
points outside the immediate storage areas on the ap- – minimum and maximum green periods;
proach to an intersection (i.e. between 50m and 200m be-
– permitted stage sequences;
fore the stop line) or detectors in the immediate area of the
intersection are used. The number of measurement points – specification of traffic streams in the road network (op-
depends on the level of precision required for traffic anal- tional);
ysis and forecasting. – weighting factors for optimisation criteria (e.g. waiting
times and stops per lane on the stretches of road); and
Parameter input the
– optimisation plan (sequence in which the intersections
of the road network are optimised).
Traffic demand model
Status analysis + short-term forecast
4.5.4 Switchover methods
4.5.4.1 Overview
The change from one signal program to another is known
Traffic flow model
as a switchover. The switchover must take place at a point
in time that makes sense given the traffic situation. It
Optimisation should be implemented with as little disruption as possible
to the traffic flow, and the control-related effort required to
Signal program Traffic impact model achieve it must be reasonable.
Parameter calculation
If, at complex intersections, the interstage periods between
the same stages of the signal programs to be switched must
Control model not be changed, a switchover must not start or end dur-
Variation of the control variables ing such an interstage period. This must be prevented by
means of appropriate technical or program-related meas-
ures.
When switchovers are planned for complex transport net-
Switching commands works, considerable constraints may have to be taken into
account due to the available equipment and technical sys-
Figure 34: M
 odel-based implementation of a control system tems.

46
4.5.4.2 Switchover at a specified time – Searching for the shortest idle time in a specified num-
ber of cycles. It is advantageous to use cycle times with
A switchover at a specified time requires the least plan- the lowest possible common denominator.
ning outlay, at least for stand-alone controllers. The
switchover times (SWT) can be within or outside the green – Specification of multiple switchover times in every sig-
periods in the coordination direction. The switchover nal program. The idle times to be expected are obtained
times must not come during a transition period (amber sig- in pairs. The switchover takes place during the shortest
nal). idle time.

In a direct switchover the current signal program when 4.5.4.3 Switchover on the basis of shortening/
the switchover request is received runs until the switcho- lengthening
ver time SWT1. If the switchover time is reached in the In a signal program switchover on the basis of the com-
previous signal program, it is deactivated, and the subse- bined shortening/lengthening method, the new signal pro-
quent signal program is activated, starting at the switcho- gram should be checked to ascertain whether there is a
ver time UZP2 (see figure 35). point in time at which the signal status is the same as the
In a switchover method with an idle time, there is an idle current signal status. If there is, the new point in time is
time between SWT1 and SWT2 as a result of the signal set immediately, and the new signal program is started.
programs having different cycle times or switchover times The synchronisation with the reference time index can
(see figure 36). be restored by means of shortening or lengthening. The
aim here is to restore the synchronisation of the system
Idle times as long as a cycle time are possible. The idle as quickly as possible without having a critical impact on
times are thus only acceptable if road users with a stop sig- traffic control.
nal can be expected to tolerate them and if any congestion
can be dispersed within a short time. Shortening is only possible if the signalisation does not
change in the meantime and no minimum times are violat-
For coordinated controllers, the switchover method with ed as a result of this shortening.
an idle time is a simple option for planning purposes. How- If the signal program has to be lengthened, synchronisa-
ever, there are limits on the duration of the idle times due tion is restored within a cycle. The waiting times can be
to the disruptive effects they can have on the traffic flow. distributed differently to the different signal stages.
When signal programs are switched over on the basis of If an identical signal status cannot be found, the current
vehicle-actuated decisions, it should be noted that the traf- signal program is executed until an identical signal status
fic flow can be disrupted by idle times, and that this can is detected or until the switchover time is reached. At this
lead to a further decision on a vehicle-actuated switchover point, a switch takes place to the switchover time of the
and thus cause instability in the control system. new signal program.
There are various ways of reducing the duration of or com-
pletely avoiding idle times: 4.5.4.4 Switchover without a specified switchover time
– Specifying a maximum duration for an idle time. As a In a signal program switch without a specified switch
result, it may take several steps and a number of cycles time, the current signal program is deactivated when the
before the new signal program can be synchronised. switchover request is received, and its signalisation status
is compared with that of the desired signal program. If
Switchover request End of switchover there is no match, the relevant signal groups are switched
to the signalisation status of the desired signal program
SWT1 taking into account the minimum green periods tgrn,min,
the intergreen period tint, any time offset conditions and
tcyc1
any maximum green periods and red periods, taking into
tcyc2 account the synchronisation to the signalisation status of
the desired signal program. Once all signal groups have
SWT2 reached their target status, the new signal program is acti-
vated (see figure 37).
Figure 35: Direct switchover
Switchover request End of switchover
Switchover request End of switchover

SWT1 Signal group 1

tcyc1
Signal group 2
tcyc1
Idle time

tmin,grn1 tint1-2 tmin,grn2-1

tcyc2 Signal group 1
ttcyc2
Signal group 2 Procedure in accordance
SWT2 SWT2 SWT2 with specified schema

Figure 36: Switchover with idle time Figure 37: S

 witchover without a specified switchover time

47
The current signal program does not have to run until the The use of automated tests with randomly controlled crea-
next specified switchover time. The transition from the tion of a large number of input assignments facilitates the
current signalisation status to the desired signal program testing of all branch points. Automated tests offer more
takes place in the shortest possible time under the given security in terms of the occurrence of unforeseen control
conditions. events.
The test cases should not be set up on the basis of the
planned process alone but on the basis of the traffic control
4.5.5 Testing the control system requirements. The extent of the tests carried out depends
on the system and should be determined by the system
Errors in the control logic can be largely eliminated by operator.
traffic engineers conducting traffic control tests in test en-
vironments. The testing involves checking that all the traf- Using simulation methods it is possible for test purpos-
fic control requirements are met. Finding these kinds of es to map traffic flows at the intersection and in transport
errors once the system is in operation on site can be very networks for vehicles on the basis of car-following mod-
time-consuming. els, lane-changing models, etc. and combine them with
different control systems via an interface. The journeys of
In order to conduct the test, test rules are generally created public transport vehicles are simulated taking into account
with so many test cases per signal program that all branch timetables and times spent at stops for passengers. The pa-
points are tested once in the process. In more complex pro- rameters required to assess the quality of a control system
cesses, that leads to a high number of required test cases. can be obtained from the simulated traffic flow.

48
 5 Special forms of signalisation

5.1 Partially signalised intersections in such a way that the time savings achieved in the sec-
ondary direction are cancelled out by the time losses in the
5.1.1 Overview primary direction.
At intersections with partial signalisation, some but not In these load ranges, full signalisation generally does not
all movements are signal controlled. One characteristic of enable additional capacity reserves to be exploited com-
partially signalised intersections is that vehicles in second- pared to partial signalisation.
ary streams at priority-controlled intersections are given If safety considerations or limited space mean that the traf-
the opportunity to proceed after waiting for a certain time. fic in the primary direction has to be handled in different
Partial signalisation is used to meet the following objec- stages with full signalisation and therefore the approaches
tives: to the intersection are given right of way at different times,
the intersection's capacity generally decreases.
– to increase road safety at intersections that would oth-
erwise not be signalised; 5.1.3 Situations for partially signalised intersections
– to increase the capacity of unsignalised intersections
with a limited outlay for signal control; 5.1.3.1 Creation of intervals for vehicles that have to
– to reduce road users' waiting times compared to unsig- wait
nalised intersections; At an intersection that is not fully signalised, a signal con-
– to avoid unnecessary loss times in the primary direc- trol intervention is made for a short time in heavy vehicle
tions at fully signalised intersections, since if there are streams with right of way in order to create intervals for
sufficiently large intervals between the vehicles in the vehicles in secondary traffic streams that are obliged to
main stream, it is possible to turn into it or cross it with- wait. This can be done at T-intersections, four-way inter-
out bringing vehicles with right of way to a halt; sections and roundabouts.
– to avoid measures to upgrade the intersection that would A short interruption of a heavy main stream can facilitate:
require too much space (right-turn lanes at roundabouts,
slip lanes at at-grade intersections, grade-separated or – turning left into the road at T-intersections (the alterna-
partially grade-separated solutions); and tive of a slip lane on the left of the main road can thus
be dispensed with, for example);
– to save investment and operating costs, since the equip-
ment, peripherals and control of a partially signalised – turning into or crossing an intersecting road at a four-
intersection can be implemented more reasonably than way intersection (there is thus no need, for example, to
that of a fully signalised intersection. widen the main road to provide waiting space around a
central island in the intersection); or
5.1.2 Suitable application situations – the entry of buses into roundabouts.
The average waiting time in the secondary direction and In order to detect vehicles that are required to wait, suit-
the total loss time on all arms of the intersection can be able detection equipment is required before the waiting
used to assess the quality of the traffic flow. or stop line (e.g. induction loops), the geometry of which
should ensure that the key part of the approach to the inter-
If the average waiting time in the secondary direction is section is covered (see figure 38). Additional signs telling
limited to 45s, based on quality level D of the German drivers to proceed to the stop line can be dispensed with.
Highway Capacity Manual (HBS), and there are traffic
densities of up to 2,000 vehicles per hour in the primary To prevent misunderstandings between drivers turning
direction, traffic densities of 200 to 400 vehicles per hour into or crossing an intersecting road and drivers in traffic
are permitted in the secondary direction at partially signal- that is starting up after a red period, the stop lines in the
ised intersections. main arms of the intersection can be positioned at a sig-
nificant distance (30 to 40m) from the intersection (see
In any given case, the capacity in the secondary direction figure 38).
depends, above all, on the following factors:
– the traffic load in the primary direction; Once a specified waiting time threshold is reached, the
vehicles that do not have priority are given an interval in
– the proportion of the secondary stream accounted for by the main stream. The signal changes from BLACKOUT
vehicles turning left into the road; to AMBER and then RED. If no further vehicles are de-
– the duration of the red period for the primary direction; tected in the secondary road's approach to the intersection,
– the level of the waiting time threshold for the secondary the signal for the primary direction switches straight back
direction. from RED to the default setting of BLACKOUT.
At a partially signalised intersection, the total loss times at A set of set-back pedestrian crossing signals on an ap-
the intersection in the specified load ranges do not change proach to an intersection that has priority can also be used

49
 Veh1a
to enable waiting vehicles to turn into or cross an intersect-
Veh1b
ing road safely (see section 5.1.3.3).
Veh2b
Veh2a 5.1.3.2 Expediting and prioritisation of public
Det1 transport vehicles
Incomplete signalisation can be used at T-intersections,
four-way intersections and roundabouts, possibly also to-
gether with a partial public transport lane, in order to bring
vehicle streams with priority to a halt as soon as possible
so that public transport vehicles in directions that do not
have priority can make an active request and pass through
the intersection without losing time (see figure 39 and 40).
The site plan in figure 39 shows a T-intersection with par-
tial signalisation. On the request of a bus turning left into
Figure 38: Example of a partially signalised T-intersection whe- the road, the vehicle streams with right of way are given
re intervals are created for vehicles to turn into a
road
a stop signal by means of two-aspect signal heads with
the signal sequence BLACKOUT – AMBER – RED –
BLACKOUT. Buses can thus turn left into the road with-
Bus movements
out any loss of time.
On the request of a bus turning off to the right, the traffic
on the approach to the intersection of the secondary road
is stopped by means of the two-aspect signal K3, since it
is not possible for a bus/heavy goods vehicle encounter
Veh1b
Veh1a

in the secondary arm of the intersection due to the small

rounded corner.
The site plan in figure 40 shows a roundabout with par-
tial signalisation. On request from the bus lane (in this
case with a bus stop), the buses are allowed to approach
Veh3b Det1
the roundabout ahead of the stop line for normal traffic
Veh3a and can then enter the roundabout without being imped-
Two aspects Sup1 ed while the traffic is halted for a short time. The signal
BLACKOUT-AMBER-RED-BLACKOUT
Pb1b
Ped1a Pb1a sequence at the two-aspect signal heads is BLACKOUT –
Ped1b
Veh2b Veh2a AMBER – RED – BLACKOUT.
Two-aspect
vehicle signal head
Supplementary signal head
5.1.3.3 Signal protection of crossings
Pedestrian signal head Partial signalisation can also be used when pedestrians
Pushbutton and cyclists at T-intersections, four-way intersections or
Bus detector
roundabouts have to negotiate an approach to an intersec-
Figure 39: E
 xample of a partially signalised T-intersection that
tion or an intersection exit where there is a high volume of
cuts bus journey times traffic. The crossings are generally set back from the inter-
section (see figure 41).
The combination shown in figure 41 of a T-intersection
with partial signalisation and a crossing is controlled as
follows: when a request is made by means of the pushbut-
ton PB1, or a specified waiting time is exceeded (detector
DC1), or there is congestion (detector DC2), the primary
direction at the crossing and the opposing set of signals are
given a red signal by two-aspect signal heads with the sig-
nal sequence BLACKOUT – AMBER – RED – BLACK-
BUS

OUT. Pedestrians and cyclists can then cross the road, and
vehicles waiting at the T-intersection can turn in unimped-
BUS

ed. The maximum red period depends on factors associ-

ated with the crossing and the available storage space be-
tween the pedestrian crossing and the T-intersection.

Figure 40: Example of a partially signalised roundabout prioriti-

sing buses

50
5.2 Signalisation where a road narrows If it is possible to divert the traffic in one direction via oth-
er roads, the creation of a one-way road on this narrow sec-
5.2.1 Criteria for use
tion of road should be considered (road sign number 220
Where roads narrow, traffic signals can be used to allow of the German Road Traffic Regulations – StVO).
the traffic to pass through in one direction at a time.
The description below applies primarily to portable traffic 5.2.2 Calculation of signal periods
signals used temporarily where construction work is being
The AMBER transition period (tamb) should be 4s.
done. If something else applies to fixed traffic signals at
points where roads narrow, this is indicated. The RED/AMB transition period (tramb) lasts 1s.
The hindrance to traffic caused where roads with opposing The intergreen period tint is calculated without taking
traffic streams narrow to a single lane is all the greater: into account an approach time:
– the longer the narrow section of road continues; sclr
– the slower it is necessary to drive in the narrow section tint = tpth + ––– · 3.6
of road; and Vclr
– the heavier the traffic is. The abbreviations have the following meanings:
Signal control is generally required if the narrow section tint = intergreen period (s);
of road is longer than 50m or the traffic load in both direc- tpth = pass-through time (s);
tions, taken together, is greater than around 500 vehicles sclr = clearance distance (m);
per hour. Vclr = average clearance speed (km/h).
Signal control can be dispensed with if the narrow section The pass-through time tpth is assumed to be 4s.
of road is so short and the traffic load is so light that no
congestion of any significance is caused and it is possible The clearance distance sclr is assumed to be the distance
to see along the entire length of the narrow section of road. between the locations of the signal heads. If stop lines are
marked, the distance between the stop lines should be used
as the clearance distance. The signal heads should be in-
stalled in such a way that rapid lane changing is possible.

Veh3b
The following average clearance speeds Vclr can be as-
Two-aspect
Veh3a Det2 sumed:
vehicle signal head
BLACKOUT-AMBER-RED-BLACKOUT – Vclr = 50km/h at Vlimit = 60km/h;
– Vclr = 40km/h at Vlimit = 50km/h;
Det1 – Vclr = 30km/h at Vlimit = 40km/h.
If the road surface is poor or agricultural vehicles use the
road regularly, a clearance speed of Vclr = 30km/h should
be assumed regardless of the speed limit.
The low clearance speed of cycle traffic does not have to
be taken into account provided the narrow section is wide
enough and visibility is good enough for both vehicles and
cyclists. If this is not the case, a clearance speed for the
cycle traffic of Vclr = 18km/h is used to calculate the clear-
ance time and the duration of the intergreen period.
When the traffic signals are put into operation, it must be
checked that the set intergreen period is appropriate in the
given circumstances. If it is not, it must be adjusted.
Veh2b
The intergreen periods can be adjusted to suit the actual
Veh2a
Pb1b
Ped1a
Pb1a
clearance time if the need for this is observed by operating
Ped1b
Veh1a staff or as a result of monitoring using special technology
Veh1b (e.g. occupancy monitoring of the section of road where
conflicts are possible).
The cycle time tcyc consists of the two green periods tgrn1
and tgrn2 and the two intergreen periods tint1 and tint2 (see
figure 42):
Figure 41: Example of a partially signalised T-intersection com- tcyc = tgrn1 + tgrn1 + tgrn2 + tgrn2
bined with a signalised crossing

51
5.2.3 Fixed-time control 1200
Saturation traffic density
When fixed-time control is used, the cycle time should be tds = 1500 veh/h

Traffic density td 1 + td 2 [veh/h]

1000
set to ensure that the waiting times for vehicular traffic are
kept to a minimum. The cycle time should therefore not be
800
longer than 300s. It can be calculated as follows or taken
from figure 43:
600
1.3 Tint + 4 330
tcyc = –––––––––––––––– 400 300
⎛ td1 td2 ⎞
1 – ⎜––– + ––– ⎟ 270
⎝ tdS1 tdS2 ⎠ 200

tU = 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 [s]

Tint = sum of the intergreen periods (s) in both Vclr = 30km/h 0
directions, Tint = tint1+ tint2; 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
td1 or td2 = traffic density (vehicles per hour) for the Clearance distance dclr [m]
relevant direction;
tdS1 or tdS2 = saturation traffic density (vehicles per Vclr = 40km/h
0 200 400 600 800 [m]
hour) for the relevant direction.
(td1/tdS1 + td2/tdS2) must be less than 1. Vclr = 50km/h
0 200 400 600 800 1000 [m]
The green period tgrni for the direction i is obtained as fol-
lows: Vclr = 18km/h
qi 0 100 200 300 400 [m]
–––
tdSi Figure 43: Diagram for obtaining the cycle time
tgrni = ––––––––––– · (tcyc – Tint)
td1 td2
––– + ––– Based on local conditions (condition of the road surface,
tdS1 tdS2
composition of the traffic), the saturation traffic density
must be estimated (see also the German Highway Capaci-
ty Manual – HBS). As a rule of thumb, a saturation traffic
density of around 1,500 vehicles per hour can be assumed.
To demonstrate the quality of the traffic flow on narrow
sections of road, the average waiting time of a vehicle in
fixed-time control can be calculated, as specified in the
HBS.
tint2
tpth(= tamb )

The relationship between the length of the narrow section

of road and the length of the cycle time is obtained as fol-
lows:
tgrn2

td1 td2
sclr = Vr · � 0.107 · tcyc · �1 – ––– – –––� – 1.54 �
tcyc

tdS1 tdS2

sclr = length of the narrow section of road (m);

tint1

Vclr = average clearance speed (km/h);

tpth(= tamb )

tcyc = maximum cycle time (s);

td1 or td2 = existing traffic density (vehicles per
hour);
tgrn1

tdS1 or tdS2 = associated saturation traffic density (vehi-

cles per hour).
(td1/tdS1 + td2/tdS2) must be less than 1.
If a specific (maximum) cycle time is desired, the permis-
sible length of the narrow section of road can be obtained
sr
from this.
td2
In fixed-time control, multiple signal programs should be
used based on the fluctuations in traffic at different times
td1 of the day.

Figure 42: T
 ime-space diagram for signal control at narrow
sections of road

52
5.2.4 Vehicle-actuated control 5.2.8 Markings and signage
Vehicle-actuated control with adjustment of the green pe- Stop lines (road sign number 294 of the German Road
riods is generally effective for both permanent and porta- Traffic Regulations – StVO) are required at permanent
ble traffic signals on narrow sections of road. The prereq- traffic signals. They can be dispensed with at temporary or
uisite, however, is that the detectors used work particularly moving roadwork sites. Stop lines should be marked when
reliably and smoothly and are monitored regularly. they are to be in a particular location for a longer period.
As in fixed-time control, the maximum cycle time tcyc can Signage indicating the priority rule (road sign numbers
be obtained based on the highest traffic densities to be ex- 208 and 308 of the German Road Traffic Regulations –
pected. And just as in fixed-time control, it should not be StVO) is not necessary for sections of road narrowed as a
greater than 300s. result of short-term or moving roadwork sites. The signage
In vehicle-actuated control, it is enough to specify the can also be dispensed with for longer-term roadworks,
minimum and maximum durations of green periods. provided that the priority arrangements in accordance with
section 6 of the German Road Traffic Regulations (StVO)
A special case of vehicle-actuated control with detectors is are clear even if the traffic signals break down (i.e. provid-
a signal program in which all signals are red until a vehicle ed the narrowing can be clearly assigned to a single lane).
is detected, at which point the signal immediately switches Road sign numbers 208 and 308 of the German Road Traf-
to green. This control method is advantageous, above all, fic Regulations (StVO) must be displayed if the narrowing
when there is a low level of traffic or in periods when there is roughly symmetrical on both sides.
is little traffic, and it is generally considered for permanent
Road sign numbers 208 and 308 are mandatory for perma-
traffic signals on short narrow sections of road.
nent traffic signals.
5.2.5 Startup programs 5.3 Lane control signalisation
Traffic lights for narrow sections of road are activated via 5.3.1 Overview
an AMBER transition period lasting 4s. Neither direction
Lane control signalisation is an operational measure de-
has right of way for the duration of the transition period.
signed for the implementation of flexible control of the
The use of traffic lights for narrow sections of road with- traffic flow on a stretch of road by means of lane control
out a startup program is permitted in simple applications signals. It is used in the following forms:
(e.g. where there is little traffic). In these cases, it is advis- – Dynamic lane allocation with opposing traffic (reversi-
able to turn the signal heads away for commissioning so ble lanes): the lanes on a stretch of road can be used for
that the road users cannot see them and only point them either direction depending on the traffic volumes.
at the vehicular traffic after functional tests have been car- – Dynamic lane allocation without opposing traffic: the
ried out. signals indicate that lanes are open or closed or that a
5.2.6 Peculiarities in terms of traffic management lane change is necessary.
The two forms can be combined with each other (e.g. in
At entrances to properties that have to be kept open with-
traffic control in tunnels).
in a signalised narrow section of road, it can be assumed
that both residents and drivers of construction vehicles
5.3.1.1 Dynamic lane allocation with opposing traffic
can adapt to the signal control by observing the traffic, al-
(reversible lanes)
though the signal heads are not visible to them.
In reversible lane mode, lanes can be open for traffic in
Property entrances with a large volume of traffic generally either direction at different times. The operating statuses
have to be included in the signalisation. shown in figure 44 are possible.
Any intersections within a narrow section of road also
3+1
have to be included in the signalisation unless the follow-
ing alternatives come into consideration:
– The connecting roads are completely blocked off. This
is only possible if these roads can still be accessed from
the rest of the road network. 2+2

– The connecting roads are one-way roads that continue

on from the narrow section of road.

5.2.7 Information on the equipment 1+3

The technical aspects of portable traffic signals for narrow

sections of road are dealt with in detail in the latest edi-
tion of the technical delivery conditions for portable traffic
signals (Technische Lieferbedingungen für transportable Figure 44: O
 perating statuses for four-lane lane control signali-
Lichtsignalanlagen). sation in reversible lane mode

53
This measure allows the capacity of the road to be adjusted – traffic streams turning off or into the road at the key in-
to suit demand. tersections;
Lane control signalisation in reversible lane mode is par- – the capacity of the surrounding road network;
ticularly suitable on roads where traffic densities vary – traffic densities as a result of special events on the
greatly in the different directions at different times of the stretch of road to be signalised and the resulting loads;
day (e.g. on arterial roads in and out of cities and on the
– analysis of the space required;
way to and from trade fairs or other large events). The pri-
oritisation of public transport vehicles can also be imple- – required accompanying measures; and
mented by closing a lane selectively or allowing a lane to – production and maintenance costs.
be reversed.
In the preliminary investigation it must be ascertained that
Left-turning vehicles turning off or into the road signifi- there is sufficient capacity in all operating statuses at all
cantly disrupt the functioning of lane control signalisation intersections involved in a lane control signalisation pro-
in reversible lane mode and can only be integrated with ject.
considerable effort. Turning off or into the road to the left
is therefore often prohibited. Due to the considerable im- 5.3.3 Traffic control requirements
pact of lane control signalisation, great care must be taken
to integrate it into the transport network as a whole. 5.3.3.1 General requirements

5.3.1.2 Dynamic lane allocation without opposing Depending on the form used, certain requirements in terms
traffic of construction and operations have to be met. While no
particular construction measures are generally required to
Dynamic lane allocation without opposing traffic either close lanes that are normally open, a number of accom-
closes a lane that is normally open or opens a lane that is panying measures are required for reversible lane mode.
normally closed. The following general aspects must be taken into account:
When normally open lanes are closed, lane control signals – Lane control signalisation in reversible lane mode gen-
are used to close one or more lanes on a section of a road or erally has to be in operation continuously.
along its entire length. It may be necessary to close a lane – There must be signage indicating that this stretch of
when there are roadworks, when maintenance work is be- road has priority.
ing carried out, or when there are operational disruptions
– Stopping and deliveries must not be permitted on lanes
or accidents, for example.
with lane control signals.
A normally closed lane may be opened, for example, in – There should be minimal traffic to and from properties
order to: bordering the road.
– allow the hard shoulder on a motorway to be used tem- – Vehicles should be largely prevented from turning off
porarily; or into the road. Turning off to the left should gener-
– facilitate the merging of traffic streams travelling in the ally only be permitted if a left-turn lane can be put in
same direction from multi-lane roads into a road with place. It should also be noted that safe management of
the same or a lower number of lanes; left-turning vehicles is only possible if special arrange-
ments are made. Turning off to the left should not be
– improve the flow of heavy streams at motorway exits;
permitted during periods when there is heavy traffic. It
– indicate constantly or temporarily that the direction of should be examined in each case whether traffic should
a lane has been switched; be permitted to turn into the road, depending on the op-
– adapt to different levels of traffic at fixed check points erating status.
(e.g. at border crossing points, ferry ports and toll – Vehicles crossing and turning into the road should be
booths); and signalised.
– permit flexible traffic handling at car parks or at facili- – Any pedestrian traffic over the road must be either sig-
ties such as service stations, border control points or toll nalised or grade separated (i.e. on a different level) in
booths. the interests of safety.

5.3.2 Preliminary investigations 5.3.3.2 Requirements to be met by stretches of road

Due to the operational interdependencies and the high out- Reversible lane mode is suitable, in particular, for stretch-
lay required to install, operate and maintain lane control es of road without structural separation of the traffic in
signals, alternative measures should also be considered. In different directions. If there is structural separation, tran-
the preliminary investigation, all the relevant factors have sitional sections have to be created to suit the requirements
to be taken into account, such as: (e.g. before tunnels).
– traffic densities and loads in both directions at different Experience shows that drivers are extremely reluctant to
times of day and on different days of the week (charts); use a lane where there is a refuge or traffic island on their
– load changes within shorter periods of time; right, unless extensive measures have been taken.

54
On the other hand, there are no problems associated with As far as direction is concerned, a distinction must be
closing a lane that is normally open on stretches of road drawn between lanes with a fixed direction and lanes with
with structural separation of traffic in different directions. reversible directions. Reversible lanes must not have ar-
row markings indicating the direction.
The lane width should not be less than 3 metres, and it
should marked in accordance with the German Guidelines Distinctions can be drawn between intersections based on
for Road Markings (RMS). Continuous lines must not be how they are designed.
used to mark lanes where lane changing generally has to
At the beginning and end of the stretch of road, variable
take place.
lane allocation is often not necessary at the intersection
There must be sufficient space at the side of the stretch (see figure 45). Since all operating statuses nevertheless
of road for the installation of signals and additional traf- have to be taken into account, this generally leads to a
fic control equipment. This must be taken into account, in very large amount of space being used. If there are further
particular, in tunnels and where there are structures above intersections on the stretch of road with reversible lanes,
the road. reversible lanes are required there too (see figure 46).
At the end points, either at least as many lanes must lead If there is no left-turn lane, vehicles should be prevented
out of the stretch of road as were used at most for the same from turning left for safety reasons on a stretch of road in
direction in the previous section, or the transition to a nar- reversible lane mode.
rower road cross-section must be controlled by lane con-
When operating statuses are switched, the conditions for
trol signals and signs. The subsequent stretches of road
signal program calculation at the intersection are also
must be able to accommodate the traffic from the stretch
changed.
of road with lane control signals.
When intergreen periods are calculated, for example, it
At the starting points, the number of lanes leading into the
must be taken into account that traffic streams turning into
stretch of road with lane control signals must not be great-
or crossing the road have a different number of lanes to
er than the maximum number of lanes continuing in the
same direction.

5.3.3.3 Requirements to be met by intersections

Intersections can be integrated on a stretch of road with
lane control signals provided the road cross-section and
directions allocated to the lanes remain unchanged around
the intersection. This can generally only be achieved at
intersections where there is no traffic turning off. In all
other cases, special operational and structural measures
are required that can make the intersection difficult to in-
terpret and are often associated with considerable space
requirements.
Intersections must be designed in such a way that transi-
tions from one operating status to another can be made
safely, reliably and effectively. The lanes must be arranged
and allocated with particular care to suit the functions of
the intersection. Figure 46: Integrated intersection without left-turning vehicles

Version with two-lane section

Figure 45: Intersection where a stretch of road in reversible lane mode starts/ends

55
cross depending on the operating status. It makes sense it. In order to prevent drivers from violating the lane-clos-
for the purpose of signal program control to always make ing signal, it is preceded by the transition signal of an
use of the longest intergreen period on the relevant road. amber flashing arrow. A transition period of 7s is recom-
mended. A lane can be cleared in different ways in revers-
If signal heads at the intersection are allocated to lanes that
ible lane mode:
are closed in some operating statuses in reversible lane
mode, it must be possible to deactivate them (BLACK- – The lane is cleared by means of a lane switch. The lane
OUT) to prevent public transport vehicle drivers from can be cleared along the whole stretch of road, so the
falsely interpreting the intersection's traffic signals as lane switchover time can be kept short. However, it must be
control signals. ensured that the level of traffic in the adjacent lane is
low enough to allow the switch to be made.
5.3.3.4 Inclusion of public transport vehicles
– The lane is cleared through outflow. The lane control
Where buses use stretches of road with lane control sig- signals are switched one after the other rather than si-
nals, bus stops must be located in bays at the side of the multaneously. The switchover times at the different
road. gantries are set based on the clearance speed of the ve-
It is also possible to have bus lanes on a stretch of road hicle platoon (see figure 48). In this case, the switcho-
with lane control signals. It may be enough to have a bus ver takes longer than with clearance by means of a lane
lane only in the direction with heavier traffic, while buses switch. However, a switchover is also possible when the
in the other direction share the lane or lanes with the rest adjacent lane is filled with heavy traffic.
of the traffic. – The lane is cleared by blocking the inflow. At the same
Bus lanes should be indicated by variable-message signs; time the lane is closed, clearance is initiated through
lane control signs alone cannot be used for this. outflow or a lane switch. After the clearance period, all
the signals can be switched to the final status simulta-
neously. This method is particularly safe and very suit-
5.3.3.5 Accompanying measures on stretches of road able for switchovers that are difficult to convey clearly
To obtain an overview of the required accompanying to drivers.
measures, an overall traffic plan must be developed for In order to keep the vehicle streams in the two opposing
reversible lanes. The accompanying operational measures directions safe, there must be a sufficient transition period
used may include permanent road signs, dynamic illumi- before the lane is opened to traffic in the opposing direc-
nated road markings, traffic control equipment, standard tion. Before the lane is finally opened, it must be ascer-
road markings and/or variable-message signs. tained that it has been cleared.
Variable-message signs at the side of the road have proved
to be particularly suitable (see figure 47). Depending on 5.3.5 Operation
the operating status, they indicate the operating status on All the rules and handling required to operate the system
the stretch of road ahead and thus augment the legally must be described in an operating manual. The operating
binding overhead signals. manual must contain an explanation of all the possible op-
The indications given by all the accompanying measures erating statuses and, in particular, the permissible com-
must be checked to ensure they are correct and compati- mands for switching the system on, off and over, as well
ble. as information on what to do if one or more traffic signals
fail. That includes a list of the possible false signal in-
5.3.4 Switching of operating statuses dications with adequate instructions for dealing with the
Since the operating status switched to must match lane problem.
use in the moment of switching, additional measures (e.g.
Operational interventions that occur frequently must not
prohibition of turning into or off the road) should take ef-
require any programming knowledge. It must be ensured
fect before the lane control signals are switched in order to
that operating errors cannot cause dangerous traffic situa-
prevent any dangerous situations arising.
tions or service interruptions.
The switching of a lane involves the following steps: clear-
ing the lane, securing the lane and, if applicable, opening 5.3.6 Operating plan
For the operating statuses on the stretch of road covered
by the lane control signals or on sections of that stretch of
road, the signal indicated by each lane control signal head
has to be shown. Figure 48 provides an example of an op-
erating plan. The signal shown at each signal head must be
absolutely clear from the plan (i.e. indicating whether the
lane is open or closed).
The various operating statuses must be shown and allocat-
Figure 47: Example of variable-message signs as an accompa- ed to lanes in a schematic lane plan by way of illustration.
nying measure The operating statuses must be numbered.

56
 Lane control signals Lane control signals Lane control signals Lane control signals
Simplified, for allocation
to the operating plan

VMS1
Gantry 4 Gantry 3 Gantry 2 Gantry 1
Out of town
Site plan

VMS2
Into town

P4 P3 P2 P1
Operating statuses

6 5 4

6 5 4

6 5 4

6 5 4
3 2 1

3 2 1

3 2 1

3 2 1
Z 214
Operating status 1
2 lanes into town
6 5 4

6 5 4

6 5 4

6 5 4
3 2 1

3 2 1

3 2 1

3 2 1
Operating plan

Operating status 2

Z 214
2 lanes out of town

175m 75m 75m 95m

Time [s]

60

50
Switch of operating status
from status 1 to status 2

40
d
ce spee 30
Clearan km/h)
(here: 50
20
Flashing amber arrow

10

0
Signal Signal Signal Signal Signal Signal Signal Signal
head 5 head 2 head 5 head 2 head 5 head 2 head 5 head 2

Figure 48: Example of lane signalisation on a stretch of road with coordinated traffic signals

Switchovers must be represented clearly, and it must be fic on the motorway to continue to flow thanks to the re-
indicated how they unfold over time. duced volume of incoming vehicles.
Metering systems on slip roads should be used to improve
5.4 Control of inflow to sections of road traffic flow and increase road safety in any of the follow-
with weaving or merging traffic ing cases:
– where there is frequently a loss of speed on the motor-
5.4.1 Overview way around slip roads as a result of incoming vehicle
High traffic volume on motorways and motorway-like platoons;
roads combined with high incoming volumes from slip – where a section of the motorway on which incoming
roads is a frequent cause of traffic disruptions, particular- traffic merges from a slip road is known as an accident
ly in metropolitan areas, since incoming vehicle platoons, black spot;
which at peak times are unable to find sufficiently long – where the congestion and accident rates over the last
intervals between vehicles in order to join the main traffic three years on the stretch of road after the slip road are
stream, cause speed to be lost and significantly increase significantly above comparable average values.
the risk of congestion and accidents around the slip road. Slip-road metering is also an option where there are road-
Regulation of traffic entering motorways – also know as works on the motorway in the immediate vicinity of a slip
slip-road metering – controls the volume of incoming traf- road.
fic, taking into account the current traffic situation and the
5.4.2 System description
capacity of the main carriageway, by means of traffic sig-
nals on the slip road. It is generally implemented on a ve- The components of slip-road metering depend on:
hicle-by-vehicle basis. The resulting queuing on the entry – the method of control;
slip road can have an impact on the upstream road network – the possible inclusion of the surrounding road network
(tailbacks). in the information provided to road users; and
The aim of slip-road metering is to facilitate merging onto – the use of slip-road metering to complement a traffic
the motorway by breaking up incoming vehicle platoons management system or as a stand-alone traffic control
into single vehicles and at the same time allowing the traf- measure.

57
The possible components shown in figure 49 apply to: Three- or two-aspect signal heads may be used. The
– the main carrriageway; signals and signal periods shown in table 3 apply. With
two-aspect signal heads with RED and AMBER signals,
– the slip road; BLACKOUT is used instead of GREEN.
– the surrounding road network; and Table 3: Signals and signal periods
– the method of control.
Signal Signal periods
Depending on the method of control, there must be one RED At least 2s
or more measurement sections on the main carrriageway RED/AMBER 1s
to record the traffic flow after and/or before the slip road.
Until vehicle deregistration at the
The kind of data to be recorded depends on the method GREEN stop line or termination;
of control selected. The traffic density and/or the road oc- at least 1s
cupancy are generally used as control parameters, and in AMBER
1s (5s when the system is switched
some cases speeds are as well. A distinction should be on)
drawn between cars and goods vehicles, as described in
the German Technical Delivery Terms for Route Stations Measurement sections are required for the following pur-
(TLS). Lane-related data collection at intervals of one poses on entry slip roads:
minute or less is sufficient. – to record the request directly before the stop line in or-
The inflow of vehicles from the entry slip road is con- der to give right of way to a vehicle standing before the
trolled depending on the traffic situation by means of sig- stop line;
nal heads that are generally located at the roadside on the – to deregister a vehicle immediately after the stop line in
left and right of the entry slip road just before the merge order to keep the green period at the right length to al-
lane. The exact position of the signal heads and thus of the low only one vehicle to pass. The inflow volume of ve-
stop line as well should be selected so that it is still possible hicles entering the main carriageway can be ascertained
for a slow heavy goods vehicle to reach a speed of around in this way as well.
80km/h from a standing start by the end of the merge lane.
Consequently, the recommended minimum distance of the In addition, the following measurement sections can also
stop line from the end of the merge lane is 200 metres. Any be put in place.
gradients also have to be taken into account. The position – to record the request around 30m to 40m before the stop
and alignment of the signal heads should be selected such line so that individual vehicles can be given right of way
that the signals cannot be misinterpreted by road users on dynamically with the help of a time parameter before
the main carriageway. they come to a halt;

0m
-4
30

1 vehicle per
green period

Slip-road
metering

Slip-road
metering

Figure 49: Components of a slip-road metering system

58
– to record congestion at the start of the entry slip road The control method is decisive for the location of the
in order to detect any tailbacks and, if necessary, in- measurement sections beyond and/or before the entry slip
clude this information in the control method. Conges- road. It is generally not necessary to include signal control
tion should be measured and evaluated at least once a in the upstream road network.
minute.
Motorcycles must be detected at the request points. 5.4.3 Legal aspects
Road signs and additional signs can be used to inform Contrary to what is specified in chapter 2, the minimum
road users directly. The additional sign indicating that a green period in slip-road metering systems is 1s. The AM-
single vehicle can pass at every green signal explains how BER transition period when the slip-road metering system
the slip-road metering system works (in cases where the is switched on is 5s and subsequently 1s.
normal rule applies). Sign number 131 just before the slip
road on the upstream road, together with the additional The use of shorter green periods than stipulated in the
sign indicating slip-road metering and a flashing amber General Administrative Regulations of the Road Traffic
light, can be effective. Regulations (VwV-StVO) or of different signal sequences
must be approved by the responsible federal state author-
Vehicle-actuated control methods should be used. A dis- ity or the agency appointed by it for the purpose as de-
tinction is generally drawn between local and coordinated scribed in section 46, paragraph 2 of VwV-StVO.
control methods. In a local control method, the permitted
inflow volume is determined on the basis of the traffic situ- Experience shows that these differences are not problem-
ation at each slip road, while in coordinated control meth- atic, because there are no conflicting traffic streams to be
ods the situation at neighbouring slip roads is also taken controlled. Consequently, no signal safety measures are
into account in order to determine the inflow volume to required.
be allowed.

59
 6 Technical design

6.1 Controller The design of the signal lamps is of critical importance

in terms of the recognisability of the signals given. DIN
The controller is the central component of the signal con- 67527-1 specifies the luminous intensities and luminous
trol system. Its key functions are: intensity distributions and provides recommendations on
– control of the signal heads connected to it; how to limit phantom effects. The relevant requirement
– monitoring of the connected components, including the classes of DIN EN 12368 are mentioned here. DIN EN
transmission equipment, for faults; 12368 applies to the signal colours RED, AMBER and
GREEN. The requirements to be met by the signal col-
– a system for avoiding signal statuses that cause danger- our white for fixed signal lights in accordance with the
ous situations; German Tram Construction and Operations Ordinance
– intersection-specific control; (BOStrab) are described in DIN 6163-5. If light matrices
are used for lane control signals, the lighting technology
– data capture via the connected detection equipment; classes L3, R3, B2 and C2 of DIN EN 12966-1 are to be
– data preparation and processing for the control logic used.
running on the controller; and
6.2.2 Recognisability of the signals
– data preparation and processing for forwarding to a
higher-level traffic computer. The recognisability of the signals essentially depends on:
The design and operation of electrical equipment are sub- – the location of the signal head;
ject to the stipulations in DIN VDE 0832-100 and DIN EN – the luminous intensity and its distribution;
12675 and the stipulations on signal protection in chapter – the size of the luminous surface; and
7, "Technical acceptance and operation". In addition, the
standards and technical regulations specified in chapter 9 – the contrast between the luminous surface and its sur-
also apply. These represent the status of the Guidelines for roundings.
Traffic Signals (RiLSA) at the time of writing. Given a speed limit of 50km/h (70km/h), under normal
Controllers can be operated in different organisational ambient conditions a signal should be recognisable from
configurations: a distance of at least 35m (80m). The line of sight to the
signals must be unimpeded.
– as stand-alone controllers not connected to a traffic
computer and not coordinated with other sets of traffic If the signals are not conspicuous enough, this can be
signals; improved by increasing the luminous intensity or con-
trast (see section 6.2.16 on the design and dimensions of
– as stand-alone controllers connected to a traffic com- high-contrast backboards) or the diameter of the signal
puter for the purpose of monitoring but not coordinated lamps. The signal heads should be arranged in such a way
with other sets of traffic signals; that road users can clearly identify the signals that apply to
– coordinated with other sets of traffic signals but not them from every position as they approach the signal-con-
connected to a traffic computer; and trolled road facility. This applies, in particular, if the in-
– coordinated with other sets of traffic signals and con- flowing traffic is subdivided and sorted into multiple lanes
nected to a traffic computer. and when vehicles are waiting directly before the stop line.

Further information is provided in the Notes on Traffic When sets of traffic signals occur in rapid succession or
Computers as an Element of Urban Traffic Signal Control there are signal-controlled intersections at the beginning
published by the relevant FGSV working group (Hinwei- or end of a stretch of road with lane control signalisation,
se zu Verkehrsrechnern als Bestandteil der innerörtlichen steps must be take to ensure that drivers do not confuse or
Lichtsignalsteuerung). overlook signals, particularly when it is dark. The use of
signal heads with different lamp diameters on a section of
road or changes to the signal head position for the same
6.2 Signal lamps traffic stream on successive approaches to intersections
6.2.1 Lighting technology regulations should be examined to ascertain whether there is a risk of
drivers misunderstanding which signals apply to them and
The key signal elements of traffic signals are optical light whether the signals are clearly identifiable.
signals. These include signal heads for general vehicular
traffic, pedestrians, cyclists, trams and buses as well as It should be noted that closer signals are more conspicuous
supplementary signals (flashing amber lights) and speed than subsequent signals that are further away.
signals. There are also audible and tactile signal indica- 6.2.3 Phantom effects
tors for visually impaired pedestrians that provide them
with orientation and let them know when they have a green The recognisability of a signal can be impaired by phan-
light to cross. tom effects. Phantom effects can occur when strong light

60
from an external source falls onto the signal head and is 6.2.6 Signal heads for general vehicular traffic
reflected in it. Signal heads facing east, south, west or any
Signal heads for general vehicular traffic generally have
point of the compass in between are particularly suscep-
three aspects: for RED, AMBER and GREEN signals. The
tible to phantom effects, depending on the time of day or
red signal lamp is at the top, the amber one in the middle
year.
and the green one at the bottom. In certain cases, two-as-
The design of the signal heads and the size and shape of pect or single-aspect signal heads are also used.
the hoods (see section 6.2.15) affect the strength of the
If signals for vehicles apply only to certain directions, this
phantom effects. The strength of the phantom effects can
must be indicated by the same arrows in all lamps of the
be further reduced by means of special lenses or attach-
associated signal head. The same applies to double-headed
ments.
arrows (see figures 50 and 51). Illuminated arrows against
6.2.4 Size of the signal lamps a black background stand out better but have a lower lumi-
nous intensity than black arrows on an illuminated back-
Signal heads with a lamp diameter of 200mm are gener- ground. For this reason, black arrows should be used in
ally used. amber and red signal lamps, and arrows in the green signal
Regardless of the type of lamp used, the use of signal lamp should always be green against a black background.
heads with a lamp diameter of 300mm is recommended: If not all lanes of an approach at an intersection are cleared
– on high-speed roads with limited access, at least in the to go at the same time, there must be direction arrows on
primary direction; the signal lamps unless the lanes for travel in different di-
– in built-up areas at large intersections where it is nec- rections are segregated in such a way that there can be no
essary to make the signals more conspicuous due to the doubt about the direction of travel to which the signal ap-
circumstances at the intersection; plies.
– on stretches of road with a speed limit of 70km/h; If a turning movement at an intersection has a dedicated
– for signal heads providing signal protection for left-turn- lane and separate signal control with direction arrows, but
ing vehicles in an early start or early cut-off scenario the lane is not structurally separated from the other lanes,
(green arrow, flashing amber light); and arrows for this movement alone generally suffice.
– in other cases in which the conspicuousness and rec-
ognisability of the signals cannot be ensured by other
means.
Signal heads with lamp diameters of 100mm can also be
used for cycle crossings.
6.2.5 Operating voltage
LEDs (light-emitting diodes) are increasingly being used
for traffic signals. The operating voltage for these is 230 V
or 40 V. There is a standardised interface for the 40 V var-
iant. In this connection it should be noted that LED sig-
nal heads contain an electronic unit that is part of the sig- Black arrows on Green
red and illuminated
nal protection. For this reason the tests described in VDE
amber lamps arrows on black
V 0832-300 must be carried out in cases where the LED background
signal heads and the controller are not from the same man-
ufacturer. Figure 50: Direction arrows
In addition to lower power consumption, LED technology
also offers a longer service life, better resistance to phan-
tom effects and the possibility of extended maintenance
intervals. However, given that the lenses still have to be
cleaned regularly, the maintenance intervals should not be
too long.
Standard signal lamps with operating voltages of 230 V Black arrows on red Green illuminated arrows
and amber lamps on a black background
and 10.5 V are still in use, but they are virtually no longer
Figure 51: Double-headed arrows for signals for vehicles
used in new installations.

61
6.2.7 Signal heads for pedestrians green signal for crossing. The direction for crossing is in-
dicated by a tactile arrow. Particular features that people
Signal heads for pedestrian signals have two or three as-
need to be aware of can be indicated by additional tactile
pects (with two red lamps). The green signal is at the bot-
symbols on the arrow on the tactile signal indicator (see
tom. The red signal must have a symbol of a pedestrian
figure 53). For example, it may be necessary to draw their
standing waiting, and the green signal must have a sym-
attention to a public transport lane that is not included in
bol of a pedestrian walking (see figure 52). The pedestrian
the signalisation, the need for another request to cross to
symbols agreed in the German unification treaty can also
be made at a refuge or the fact that there is a refuge in the
be used.
middle of the road.
a) Standing b) Walking Audible and tactile signal indicators can either be used in-
dependently of each other or combined.

6.2.9 Signal heads for cyclists

When there is separate signal control for cycling traffic,
the signal heads for cycling traffic must be positioned be-
fore the conflict area to be controlled (three-aspect sig-
nal heads). There must be a bicycle symbol (illuminated
against a dark background) on each signal lamp (see figure
54 a), which must be the standard size. The red signal lamp
is at the top, the amber one in the middle and the green one
Red pedestrian symbols Green pedestrian symbols at the bottom. If the signals apply only to specific direc-
on a black background on a black background
tions, there must also be an illuminated arrow indicating
Figure 52: Symbols for pedestrian signals
the direction in addition to the bicycle symbol on all three
signal lamps (see figure 54 b).
6.2.8 Audible and tactile signal indicators
Additional equipment for visually impaired people should
be installed in consultation with the organisations repre-
senting them and the responsible authorities at the local
and state level. This is considered, above all, at crossings
that are used regularly by visually impaired people and
that are particularly dangerous for them.
Audible and tactile signal indicators should be provided
in accordance with DIN 32981, which stipulates the re-
quirements to be met by additional equipment for visually
impaired people at traffic signal installations.
When it comes to audible signal indicators, a distinction Arrow indicating the direction Arrow indicating the direction
of a pedestrian crossing of successive pedestrian
is drawn between the orientation signal and the right-of- crossings with separate lanes
way signal. The orientation signal helps pedestrians find Arrow indicating the direction Arrow indicating
for tram, the direction
bus, tracks, etc.
the crossing or signal pole. The audible right-of-way sig- of a pedestrian crossing of successive
that pedestrian
are not included in the
nal indicates the green period for pedestrians. crossingssignalisation
with separate lanes
for tram, bus, tracks, etc.
The organisations representing the visually impaired that are not included in the
should be consulted on whether orientation signals are signalisation
necessary, taking into account ambient conditions and lo-
cal circumstances. If the noise made by the orientation sig-
nals disturbs local residents, the signals should be replaced
by tactile paving or detectable warning surfaces, where ap-
propriate, and complemented by them in cases where the
signals can be switched off.
The sound generators for the audible right-of-way signals
should be installed at around the height of the signal heads Separate signalisation Arrow indicating the
for pedestrians on the opposing signal poles in such a way of successive crossings direction of pedestrian
that the sound is emitted towards the centre of the car- where new requests crossings with a refuge
riageway. Separate
have tosignalisation
be made Arrow indicating the
of successive crossings direction of pedestrian
Tactile signal indicators are generally combined with where new requests crossings with a refuge
have to be made
request pushbuttons by fitting a plate to the underside of
the pushbutton unit that vibrates when pedestrians have a Figure 53: Examples of tactile signal indicators

62
a) Standard version b) With arrow (other
directions also possible)

Stop and go signals Stop signal imminent

Red symbols Green symbols Permissive signal Close doors

on a black background on a black background Figure 55: I lluminated white BOStrab symbols on a black back-
Figure 54: Symbols for cycle signals and combined pedestrian ground
and cycle signals

If smaller signal heads are used (e.g. with lamp diameters 6.2.11 Supplementary signals
of 100mm), the bicycle symbol can be a white illuminated
symbol on a dark background, or a small additional road Single-aspect signal heads with a flashing amber light
sign (sign number 237 of the German Road Traffic Reg- (with or without a symbol) can be used to warn of dan-
ulations (StVO)) can be displayed above the relevant sig- gers. These are positioned at or before the conflict area
nal heads for the cyclists. In this case, the coloured signal (e.g. at a pedestrian crossing, where tram tracks split or at
lamps do not contain any bicycle signals, although they a crossing over a public transport lane). A supplementary
may have arrows. pedestrian signal head is positioned after the conflict area
(e.g. for crossings over track beds). Supplementary sig-
Where cycling traffic shares signalisation with pedestri- nals should be used only sparingly so as not to weaken the
an traffic, combined symbols for pedestrians and cyclists warning impact of the flashing amber light through over-
must be used on the signal lamps. Cycling signal heads use, and only when the necessary warning cannot be given
with combined symbols for pedestrians and cyclists are clearly enough in another way.
positioned after the conflict area. A wig-wag signal (as seen at crossing facilities over track
beds, for example) is a special kind of supplementary sig-
6.2.10 Signal heads for public transport vehicles nal. Two signal lamps with the same symbols on them are
arranged side by side or one above the other. They flash on
Signal heads for public transport vehicles should be easily and off alternately. This has a greater impact as a warning
visible before the conflict area where signal protection is than a single flashing light.
needed, and should generally be positioned on the right. Only black symbols on an amber background are permit-
They must be as described in the German Tram Construc- ted for auxiliary signal heads: for pedestrians, cyclists,
tion and Operations Ordinance (BOStrab) (see figure 55). trams, buses and equestrians (see figure 56).
In the interests of clarity and signal protection and in order The signal heads must be positioned prominently to give
to take into account different intergreen periods, a separate an effective warning about the dangerous spot.
signal head is generally used for each direction.
The (diagonal) supplementary signal (see figure 57),
At sets of traffic signals that smooth the passage of pub- which warns left-turning vehicles without signal protec-
lic transport vehicles, an additional informatory signal tion about opposing traffic at the intersection, may or may
should be displayed to drivers. This signal indicates to not have a black arrow on its amber background. It can be
them whether they have registered with the signal installa- combined with the signal lamp of the green arrow (diago-
tion. Depending on the transport company and its operat- nal green), in which case it is positioned above the green
ing instructions, the information provided can vary. arrow in a two-aspect signal head.

63
 Diagonal red cross on Green downward-pointing
a black background arrow on a black background

Flashing amber arrow pointing down to the left or right

Figure 58: Lane control signals on square light matrix panels

A green arrow pointing downwards shows that lane can be

used. A diagonal red cross indicates that a lane is closed.
A flashing amber arrow pointing downwards diagonally
indicates that vehicles must leave the lane by following the
direction of the arrow.
Figure 56: Symbols for supplementary signals
6.2.13 Speed signals
Speed signals are generally positioned at the roadside on
the right at the beginning of the stretch of road on which
the advisory speed applies.
Advisory speeds can be indicated by means of single- or
multi-aspect signal heads with illuminated white numbers
or by means of matrix signals (see figure 59).

Figure 57: A
 rrow symbol for a supplementary signal head with a
flashing amber light

6.2.12 Lane control signals

The size and design of the lane control signals depends
on the operating conditions where they are used. Round
signals like those at intersections generally have a signal
lamp diameter of 300mm.
Lane control signals based on a light matrix must be
square, and the effective display area must be in one of
three standard sizes:
– Minimum size: 390 x 390mm;
– Normal size: 500 x 500mm; White digits on a black background
– Large size: 600 x 600mm. Figure 59: Speed signals (lamp version)

64
The same kinds of speed signals (modified in some cases) Lamp diameter 300mm Lamp diameter 200mm
can also be used for public transport vehicles. To prevent
800 450
them being confused with speed signals for general ve- (650)
hicular traffic, speed signals for public transport vehicles
should only indicate a tenth of the target speed (e.g. the

0
=8
20 0
(1 16

R
number "3" indicates an advisory speed of 30km/h).

)
=
R
6.2.14 U
 niform design of the symbols in the signal White
lamps
Black
In order to ensure that symbols always have the same ap-
pearance, the manufacturers must have access to uniform Dark
signal
images that can then be reproduced. The German Federal head
Highway Research Institute (BASt) keeps a database of
images for this purpose.

6.2.15 Hoods on signal heads 200

10 50 65
Hoods (visors) prevent light from external sources falling
on the signal lamps, as shown in figure 60. The hoods have The dimensions of the openings
a dark matt finish on the inside to prevent reflections. for the signal heads depend on
the signal head type used.
Screens or shades are recommended where it is possible The specified radiuses are
minimum values.
for road users to be confused or misled by signals that are 300
not intended for them, and local circumstances mean that 20 100 130 (Values in brackets apply to
(15) (75) (85) the smaller version with lamp
it is not possible to change the position of the signal heads. diameters of 300mm)

6.2.15 High-contrast backboards for signal heads Figure 61: High-contrast backboards for signal heads

High-contrast backboards are recommended when the

signals have to stand out more against the surroundings,
particularly in cases where there is a bright background.
Black backboards with a white border that has a black edge 6.4 Number and positioning of signal heads
make the signal heads stand out better. Figure 61 shows
the design and dimensions of high-contrast backboards. 6.4.1 Signals at intersections
There are generally two signal heads for general vehicu-
lar traffic on each approach to an intersection. If there are
6.3 Detection equipment more than two lanes on the approach to the intersection,
further signal heads may be necessary.
Detectors are used to implement vehicle-actuated control.
Detectors that work in different ways physically and have The primary signal is generally positioned on the right-
different designs are used for the purpose of: hand side of the road. Duplicate signals can be positioned
on the left-hand side and/or over the carriageway.
– detecting the presence of vehicles and allowing them to
make a request; The signal heads for pedestrian traffic must be positioned
– counting; on the other side of the conflict area being given signal
protection. The signal poles are generally positioned on a
– requests differentiated by direction; pedestrian refuge in line with the extended central axis of
– determining the duration of the green period; the pedestrian crossing. In the case of narrow crossings, it
– detecting congestion; and is recommended to position the signal heads at the edge
of the crossing. It is more pleasant for the pedestrians if
– measuring speed. the signal heads are positioned on the side of the crossing
(See the FGSV Notes on Detection Technologies in Road closer to the stop line, and drivers are thus brought to a halt
Traffic.) further away from the crossing. At pedestrian and cycle
crossings that share signalling, the signal heads should be
200 positioned on the border between the two crossings.
(300)
If not all lanes on the approach to an intersection are given
right of way at the same time, there must be at least one
signal head (with arrows) for each signal-controlled turn-
ing movement and at least two signal heads for vehicles
going straight ahead (generally without arrows).
On dual carriageways, signal heads for turn signals are
Figure 60: Hood (visor) positioned on the same side of the carriageway as the di-

65
 Required signal heads
Figure 63: Positioning of signal heads for vehicles with two
left-turn lanes and a traffic island

Dual carriageway Approach with opposing traffic

or one-way street

Required signal heads

Possible additional signal heads Required signal heads
Figure 62: P
 ositioning of signal heads for vehicles on dual and Figure 64: P
 ositioning of signal heads for vehicles with two
single carriageways left-turn lanes without a traffic island
rection in which the vehicles are turning. If there is more
than one turning lane, there must be a duplicate turn signal
above the carriageway.
On arms of an intersection with opposing traffic, the sig-
nal head with arrows for left-turning vehicles is positioned
above the carriageway. Where possible, the signal head
should be separated from the signal head for the straight-
ahead traffic. If the two signal heads have to be positioned
together on the same mast arm, the signals for the left-turn-
ing stream must have illuminated arrows.
Where visibility permits it, the turn signal should be aug-
mented by a duplicate signal head on the left next to the
carriageway.
If the second signal head for the turn signal is positioned
not on the approach to the intersection itself but actually
within the area of the intersection (e.g. on a traffic island),
it must be ensured that left-turning vehicles negotiate the
intersection in the prescribed way (e.g. by means of road
sign number 222 (StVO)) (see figure 65). On no account
must the turn signal cause vehicles to turn off before the
signal head and end up on the wrong side of the road. This
is dangerous, above all, on connecting slip roads on mo-
torways where the traffic flows are structurally separated
(wrong-way driver problem).
Where there are early starts or early cut-offs for left-turn- Figure 65: E
 xample of marking and signage where there is a
turn signal at an intersection
ing vehicles, the additional signal head must be positioned

66
 the straight-ahead opposing traffic to proceed. Three-as-
pect signal heads must be used for this that have to be
turned in towards the carriageway axis to prevent the ad-
ditional signals from having an unwanted impact from a
distance.
Figure 69 shows a dedicated right-turn lane with a straight-
ahead lane. In this form of signalisation, there should be a
signal head above the straight-ahead lane.

6.4.2 Lane control signalisation

On roads with reversible lanes, all lanes must have signal
heads.
On straight stretches of road, the gantries for the sig-
nal heads should not be further than around 300m apart.
Shorter distances may be effective in tunnels, on bridges
and on transitional sections of road. If the stretch of road
Figure 66: Example of the positioning of left-turn signal heads is only short, there should be at least three gantries in order
at an intersection to make sure the information is conveyed.
The signal heads are positioned next to each other over the
centre of the lanes in such a way that the signal head with
the diagonal red cross is left of centre and the green arrow
is right of centre. The signal head for a flashing amber ar-
row is added on the left and/or right, depending on which
adjacent lane or lanes the vehicles have to change to. Ma-
trix signal heads are centred over the lane. A single-aspect
signal head (diagonal red cross or green arrow) may be
sufficient over lanes with a fixed direction.
How the last gantry before an intersection and the first one
after it are positioned depends on their design.
– At intersections as shown in figures 45 and 46, signal
gantries and the traffic signals at the intersection can
be combined. It is thus possible to indicate at the inter-
section the directions the lanes can be used for. This is
achieved by using direction instructions or road sign
number 267 (the no entry sign) instead of continuous
lane control signals (a green arrow pointing down, a
Figure 67: Arrangement of two-aspect right-turn signal heads diagonal red cross, an amber arrow). There is no pos-
sibility of confusion with the signal heads of the traffic
signals at the intersection.
in such a way that it only becomes clearly visible to drivers
– If gantries with continuous lane control signals are
in the immediate proximity of the intersection. Left-turn-
used, how the last gantry before the intersection and the
ing drivers should be able to keep an eye on the opposing
first one after the intersection are positioned depends on
traffic and this signal head at the same time. It is recom-
two requirements: the drivers in traffic turning into the
mended to position the signal head on the signal pole diag-
road at intersections must be able to identify the oper-
onally across from the left-turning vehicles, on the right-
ating status of the stretch of road unequivocally and as
hand side of the road as seen by the opposing traffic.
early as possible. In view of this, it makes sense if the
Single- or two-aspect turn signal heads for right-turning signal gantry comes as soon as possible after the inter-
vehicles with an early start are positioned on the right next section. On the other hand, it must be largely avoided
to the three-aspect signal head for the main phase (see fig- that drivers in the traffic flowing along the stretch of
ure 67). road confuse lane control signals with signals at the in-
tersection. For this reason, it makes sense to position
At widened intersections with an extra-wide central res-
the gantry as far as possible in advance of the intersec-
ervation, additional signal heads can be positioned on the
tion. A distance of around 70m from the middle of the
central reservation in the immediate area of the intersec-
intersection can be viewed as a good average that will
tion to facilitate and protect the traffic flow (see figure 68).
meet both requirements in most cases. A distance of at
This kind of signalisation is often required when left-turn- least 50m should be maintained between signals at in-
ing vehicles have to be stopped at the intersection to allow tersections and lane control signals.

67
 Veh2a Veh1a

Veh1b

Veh2b Veh1c

Figure 68: Example of the positioning of duplicate signal heads on the central reservation of a widened intersection

Figure 69: Arrangement of the signal heads for a tapered right-

turn lane
Required signal heads
Possible additional signal head
depending on visibility

68
When lane control signalisation and intersection signali- On roads in built-up areas with a speed limit of 50km/h
sation are combined on the same section of road, the sig- where space is restricted, the distance from the edge of the
nal heads at intersections (for traffic light signals) must be road (a) can be reduced by up to 0.20m. The same applies
positioned in such a way that they can be clearly allocat- to signal heads on traffic islands.
ed and identified in all operating statuses of the lane con-
Outside built-up areas, the distance from the edge of the
trol signalisation. To avoid confusion, the signal lamps for
road (a) to the outer edge of the signal head is generally
straight-ahead traffic at the intersection should not have
1.50m.
arrows on them. The difference between these and lane
control signals is made clearer and the signals are more The HAV compendium provides instructions on the posi-
likely to be correctly identified when matrix signs are used tioning of road signs in Germany.
for the lane control signals.

6.5 Design
Signal heads must be installed in such a way that it is clear
to which traffic streams they apply and they cannot be con-
fused by road users.
Signal heads are installed on masts or mast arms and in
some cases on gantries or suspended from wires. Gantries
have a strong impact on the urban landscape, so particular
care must be taken with their design. Once a design is se-

4.50
lected, it should at least be used all along the same road.
The signal heads must be positioned in such a way as d
not to impede or endanger road users. To this end, min-

2.10
imum heights above the carriageway and minimum dis- Pushbuttons for
tances from the edge of the carriageway must be main- pedestrians

0.85
or cyclists
tained. The lower edge of the signal heads must be at least
2.10m above the pavement, 2.20m above the cycle path
and 4.50m above the carriageway.
Pushbuttons for pedestrians or cyclists must be positioned
V [km/h] d [m]
at a height of 0.85m (see DIN 18024-1).
70 0.75
The distance (d) of the signal head from the carriageway 50 0.50
on roads with high kerbs in built-up areas depends on the
speed limit (see figure 70). Figure 70: Minimum heights and distances for signal heads

69
 7 Technical acceptance and operation

7.1 Preliminary remarks A report must be created at acceptance, signed by all in-
volved and placed in the signal file (see section 7.3.5).
Before the traffic signal installation is put into operation,
it must undergo acceptance for traffic control use in a test If the set of traffic signals is modified or upgraded, it has to
location. All its functionality is put to the test. undergo a further acceptance procedure. A report has to be
created and added to the signal file for this, too.
The reliability of a set of traffic signals must be examined in
accordance with the various stages of quality management
before it is put into operation and then regularly thereafter. 7.3 Operation
The operator must keep a signal file on each traffic signal
installation so that problems can be addressed, questions Distinctions are drawn between the following operating
can be answered in the event of accidents and so on. statuses:
The requirements to be met by the electrical equipment, – normal operation;
particularly with regard to signal safety, and in terms of – flashing amber signal (for a secondary direction only)
maintenance are specified in DIN VDE 0832. for vehicular traffic; and
– signals off.
7.2 Acceptance
7.3.1 Operating statuses
When a new set of traffic signals is accepted, the risk pass-
es from the manufacturer to the operator. Sets of traffic signals should remain in operation contin-
uously, with no interruptions (day and night), unless the
Before handing the set of traffic signals over to the opera- reason the traffic signals were put in place is only applica-
tor, the manufacturer must check that: ble at certain times and it has been verified beforehand that
the traffic can flow safely when the signals are switched
– all the equipment in the set of traffic signals is as in the off and that switching them off does not cause any further
planning document; danger.
– the signal programs in vehicle-actuated control meth-
ods, including the time-related and logical conditions Switching the traffic signals off may increase the likeli-
set by the operator, meet the requirements; hood of accidents occurring. This applies, in particular,
to turning-into/crossing accidents. The resulting econom-
– the safety measures are effective (each individual case ic losses may significantly outweigh the savings and any
must be monitored and recorded). benefits in terms of less noise for residents and improved
The operator of the set of traffic signals must be convinced traffic flow at night.
at acceptance that: It should also be pointed out, in particular, that the dis-
– the documents provided (see section 7.3.5) are com- advantages of signal control when there are low levels of
plete; traffic can also be avoided by technical measures with-
out switching the traffic signals off, and without having to
– the intersection is as described in the design specifica- give up the safety benefits of signalisation. These include,
tions; above all, night programs with short cycle times or vehi-
– the required road signs, traffic control equipment and cle-actuated controllers.
road markings meet the requirements;
7.3.2 Switching traffic signals on
– the signal heads are as specified, and they are installed
and aligned as specified; The recommended way of switching traffic signals on de-
– the locations and design of the detection equipment scribed here is a standard solution. The operator can de-
meet the specifications; viate from this, provided safety aspects are taken into ac-
count.
– the signal periods agree with the applicable signal tim-
ing plans; Traffic signal facilities are switched on by means of the
signals AMBER and RED for the secondary direction (see
– the safety-related specifications, such as the intergreen figure 71). The duration of the operation to switch the sig-
periods, are complied with; nals on depends on the longest intergreen period in the
– the functionality of the interfaces (e.g. between sets of intergreen period matrix, to which the minimum green pe-
traffic signals or to control centres) is ensured; and riod for the primary direction is added.
– the safety equipment responds reliably when errors are All signal groups to be switched on for the primary direc-
simulated randomly. tion are switched to green from BLACKOUT after the ex-

70
 tint,max Minimum tion, to which the longest intergreen period tint,max in the
(in matrix) green period intergreen period matrix is added (see figure 72).
Prim. dir. for vehicles Off
All signal groups to be switched off for the primary di-
Sec. dir. for vehicles rection are switched to BLACKOUT after the end of the
minimum green period without a transition period. Pedes-
Cycs. across
sec. dir. for vehicles
Off trian signals across the secondary direction for vehicular
Cycs. across
traffic are switched off after the expiry of the minimum
Off
prim. dir. for vehicles green period. Pedestrian signals across the primary direc-
Peds. across Off
tion for vehicular traffic are switched off after the expiry
sec. dir. for vehicles of the minimum green period and the maximum intergreen
Peds. across Off period.
prim. dir. for vehicles
Prim. direction for trams Off Supplementary signal groups are switched off together
with the associated primary signal groups.
Sec. direction for trams Off
When the traffic signals are switched off, the flashing am-
Peds. = pedestrians, Cycs. = cyclists
ber signal for the secondary direction should appear either
immediately or after 2 seconds of BLACKOUT.
BLACKOUT AMBER flashing AMBER RED GREEN

Figure 71: Example of a startup program 7.3.4 Signal safety

piry of the longest intergreen period, taking into account 7.3.4.1 Overview
the early start of the pedestrians. Technical faults at traffic signal facilities cannot be elimi-
All pedestrian signals across the primary direction for ve- nated entirely. Consequently, deviations from normal op-
hicular traffic are switched from BLACKOUT to RED at eration can occur. These include, in particular, the unwant-
the moment when the traffic signals are switched on. On ed simultaneous appearance of green or transition signals
expiry of the longest intergreen period tint,max, the pedes- for conflicting traffic streams, the failure of a signal, a sig-
trian signals across the secondary direction for vehicular nal period violation or the appearance of an invalid signal
traffic are switched to GREEN. status (e.g. RED and GREEN at the same time). Whether
these deviations are so serious that safety measures have
The transition periods are as described in section 2.4. Dif- to be taken (i.e. the signals have to be switched off im-
ferent transition signal durations are possible for cyclists, mediately) has to be decided on traffic control grounds
general vehicular traffic and public transport vehicles. (see figure 73). Deviations from normal operation should
Supplementary signal groups are activated together with be reported automatically so that faults can be dealt with
the associated primary signal groups. quickly. The functional safety requirements to be met by
controllers for sets of traffic signals are described in DIN
7.3.3 Switching traffic signals off EN 12675.
The recommended way of switching traffic signals off de- Any other deviations must not result in the traffic signals
scribed here is a standard solution. The operator can de- being switched off, since both the process of switching
viate from this, provided safety aspects are taken into ac- off the signals in an uncontrolled manner and the absence
count. of the signals can be a potential source of danger for the
The duration of the operation to switch the signals off de- traffic flow. Automatic functionality that suppresses devi-
pends on the minimum green period for the primary direc- ations from normal operation is to be preferred to switch-
ing the signals off. Switching off defined parts of the set of
Minimum tint,max traffic signals is generally more advantageous than switch-
green period (in matrix) ing it off entirely, provided this is safe.
Prim. dir. for vehicles Off
A distinction is drawn below between faults for which
Sec. dir. for vehicles safety measures are essential and faults for which they are
non-essential or conditionally non-essential.
Cycs. across Off
sec. dir. for vehicles Safety measures are essential in the event of deviations
Peds. across Off from normal operation that can cause an acute danger to
prim. dir. for vehicles traffic. The set of traffic signals must be automatically
Peds. across
sec. dir. for vehicles
Off switched off immediately.
Peds. across Off Safety measures are conditionally non-essential if, as a
prim. dir. for vehicles
result of an invalid signalisation status, the probability of
Prim. direction for trams Off there being a danger posed to traffic and the extent of the
danger are acceptable, assuming road users behave appro-
Sec. direction for trams Off
priately. The operator and the manufacturer have to agree
Figure 72: Example of a shutdown program on which cases necessitate safety measures. The advantag-

71
 Conflicting signal GREEN (go) AMBER RED+AMBER
Veh Bus / Cyc Ped A Veh Bus / Cyc Veh Cyc
Strab Strab
Switched signal

Veh

Bus /
e cn
Strab
GREEN (go) e e
Cyc
n e cn
n
Ped

A e
Veh

e n
AMBER
Bus /
Strab n n
Cyc e n e e
Veh e n e
RED+AMBER cn cn
Cyc cn n
e: Safety measure essential
cn: Safety measure conditionally non-essential
n: Safety measure non-essential
Figure 73: Matrix of safety measures

es and disadvantages in terms of the impact on traffic have The safety measures required for unwanted signalisation
to be examined in each individual case. statuses are shown in figures 73 and 74.
Safety measures are non-essential in the event of any oth- 7.3.4.2 Failure of a red signal
er deviations from normal operation.
All red signals must be monitored in case they fail. The
The signal safety systems that prevent signalisation status- failure of the red signal in the primary signal head must
es that endanger traffic are defined in DIN VDE 0832-100. cause the system to shut down. If one or more duplicate
Existing sets of traffic signals that do not meet the spec- signals fail, the operator specifies the combination that
ified requirements must be retrofitted wherever possible, shuts down the system.
taking into account their remaining service life.
Internal adjustment that prevent faults from taking effect Conflicting signal
In subsequent traffic flow In opposite direction
can increase the availability of a set of traffic signals. This
can include the delay of a switching command to comply
with an intergreen period or a minimum green period or Switched signal
the switchover to an alternative signal program. The prob-
ability of the set of traffic signals being switched off can e e e
also be reduced by means of redundant signalisation, such
as double reflectors, duplicate red signals for pedestrian
signal heads or the use of LED technology with lamp mon-
e e
itoring and an alarm. However, these measures are not in-
cluded in the signal safety systems.
Different conditions apply to signal safety at narrow sec- Figure 74: Safety measures with lane control signalisation (see
tions of road and in the case of lane control. also DIN VDE 0832-100)

72
A shutdown is also essential in the event of the failure of and depending on the control methods:
the red signal: – stage sequence plans;
– in the case of pedestrian signal heads, cycle signal – interstage periods;
heads or combined pedestrian/cycle signal heads at suc-
cessive crossings that are signalised by means of sep- – control logic with time-related and logical conditions;
arately switched signal groups, if there is a risk of the and
green signal of the second crossing being interpreted – parameter lists.
incorrectly. This may be the case, for example, if one
of the two successive carriageways to be crossed is not Outdated documents as a result of decommissioning, al-
very wide, or the traffic island is not very wide. terations or upgrading of the set of traffic signals must be
described as "invalid" and kept in the signal file for at least
– in the case of pedestrian signal heads, cycle signal five years.
heads or combined pedestrian/cycle signal heads if traf-
fic streams with turn signals cross their crossings. The following documents must be kept with the equip-
ment at the intersection and be available to the mainte-
7.3.4.3 Signal period violation nance engineer at all times:
– a signal site plan;
Changes in the interstage period or in the signal program
that result in statuses that endanger the traffic are generally – an intergreen period matrix;
not recognised by road users. – minimum green periods;
Shutoff due to violation of signal periods is essential: – minimum red periods;
– if minimum intergreen periods are violated; and – a signal safety table;
– cable plans;
– if mandatory minimum green periods or minimum red
periods (see section 2.7) are violated. – distribution board assignments;
– electrical documents;
7.3.4.4 Invalid signal status
– the date on which the signal timing plans were put into
It is not essential to switch the traffic signals off due to an operation;
invalid signal status because, if there is an acute danger to – a maintenance log with maintenance and fault handling
traffic as a result of the unwanted signal status, the safety records with date, time and signature;
system will be activated for other reasons.
and possibly also:
7.3.5 Operations monitoring – switching times of the signal timing plans;
The operators must keep documentation for each set of – signal programs/signal timing plans;
traffic signals providing the following information: – the control logic with time-related and logical condi-
tions; and
– a signal site plan;
– hardware documents.
– signal programs/signal timing plans;
Regardless of that, any deviations from normal operation
– startup, shutdown and switchover programs; and anomalies must be recorded with the date and time. In
– an intergreen period matrix; particular, the following must be recorded:
– the date and time at which the traffic signals are
– minimum green periods;
switched on and off;
– minimum red periods; – non-scheduled switching of the signal timing plans;
– a signal safety table; – faults; and
– cable plans; – damage to the set of traffic signals.

– distribution board assignments; It makes sense to enter all maintenance and fault clearance
records centrally.
– switching times of the signal programs; and
Further information is provided in DIN VDE 0832, DIN
– acceptance reports; EN 12675, DIN EN 12368 and DIN 32981.

73
7.4 Alternative measures in the event of This alternative form of signal control should ensure ap-
service interruptions propriate quality. It may be necessary, for example, to in-
7.4.1 Traffic control by the police clude the portable traffic signals in an existing coordinated
system, provide turn signals or connect the facility to ex-
During a service interruption of the set of traffic signals, isting detectors for vehicle-actuated control.
the police can control the traffic using the signs and in- The commands between the controller and signal heads
structions described in section 36 of the German Road of a portable set of traffic signals for intersections can be
Traffic Regulations (StVO). When unforeseeable faults or transmitted either by means of provisional open-air ca-
short service interruptions occur, it is advisable to proceed bling or wirelessly.
in this way, but it is not possible for the police to replace a
set of traffic signals for an extended period. Open-air cabling takes a relatively long time to set up. It
should therefore be considered when portable traffic sig-
7.4.2 Traffic control through road signs and traffic- nals are to be used for a longer period of time. Its design
organising measures and structure must be examined, and it must be storm
proof.
If fault clearance is not possible at short notice, there must
be suitable alternative measures in order to ensure smooth In wireless transmission, cables are not required between
traffic flow where there are traffic signals at intersections the different signal heads. Wireless traffic signals are
of roads with four or more lanes or at complex and unclear therefore preferably used when damaged traffic signals
intersections. Taking into account local circumstances and have to be replaced quickly or for a short period of service.
the traffic conditions, the following measures, for exam- Signal safety in accordance with DIN VDE 0832 must be
ple, come into question for this (also in combination): ensured in the wireless transmission of control commands
– reduced speed limits on the approaches to an intersec- as well so that signal statuses that endanger the traffic can
tion; be prevented. It should be noted that wireless transmis-
sion may be subject to external interference. Strict limits
– prevention of certain movements (e.g. left turns);
should therefore be imposed on the use of such systems,
– closing of lanes by means of traffic beacons, warning above all for the signalisation of four-way intersections
lights and road signs (sign number 121 of the German and T-intersections
Road Traffic Regulations (StVO) etc.); or
The requirements to be met in terms of the number of sig-
– partial or complete closure of the intersection with di- nal heads and how they are mounted are generally not as
versions put in place. great for portable traffic signals as they are for permanent
traffic signals. Portable traffic signals must be monitored
If no other measures are possible, portable traffic signals
particularly intensively during operation. This applies,
can be used.
above all, to the specified location, the alignment of the
7.4.3 Alternative form of signal control signal heads to the associated road users, the safety of the
power supply, the maintenance of height clearance under
If there is a service interruption, portable traffic signals overhead lines and cable routing on surfaces for pedestri-
can be used. an traffic.

74
 8 Quality management

8.1 Definitions 8.3 Prerequisites

Quality management for traffic signals means systematic Important prerequisites for effective quality management
quality assurance and quality improvement in terms of the are full clarification and a clear description of the:
design of the road facility, traffic control and the technical – control objectives, including descriptions of the strate-
components of the set of traffic signals, taking into ac- gic function of the set of traffic signals, of the desired
count the planning and strategic constraints. quality level for all road user groups and of how their
competing interests are handled, for example, in the pri-
Quality management applies to all phases of the service oritisation of public transport vehicles, green waves and
life of a set of traffic signals, from traffic control planning intervention options for pedestrians;
through implementation and operation.
– technical standards of interfaces of the equipment, data
The various quality management steps for traffic signals flow and data consistency, for example;
are closely related to existing quality assurance methods – division of responsibilities between the customer, plan-
that do not apply exclusively to traffic signals. Examples ner, implementer and operator as well as within these
of these are: groups.
– local accident investigations in accordance with the In order to carry out successful quality management and
General Administrative Regulations of the Road Traf- facilitate the implementation of the results, those who have
fic Regulations (VwV-StVO); relevant information and have to be involved in the plan-
ning of activities must be properly included. These include,
– the safety audit for roads; in addition to the operator of the traffic signals, the police,
– road safety inspections; and the road traffic authority, the planning authority, the public
transport company and the maintenance company.
– emissions tests in accordance with the German Federal Quality management is facilitated if it is ensured by means
Emission Control Act (BImSchG) and its implementing of clear information management that all documents that
provisions. are required for analysis are kept up to date and are avail-
Quality management for traffic signals should be based able centrally. All defined objectives, the results of quality
on these other methods in these steps. It does not impose checks, the measures implemented, disruptions and other
any additional requirements with regard to these methods. important information should be recorded clearly in the
Instead, the data captured in these methods and the results documents using standard terminology.
of these methods are to be used. The quality is checked in terms of:
– compliance with regulations, instructions, criteria and
8.2 Objectives of quality management guidelines;
– meeting obligations and requirements, and possibly the
The aim of quality management for traffic signals is to comprehensive processing of catalogues of actions, and
ensure that the quality objectives of high road safety and – taking consequences into account.
good traffic flow are met on a lasting basis. It ensures that:
To this end, it is necessary to define parameters for assess-
– the planning and strategic guidelines derived from ment and to have assessment rules for these. The relevant
higher-level traffic planning and traffic management guidelines must be observed; the parameters should reveal
planning are adhered to or adapted to suit changes; a high quality level corresponding to the state of the art.
– changed requirements are taken into account wherever Important parameters for assessing the quality of the traf-
possible; fic flow are waiting times and the number of stops. Fur-
ther parameters such as journey times in the network, fuel
– all the components of the set of traffic signals are ready consumption and noise emissions can be obtained from
for operation and in good working order. this. Parameters for air pollution can also be obtained to a
To this end, it is necessary that the traffic signal control- certain extent, but separate data capture is also required.
ler is: Road safety parameters reveal the number and severity
– maintenance friendly, so that malfunctions can be of traffic accidents. The accident cost rate (for the safety
avoided or easily recognised and corrected; level) and the accident density (for accident clusters) are
used.
– flexible, so that changes and additions can be easily im-
plemented; Parameters that indicate the availability of system com-
ponents and the whole system, such as the frequency and
– robust, so that it also remains in operation in unexpect- duration of faults and the frequency of failures, also come
ed and unforeseen situations. into play.

75
8.4 Quality management in traffic control 8.5 Quality management at implementation
planning
The implementation of the planned control system in the
The prerequisite for achieving the desired quality of the form of data or programs refers to its initial and subse-
traffic flow in transport networks, on stretches of road and quent supply at all levels. Inspection and test procedures
at intersections is comprehensive, professional traffic con- must be carried out before implementation.
trol planning for traffic signals.
The specifications made during planning must be clearly When the traffic control system is implemented in the
described and explained so that they can be implemented equipment, data consistency must be ensured so that there
in terms of quality management in operation and easy to are no losses of quality in terms of traffic control.
handle in the case of checks or maintenance.
In computer-aided supply and control systems where no
The following must be specified as a minimum:
more programming work is required for implementation,
– the extent to which the set of traffic signals is linked to the control method must be able to run in the target soft-
those at neighbouring intersections and particular func- ware, and in the case of parameterisable methods, the log-
tions such as inflow control and air pollution reduction; ic kernel must already be implemented. The software used
– local circumstances such as approach- and lane-specific must be easy to understand. When the system is first sup-
maximum congestion lengths or requirements in order to plied or when safety-related changes are made, a test is
prevent public transport vehicles from being impeded; always required in order to ensure the control method is
integrated in the target hardware.
– control objectives including specification of the stra-
tegic function of the set of traffic signals, the desired The following is essential to quality management:
quality level for all road user groups and how their com-
peting interests are to be handled; – The testing of the implementable data and programs
– the control method, including coordination, traffic con- must be comprehensive, covering all the control sys-
trol requirements, required or available equipment and tem's functions to be tested, and therefore all operating
transmission technology, number of signal programs conditions, including startup, shutdown and switchover
and their allocation to traffic situations and the way in as well as what happens in the event of problems of all
which the signal programs are activated; and kinds.
– components of the signal programs such as the signal – The documentation of the control system must describe
staging, stage sequence, cycle time and green periods precisely what is actually implemented in the equip-
as well as, in the case of vehicle-actuated controllers, ment and must be comprehensible to the technical per-
the control logic with the traffic control parameters or sonnel.
automatic process data.
The documentation of the set of traffic signals should cov- When it is put into operation, the design of the road space
er the following points: must be inspected. The content of this inspection is based
– the objectives and basic mode of operation of the con- on a safety audit, as described in the FGSV Guidelines for
troller and its constituent parts; Road Safety Audits (Richtlinien für das Sicherheits­audit
an Straßen).
– administrative data (intersection name, abbreviation,
controller type, etc.);
– a signal site plan and signal group data;
– a stage sequence diagram; 8.6 Quality management in operation
– intergreen period calculations and an intergreen period If the quality of traffic control is to be ensured on a lasting
matrix; basis, it must be monitored constantly during the operation
– signal programs; of traffic signals, as shown in table 4. It is recommend-
ed that the following quality management steps should be
– a description of the control method used, including the
carried out in a regular cycle and in response to events:
extent of coordination with other intersections and the
requirements of different groups of road users (includ- – review and adaptation of objectives;
ing prioritisation of public transport vehicles);
– modules used and automated systems; – review and assessment of the quality achieved;
– startup and shutdown programs; – identification of shortcomings and analysis of their
– test methods; causes;
– specification of signal heads, detectors and other sys-
tem components; and – identification and implementation of improvement
measures; and
– information on alternative measures in the event of
faults in detection systems. – monitoring of the effects.

76
Full documentation of all steps is necessary in order to extent of the event-related checks depends on the type and
keep a record of the evaluation results and decisions taken significance of the shortcomings or change.
for the purpose of future quality checks.
The outlay required to carry out checks can be significant-
The following sources of information must be used: ly reduced through the use of computer systems to capture,
– fundamental information from planning documents and analyse and document information.
the traffic control description;
8.6.1 Transport network-related overview
– accident data;
– process data from the control device that describes the The transport network-related overview has the following
signal sequence; objectives:
– operating and fault data; and – to identify particular problem areas that have to be ex-
amined more closely with a higher priority;
– information based on experience, inspections and ob-
servations at the intersection. – to identify important interrelationships between high-
A one- to two-year cycle is desirable for regular analyses, er-level objectives and the quality of individual sets of
although longer intervals are acceptable for some quality traffic signals;
management steps. Essentially unchanging information or – to highlight quality risks that only lead to problems if
information that only changes over the long term only has neighbouring sets of traffic signals have an unfavoura-
to be entered in the first quality check. In subsequent anal- ble impact in combination;
yses, it is only necessary to check whether any relevant
changes have occurred. – to identify recurring shortcomings based on historical
factors or customary ways of doing things; and
An event-related check must be carried out outside the
fixed cycle if there are indications of acute shortcomings – to avoid making recommendations that go against high-
or the requirements have changed significantly as a result er-level objectives or are in conflict with measures tak-
of upgrading or changes in the transport networks. The en at neighbouring intersections.

Table 4: Recommended quality management steps in operation

Step no. Frequency Step

Transport network-related overview
1.1 Once only Compilation and analysis of fundamental network-related information
1.2 Cyclical Analysis of fundamental network-related information for relevant changes
1.3 Annual Network-wide accident analysis
1.4 Cyclical Network-wide assessment of the quality of the traffic flow
1.5 Event-related In-depth network-wide assessment of the quality of the traffic flow
1.6 Cyclical Prioritisation of the intersections to be examined more closely
Quality analysis at intersections
2.1 Cyclical Analysis of fundamental intersection-specific information for relevant changes
2.2 Event-related Localised accident investigation
Cyclical, complemen- Recording and analysis of traffic and process data to obtain the quality of the traffic
2.3
tary flow
2.4 Cyclical Analysis of operating and fault data
Inspection of the variable elements of the road space design
2.5 Cyclical
(e.g. with the framework of regular checks of road markings and signage)
2.6 Cyclical Observation of the traffic flow at the intersection
Identification of quality improvement measures
Analysis of the causes of shortcomings and compilation
3.1 Cyclical
of a catalogue of possible improvement measures
3.2 Cyclical Assessment of possible improvement measures
3.3 Cyclical Selection of measures and planning of implementation

77
When fundamental transport network-related infor- The information serves as the basis for identifying the
mation is compiled and analysed (steps 1.1 and 1.2), the causes of shortcomings and potential for improvement.
general conditions and requirements with regard to the Augmented with current traffic densities obtained from
traffic signal control system should be included. Sets of surveys or possibly traffic demand models, they can be
traffic signals with a particularly complex set of require- used in order to estimate the capacity and capacity utili-
ments and a high level of importance in one of the trans- sation of the intersection in accordance with the German
port networks should be identified. They are located at in- Highway Capacity Manual (HBS).
tersections that:
Local accident investigations (step 2.2) enable safety
– are part of a high-level road network category or have shortcomings in terms of the design of the road facility
high traffic densities; and the traffic control to be identified. The analysis of the
– have particular strategic functions; accidents is based on the network-wide accident analysis.
It is recommended that this should be done on the basis of
– are located on coordinated stretches of road; the in-depth analysis described in the FGSV's Information
Sheet on Local Traffic Accident Evaluation in Traffic Ac-
– have a particularly important function for public trans- cident Committees. In this case, this entails:
port, cycle traffic or pedestrian traffic; or
– the capture, representation and statistical presentation
– are in or close to sensitive residential areas.
of the accident data;
As a result of network-wide accident analysis (step 1.3), – the identification of the intersection as an accident
signal-controlled intersections can be identified where black spot on the basis of the one-year map of all acci-
accidents indicate that there are particular risks to safe- dents and the three-year map of accidents involving in-
ty. The preliminary investigation procedure described in juries, and allocation of the intersection to an accident
the FGSV's Information Sheet on Local Traffic Accident black spot category;
Evaluation in Traffic Accident Committees is recommend-
ed for the analysis of accidents. This consists of the fol- – the evaluation of the development of accidents over five
lowing steps: years; and

– identifying accident black spots and allocating them to – the identification of structural similarities in the acci-
an accident black spot category; dents.
– assessing how they develop over time; and Structural similarities, particularly the occurrence of turn-
ing-off accidents and turning-into/crossing accidents, al-
– producing ranking lists based on urgency. low conclusions to be drawn about shortcomings in rela-
tion to the signalisation or the design of the intersection.
In the network-wide assessment of the quality of the Typical shortcomings might be:
traffic flow (steps 1.4 and 1.5), those intersections at
which there are long waiting times, congestion and other – signal heads that are difficult to notice/recognise;
impediments to the traffic flow are identified based on the – a lack of clarity at the intersection;
experience of the operators and the indications received
from the population. Additional information can be ob- – traffic control that is difficult to understand;
tained by measuring journey times along main roads. Care – unsuitable staging arrangements, particularly where
must be taken to ensure the statistics are valid. In addition, there are permitted turning streams;
systematic surveys can be carried out to obtain the opin-
ions of experts, road users and interest groups. – inadequate observation of the safety requirements de-
scribed, above all, in sections 2.3, 2.6, 7.3 and 7.4; and
Prioritisation of the intersections to be examined more – frequent failure of the traffic signals combined with un-
closely (step 1.6) should be carried out on the basis of usual signal statuses as fallback arrangements.
the results of the transport network-related analyses. This
should be based on the ranking by urgency obtained from In addition, structural similarities in the accidents that
the accident analysis. It must be ascertained whether inter- occur may indicate signalisation conditions (program
sections should receive a higher priority after taking into switching times, light conditions) involving particular ac-
account the results of the other steps. cident risks.
Changes to the signal control or the design of the intersec-
8.6.2 Quality analysis at intersections tion during the period studied must be taken into account
in the analysis.
In the analysis of fundamental intersection-specific in-
formation for relevant changes (step 2.1), it is assumed If there is a cluster of accidents of the same type at the in-
that all the urban development, traffic planning, design and tersection during the period studied, it should be investi-
traffic control conditions and requirements are ascertained gated whether aspects of the traffic control at the intersec-
and documented during the traffic control planning stage, tion have contributed to this. This can be done by studying
as described in section 8.4. Missing information may have accidents that have taken a similar course, generally by
to be added in an initial quality check. examining accident diagrams or accident reports.

78
By recording and analysing traffic and process data Inspections and observations at the intersection (steps
(step 2.3), which is generated and processed continually 2.5 and 2.6) cover the following:
in vehicle-actuated control methods, parameters indicat- – the condition of elements of the intersection design and
ing the quality of the traffic flow can be obtained, and po- facilities, in order to identify shortcomings that have a
tential for improving the vehicle-actuated functions can be negative impact on road safety; and
identified. The analysis extends to:
– observations of the traffic flow, in order to obtain quali-
– the distribution of the green periods in order to match tative and quantitative parameters indicating of the traf-
them with the distribution of traffic densities; fic flow.
– underutilised green periods in order to demonstrate the
capacity of the facility and to identify potential for re- An expert assessment can be made to identify potential
distributing green periods or to check the termination for improvement and estimate the the suitability of vari-
conditions; ous measures.

– the frequency of interventions during the green period The purpose of inspecting the intersection is to ascertain
in green waves in order to check what the negative im- whether:
pact is; – the intersection design still adheres to the applicable
– the intervals between a request and a green signal for in- guidelines, which may have changed, and takes into ac-
dividual traffic streams in order to ascertain maximum count the specific requirements of road safety and traf-
waiting times (also average waiting times in the case of fic flow; and
typical individual events such as the arrivals of public – the condition of the equipment at the intersection pre-
transport vehicles); and vents these requirements from being met.
– the occupancy levels of detectors in order to identi- Aspects that come into question as possible accident caus-
fy when congestion lengths are exceeded or there are es contributing to accident clusters are of particular impor-
problems with regard to vehicle outflow. tance in the inspection.
In addition, a comparison with the control logic can give When an inspection is carried out for the first time at com-
indications about how to improve it. missioning, the subsequent regular inspections can be lim-
For the analysis there should be a record that is accurate to ited to aspects that are variable or subject to temporary
the second of the process data over a period of a number of changes. These include, in particular:
days, covering all the relevant critical load scenarios Due – fields of view;
to the volume of data involved, it is necessary to use suit-
able statistical analysis programs. – visibility and recognisability of signal heads, signage,
road markings and other equipment at the intersection;
The analysis of operating and fault data (step 2.4), in-
– information content (e.g. signposting).
cluding information on regular and extraordinary operat-
ing statuses of system components, permits an assessment The observation of the traffic flow allows parameters that
of operational reliability to be made and an examination of indicate the traffic quality to be obtained. The observation
the causes of quality shortcomings in the traffic flow that focuses on:
are attributable to temporary loss of system functions. The
– capacity deficits, which are revealed by the occurrence
analysis extends to:
of residual congestion or when vehicles are unable to
– deviations from standard operation and the activation of access lanes;
fallback arrangements in order to recognise when not
– coordination deficits, which are revealed when incom-
all system functions are available or there are unusu-
ing vehicle platoons cannot be handled without stops;
al control statuses, and to identify causes of accident
events and disruptions to the traffic flow; – long waiting times for individual groups of road users,
including high total crossing times at poorly coordinat-
– the frequency and average duration of faults of indi-
ed pedestrian crossings and hindrance of public trans-
vidual system components such as detectors and sig-
port vehicles;
nal heads, and possibly even vehicle components in the
case of public transport vehicles, in order to assess their – disrupting influences on the traffic flow such as parking
reliability and the necessity of replacing them; manoeuvres or manoeuvres at access points to proper-
ties.
– the frequency and average duration of fault-related sys-
tem shutdowns in order to draw conclusions about the – traffic flows that have a negative impact on road safety,
absence of alternative functions; and such as those that fail to follow the prescribed traffic
routing, or conflict areas that are not cleared;
– the fault handling workflow.
– traffic flows that produce high levels of air pollution.
The system's fault books and log sheets included in the
analysis. Modern systems sometimes have automatic log- The observations should be carried out in the morning and
ging functions, and it is possible to access this information evening rush hours unless there are indications of particu-
without much outlay. lar problems at other times of day.

79
8.6.3 Quality improvement measures quality analysis and the information obtained on the inter-
section design, traffic control, the technical components
Based on the quality assessment and the analysis of the of the set of traffic signals and the planning and strategic
causes of shortcomings, suitable measures designed to im- conditions.
prove quality must be introduced. Different types of meas-
ures can be used. These are described below, arranged by In order to assess possible improvement measures (step
the outlay required for them, the depth of their impact and 3.2), their effects have to be estimated. A qualitative as-
the time required to implement them, sessment generally has to be made of the cost of the meas-
ure and the expected benefits. It may be possible to carry
Maintenance measures restore the set of traffic signals to out cost-benefit assessments based on the calculation of
its specified condition. These include measures directed at avoidable economic losses resulting from accidents and
the system itself, such as the replacement of detectors, the lost time and standardised costs of measures in order to
realignment of signal heads or the replacement lamps, and obtain more precise information. Experience from the use
measures designed to renew or upgrade road markings, of comparable measures can be used, or the traffic flow
signage, etc. parameters can be obtained using calculation methods or
Parameter adjustments are changes to control param- simulations.
eters such as threshold and limit values for intervals be- For the selection of measures and planning of imple-
tween vehicles, minimum green periods, time windows mentation (step 3.3), it is recommended to prioritise the
for requests or time offsets. No intervention is made into measures identified as suitable based on their estimated
the control logic. impact and to formulate a final proposal for action that
In the case of fixed-time programs, structural changes to takes into account possible reinforcing or counteractive
traffic control affect the number of signal programs and interactions between the measures.
their staging, in particular. In the case of vehicle-actuated The type and extent of the measures to be taken depends on
controllers, the logical flows for requests and the calcu- the level of danger and hindrance. In order to select suita-
lation of green periods are also affected. These measures ble measures, it first has to be examined whether a signif-
also cover the handling of faults and the fallback arrange- icant and lasting improvement in quality can be achieved
ments provided for these. by means of simple measures. If far-reaching measures are
Adjustments to sets of traffic signals include the re- required, for which an extended planning and implemen-
placement or addition of signal heads, detectors, control- tation phase is to be expected, it must be examined wheth-
lers or communication equipment. er the problem can be partially dealt with by means of im-
mediate measures and the situation can thus be improved.
Structural measures change the amount of space avail-
able, the width, length and allocation of lanes and other After measures have been taken, their impact must be re-
road equipment at the intersection such as road markings, viewed. In addition to the scheduled quality checks, it may
signage or traffic guidance equipment. therefore also be necessary to carry out checks at short-
er intervals, starting shortly after the implementation of
Changes to the traffic planning and strategic condi- the measures. The parameters indicating the quality of the
tions are necessary if improvements cannot be made by traffic flows must be ascertained and compared with the
means of the above measures or if they have to be sup- target values and the corresponding values before the im-
ported by other measures. These include the relocation of plementation of the measures. If it is found that the quality
traffic streams in transport networks, urban development objectives have not been achieved or there are shortcom-
measures in the surrounding area or fundamental strategic ings elsewhere as a result of the measures taken, improve-
decisions such as the prioritisation of groups of road users. ments must be made.
The analysis of the causes of shortcomings and com- The results of the investigations must be documented and
pilation of a catalogue of possible improvement meas- made available appropriately for future decision-making
ures (step 3.1) take place on the basis of the results of the on measures to be taken.

80
 9 Standards and technical regulations

DIN1) DIN 6163-1 Colours and colour limits for signal lights: General
DIN 6163-5 Colours and colour limits for signal lights: Stationary signal lights in local
public transport
DIN 18040-1 Construction of accessible buildings: Design principles – Part 1: Publicly
accessible buildings
DIN 18040-3 Construction of accessible buildings: Design principles – Part 3: Public
circulation areas and open spaces
DIN 32981 Tactile and acoustic devices for blind and partially sighted persons on traffic
signals – Requirements
DIN 49842-1 Lamps for traffic lights – Part 1: Extra low voltage lamps for fixed signal lights
DIN 49842-2 Lamps for traffic lights – Part 2: High-voltage lamps for fixed signal lights
DIN 55350-11 Concepts for quality management – Part 11: Supplement to
DIN EN ISO 9000:2005
DIN 66001 Information processing; graphical symbols and their application
DIN 66001, Information processing; graphical symbols and their application; layout of
Supplement 1 graphical symbols on a template
DIN 66261 Information processing; Nassi-Shneiderman flowchart symbols
DIN 67527-1 Photometric properties of signal lights for transport – Part 1:
Stationary signals for road traffic
DIN VDE 0100 Erection of high-voltage installations with rated voltages up to 1000 V

DIN VDE 0832-100 Road traffic signal systems

DIN V VDE V 0832- Road traffic signal systems: Technical requirements for signal heads with LED
300
DIN V VDE V 0832- Road traffic signal systems: Traffic management systems
400
DIN VDE V 0832-500 Road traffic signal systems: Safety-related software and safety-related
communication in transmission systems
DIN CLC/TS 50509 Use of LED signal heads in road traffic signal systems
(VDE V 0832-310)
DIN1) 2) DIN EN 40-2 Lighting columns. Part 2: General requirements and dimensions
DIN EN 12352 Traffic control equipment. Warning and safety light devices
DIN EN 12368 Traffic control equipment. Signal heads
DIN EN 12675 Traffic signal controllers – Functional safety requirements
DIN EN 12966-1 Road vertical signs – Variable message traffic signs – Part 1: Product standard
DIN EN 50293 Road traffic signal systems – Electromagnetic compatibility
(VDE 0832-200)
FGSV2) EAÖ Recommendations for Public Transport Installations (Empfehlungen für
Anlagen des öffentlichen Personennahverkehrs) (FGSV 289)
EFA Recommendations for Pedestrian Traffic Installations (Empfehlungen für
Fußgängerverkehrsanlagen) (FGSV 288)

81
Standards and technical regulations, continued

FGSV2) ERA Recommendations for Cycle Traffic Installations (Empfehlungen für

Radverkehrsanlagen) (FGSV 284)
ESAS Guidelines for Road Safety Audits (Empfehlungen für das Sicherheitsaudit von
Straßen) (FGSV 298)
ESN Recommendations for the Road Safety Analysis of Road Networks, Translation
2003 (Empfehlungen für die Sicherheitsanalyse von Straßennetzen) (FGSV 383)
EWS Recommendations for Economic Feasibility Studies on Roads – Update of
Guidelines RAS-W 86 (Empfehlungen für Wirtschaftlichkeitsuntersuchungen an
Straßen – Aktualisierung der RAS-W 86) (FGSV 132)
HBS German Highway Capacity Manual (Handbuch für die Bemessung von
Straßenverkehrsanlagen) (FGSV 299)
H LiS Notes on Traffic Signal Control in Road Networks (Hinweise für die
Lichtsteuerung in Straßennetzen) (FGSV 321/2)
H QML Notes on Quality Management at Traffic Signals (Hinweise zum
Qualitätsmanagement an Lichtsignalanlagen) (FGSV 321/3)
H ZRA Notes on Traffic Inflow Control Installations (Hinweise für
Zuflussregelungsanlagen) (FGSV 318)
Notes on Lane Assignments – Application Examples and possible Uses
(Hinweise zu variablen Fahrstreifenzuteilungen – Anwendungsbeispiele und
Einsatzmöglichkeiten) (FGSV 384)
Notes on Traffic Computers as an Element of Urban Traffic Signal
Control (Hinweise zu Verkehrsrechnern als Bestandteil der innerörtlichen
Lichtsignalsteuerung) (FGSV 378)
Notes on Preferential Treatment of Public Transport at Traffic Signals
(Hinweise zur Bevorrechtigung des öffentlichen Personennahverkehrs bei der
Lichtsignalsteuerung) (FGSV 361)
Notes on Data Completion and Data Preparation for Traffic Technology
Applications (Hinweise zur Datenvervollständigung und Datenaufbereitung in
verkehrstechnischen Anwendungen) (FGSV 382)
HSRa Notes on Signal Control for Cycle Traffic (Hinweise zur Signalisierung des
Radverkehrs) (FGSV 256)
M LV Information Sheet on the Choice of the Photometric Performance Class of
Vertical Traffic Signs and Traffic Sign Facilities (Merkblatt für die Wahl
der lichttechnischen Leistungsklasse von vertikalen Verkehrszeichen und
Verkehrseinrichtungen) (FGSV 393)
M Uko Information Sheet on Local Traffic Accident Evaluation in Traffic
Accident Committees (Merkblatt zur örtlichen Unfalluntersuchung in
Unfallkommissionen) (FGSV 316/1)
Information Sheet on Speeding Up Public Transport with Trams and
Busses (Merkblatt für Maßnahmen zur Beschleunigung des öffentlichen
Personennahverkehrs mit Straßenbahnen und Bussen) (FGSV 114)
Notes on Detection Technologies in Road Traffic (Merkblatt über Detektoren
für den Straßenverkehr) (FGSV 312)
RAL Guidelines for the Design of Rural Roads (Richtlinien für die Anlage von
Landstraßen) (FGSV 201)
RASt Directives for the Design of Urban Roads, Translation 2012 (Richtlinien für die
Anlage von Stadtstraßen) (FGSV 200)
R-FGÜ Guidelines for the Installation and Equipment of Pedestrian Crossings
(Richtlinien für die Anlage und Ausstattung von Fußgängerüberwegen)
(FGSV 252)
RiLSA- Collection of Examples for the Guidelines for Traffic Signals – Traffic Lights
Beispielsammlung for Road Traffic (Beispielsammlung zu den Richtlinien für Lichtsignalanlagen)
(FGSV 321/1)
82
Standards and technical regulations, continued

FGSV2) RMS Guidelines for Road Markings, Part 2: Application of Road Markings
(Richtlinien für die Markierung von Straßen, Teil 2: Anwendung von
Fahrbahnmarkierungen (RMS-2)) (FGSV 330/2)
RSA Guidelines for Securing Roadworks on Roads (Richtlinien für die Sicherung
von Arbeitsstellen an Straßen) (FGSV 370)
TL-Transportable Technical Delivery Terms for Portable Traffic Signals (Technische
Lichtsignalanlagen Lieferbedingungen für transportable Lichtsignalanlagen) (FGSV 368/9)
VkBl.3) BÜSTRA Guidelines on Dependencies between Technical Safety Mechanisms of
Level Crossings and the Traffic Control at Neighboring Intersections and
T-Intersections (Richtlinien über Abhängigkeiten zwischen der technischen
Sicherung von Bahnübergängen und der Verkehrsregelung an benachbarten
Straßenkreuzungen und -einmündungen)
BASt4),2) TLS Technical Delivery Terms for Route Stations (Technische Lieferbedingungen für
Streckenstationen) (FGSV 3049, Reader Premium)
VDV5) VDV-Schrift 341 Technical Safety Mechanisms for Tram Level Crossings (Technische Sicherung
der Bahnübergänge (BÜ) bei Straßenbahnen)
VDV-Schrift 344 Driving Signals in Accordance with BOStrab § 21 (Fahrsignalanlagen nach
BOStrab § 21)

Legislation, ordinances and sources

BGG Act on the equal treatment of disabled www.bundesgesetzblatt.de,

people www.bundesrecht.juris.de
BImSchG Act preventing harmful effects on the www.gesetze-im-internet.de;
environment caused by air pollution, (FGSV Reader Premium, R 106)
noise, vibrations and similar
(Federal Immission Control Act)
BOStrab Ordinance on the Construction and Operation of www.gesetze-im-internet.de;
Trams (Tram Construction and Operations (FGSV Reader Premium, R 113)
Ordinance)
EBO Ordinance on the Construction and Operation www.bundesrecht.juris.de
of Railways
StVG Road Traffic Act www.gesetze-im-internet.de;
(FGSV Reader Premium, R 128)
StVO German Road Traffic Regulations www.bundesgesetzblatt.de, www.bmvi.de;
(FGSV Reader Premium, R 129)
StVZO Road Transport Licensing Regulations www.bundesgesetzblatt.de,
www.bundesrecht.juris.de;
(FGSV Reader Premium, R 130)
VwV-StVO General Administrative Regulations of the www.bundesanzeiger.de;
Road Traffic Regulations (FGSV Reader Premium, R 132)

83
Sources
1) Beuth Verlag GmbH
Address: Burggrafenstraße 6, D-10787 Berlin
Phone: +49 (0)30/26 01-13 31; fax: +49 (0)30/26 01-1260
Email: [email protected], web: www.beuth.de

2) Beuth Verlag GmbH

Address: Wesselinger Straße 17, D-50999 Cologne
Phone: +49 (0)22 36/38 46 30; fax: +49 (0)22 36/38 46 40
Email: [email protected], web: www.fgsv-verlag.de

3) Verkehrsblatt-Verlag
Address: Schleefstraße 14, D-44287 Dortmund
Phone: +49 (0)231/12 80 47; fax: +49 (0)231/12 80 09
Email: [email protected], web: www.verkehrsblatt.de,
(VkBl. 1972 page 28, changed by VkBl. 1997 page 90, no. 44 and 1984 page 38, no. 24)

4) German Federal Highway Research Institute (BASt)

Internet: www.bast.de (> Verkehrstechnik > Publikationen > Regelwerke zum Download)

5) beka – Einkaufs- und Wirtschaftsgesellschaft für Verkehrsunternehmen mbH

Address: Kamekestraße 20-22, D-50672 Cologne
Phone: +49 (0)221/95 14 49-0; fax: +49 (0)221/95 14 49-20
Email: [email protected], web: www.beka.de

All FGSV publications listed are also available digitally for the FGSV reader and
are included in the comprehensive subscription service "FGSV – Technisches Regelwerk – Digital".

84
 Remarks on the system of technical publications of the FGSV

R stands for regulations:

These publications either specify the technical design or realization (R1) or
give recommendations on the technical design or realization (R2).
W stands for information documents:
These publications represent the current state-of-the-art knowledge and
define how a technical issue shall be practicably dealt with or has already
been successfully dealt with.

Category R1 indicates 1st category regulations:

R1-publications contain the contractual basis (Additional Technical
Conditions of Contract and Directives, Technical Delivery Forms and
Technical Testing Regulations) as well as guidelines. They are always
coordinated within the FGSV. R1-publications – in particular if agreed on
as integral part of the contract – have a high binding force.
Category R2 indicates 2nd category regulations:
R2-publications contain information sheets and recommendations. They
are always coordinated within the FGSV. Their application as state-of-the-
art technology is recommended by the FGSV.
Category W1 indicates 1st category documents of knowledge:
W1-publications contain notes. They are always coordinated within the
FGSV but not with external parties. They represent current state-of-the-
art knowledge within the respective responsible boards of the FGSV.
Category W2 indicates 2nd category documents of knowledge:
W2-publications contain working papers. These may include preliminary
results, supplementary information and guidance. They are not
coordinated within the FGSV and represent the conception of an individual
board of the FGSV.
 FGSV 321 E

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50999 Cologne · Wesselinger Straße 17
Phone: +49 (0)22 36/38 46 30; fax: +49 (0)22 36/38 46 40
Web: www.fgsv-verlag.de

R1

321E/4/21