U3+u4 Rdes

13
FUEL CELLS
13.1 INTRODUCTION
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts the chemical energy of a fuel into
electricity without involving a combustion cycle. The first fuel cell was developed in 1839 in
England by Sir William Grove. However, the application of fuel cell was first demonstrated by
Francis T. Bacon in 1959 when his model generated 5 kW at 24 V. Its practical application
began during the 1960s when the US space programme chose fuel cells over nuclear power and
solar energy. Fuel cells provided power to the Gemini, Apollo and Skylab spacecraft, and
continue to be used to provide electricity and water to space shuttles.
In India, the fuel cell laboratory of Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. (BHEL), Hyderabad is
developing ‘Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells’ (PAFC) since 1987. PAFC power packs of 1, 5, 10 and
50 kW ratings have been successfully developed and demonstrated by BHEL, Hyderabad.
13.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF AN ACIDIC FUEL CELL

It is known that electrolysis of water produces hydrogen and oxygen. In a fuel cell the process
is reversed where these gases combine in an electrochemical cell to generate electricity and
water.
A basic hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell with phosphoric acid as electrolyte is shown in
Figure 13.1. Fuel cell electrodes are made porous in order to provide a large number of pockets
where the gas, the electrolyte and the electrode are in contact for chemical reaction. A fuel cell
like any other battery consists of two electrodes and an electrolyte. However, a fuel cell differs
from a battery in the sense that both the reactants (i.e., hydrogen and oxygen) are not
permanently contained in the electrochemical cell, but are fed into it from an external supply,
when electric power is required. In fuel cells, platinum coated special graphite plates are used
as the electrodes, separated by an electrolyte. The fuel is hydrogen gas which is supplied at the
anode side where the hydrogen molecules are effectively reduced to hydrogen ions which move
on into the electrolyte.
322
Fuel Cells • 323
H2 fuel
+
H2 2H + 2e
Anode 2e
(–)
–
2H Electrolyte Load
Cathode
(+)
Current
+
1/2 O2 + 2H + 2e H2O
Oxidant air H2O
Figure 13.1 Fuel cell operation.
H2 Æ 2H+ + 2e–
(gas) (ion)
Electrons so liberated at the anode build up a negative potential and travel towards the cathode
through an externally connected circuit. Oxygen gas is supplied at the cathode where it is
reduced by hydrogen ions to produce water.
4H+ + O2 + 4e– Æ 2H2O
Electrochemical reactions coupled with movement of hydrogen ions through the electrolyte
generate an electric potential, which causes electric current to flow through the load.
Fuel cell
2H2 + Oææææ
2 Æ 2H2O + Electric energy generated + Heat energy released
This reaction is exothermic, which results in heating up the cell. A stream of air is circulated
on the cathode side of the cell which absorbs enough heat to maintain outlet air and steam at
180°C which is optimum for best performance of the cell.
13.3 TECHNICAL PARAMETER OF A FUEL CELL

An individual cell produces a small voltage, in the range of 0.55 to 0.75 V. A number of cells
are therefore, arranged in ‘stacks’ to provide the required level of voltage. Electrode size (area)
determines the total amperage, and current density in the range of 100 –500 mA/cm2 can be
achieved. For any given power rating, an appropriate electrode size and the requisite number of
cells are selected.
In a typical fuel cell ‘stack’, a number of individual cells are stacked together using bipolar
plates. A bipolar plate has two functions, namely to facilitate the distribution of fuel and oxidents
to the cells, and to provide continuity in electrical circuit between the cells. To meet this
requirement, the plate should be impervious to gas diffusion and possess low electrical
resistance. A set of such repeating elements is shown in Figure 13.2.
324 • Renewable Energy Sources and Emerging Technologies
Current flow
End collector plate

Cathode
Electrolyte matrix A typical unit cell
Anode
Bi-polar separator plate
Cathode
Hydrogen
fuel flow
Oxidant flow
Figure 13.2 Repeating elements used in a cell stack.
Apart from the cell stack assembly, a fuel cell power plant consists of a number of other
sub-systems, namely a fuel processing system, an inverter system, a control and instrumentation
system, and a water and heat recovery system. These sub-systems are schematically shown in
Figure 13.3.
Heat Clean
Fuel and water exhaust
processor Power
conditioner
DC
Fuel
Power
section
Figure 13.3 Major sub-systems in a fuel cell power plant.
13.4 FUEL PROCESSOR

Fuel cells generally run on hydrogen, but any hydrogen-rich material can also serve as a fuel
source. This includes fossil fuels—methanol, ethanol, natural gas, petroleum distillates, liquid
propane and gasified coal. Fuels containing hydrogen require a ‘fuel processor’ that extracts
hydrogen gas as shown in Figure 13.4.
Fuel cells can also run on several other fuels, such as gas from landfills and wastewater
treatment plants.
Three basic fuel processor or reformer designs for fuel cells used in vehicles are: steam
processing, partial oxidation and auto-thermal processing.
Fuel Cells • 325
Oxygen from air
Fuel Power
processor Fuel cell
Fuel Hydrogen DC conditioner AC
from fuel input output
Water vapour and heat
Figure 13.4 Energy flow diagram in a fuel cell.
Steam reformer combines the fuel with steam by vaporizing them together at high
temperature. Hydrogen is then separated out using membranes. It is an endothermic process,
which means that energy is consumed—energy is obtained by burning fuel or excess hydrogen
from the outlet of the fuel cell stack.
Partial oxidation reformers combine fuel with oxygen to produce hydrogen and carbon
monoxide, which then reacts with steam to produce more hydrogen. Partial oxidation releases
heat which is utilised elsewhere in the system.
Auto-thermal reformers combine the fuel with steam and oxygen, thus, the reaction remains
in heat balance. In general, both methanol and gasoline can be used in any of the three reformer
designs. Differences in the chemical nature of the fuels, however, can favour one design over
another.
Fuel cells are ideal for power generation, particularly for on-site service in areas that are
inaccessible for grid supply.
13.5 HYDROGEN FOR FUEL CELLS FROM RENEWABLE SOURCES

Renewable energy of the sun and wind can be utilised to generate hydrogen, by using power
from PV solar cells or wind turbines, from electrolysis of water. Thus, hydrogen becomes an
energy carrier that transports power from generation site to another location for use in fuel
cells.
If it is difficult to arrange supply of hydrogen, fuel cells can easily operate on methanol.
13.6 METHANOL (METHYL ALCOHOL) FUEL CELL

In places where hydrogen is not readily available, methanol (CH3OH) can be used as fuel. To
generate one kilowatt of power the fuel cell uses about 12 litres of hydrogen gas, obtained from
0.6 litre of methanol that costs about ` 45 per litre. The overall efficiency of the cell, from fuel
to electricity, is about 60%. The efficiency of the fuel cell directly depends upon its use, as in
a chlor-alkali cell; besides electricity generation the waste heat, as a by-product, is also utilised
usefully in industry.
Methanol is a liquid hydrocarbon fuel. It can directly be introduced from the anode side of
the fuel cell without converting to hydrogen. Such an arrangement is used in mobile applications
of fuel cells, such as in buses and in remote military sites where noise and smoke discharge, such
as in diesel generators, are prohibited. Methanol can directly be oxidized to operate as fuel.
2CH3OH + 3O2 Æ 2CO2 + 4H2O
In another method, methanol is converted to hydrogen and carbon oxides. Hydrogen rich
fuel gases so produced are fed into the fuel cells to generate electrical energy.
13.7 FUEL CELL TYPES

Fuel cells are identified by their most important component, i.e., the electrolyte. The electrolyte
determines the operating temperature, the catalysts to be applied to the electrodes and the
requirement of the process gas.
There are five types of ‘fuel cells’ based on the electrolyte used in each of them.
∑ Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC)
∑ Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC)
∑ Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC)
∑ Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)
∑ Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)
Various fuel cells, their operating temperatures, unit sizes and applications are given in
Table 13.1.
Table 13.1 Fuel cell characteristics
Type Operating temp. Unit size Applications

(°C) ( kW)
Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) 70 –100 1 –100 Space and military
Proton Exchange 50 –100 0.1 –100 Residential, portable laptops,
Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) cellular phones, video cameras,
buses, cars, railway
locomotives
Phosphoric Acid 160–210 5 – 200 (also Dedicated power (+heat),
Fuel Cell (PAFC) MW sized plants) railways
Molten Carbonate 650 100 – 2000 Dispersed power and utility
Fuel Cell (MCFC) power
Solid Oxide Fuel 800–1000 2.5–250 (plants Domestic and commercial utility
Cell (SOFC) up to 100 MW) power, mobile applications for
railways
13.7.1 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs)

Alkaline fuel cells use KOH as electrolyte with porous electrodes of carbon having nickel as the
electro catalyst. Hydrogen is used as fuel and oxygen as oxidant, as shown in Figure 13.5. Its
operating temperature is about 80°C. At anode, the hydrogen gas reacts with hydroxide ions
present in the electrolyte solution to form water, and electrons are released.
H2 + 2(OH)– Æ 2H2O + 2e
Electrons so produced build up a negative potential and move towards the cathode through an
externally connected circuit.
Fuel Cells • 327
Load
–ve +ve
H2 O2
Porous Porous
anode + – cathode
K OH
Figure 13.5 Alkaline electrolyte fuel cell.
At cathode the electrons are picked up by the oxygen atoms available there, react with water
present in the electrolyte to form hydroxide (OH)– ions.
1
O2 + H2O + 2e– Æ 2(OH)–
2
which combine with hydrogen ions to form water.
H+ + OH– Æ H2O
Thus, with hydrogen and oxygen continuously supplied, the fuel will steadily be oxidized
by the ions produced in the process to generate electric power, causing current to flow in the
external circuit. The voltage across the terminals of the cell is about 1 volt. For greater outputs
a number of single cells can be connected in series. The efficiency of fuel cells is high, about
70%. M/s Apollo, have developed AFC-based power packs in 2 kW to 25 kW range.
As the KOH electrolyte used in AFCs readily reacts with the CO2 to form K2CO3, so this
cell is not considered suitable for terrestrial applications. Even traces of CO2 present in the
ambient air limits the life of fuel cells.
However, where pure H2 and O2 reactants are available, as in rockets and spacecraft, there
is no other fuel cell that can compete with the high power densities offered by AFCs.
13.7.2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC)

A polymer electrolyte fuel cell, also known as Protone Exchange Fuel Cell (PEFC), consists of
a solid electrolyte which is an ion exchange membrane as shown in Figure 13.6. The fuel used
is hydrogen with air as the oxidant. The membrane is impermeable to gases but allows the
hydrogen ions to move across it which makes the current to flow in the circuit. The cell operates
at low temperatures (80–100°C).
A polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell developed in the laboratories of the Siemens
Power Generation Group in Erlangen (Germany), has a maximum power output of 50 kW. The
primary objective to develop this PEFC has been to create a noiseless, pollution free power pack.
Siemens is also working on a low-cost fuel cell design and simplified manufacturing methods
which are suitable for mass production.
Polymer electrolyte fuel cells are the electrochemical energy converters with an efficiency
level of more than 60%. No gaseous environmental pollutants are produced like in internal
combustion engines. This fuel cell operates at low temperature, so its start-up and shutdown
times are short. This type of fuel is especially suitable for small stationary applications in the
power range below 1 MW.
Hydrogen fuel
+ –
2H2 4H + 4e
–
Anode 4e
Ion exchange membrane Load
Cathode
O2 + 4H + 4e 2H2O
Oxygen with air Water

Figure 13.6 Polymer electrolyte fuel cell.
An undisputed world leader in the PEM area is M/s Ballard Power Systems Canada. Ford
Motor Company is designing Zero Emission Vehicles (ZEVs) to be operated by PEM stacks. In
India, SPIC Science Foundation is associated with the development of PEM technology with the
support from MNRE.
13.7.3 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)

The Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) consists of an anode of porous graphite substrate with
platinum alloy as the catalyst. The cathode in similar to the anode but made with a noble-metal
catalyst. The electrolyte* matrix contains concentrated phosphoric acid and is located between
anode and cathode. Stacking of individual cells is accomplished with a bipolar plate. This plate
provides the electrical contact between the anode of one cell and the cathode of the adjacent cell,
as shown in Figure 13.7.
It is a low temperature fuel cell and so requires high purity hydrogen. The low-temperature
fuel cell systems comprises a second pre-processing step called the ‘water gas-shift reaction’ in
which CO reacts with steam and is converted into hydrogen and CO2. Such pre-processing steps
are performed in separate reactors, and the fuel cell system is referred to as an ‘external
reforming system’.
This cell has an advantage that it can be used without any danger of poisoning the
electrolyte, but CO has to be converted to avoid platinum poisoning.
PAFC technology is presently in the initial phase of commercialization at the level of
200 kWe. Due to low operating temperature (< 200°C), PAFC is not attractive for large-scale
power production, limiting its applications to uninterrupted power source for computer centres,
airports, etc. BHEL R&D Hyderabad operated these cells using LPG in both modes i.e., grid
independent as well as grid connected. During 2000, BHEL developed 50 kW PAFC power
pack, i.e., two stacks of 25 kW each.
* Matrix: The matrix serves the dual purpose of holding the electrolyte and acting as a separator between the
cathode and the anode. The matrix must have high electrical resistance, good acid wicking capability and
should be chemically stable.
Fuel Cells • 329
Current flow
End plate
Anode
Matrix A typical unit cell
Cathode
Bi-polar separator plate
Anode
Oxidant flow
Fuel flow
Figure 13.7 Schematic of repeating elements in a PAFC stack.
M/s International Fuel Cell Corporation, a joint venture of M/s United Technology &
M/s Toshiba are the sole world leaders in this field. More than 200 units of their 200 kW Fuel
Cell Power Plants (FCPPs) have already been sold. Recently FCPPs have been integrated with
digester gas from sewage treatment plants in large cities. Another niche area is their use in
Combined Heat & Power (CHP) mode. CHP application of fuel cells can be more than 80%
efficient, i.e., 40% electrical efficiency with another 40% energy made available as heat.
13.7.4 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs)

A molten carbonate fuel cell needs a molten mixture of alkali carbonates as an electrolyte. Its
operating temperature is around 650°C which allows the use of catalysts like nickel in the
electrodes. High temperature keeps the carbonate electrolyte in liquid phase. The electrolyte is
retained between two porous nickel electrodes as shown in Figure 13.8.
H2 + CO
Anode
Molten carbonate electrolyte Load
Cathode
Oxygen with air Steam + CO2
Figure 13.8 Molten carbonate fuel cell.

A fuel gas derived from fossil fuels contains CO2 and CO. The MCFC is insensitive to CO2
and with nickel/nickel oxide electrodes it is also immune to poisoning by CO.
Being a high temperature fuel cell, there is an internal reforming system which takes place
almost simultaneously with the electro-chemical reactions. With the operating conditions in this
cell, CO is oxidized, via the water-gas shift reaction, to CO2 with the production of hydrogen.
The oxidizing agents for hydrogen are carbonate ions which are formed at the cathode. Thus,
the oxidant gas must contain CO2. In practice, CO2 is provided by recycling the anode
off-gas to the cathode.
At anode H2 + CO3– – Æ H2O + CO2 + 2e
CO + CO3– – Æ CO2 + 2e
1
At cathode O + CO2 + 2e Æ CO3––
2 2
The by-products of this cell are, steam and carbon dioxide at a high temperature of 545°C
and a source of cogeneration. Thus the MCFC, in addition to electricity, also provides industrial
process heat. Waste heat can generate steam in a boiler which can drive a generator to supply
additional electric power, thus improving the total efficiency of the system.
At international level the world’s largest MCFC-based power plant of 2 MW rating with
internal reforming system was commissioned at Santa Clara in 1996. Currently, M/s Fuel Cell
Energy Research Corporation is engaged in commercialization of 300 kW, 1.5 MW and 3 MW
modular, “Direct Fuel Cell” power plants for stationary, distributed power applications.
In India, M/s Central Electro-Chemical Research Institute, Karaikudi is spearheading the
MCFC R&D in association with the Tata Energy Research Institute Delhi. There is an MNRE
funded project with CECRI for making single cells of 45 and 100 cm2 area. They are successful
in establishing current densities of 168 mA/[email protected] V and 105 mA/[email protected] V for the
45 cm2 and 100 cm2 electrodes respectively.
13.7.5 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

An SOFC is based on a solid metal oxide electrolyte (zirconium dioxide) called zirconia. It
allows ionic conductivity of oxgyen ions from cathode to anode. It is a high temperature fuel
cell which operates in the temperature range of 800°C to 1000°C. The electrodes are electric
conductors with a high porosity. The operating temperature is high enough for internal reforming
of natural gas in the anode chamber. The water gas shift reaction takes place at the anode, thus
enabling H2 and CO mixtures to be used as fuel feedstock. Configuration of a single SOFC in
tubular shape is shown in Figure 13.9. The construction materials used are metal oxides and
ceramics. The central hollow space is for air flow that acts as an oxidant. Its operation is efficient
at 1000°C and 1 atmospheric pressure. Fuel gas flows through the outermost layer of the fuel
electrode. Next to it is the electrolyte layer. Fuel gas permeates through the porous electrodes
and is oxidized by air containing oxygen. The air electrode is next to electrolyte and air flows
axially through the central hollow space. Both fuel gas and oxidant are fed into the cell
continuously which get consumed and the SOFC delivers electrical energy.
Fuel Cells • 331
Fuel electrode
Electrolyte
Air flow Air electrode

Support tube
Air flow cavity
Figure 13.9 Solid oxide fuel cell (tubular shape).
For large-scale power generation the SOFC can also be fuelled with coal gas and gases
derived from biomass. Due to high operating temperature, integration with gas and steam
turbines is possible. Natural gas is clean, efficient and economically versatile than fossil fuels.
An SOFC fuelled by natural gas can attain a high electrical efficiency rating up to 55%. Each
cell delivers 25 A current at 0.7 V and a pack of 50 cells gives an output of 1000 W.
A world leader in the Solid Oxide Fuel Cells is M/s Siemens Westinghouse Power
Corporation of USA (SWPC). The company markets 25 kW multi-tube stacks. They installed
a power plant that feeds 109 kW into the grid besides 64 kW worth of hot water/steam to a local
heating system. Electrical efficiency of 46% has been achieved.
In Asia, NKK of Japan introduced 5 kW and 50 kW units as distributed power generators
for residential and commercial consumers. NKK also plans to introduce 250 kW and 550 kW
SOFC units for use in offices, shoping malls, multistoried buildings, hospitals and hotels.
In India, SOFC research is being carried at the Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute
Kolkata, Corporate R&D, BHEL Hyderabad where various materials and electrode processing
technologies have been developed. Both have assembled and tested SOFC single cells.
Solid oxide fuel cells promise a vast potential in utilisation of low grade, high ash, graded
coals through Fluidized Bed Gasification. BHEL R&D Hyderabad developed a fuel cell system
control as shown in Figure 13.10.
Heat & water

management
Fuel Power
storage conditioning
Fuel processor
Methane Chopper
Methanol Cell stack Inverter
LPG etc. assembly Transformer
Oxidant delivery
compressor fan
Figure 13.10 Fuel cell system control.

13.8 ADVANTAGES OF FUEL CELL POWER PLANTS

Some of the important advantages of fuel cell power plants are:
1. Fuel cell power plants are eco-friendly, noiseless, carry no rotating components. In
contrast, in coal-based stations, ash slurry, discharge of smoke through chimney
adversely affect the environment.
2. It is a decentralized plant, can be operated in isolation for military installations and
hospitals where noise and smoke are prohibited. Besides, no power is wasted in
transmission and distribution.
3. Fuel cell power sources attain a high efficiency up to 55% whereas conventional thermal
plants operate at 30% efficiency.
4. A large degree of modularity is available, with capacity ranging from 5 kW to 2 MW.
The number of fuel cells can be increased as per the requirement.
5. There is a wide choice of fuels for fuel cells. These can be operated with natural gas,
ethanol, methanol, LPG and biogas supplied from local biomass. All these are hydrogen
rich materials and hydrogen gas can be produced by using fuel reformers.
6. Fuel cells can operate at landfills and wastewater treatment plants from the methane gas
they produce. Fuel cells operate on waste gases at breweries, also on gas from sewage
sludge proving to be the cleanest and most cost-effective energy conversion technology.
7. In addition to electric power, fuel cell plants also supply hot water, space heat and steam.
Fuel cells have cogeneration capabilities.
8. Potential areas of cogeneration systems where fuel cells can be effectively installed are
sugar, paper, cotton, textile, caustic soda, iron and steel mills and refineries which will
enhance system efficiency and reduce demand on grid.
13.9 FUEL CELL BATTERY–POWERED BUS SYSTEM

In recognition of several benefits which could accrue with large-scale introduction of fuel cell
technology in transport sector, the US Department of Energy has taken up a R&D programme
on fuel cell propulsion technologies for potential applications.
Immediate efforts are directed only at the phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) as it is a suitably
developed technology for the transport sector. The programme is to build PAFC fuel cell/battery-
powered test buses with methanol as fuel.
A schematic of a typical fuel cell / battery-powered bus system is shown in Figure 13.11.
These buses are expected to offer performance equivalent to, or better than diesel buses with
tail pipe emissions reduced by more than 99%.
13.10 COMPARISON BETWEEN ACIDIC AND ALKALINE

HYDROGEN–OXYGEN FUEL CELLS
Comparison between acidic and alkaline H2 –O2 fuel cells may be made with respect to their
contents and the reaction that takes place to produce electrical energy.
Fuel Cells • 333
Fuel flow
Fuel cell
Cooling
controller
Speed &
Fuel cell Temp braking
Current command
Voltage/Current
Voltage/Current
V/I Voltage/Current Motor
Battery Temp. control controller
Regenerative
Speed
Current braking
Voltage
Armature current
Fuel current
Voltage
Speed
Motor Torque Vehicle
Gear box Wheels Speed
Route
characteristics
Figure 13.11 Typical fuel cell battery-powered bus system.
Electrodes: In both the cells, electrodes are of carbon, porous in construction with nickel as
the electro catalyst.
Electrolyte: In an acidic fuel cell the electrolyte is phosphoric acid, while in an alkaline cell
it is aqueous alkaline like KOH.
Reaction: An electrochemical difference between the two cells is, that in an acidic electrolyte
the migration is by hydrogen ions, while with an alkaline electrolyte the migration is with
hydroxyl ions (OH).
However, the total reaction in both the fuel cells is the same, i.e., hydrogen and oxygen
supplied to either acidic or alkaline fuel cell produce electrical energy, water and heat.
Fuel cell
2H2 + Oææææ
2 Æ 2H2O + Electrical energy generated + Heat energy released
13.11 STATE-OF-THE-ART FUEL CELLS
13.11.1 Microbial Fuel Cell

Researchers from the US-based Pennsylvania State university have developed an electricity
generator that is fuelled by human waste. The device, the microbial fuel cell (MFC), is useful
for countries where large-scale waste-processing plants are needed, but are prohibitively
expensive, because of high power requirement. Offsetting this cost by producing electricity,
while treating waste, the programme is economically viable.
Operating process
Human waste contains undigested food comprising organic matter such as carbohydrates,
proteins and lipids. Bacteria use enzymes to oxidize the organic matter. In this process, electrons
are released. Normally the electrons power the respiratory reactions of the bacteria cells, and
eventually combine with oxygen molecules. However, by depriving the bacteria of oxygen on
one side of MFC, the electrons are used to power an external circuit.
An MFC comprises a 15 cm long cylindrical metal container with a central cathode rod that
is surrounded by a proton exchange membrane (PEM) as shown in Figure 13.12. Eight anodes
(long, slender graphite rods) are arranged around the cathode. Bacteria clustering around the
anodes breakdown the organic waste as it is pumped, releasing electrons and protons. With no
oxygen to help mop up the electrons, the bacteria enzymes transfer them to the anodes, while
the protons migrate to the central cathode. Molecules on the PEM encourage the protons to pass
through the cathode. There, they combine with oxygen from the air and electrons from the
anodes to produce water. During the transfer of the electrons from the cathode, a voltage is
created, enabling the MFC to power an external circuit. The equipment is designed for a
laboratory test. It will be put in commercial use and the system may produce about 51 kW of
power from the waste of 100,000 people.
Anode
Cathode
+
–
External
circuit
Inlet to feed
in waste
Figure 13.12 Microbial fuel cell.

Fuel Cells • 335
13.11.2 World’s First Fuel Cell–Gas Turbine

The fuel cell–turbine hybrid system combines a Siemens–Westinghouse solid oxide fuel cell
with an Ingersoll Rand microturbine. Solid oxide fuel cells are electro-chemical devices that
convert energy in a fuel into electricity, while microturbines are small high-speed gas turbines.
The synergy realized by fuel cell–turbine hybrids is derived primarily from using the rejected
thermal energy and combustion of residual fuel from a fuel cell in driving the gas turbine. This
leveraging of the thermal energy makes the high temperature molten carbonate and solid oxide
fuel cell most suitable for the hybrid system. Use of a recuperator contributes to improving the
thermal efficiency by transferring heat from the gas turbine exhaust to the fuel and air used in
the system.
Linked together in a mini-power plant, the advanced generator is being tested at the National
Fuel Cell Reserach Centre in University of California–Irvine. The two technologies combined
can produce 190 kW of electricity. The combination has pushed power efficiency to 60% for
smaller systems and 70% or higher for larger systems, which is much higher than that of the fuel
cell system on natural gas (about 53%). Its emissions of nitrogen oxide are nearly 50 times less
than an average natural gas turbine. It is environmental friendly and can be sited anywhere, even
in the most environmentally sensitive regions.
13.12 ENERGY OUTPUT OF A FUEL CELL

Different forms of energy differ in quality. A few forms of energy are of high quality, while
others are of low quality. Work, heat and electrical energy differ in quality. From the second law
of thermodynamics, “heat cannot be completely converted to work” and
Q>W
where Q represents the heat and W the work. However, the work can be fully converted to heat,
i.e.,
W=Q
Thus, the work is high grade energy. Similarly, electrical energy is a higher form of energy as
it is convertible into heat or work.
In a fuel cell a chemical reaction takes place as fuel and air are continuously fed into it at
normal atmospheric temperature and pressure (NTP). The products after reaction are electric
power and water. There is a steady flow of fuel and air at the inlet of the fuel cell and so is the
steady flow at the outlet, of course, maintaining pressure and temperature equilibrium with the
atmosphere.
In a steady-flow condition, the equation from the first law of thermodynamics is
DQ = DW + DH (13.1)
where
DQ = net heat transferred to the steady flow stream from the surrounding atmosphere
DW = net work done by the steady stream on the surrounding
DH = change in enthalpy* of the flow stream from inlet to exit.
* Enthalpy (H) of a substance is represented by the equation (U + pV ) where U is the internal energy, p is the
pressure and V is the volume of the system. The unit of enthalpy is joule (J). Enthalpy is a thermodynamic
quantity equivalent to the total heat content of a system.
(In Eq. (13.1) the changes in potential energy, kinetic energy and internal energy are not
mentioned, being negligible.)
Entropy is expressed as a quantity of a ‘system’s thermal energy’ not available for
conversion into mechanical work. Entropy like heat is a characteristic of the system. When a
system receives heat from surroundings, the entropy of the system increases. Also, if a system
rejects heat to surroundings the entropy of the system decreases. Entropy is an indicator of heat
per kelvin temperature (T). For a system of high absolute temperature the entropy will also be
high. For a reversible process, considering the second law of thermodynamics, the change in
entropy can be expressed as
DQ = Ú T ds (13.2)
At any given instant, the surrounding atmosphere maintains a constant temperature T. Thus,
reversible heat transfer takes place at temperature T, which is the prevailing temperature at inlet
and exit.
Thus, DQrev = TDs (13.3)
From Eqs. (13.1) and (13.3),
DW = TDs – DH
= – (DH – TDs) (13.4)
13.13 EFFICIENCY AND EMF OF A FUEL CELL

The energy conversion efficiency of a fuel cell at NTP is the ratio of the net useful work done
to the heat of the fuel consumed, i.e.,
DW
h= (13.5)
-DH
To find the reversible emf of the cell, the reversible electrical work is expressed as
DWrev = EDq (13.6)
where Dq is the charge shifted.
For a fuel cell chemical reaction, Dq can also be expressed as
Dq = NF (13.7)
where
F = Faraday’s constant = 9.65 ¥ 107 C/kg-mole
= 96500 c/g-mole
N = total number of electrons shifted per molecule of the reactant.
From Eqs. (13.6) and (13.7),
DWrev = NFE (13.8)
The emf of the cell can be expressed as
W
E = rev (13.9)
NF
Fuel Cells • 337
13.14 GIBBS–HELMHOLTZ EQUATION

Chemical reactions can be made to do work, or to serve as pathways for the conversion of heat
into work. Energy available to perform useful work is called ‘Gibbs Free Energy’. It is
represented by the symbol ‘G’ in honour of Josiah Willard Gibbs, a professor of chemistry at
Harvard University who developed both the concept and the quantitative equation which
describe it.
G = H – Ts
where H is the enthalpy, s is the entropy and T is the absolute temperature.
A change in free energy DG is expressed as
DG = DH – D(Ts)
As the temperature is a state variable and the entropy is a state function, they can be expressed
as
DG = DH – TDs – sDT (13.10)
However, at constant temperture, the change in temperature DT is zero, so the term sDT is zero.
For any constant-temperature (isothermal) change, Eq. (13.10) is expressed as
DG = DH – TDs
Rearrangement of this equation, for larger changes we get the Gibbs–Helmholtz equation
dH = dG + Tds (13.11)
where Tds represents the change in entropy or the energy not available for doing work. Thus,
Eq. (13.11) has the physical meaning.
Total energy available as heat = dG + energy not available for doing work*
Therefore, dG is the part of energy which is available for doing work.
The convention of heat flow ‘q’ is also that of enthalpy change. When dH is negative, heat
is given off in the exothermic reaction, whereas when dH is positive, heat is absorbed in the
endothermic reaction from the surroundings.
Free energy change follows the same conventions. When dG is negative, energy is given up
in the reaction and the change can do useful work. This is a spontaneous process, called an
exergonic (energy-giving) process. When dG is positive, energy is absorbed in the reaction and
useful work must be done on the materials so that reaction can occur. This is non-spontaneous
process and is called an endergonic (energy-requiring) process.
13.14.1 Free Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions

Under the standard conditions of temperature and pressure (STP), the free energy change of an
isothermal reaction is:
dG0 = dH 0 – Tds0 (13.12)
*
Unavailable energy is a product of the lowest temperature of heat rejection and change in entropy.
This is true for any reaction, and for the particular case of formation reactions:
dG0f = dH 0f – Tds0f
The entropy change in a chemical reaction can either be calculated from the enthalpy change and
the free energy change or as the difference in entropies of products and reactants. Both dH 0f and
dG0f are zero, by definition, for the elements in their standard state at 25°C and one atmosphere
(one bar) pressure.
For many chemical reactions, the enthalpy and the free energy are nearly the same and thus
from the values of enthalpy change alone the change in free energy can be calculated.
If the free energy change in a chemical reaction is negative, the reaction can occur
spontaneously. When the free energy change in a chemical reaction is positive, the reaction
cannot occur spontaneously. It is obvious that free energy changes correspond to the work being
done. When dG is negative, the system will do work for us. When dG is positive, one has to
do work on it.
For example, the reaction C(s) – O2(g) Æ CO2(g) which takes place spontaneously, is
opposite to the direction of the reaction CO2(g) Æ C(s) + O2(g) for which dG is positive and
this reaction does not take place spontaneously. The value for dG, can be expressed as
dG = The sum of dGf (Products) – The sum of dGf (Reactants)
The value of the free energy in a chemical reaction changes only in sign when the direction of
the reaction is reversed.
13.14.2 Helmholtz Free Energy

The Helmholtz free energy F is expressed by the equation
Final entropy
≠
F = U – Ts (13.13)
Ø Ø Ø
Helmholtz free energy Internal energy Absolute temperature
Here Ts represents the energy which one can get from the system’s environment by heating. The
internal energy U is the energy required to create a system in the absence of changes in
temperature or volume. In case, the system is created in an environment of temperature T, then
some of the energy is obtained by spontaneous heat transfer from the environment to the system.
The measure of this spontaneous energy transfer is Ts where s is the final entropy of the system.
In such a case one does not need to put much energy. However, if a more disordered (higher
entropy) final state is created, less work is required to create the system.
Thus, the Helmholtz free energy is defined as “the amount of energy one has to put in to
create a system once the spontaneous energy transfer from the environment is accounted for”.
The four thermodynamic potentials are related by offsets of the “energy from the
environment” term Ts and the “expansion work” term pV. A mnemonic (Figure 13.13) as
suggested by Schroeder shows the relationship between the four thermodynamic potentials.
Fuel Cells • 339
– TS
U F
Internal Helmholtz
+ PV
energy free energy
H G
Gibbs
Enthalpy free energy
Figure 13.13 Mnemonic diagram showing the relation between Ts and pV.
13.14.3 Gibbs Free Energy

In chemical reactions of non-cyclic processes, four quantities are called “thermodynamic
potentials”. These are internal energy, the enthalpy, the Helmholtz free energy and the Gibbs free
energy.
Gibbs free energy G as already expressed is
G = H – Ts
where H is enthalpy, T is absolute temperature, and s is final entropy. However,
H = U + pV
where U is internal energy, p is absolute pressure and V is final volume.
So,
G = U – Ts + pV (13.14)
Also,
Ts = energy that one can get from system’s environment by heating
pV = work to give the system the final volume V at constant pressure p
The internal energy U might be thought of as the energy required to create a system
when there are no changes in temperature or volume. But in defining enthalpy, an additional
amount of work pV must be done if the system is created from a very small volume in order
to “create room” for the system. Also while defining the Helmholtz free energy, an
environment at constant temperature T will contribute an amount Ts to the system, reducing the
overall energy investment necessary for creating the system. This net energy contribution for a
system created in environment temperature T from a negligible initial volume is the ‘Gibbs
free energy’.
The change in Gibbs free energy, DG, in a reaction is a useful parameter. It provides a clear
picture of the maximum amount of work obtainable from a reaction. For example, in the
oxidation of glucose, the change in Gibbs free energy is DG = 686 kcal = 2870 kJ. This reaction
is the main energy reaction in living cells.
13.15 HYDROGEN FUEL CELL ANALYSIS WITH THERMODYNAMIC

POTENTIALS
Hydrogen and oxygen when combined in a fuel cell produce electrical energy. A fuel cell uses
a chemical reaction to provide an external voltage like a battery. However, it differs from a
battery in the sense that the fuel is continuously supplied in the form of hydrogen and oxygen
gas. It produces electrical energy at a higher efficiency than just burning the hydrogen to produce
heat to drive a generator. Its only by-product is water, so it is pollution free, as detailed in
Figure 13.14.
Electric energy output
ΔG = 237.13 kJ/mol
Fuel energy input – –

ΔH = 285.83 kJ/mol e e
e de
Ideal hydrogen-oxygen od t ho
an ca
fuel cell operation g g
in in
uct uct
Hydrogen nd nd Oxygen
co co
u s u s
Hydrogen ro ro Oxygen
Po Po
Hydrogen Oxygen
Electrolyte
+ –
H2 2H + 2e + –
2H + 2e + O H2O
+
H ions migrate Heat output
across electrolyte
TΔs = 48.7 kJ/mol
Water
Figure 13.14 Hydrogen fuel cell showing input and output energy.
One mole of hydrogen gas combines with a half-mole of oxygen gas from their normal
diatomic forms to produce a mole of water. This process takes place at 298 K and one
atmosphere pressure. The relevant values are taken from a table of thermodynamic properties
and detailed in Table 13.2.
Table 13.2 Thermodynamic properties
Quantity H2 0.5O2 H2O Change

Enthalpy 0 0 – 285.83 kJ DH = – 285.83 kJ
Entropy 130.68 J/K 0.5 ¥ 205.14 J/K 69.91 J/K TDs = – 48.7 kJ
Fuel Cells • 341
Energy is produced by the combination of the atoms and also from the decrease in volume
of both the gases. At temperature 298 K and one atmosphere pressure, the system work is:
W = pDV = (101.3 ¥ 103 Pa) (1.5 moles)(–22.4 ¥ 10–3 m3/mol)(298 K/273 K)
= –3715 J
As the enthalpy H = U + pV, the change in internal energy U is given by
DU = DH – pDV = –285.83 kJ – (–3.72 kJ)
= –282.1 kJ
The entropy of the gases decreases by 48.7 kJ in the process of combination as the total number
of water molecules is less than the total molecules of hydrogen and oxygen. The total entropy
will not decrease in the reaction, the excess entropy in the amount TDs must be expelled to the
environment as heat at temperature T. The amount of energy per mole of hydrogen that can be
provided as electrical energy is the change in the Gibbs free energy:
DG = DH – TDs = –285.83 kJ + 48.7 kJ = –237.1 kJ
For this ideal case, the fuel energy is converted to electrical energy at an efficiency of
237.1
¥ 100% = 83%
285.8
This is far greater than the ideal efficiency of a generating facility which burns the hydrogen
and uses the heat to power a generator. Actually the real fuel cells do not approach that ideal
efficiency, yet they are more efficient than any electric power plant which burns a fuel.
13.16 COMPARISON OF ELECTROLYSIS AND THE FUEL CELL

PROCESS
Fuel cell process is a reverse reaction to that of electrolysis of water. It can be explained by
enthalpy change as the overall energy change. The Gibbs free energy is that which one has to
supply to drive a reaction, or the amount of energy that one can get if the reaction is working
for release of energy. So, with electrolysis the enthalpy change is 285.8 kJ, and it is necessary
to put in 237 kJ of energy to drive electrolysis, and the heat from the envioronment will
contribute TDs = 48.7 kJ to complete the reaction.
Contrary to the above reaction, when a fuel cell operates, one gets 237 kJ as electric energy,
and the energy TDs = 48.7 kJ is dumped into the environment.
13.17 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF FUEL CELLS

A fuel cell consists of two electrodes surrounded by an electrolyte. Hydrogen fuel is fed into the
‘anode’ of the fuel cell, while oxygen enters through the cathode. Excited by a catalyst, the
hydrogen atom splits into a proton and an electron, which take different paths to the cathode.
The proton passes through the electrolyte while the electrons create a current which is utilised
before they return to the cathode, to be reunited with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to
form water.
It has already been explained that the amount of energy per mole of hydrogen which can
be supplied as electrical energy is the change in the Gibbs free energy, i.e., 237.1 kJ at 25°C.
The heat energy (or enthalpy) of the reaction is 285.83 kJ under the same conditions. Thus, the
maximum efficiency of a hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell is 83%.
However, when a fuel cell operates, it can harness the fuel’s energy via a chemical reaction
into electricity to the extent of 65% only. The performance of a fuel cell can be evaluated from
a curve of the cell voltage VC drawn against current density ID at electrode surface at a given
temperature, as shown in Figure 13.15.
1.2
A Vo
1.1
1.0
Vp
0.9 B
0.8
Cell voltage, VC
C
0.7
0.6
0.5
x y z D
0.4
0.3 Vc
0.2
0.1
0
Current density, ID
x represents chemical polarization,

y the internal resistance polarization, and
z shows the electrolyte concentration polarization.
Figure 13.15 Voltage–current density curve (polarization curve).
The difference in open-circuit voltage (Vo) and closed-circuit voltage (Vc) is due to the
polarization effect within the cell. The drop in voltage Vp is expressed as
Vo = Vc + Vp
The ‘polarization loss’ at the electrodes denotes the difference in the open-circuit voltage and the
closed-circuit voltage. Electrode losses can be divided into three categories: (1) chemical
polarization, (2) internal resistance polarization, and (3) electrolyte concentration polarization.
Chemical polarization
In fuel cells, elctrons are released and their movement causes the current to flow in the external
circuit. At low current density, less number of electrons are liberated. To increase the current,
the process needs acceleration for which the energy is supplied by the fuel cell represented by
the curve part AB. It causes voltage drop, the output loss is due to chemical polarization. The
effect can be reduced by using a superior electrode catalyst and operating the cell at a higher
temperature.
Fuel Cells • 343
Internal resistance polarization

When a fuel cell operates, the ions liberated at one electrode move to the other electrode through
the electrolyte causing flow of current in the external circuit. The internal resistance is the total
of electrode resistance, the contact resistance between electrode and electrolyte and the
electrolyte resistance. It is represented by the curve part BC.
The internal resistance polarization can be reduced by decreasing the electrode size, coating
the electrodes with a good electric conductor, increasing the electrolyte concentration and
reducing the distance between the two electrodes.
Electrolyte concentration polarization

When a fuel cell operates, there is a reduction in voltage due to concentration loss of the
electrolyte which causes slow ionic movement. It is represented by the CD part of the curve. A
remedy for this polarization is to increase the electrolyte concentration by continuous stirring and
operate the cell at a higher temperature. The optimal operating temperature for an acidic cell is
180°C.
Voltage efficiency of a fuel cell

Polarization in a fuel cell reduces the output voltage. All the losses in a fuel cell are converted
to waste heat that is released to the atmosphere. The efficiency of a fuel cell in terms of voltage
is expressed as
closed circuit voltage Vo - Vp
hV = =
open circuit voltage Vo
0.78
Putting values from the curve, hV = ¥ 100 = 65%
1.20
13.18 THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF A FUEL CELL

The voltage efficiency of a fuel cell has already been considered which is 65% as calculated
from the curve. However, a large number of energy converters convert heat energy into
electricity. To compare the efficiency of electrochemical energy converters, i.e., ‘fuel cells’ the
heat input may be taken as the enthalpy change of the reaction (DH).
It is now assumed that the only useful work done by a fuel cell system is electrical work
which is represented by the quantity of charge that flows from the cell, multiplied by the
potential difference of the cell. Thus, the quantity of charge can be calculated by multiplying the
number of moles* of electrons operative in the cell reaction by the number of coulombs per mole
of electrons.
* One gram mole of electron = 6.02 ¥ 1023 electrons = total charge of 96,493 coulombs. A charge equal to
96493 coulombs is called a ‘Faraday’ constant F. If a wire passes a current of one ampere for 96493 seconds,
it shall pass one mole of electrons or a charge of 96493 coulombs.
Electrical work = Wel = – nFVo (13.15)

where
Vo = open-circuit voltage of the fuel cell
F = Faraday constant
n = number of moles of electrons.
The work output in a fuel cell which operates at the thermodynamic reversible voltage
(which drives the electrons liberated at the anode through the external load) is equal to Gibbs
free energy change (DG). Thus,
Wel = DG = – nFVo
The thermal efficiency of a fuel cell (not considering the losses associated with the accessories)
is the work output of the system divided by the heat reaction [see Eq. (13.10)], i.e.,
DG - nFVo
hth = = (13.16)
DH DH
ItVo
= - (13.17)
DH
where I is the current and t is the time in second for which the current flows. When a fuel cell
feeds a load the cell voltage decreases and so does the efficiency.
13.19 FUTURE POTENTIAL OF FUEL CELLS

Market studies predict that large-scale application of fuel cells is expected to enter into the niche
market of high technology electronic devices like cellular phones, laptop computers and video
cameras.
Casio computers have released a notebook PC powered by a fuel cell using methanol
reforming. MTI Micro Fuel Cells, USA, has developed an external fuel cell for use in cell
phones.
With chloralkali plants functioning, sufficient surplus hydrogen is available. This can partly
be used for generating power by PAFC power plants.
The real revolution is expected to come from the vehicular application of fuel cells. It will
help the developed countries to propel their compliance of Kyoto protocol, i.e., cut down the
“greenhouse gas emissions” to levels that are 5% below the 1990 level.
With all-round applications, the generation of electricity from fuel cells is expected to jump
to 15000 MW in 2011 from a mere 75 MW in 2001. It will cover all the three market segments,
i.e., portable, stationary and vehicular.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. (a) Derive the expression for the power output and efficiency of a fuel cell.
(b) Give a complete description of the working and constructional features of a
hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell.
Fuel Cells • 345
(c) Find the maximum possible value of the internally generated voltage of the
hydrogen–oxygen cell at STP (1 atmosphere and 298 K) where the product is in its
liquid state. Find also the internally generated voltage of the hydrogen–oxygen cell
at a temperature of 32°C when the air is used as the oxidant and the product is
water. The air is supplied at a pressure of 1.2 atmosphere and the hydrogen is at
a pressure of 1.1 atmosphere. The partial pressure of oxygen in air is 0.21 Gibbs
free energy at STP for water is 237 ¥ 106 coulomb for H+ = 0, R = 8314.
2. (a) Explain the basic theory of electrochemistry applied to fuel cells.
(b) Compare the H2–O2 acidic fuel cell with the H2–O2 alkaline fuel cell.
(c) Discuss the performance characteristic and applications of fuel cell.
3. Fuel cells operate at a fairly high efficiency and are in demand as auxiliary supplies in
certain places. This trend will continue in the future. Explain this with examples of
different types of ‘electrolytes’ and ‘electrodes’ and their construction and working
bringing out the relative merits and demerits.
4. (a) In connection with a fuel cell, explain the meaning of WE £ DG and use this for
an isothermal thermodynamic all gas chemical reaction in a fuel cell to find an
expression for the maximum value of internal cell voltage and the conversion
efficiency.
(b) Draw a neat sketch of a ‘matrix type’ hydrogen, oxygen alkaline cell with facilities
for electrolyte recirculation and water removal. How is this accomplished in other
types?
5. Briefly explain the principle of a fuel cell by taking a hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell. Which
factors are responsible for limiting the efficiency of such a cell?
6. (a) Describe a solid electrolyte fuel cell with a suitable diagram.
(b) Explain with the help of current–voltage characteristic the normal performance of
a fuel cell with particular reference to an acid electrolyte hydrogen cell and its ‘cell
voltage’ and its ‘maximum conversion efficiency’.
7. Distinguish between battery and fuel cell.
8. Discuss the operating characteristics of the fuel cell.
9. Discuss and differentiate between “electrical efficiency” and “thermal efficiency” of the
fuel cell.
10. Write notes on:
(a) Fuel processor
(b) Fuel cell battery powered system
(c) Microbial fuel cell
(d) Polarization in a fuel cell.
14
HYDROGEN ENERGY SYSTEM
14.1 INTRODUCTION
At present most of the world’s energy demand (about 70%) is met by fossil fuels because of their
availability and convenient use. However, fossil fuels (i.e., petroleum, natural gas and coal) are
being depleted rapidly. Also, their combustion products cause global problems, such as the
greenhouse effect, ozone layer depletion, acid rains and pollution which pose danger to our
environment. Now, engineers and scientists agree that the solution to all these global problems
is to replace the existing, fossil fuel system with the ‘Hydrogen Energy System’. Hydrogen is
an efficient and clean fuel. It has minimum carbon context compared to other fuels as shown in
Table 14.1.
Table 14.1 Carbon contents of fuels
Fuel Carbon : Hydrogen

Wood 9 : 1
Coal 1.5 : 1
Oil 1 : 2
Natural gas 1 : 4
A carbon-rich fuel produces more CO2 which contributes to global warming. By adopting a
leaner carbon and richer hydrogen content, it is a step towards better environment-friendly
sources of fuel.
14.2 EMERGENCE OF HYDROGEN

Having understood the importance of hydrogen, energy planners can foresee a carbon-free, all-
hydrogen energy scenario for future. However, it is made clear that hydrogen is not a source of
energy, it is a currency or an energy carrier like elelctricity. This is clarified by the details
346
Hydrogen Energy System • 347
presented in Table 14.2 which shows the energy chain from the source of energy, transformation
technology to the end use.
Table 14.2 Hydrogen as an energy carrier
Energy source Transformation Energy Service technologies Energy use

technology currencies
Crude oil Oil refineries Petrol, Diesel, Internal combustion Transport
Natural Gas engine (ICE) Irrigation
Automobiles motors
Oil, Natural Generators Hydrogen Fuel cell vehicles Industry, Transport
gas, Coal Electrolyzers ICE Automobiles, Motors Heating System
Reformers
Nuclear, Wind, Generators Hydrogen Fuel cells for Water supply
Solar, Geothermal Electrolyzers electricity, ICE Automobiles, Transport
(carbon free) Fuel Cell Vehicles Defence industry
The above details in Table 14.2 clarify the role of hydrogen in the energy chain. Though
hydrogen has the highest energy content, its volumetric density is just 0.0899 kg/Nm3 which
makes it difficult for packing, storage and public distribution. It requires a high percentage of
its energy content to be consumed in either pressurization or liquification in order to enable its
commercial utilisation.
14.3 HYDROGEN PRODUCTION

The world’s annual production of hydrogen gas from all sources is nearly 500 billion m3
(plus 125 billion m3 as a co-product) weighing 50 million tonnes with an energy content of
6 ¥ 1018 joules. A large part of this hydrogen is produced from steam reformation of natural gas
and some form of fossil fuel. A major portion of this hydrogen is utilised for the production of
ammonia and methanol. It is also used in semiconductor industries and rockets.
Hydrogen is produced from different raw materials and from different processes. The
method adopted is dictated by economic viability. Some of the methods used are:
1. Steam reformation
2. Electrolysis of water
3. Thermal decomposition of water through solar energy or nuclear energy
4. Thermo-chemical methods
5. Solar energy methods
(a) Biological production
(b) Photo electrolysis
6. Gasification of coal/biomass
7. Sunflower oil, air and water vapour
14.3.1 Steam Reformation

Steam is passed over hot sponge iron sheets at a suitable tempeature (550°C to 800°C) where
hot iron and steam react to produce ferric oxide, hydrogen, CO2 and CO in small quantities. The
gases are passed through a scrubber where dilute NaOH absorbs CO2 and CO.
3H2O + 2Fe Æ Fe2O3 + 3H2
Another method is the steam reformation of natural gas or crude oil depending upon the
availability.
14.3.2 Hydrogen Production by Electrolysis

Water is abundantly available which can be split into hydrogen and oxygen by using dc power.
Hydrogen evolves at the cathode and oxygen at the anode. As an experiment, two pairs of
stainless steel electrodes, each having 500 cm2 surface area were used with different electrolyte
solutions. Readings with current ratings 25, 50, 75 and 100 ampere were taken and the average
power consumption was recorded as given in Table 14.3. The quantity of hydrogen generated
was measured by a flow meter. The power required for the generation of one Nm3 hydrogen was
computed.
Table 14.3 Energy requirement to liberate 1 Nm3 of hydrogen
Electrolyte (water + salt) Energy consumed (kWh / Nm3)

5% NaCl 11.3
10% NaCl 10.3
15% NaCl 8.3
5% KOH 8.8
10% KOH 7.8
It can be seen that 10% KOH is an optimum electrolyte solution. It was observed that with
an increase in the electrode surface area the power consumption further reduced. The results with
different surface area of electrode are given in Table 14.4.
Table 14.4 Energy consumed with different pairs of electrodes
Electrode surface area (cm2) Energy consumed (kWh / Nm3)

Two pairs (4 electrodes) 7.8
Three pairs (6 electrodes) 7.6
Five pairs (10 electrodes) 3.2
The results show that the most economical value is 3.2 kWh / Nm3.
The temperature of the cell is maintained between 65°C and 80°C. Hydrogen thus produced
is of 99% purity.
Electrolysis
æææææ
2H2O (liquid) Æ 2H2 (gas) + O2 (gas) + (D Heat) (14.1)
(At cathode) (At anode)
As the rate of hydrogen production is proportional to the current, a high operating

current density is required to be maintained for economic viability. The net efficiency of
generating electricity from fossil fuel plants is 35%. Considering the electrolysis efficiency of
80%, the overall efficiency of producing hydrogen would be 28% only. With hydroelectric
power plants which operate at 90% efficiency, hydrogen production shall have an efficiency
of 70%.
The efficiency of electrolysis E is expressed by the equation
Hydrogen produced in m 3 ¥ K
E= ¥ 100 (14.2)
Power input in kWh
From experimental studies the value of constant K can be taken as 3.3 kWh/m3. The average
power input in kWh from Table 14.3 is 4 kWh/m3. The value of E is about 82%.
Nangal (Punjab) fertilizer plant used hydropower for a low-cost energy efficient water
electrolysis plant to produce hydrogen for manufacturing synthetic ammonia by Haber’s process.
14.3.3 Thermal Decomposition of Water

A better conversion efficiency may be obtained if the heat produced by the primary fuel is
directly applied to decompose water, without utilising an intermediate electrical energy. In
thermal decomposition, heat energy is required to be used at a very high temperature of 2500°C
or more to dissociate water from hydrogen and oxygen. Considering the requirement of such a
high temperature conversion process equipment, single-step water decomposition is not
commercially viable.
14.3.4 Thermo-chemical Method

This method involves thermal chemical reactions between primary energy, water and specific
chemicals to produce hydrogen at temperatures range of 700°C to 1000°C, much lower than the
temperatures required for thermal decomposition. A general thermo-chemical reaction is
expressed by the equations
ZOx + H2O Æ ZOx+1 + H2

1
ZOx+1 + Heat Æ ZOx + O2
2
where Z represents a metallic ion or a complex radical.
The Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) have launched an R&D activity on third stage
nuclear power generation (thorium based) trying to build a Compact High Temperature Reactor
(CHTR). The idea is that if we are able to generate fission energy, say at 1000°C, then splitting
of water by thermo-chemical means would become an economic reality. Thus, hydrogen, a fluid
fuel substitute shall easily be produced. In case this R&D effort succeeds, then the nuclear
energy would become much closer to primary energy. It can then support all energy
requirements.
14.3.5 Biological Production of Hydrogen

A project on biological hydrogen production is being undertaken at Shri AMM Murugappa
Chettiar Research Centre, Chennai. Under this project a 12.5 m3 capacity bioreactor has been
installed to demonstrate the biological production of hydrogen from distillery waste. Another
reactor of 125 m3 capacity has been designed with the support of MNRE, New Delhi.
14.3.6 Production of Hydrogen Fuel from Sunflower Oil

Scientists in the University of Leads England have developed an experimental hydrogen
generator which needs only sunflower, air and water vapour along with two highly specialized
nickel-based and carbon-based catalysts. These are alternatively used to store and then release
oxygen or CO2 while producing hydrogen intermittently. This process does not involve burning
of fossil fuel, hence the hydrogen fuel becomes renewable.
First, the nickel-based unit catalyst absorbs oxygen from the air and this interaction heats
up the reactor bed of the device. Simultaneously, in the presence of heat, another catalyst
(a carbon-based adsorbent) releases CO2 previously trapped in the device.
Once the reactor bed is hot and all the CO2 has been released from the reactor, the mixture
of vaporized oil and water is fed into the reactor chamber. The heat from the reactor bed breaks
down the carbon–hydrogen bonds in the vaporized oil. Water (steam) binds its oxygen to the
carbon, releasing its hydrogen and yielding carbon monoxide. Water vapour and carbon
monoxide tend to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen in the presence of each other. This overall
process results in a cyclical production of hydrogen.
Hydrogen fuel thus produced is of 90% purity which is more efficient than other hydrogen
producers which produce hydrogen fuel of about 70% purity. Methane and CO2 are the
by-products of sunflower oil transformation which are generated in equal proportions.
At present the generator is heated electrically, but in the near future all the heat necessary
to carry out the reaction of steam with oil vapour will come from the intake of oxygen on the
nickel catalyst.
14.3.7 Solar Electrolytic Hydrogen Production

The German government started several projects to produce hydrogen from renewable sources
of energy like solar and wind. One of these projects utilises solar energy collected from 50 m2
of solar cells mounted on the roof. This energy is used to break water molecules into hydrogen
and oxygen. Hydrogen thus produced is utilised to power a specially converted Toyota, a hybrid
vehicle that can run on hydrogen, gasoline or biogas with no loss in vehicle performance.
Hydrogen has been used in this vehicle to provide more than 90% of the total fuel required.
Electrolytically produced hydrogen is useful for sintering and melting in the glass and
jewellery industries.
From an economic point of view the larger the electrolyzer project the lower is the hydrogen
cost. Hydrogen produced electrolytically from wind or solar power is used in fuel cell vehicles
which provide zero emission during transportation. The production of electrolytic hydrogen is
attractive in Europe, North Africa and United States where the availability of biomass-derived
fuels is limited.
14.4 COST ANALYSIS OF HYDROGEN PRODUCTION

Hydrogen can be produced by several methods, but currently it is an expensive option in
comparison with other available fuels. The approximate cost of hydrogen production by various
methods as listed in the literature is given in Table 14.5.
Table 14.5 Cost of producting hydrogen
Method Cost (`/GJ)

Reformation of natural gas 225
Coal gasification 495
Hydroelectric electrolysis 540
Wind electrolysis 1440
Solar thermal electrolysis 1755– 2340
Solar photovoltaic electrolysis 2115– 4680
Biomass gasification 585
Partial oxidation of oil 405
It is evident that ‘Green hydrogen’ (produced from carbon-free sources) is in the higher cost
slab compared to the ‘Black hydrogen’ (produced from carbon-rich fuels). However, the
production of hydrogen from renewable sources of energy is the ultimate answer to energy
security and environmental friendliness.
The higher cost of hydrogen is neutralized by its special property of being versatile and
more convenient to utilise. A fuel is said to be more versatile if it can be converted through
more than one process to various forms of energy at the user end. All other fuels can be
converted through one process only, i.e., combustion, while hydrogen can be converted in five
different ways in addition to flame combustion, namely to steam, to heat through catalytic
combustion, heat sink through chemical reactions and to electricity through electrochemical
processes.
14.5 CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATIONS OF HYDROGEN

Hydrogen as a fuel has a huge potential for use by individual consumers and in industrial sectors.
It is a clean burning fuel superior to other fuels, i.e., petrol, methane, methanol and ethanol. It
carries a high specific energy per unit weight, so is very useful for surface vehicles and
aeroplanes which carry their fuel over a long distance before replenishing. It is most suitable for
space vehicles which carry their fuel and oxidant for their long scheduled trips.
Its heat of combustion is twice compared to fossil fuels, six times of methanol and four times
more than ethanol. Its utilization efficiency is high as hydrogen can be converted to the desired
energy form more efficiently than other fuels. The utilisation efficiency factor is defined as the
fossil fuel utilisation efficiency divided by the hydrogen utlilisation efficiency. For various
applications the utilisation efficiency factors ‘fu’ are given in Table 14.6.
Table 14.6 Comparison of utilisation efficiency of fossil fuels and hydrogen
Application Utilisation efficiency factor, fu = hf /hh

Thermal energy
(i) Flame combustion 1.00
(ii) Steam generation 0.80
Electric power, Fuel cells 0.54
Internal combustion engines 0.82
Subsonic jet transportation 0.84
Supersonic jet transportation 0.72
Hydrogen utilisation efficiency factor 1.00
Fossil fuel utilisation efficiency factor 0.72
14.6 HYDROGEN STORAGE

For developing hydrogen-based energy systems, there is a bottleneck in that it has a molecular
weight of only two. For a given mass of the fuel, the molar quantity of hydrogen calculates
to be larger compared to the number of moles for a fuel of higher molecular weight. Thus,
to store a given mass of hydrogen, the container needs to be designed to withstand higher
pressures than those for greater molecular weight fuels. As a typical example, to store 2 kg
of hydrogen in a 40-litre (0.4 cubic metre) petrol tank of a car, it would require a chamber
pressure of nearly 6.5 MPa, i.e., 65 atmospheres. Normally a petrol tank stores fuel at 0.1 MPa
(1 atmosphere).
For utilisation of hydrogen as an energy source there is a need to store it. Several possible
modes of storage are:
∑ Gaseous storage
∑ Liquid storage
∑ Solid state storage
14.6.1 Compressed Gas Storage

Hydrogen can be stored in compressed gaseous state in underground reservoirs similar to natural
gas or can be stored in high pressure cylinders. The method of storage is costly as a larger
quantity of steel is required to store a small amount of hydrogen. For industrial use of hydrogen
as a fuel, gaseous storage of hydrogen is economically not viable.
14.6.2 Liquid Storage

Liquid storage of hydrogen is economically feasible for stationary and mobile applications.
Liquid hydrogen fuel is used as a rocket propellent in space vehicles as it has the highest energy
density (energy per unit mass), almost three times more than the conventional fuels. To store
liquid hydrogen [boiling point (–253°C)] it is necessary to use vacuum insulated cylinders to
avoid air condensation over its surface. Concentration of liquified air* (rich in oxygen) around
liquid hydrogen cylinder is a fire hazard. Liquification of hydrogen gas requires 25–30% of the
calorific value of this fuel to attain cryogenic storage for space programmes.
14.6.3 Solid State Storage

Solid storage in the form of metallic hydrides is the most attractive method of storing hydrogen.
The metal hydride system is based on the principle that a few metals absorb hydrogen in an
exothermic reaction when treated with the gas and the absorbed gas is released when the metal
hydride is heated. The chemical equations are:
Charge
ææææ
(Gas is stored) H2 + Metal Æ Hydride + heat (14.3)
Discharge
ææææÆ Metal + H2
(Gas is released) Metal hydride + heat (14.4)
In this technique hydrogen gas is reacted with powdered metallic alloy in a closed evacuated
pressure vessel. As hydride formation is accompanied by a negative enthalpy change, the excess
heat of formation is removed during charging. On completion of the charging cycle, the cylinder
is maintained at room temperature using cylinder pressure at maximum equilibrium
vapour pressure of the hydride. When hydrogen gas is required, the cylinder is heated to a
suitable temperature corresponding to the discharge pressure in order to maintain the required
gas flow rate.
There are a few metallic alloys such as magnesium–copper and iron–magnesium–titanium
with high storage capacities of hydrogen. The reaction is reversible as hydrogen is released when
metallic hydride is heated. Reactions are represented by the equations:
H2 + FeTi Æ FeTiH1(1.7) + heat (14.5)
Fe.Ti.H1(1.7) + heat Æ Fe.Ti.H0.1 + 0.8H2 (14.6)
A project on the development of a metal hydride reactor is in progress at IIT Madras. Under
this project carbon nano-materials have been developed and characterized as reported by MNRE.
The metal–hydride storage system competes well with the conventional pressure gas storage
system particularly in volume-specific storage capacity. For hydrogen-powered vehicles, hydride
storage tanks are compact and the rejected heat from the engine is utilised for dehydriding.
Hydrogen fuel-operated buses and cars are suitable for short distances up to 160 km. Such
vehicles are similar to electric vehicles which run on fuel cells or batteries and are
environmentally benign.
14.7 HYDROGEN STORAGE USING NANO-CRYSTALLINE

MAGNESIUM-BASED NICKEL HYDRIDE
Magnesium has a storage capacity of nearly 7.6 wt%, however, its kinetics is low and enthalpy
of formation is high. These two bottlenecks are solved by alloy additions and decreasing the
particulate size in nano range (10–9 m) to generate a large surface area for absorption. Pure Mg
and Ni powders of mean particle size of 400 microns and 100 microns respectively, with 99%
*
Air liquifies at a higher temperature than hydrogen.
purity were selected as the base material. The micron-size particles were reduced to nano-
crystalline size in a high energy ball mill. An R&D study revealed that hydrogen storage in the
20 hours milled Mg–Ni sample can be charged with hydrogen at 300°C. The maximum
absorption (formation of MgH2) was measured as 2.5 wt% in about 50 minutes time. This value
is nearly 65% of the theoritical absorption capacity of the 2-part Mg and 1-part Ni alloy used
for this work. This reveals that about 35% of the Mg particles could be potentially deactivated
due to surface reaction with the atmosphere.
14.8 DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROGEN CARTRIDGE

Researchers have reported the development of metal–organic ‘nano-cubes’ which can store and
release hydrogen to power fuel cells for laptop computers and other portable electronic devices.
The nano-cubes, made from terephthalic acid and zinc oxide, absorb hydrogen under moderate
pressure, and could be used in cartridges to precisely control the release of hydrogen to the fuel
cell. The hydrogen in the cartridge would be subject to ten times the atmospheric pressure.
14.9 NATIONAL HYDROGEN ENERGY BOARD

To coordinate national effort on developing hydrogen energy systems and to prepare National
Hydrogen road map, National Hydrogen Energy Board (NHEB) has been set up under MNRE.
Besides, preparing codes and standards for hydrogen, it clears projects on production, storage,
delivery and application of hydrogen energy.
A steering group of NHEB conducted demonstration of hydrogen-powered systems
including motor cycle, three wheelers, generators, cooking system and lighting lamps.
Indian Oil Corporation assigned a project to produce “Hyathane”, a blend of hydrogen and
CNG, in Delhi, Faridabad and Mathura. Initially, 10% hydrogen would be mixed with CNG, and
this ratio would go up to the extent of 30%. Members of NHEB expressed “Hydrogen has the
potential to emerge as an alternative fuel to India’s growing energy needs”.
14.10 ECONOMICS OF HYDROGEN FUEL AND ITS USE

The transition of energy economy from fossil fuel to hydrogen is a matter of priority to reduce
pollution problems. The major role is of hydrogen obtained from biomass. Hydrogen produced
from biomass and supplied to the consumers in the transport sector costs only 50% compared
to hydrogen produced electrolytically.
For a fuel-cell operated bus, hydrogen produced from biomass can compete well with
gasoline-operated vehicles. It is a superior fuel for turbojet aircraft due to greater fuel economy,
lower noise level and little pollution.
Hydrogen as a vehicular fuel can reduce dependance on fossil fuel which is increasing in
cost every year. Nissan Motors have started manufacturing a gas-electric hybrid version of its
Altima sedan for the US market. It is expected to comply with the strict fuel economy and
emission standards in California state. The hybrids made by Toyota and Honda are in high
demand. During 2004, nearly 88,000 hybrid light vehicles were sold in the US. Though at
present they are considered a ‘niche’ product, but in the years to come, high fossil fuel costs and
pressure for environmental benign vehicles, leading automakers see hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles
as the industry’s next big technological breakthrough. Once the technology is perfected a
network of hydrogen fuelling stations and workshops for maintenance and repairs would
come up.
As an experiment, in 1999, Shell Hydrogen and Daimler–Chrysler executed an agreement
with the Government of Iceland ‘to make that country the world’s first hydrogen-powered
economy’. In August 2003, the hydrogen-powered buses started playing in Reykjavik, the capital
of Iceland.
Hydrogen like natural gas can easily be transported and distributed through pipelines. It is
a high density fuel, so its low transport cost would compensate its high product cost to make
hydrogen an economically viable fuel.
At present hydrogen is produced as a by-product from caustic soda units and is freely
available as fuel. If it is sold at ` 120 per kg, its price will be competitive in comparison to
petroleum products for operating internal combustion engines.
14.11 LIQUID HYDROGEN TURBOPUMP FOR ROCKET ENGINE

Recently, the US Air Force, NASA and two aerospace companies have tested a liquid-hydrogen
turbopump and an oxidizer preburner, under the Next Generation Launch Technology
programme. It is a development activity of a hydrogen fuelled, full flow, staged-combustion
rocket engine in the 25,000 pound thrust class. The engine uses dual preburners that provide both
oxygen-rich and hydrogen-rich staged combustion, which will cool down engines during flight
providing higher engine efficiency and low exhaust emissions.
The turbopump is designed to provide high pressure hydrogen to rocket engine thrust
chamber which initiates the combustion process and generates the thrust. The turbopump extracts
energy from hot gases that are generated by the oxidizer preburner and flow through a turbine.
The oxidizer preburner which initiates the combustion process, is designed to generate
oxygen-rich steam for use by the oxygen turbopump’s turbine. The preburner burns a large
quantity of liquid oxygen with a small quantity of hydrogen to produce this steam, which then
mixes with additional hydrogen fuel to be burned in the main combustion chamber.
14.12 SUMMARY
Hydrogen is highly reactive with metals and non-metals, thus, well suited for a large number of
applications. It is used in petroleum refining, is convenient for ore-reduction in metallurgical
processes and is widely used in the manufacture of vanaspati, fertilizers and alcohols. In
household cooking and space-heating, hydrogen fuel offers a special advantage of flameless
catalytic combustion. Hydrogen generates nearly three times energy compared to per unit mass
of petrol. Hydrogen-based vehicles have been developed by Mazda Motor Corporation, BMW
Germany, Toyota hybrid highlander and Taiwanese scooter. The Tatas in India are working on
the modification of internal combustion engines in the present vehicles that can be run on
hydrogen fuel.
National Hydrogen Energy Board (NHEB) has prepared a workable plan to make hydrogen
as a commercial fuel. In the near future, large amounts of hydrogen could be produced in remote
wind farms, solar stations and ocean power plants and stored underground. Homes could produce
some of their own hydrogen using rooftop solar cells, storing it in basements.
14.13 GAS HYDRATE

Gas hydrate is one of the non-conventional sources of energy identified recently by ONGC and
to be studied for exploration to ensure energy security for the country.
Gas hydrates are naturally occurring ice-like compounds of methane and are water formed
under low temperature and pressure conditions. These ice formations consist of water molecules
that have trapped gas molecules in a cage-like structure, found at varying depths in areas of low
temperature. The first naturally occurring gas hydrate deposit was found in Messoyakha field in
Russian Permafrost region. Subsequently, gas hydrates were also found in shallow
marine sediments of arctic region and in tropical deep-water areas where water depth exceeds
650 –750 metres.
Methane trapped in marine sediments as a hydrate represents such an immense carbon
reservoir that it is considered as a dominant factor in estimating the unconventional energy
resources. In a conservative estimate the world-wide amounts of carbon bound in gas hydrates
are equal to twice the amount of carbon that can currently be found in all known fossil fuels on
earth. The distribution of organic carbon in earth reservoirs as per the estimate prepared by the
United States Geological Survery (USGC) is given in Figure 14.1.
Ocean 983 (includes Atmosphere 3.6
dissolved organics and biota)
Land (2790)
includes soil,
biota, peat
and detritus
Gas hydrates
(10,000)
Fossil fuels
(5000)
Figure 14.1 Global resource estimate of organic carbon in billions of tonnes.
14.13.1 Gas Hydrate Occurrence

Hydrates tend to form along margins of continental slopes, where the seabed drops from the
relatively shallow shelf, about 150 m below the surface towards the ocean abyss several
kilometres deep. It is difficult, so far, to bring the methane hydrates from the seabed to the sea
floor due to technical difficulties and for which R&D work is in progress.
Methane hydrates are stable only at near-freezing temperature and under high pressure of
nearly 500 metres of overlaying water. These ice-like hydrate deposits become unstable when
the surrounding temperature rises above the freezing point and the pressure becomes less. Gas
hydrates need to be dealt with advanced technology, as methane escaping from the disturbed
undersea hydrates may be an ecological threat.
14.13.2 Indian Resource of Hydrates

Preliminary studies carried out by the National Institute of Oceanography, India, indicated the
presence of gas hydrate deposites in the subcontinent within EEZ. The fuel stored in these
hydrates is enough to meet India’s energy requirement for several centuries. India has carried out
detailed analysis of high-resolution seismic data from the continental shelf and slopes to detect
acoustic indicators of the presence of gas hydrates. A map of the gas-charged sediments along
the Indian coast is shown in Figure 14.2.
In two areas, in southwest off Mumbai and south of Bengal Delta, the gas hydrate
stability zone (GHSZ) appears to be more than 80 m thick. Gas hydrates have high acoustic
velocity (about twice that of seafloor sediments). They show strong reflection called the
Acoustic masking Mumbai

Plumes and pock masks
Bay of Bengal
Arabian sea
Figure 14.2 Distribution map of gas-charged sediments.
Bottom Simulating Reflection (BSR) which indicates a promising gas hydrate region. The largest
number of BSR occurrences are traced in Western offshore area with concentration in West of
Mangalore coast. The shape of Laccadive ridge seem to be characterized by the occurrence of
BSR in large numbers.
BSR occurrences are also observed in Northern Andaman sea, while in Southern region they
are noticed in Nicobar islands.
India’s estimated gas hydrates resources are to the tune of 1894 trillion cubic metres which
is over 1700 times the proven gas reserves with the country (1.08 trillion cubic metres).
14.13.3 Importance of Gas Hydrates

Gas hydrates are important due to several reasons such as:
∑ They contain a great volume of methane and are a source of cleaner fuel.
∑ One volume of gas-hydrate produces 164 volume of gas at standard temperature and
pressure.
∑ The global energy contained in the hydrates is estimated to be twice the amount of the
total fossil fuel.
∑ Methane made available by drilling around these gas hydrates can be captured, stored
and fed into pipelines that feed our nation with natural gas.
∑ Methane thus obtained can be used to extract hydrogen and use it to power fuel cells,
one of the most promising ‘energy alternatives’.
India, Russia to develop gas hydrate technology

Indo-Russian Joint Council for the Integrated Long Term Programme (ILTP) for cooperation in
science and technology is working to develop a technology for deep sea mining of ‘gas-hydrate’.
This project set-up has started in Indo-Russian Centre at the Indian Institute of Oceanography,
Chennai.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Why is hydrogen called a secondary energy source? Name the various methods of
hydrogen production.
2. Explain the characteristics of hydrogen as fuel. How can hydrogen compete with fossil
fuel?
3. Explain how hydrogen is a more versatile fuel? What are various methods of hydrogen
storage?
4. Write short notes on:
(a) Metal hydride
(b) Hydrogen storage using nano-crystalline Mg-based Ni-hydride
(c) Production of hydrogen from sunflower oil
(d) Application of hydrogen as fuel
5. What are gas hydrates? Explain their importance for energy security.
6. Briefly describe the distribution of organic carbon in the earth reservoirs as identified by
USGC.
7. Explain the importance of gas hydrates.
8. Indian resources of gas hydrates shall meet the future energy needs. Explain.
9. Areas of gas hydrate in Indian subcontinent need extensive R&D effort to extract
methane as fuel. Explain.
10. Find out the technological advancements that have taken place to extract hydrogen and
gas hydrate as an alternative resource of fuel.
15
HYBRID ENERGY SYSTEMS
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Renewable energy sources dealt in various chapters are distributed systems of energy widely
spread in the country that is most suitable for dispersed population located not reachable by state
grid. It is inherent with renewable energy systems that energy supply is not continuous. Reason
for this shortcoming is to be understood and solution searched.
15.2 NEED FOR HYBRID SYSTEMS

Solar water heaters, air heaters, solar distillation and wax melters, PV arrays, PV pumps, operate
at optimal efficiency for the months of April to September when solar radiation contain high
energy flux. To meet the load demand during night and cloudy days, battery bank is provided.
During winter, load demand shoots up and solar energy reduces, so designer is compelled to
select large size equipment, PV arrays and battery bank. Similar situation is faced for a stand
alone wind power generating system, when wind speed drops below cut-in speed and Wind
Turbine Generator (WTG) stops. For emergency, loads of hospitals, defense installations and
communication services, a back up source (1) diesel generator, (2) gas turbine generator, (3)
biogas, (4) small hydro, and (5) fuel cell is required. Two different energy systems installed at
a location to ensure continuity of electrical supply is known as hybrid energy system. Thus,
hybrid energy system provides an edge over the stand-alone and even grid interactive systems
for reliability of energy supply and lower capital cost. However, engineer’s selection of the back
up source is done by maximum capacity of the prime energy source at peak energy demand
period.
15.3 TYPES OF HYBRID SYSTEMS

Few hybrid energy systems that are operative in prevailing Indian conditions in various states
are given:
359
It is assumed that a battery bank of a suitable size is installed as the storage tank for the
period of low wind speed, during ‘No Sun’ cloudy day and night period. Correct choice for an
option will include the parameters
(i) available solar insolation at optimum array tilt,
(ii) free wind velocity at 10 m or 20 m height,
(iii) number of cattle available in a village or a cluster community.
(A) PV – Diesel (B) Wind – Diesel (C) Biomass – Diesel
(D) Wind – PV (E) Micro hydel – PV (F) Biogas – Solar Thermal
(G) Solar – Biomass (H) Electric and electric hybrid vehicles
15.3.1 PV Hybrid with Diesel Generator

Renewable energy technologies are possible for electrification of remote villages including small
hydro, wind, biomass and solar energy, yet solar PV lighting remains the most preferred. Such
systems are used in Orissa, Assam, Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir, and Uttarakhand. This power
plant contains one PV array with a Diesel electric generator and a battery bank. Energy generated
from PV array feeds load demand and then charges the battery bank. Diesel generator keeps
the battery fully charged and some time supplies load demand when PV output is not sufficient
and battery charge is low to supplement. Figure 15.1 is a block diagram of such a power plant
where.
Diesel
generator
PV Power
array Load
conditions
Battery
Figure 15.1 Block diagram of PV – Diesel hybrid power plant.
Power conditioner perform three functions:

(i) To convert alternating current (ac) diesel generated output into direct current (dc) for
charging battery bank.
(ii) To invert direct current (dc) from PV array and battery bank into ac for feeding load.
(iii) To regulate battery current and voltage for input from generator and output for load.
Several experiments have been carried out to find where 10 per cent diesel fuel would be
required with a given solar PV array area to replace 90 per cent of diesel fuel that would be
consumed for a diesel system only. Experimental values have been used to draw a graph.
Figure 15.2 shows ‘life cycle cost’ versus array area (103 × m2).
Hybrid Energy Systems • 361
15
Life cycle cost

10
5
4 5 6 7 8 9
3 2
Array area (10 × m )
Figure 15.2 Graph of photo voltaic-diesel system i.e., life cycle cost and array area.
Graph indicates a minimum cost point corresponding to a cost effective design for a PV-
diesel hybrid power plant where PV has replaced 90 per cent of the diesel fuel; had it been a
diesel system only. Thus, a PV-diesel hybrid power plant ensures continuous power supply and
is more cost effective as compared to stand alone PV system or stand alone diesel.
15.3.2 Wind-Diesel Hybrid System

Remote coastal areas where wind speed is sufficient to operate a wind turbine but there is no
state grid supply, wind generators are installed to electrify the area. Wind energy being
intermittent a back up of diesel generator is required to maintain 24 hour power supply. Thus,
wind-diesel hybrid system is installed to supply electric power to emergency load of hospitals,
communication services, defence installations, commercial and domestic load.
Wind-Diesel hybrid system constitutes components, wind turbine, diesel generator,
Controller battery and the load, detailed in Figure 15.3.
WEG
Battery
Controller
Load
Diesel generator
Figure 15.3 Wind-diesel hybrid system.
During favourable wind 400 V ac is delivered to the controller. The controller converts AC
voltage to 120 V dc for charging the battery and it also controls the current required for its
charging. Controller also ensures continuous power supply to the load.
As the wind speed drops the lower limit, WTG stops and the diesel generator automatically
starts to supply energy to the load and also for battery charging. Thus, wind-diesel hybrid system
ensures maximum utilisation of free wind energy and continuity of power supply in remote
inaccessible areas.
15.3.3 Biomass-Diesel Hybrid System

Combustion is a common process in biomass conversion technology. Application of combustion
process is for solid fuels either from cultivated biomass or waste biomass. Biomass is widely
available in hills and remote forest areas but becomes scarce during snowy winter. When its
supply stops and stock dwindles, energy route of biomass to electrical energy by incineration
suffers a set back. This system needs a back up by diesel power electric generator to meet the
known lighting and plug loads of residences, commercial establishments, hospitals and other life
sustaining loads. Essential components of this hybrid configuration are:
(a) 25 kW biomass generator
(b) Battery bank of 1000 Ah capacity
(c) 15 kVA diesel generator.
A biomass-fired steam power plant is made hybrid with a diesel generator along with a
controller, battery bank and load is shown in Figure 15.4.
Generator
Biomass Battery
Incinerator bank
Controller
Load
Diesel generator
Figure 15.4 Biomass-diesel hybrid system.
To operate this system, economic viability is necessary by utilising biomass generator to the
full capacity and minimum use of diesel generator, for essential and life saving load during crisis
period of biomass availability.
15.3.4 Wind-PV Hybrid System

Wind and solar hybrid energy systems are located in open terrains away from multistorey
buildings and forests. Locations are selected in those areas where the sunshine and wind are
favourable for more than 8 months during a year.
A schematic wind-PV hybrid system is shown in Figure 15.5. During the day when sun
shines, the solar photovoltaic plant generate dc electric energy conditioner provided, converts dc
to ac and supplies power to the load. During favourable wind speed, wind turbine generator
produce ac electrical power. It supplies power to the load and excess energy after conversion to
dc is stored by the battery bank. The plant may operate as stand alone load or may be connected
to the state grid.
WTG
Battery
bank
Conditioner
Solar
PV-plant
Load
Figure 15.5 Wind-PV hybrid system.
15.3.5 Micro Hydel-PV Hybrid System

Micro hydel (up to 100 kW) power stations are low head (less than 3 m) installations and provide
decentralised power in mountain regions, also in plains on canal falls. In remote areas of J & K,
boarder districts of Arunachal Pradesh micro hydro power plants are the only source of energy.
With the help of micro hydro power, rural electrification can be achieved besides providing
power for pumped irrigation and grinding mills.
In Arunachal Pradesh, 425 villages are being electrified by completing 46 small/micro hydro
power projects.
However, there are 1058 villages which cannot be illuminated by micro hydel projects as
at several locations, head is very low, while at other, quantity of water is small. Solution is to
provide micro hydel-PV hybrid system as sunshine is available practically at all locations.
Portable micro hydel sets of 15 kW capacity are installed with solar PV panels to
compliment each other as given in Figure 15.6.
Potable
microhydel set
Battery
bank
Conditioner
Large Village load

solar–PV
plant
Figure 15.6 Micro hydel-PV hybrid system.
Micro hydel systems are provided with small dam store water to be used during night when
solar PV panels stops power supply. A battery bank may be provided for emergency power
supply. A battery bank may be provided for emergency power supply wherever required. Load
management is carried out to maintain continuity of supply for 24 hours matching with the
capacity of generating equipment.
15.3.6 Biogas-Solar Thermal Hybrid System (A Case Study)

It is a case study of a milk chilling centre located in a remote village Vasna Margia in Kheda
district of Gujarat. Major components of this system are:
(i) Biogas plant to be operated with an input of 300 kg cow dung daily.
(ii) One 5 H.P. dual fuel engine. Initially it starts with 100 per cent diesel fuel. Subsequently,
engine switches to dual fuel mode with fuel ratio 80 per cent biogas and 20 per cent
diesel.
(iii) Flat plate solar collector is installed on the roof of a building for the supply of hot water
(100 litres per day at 60°C) required for cleaning the cans and milk chilling equipment
parts.
(iv) An insulated water storage tank placed over the building connected to the solar collector.
Biogas is generated in a KVIC type floating dome vertical design plant with a capacity
of 12 cu m/day gas production. Biogas from the plant is taken to milk chilling centre
(Figure 15.7) through a G.I. pipeline.
To begin operation, duel fuel engine is started where power transmission to the chilling plant
is obtained with a common shaft coupled to the engine. This shaft further operates refrigeration
compressor, chilled water circulating pump and air blower detailed in Figure 15.7.
Fresh water
supply Hot water
Insulated
water tank
Hot water
Chilled water tank Flat plate

solar collector
Compressor
Bio-gas
C
R
Duel fuel
Milk in engine
PHE Chilled water pump
Milk out C:–Condenser

R:–Receiver
PHE:–Plate heat
exchanger
Figure 15.7 Schematic of milk chilling centre powered by Biogas and solar energy.
With the successful commissioning of this plant, milk cooperative society has become
economically viable and milk producing farmers of the area are earning well. Really a
combination of two renewable source of energy, i.e., biogas and solar thermal has proved a boon
for remote villages.
15.3.7 Solar-cum-Biomass Dryer Hybrid (A Case Study)

Energy is required for mechanical drying of agricultural products in rural areas where grid
electric supply is scarce. Solar and biomass are two main renewable sources of energy that may
be used for drying of spices, herbs, and agricultural products for commercial production at low
cost. Analysis showed that traditional drying, i.e., open sun drying, dried the turmeric rhizomes
in 12 days while solar cum biomass dryer took only 1.5 days and produced better quality
products in terms of colour, taste and texture.
Selecting right drying technique is necessary in tropical regions where herbs and spices are
harvested during winter or rainy season. The solar-cum-biomass dryer was developed at I.I.T.
Delhi for 15–18 kg capacity of turmeric rhizomes and other such products. The dryer has two
parts: (i) solar dryer (ii) biomass burner as shown in Figure 15.8.
5
8
1. Baffles
12
11 2. Biomass air inlet control gate
6 3. Biomass chamber
10 4. Brick chamber
3 5. Chimney
6. Drying chamber
4
7. Fresh air inlet
1
8. Glass over
9. Outlet air vents
10. Rock slab
11. Solar dryer
12. Trays
7 2
Figure 15.8 Schematic diagram of solar-cum-biomass dryer.
Solar dryer
It consists single glazed (2 mm thick) solar dryer mounted on a rock slab supported on a brick
wall chamber. Top glass surface is inclined at an angle of 28.5° to capture maximum solar
radiation at Delhi (lattitude 28°32¢ N during winter). There are three drying trays of wire mesh
with a drying area of 0.94 m2 each. Three adjustable vents are at the top of the dryer. Two doors
are at the front for unloading the products.
Biomass burner
Biomass burner is a rectangular box. A door at the bottom is to feed the biomass and the control
airflow for combustion. There is a iron grate for burning biomass. Exhaust gases exit through
a chimney. Three metal baffle plates are above the iron grate to lengthen the flow path of
combustion gases. A brick chamber encloses the burner which is covered with a rock slab to
maintain correct air temperature.
Dryer uses solar energy when solar radiations are more than 100 W/m2. When solar
radiations fall on glass surface, these are absorbed resulting in increase of dryer temperature.
Heated air inside the cabinet goes upward; picks up moisture from the product and goes out from
the vents. It reduces pressure inside the cabinet an ambient air is drawn into the dryer thorugh
inlet holes. A continuous flow of air is thus established.
During period of low or zero solar radiation, biomass burner is used for back up heating.
Combustion gases warm the air as it moves over the outer surface. Warm air rises up in the
drying chamber; evaporating and picking up moisture from turmeric as it passes through the
trays and then escapes through vents. Temperature inside the dryer is controlled to avoid burning
of product.
Dryer efficiency
Thermal efficiency over an entire drying trial (h) is the ratio of the energy used to evaporate the
moisture from the crop product to the energy supplied to the dryer. With this dryer, both solar
radiation and biomass supplied the energy, so
Wl
h=
IA + cm
where W is the mass of water evaporated (Kg), l is the latent heat of vaporization (MJ kg–1),
I is the total radiation on the dryer (MJ m–2), A is the solar collection area (m2), c is the calorific
value of biomass (MJ kg–1), and m is the mass of used biomass (kg).
As a test case, 8 kg of fuel wood (calorific value 28.7 MJ kg–1) was burned. Solar biomass
dryer removed 12.6 kg of water to dry 15 kg of turmeric to moisture content of 9 per cent (db).
Overall thermal efficiency of the dryer is calculated to be 28.11 per cent. Quality of product
maintained in this dryer where as in open sun drying, it gets deteriorated.
15.4 ELECTRIC AND HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Electric vehicles are propelled by an electric motor powered by rechargeable battery packs.
These vehicles need not have Internal Combustion Engines (IEC) system, the drive train and fuel
tank. Electric motor replaces the engine and it gets power from rechargeable batteries through
a controller. The electronic motor controller provides electric power to the motor based on inputs
from accelerator. Electric power is delivered from battery pack, which is like the fuel tank of
an electric (e) vehicle. However, they are slow in speed and move only up to 80 km on a charge.
Full battery recharge takes nearly four hours.
A hybrid electric vehicle combines a conventional internal combustion engine with an

electric propulsion system. Presence of electric power train is intended to achieve better fuel
economy than conventioanl vehicle or better performance. Most common of HEV is the hybrid
electric car.
Hybrid vehicles use both petrol and electric propulsion systems. In such vehicles, the electric
motor provides a boost during starting and is recharged during vehicle operations. This cuts
emissions significantly and improves fuel economy.
15.4.1 E-Vehicle Need

E-vehicle are gaining popularity concerning to:
(i) High oil prices
(ii) Green house gas emissions
(iii) Ambient air quality
Concern over high oil prices and stringency in pollution and climate regulations have
spurred new interest in e-vehicles.
These are fuel-efficient, as, technically conversion of electrical energy into motive power is
more efficient than burning fuel in an internal combustion engine. According to California Air
Resource Board, fuel efficiency of an e-vehicle is three times higher than convention car. As
electricity costs less than oil, operating cost per km falls to a fraction of a petrol car.
15.4.2 Emissions
E-vehicles emit nothing from their tail pipe. But the emissions from power generation are
accounted for in the life cycle assessment of e-vehicle.
Reva electric car company in UK showed when emission of power stations were included,
the vehicle emitted 63 g CO2 per km. The best hybrid car gives 104 g CO2 per km. A UK study
said that the life time emission of an e-vehicle is 3 times less than average emission from internal
combustion engines CO2 emission per km from e-cars and hybrids. (emission from power plants
and internal combustion engines) accounted for are given in Figure 15.9.
150
Hybrid E-Car
Life time emissions in
122
120
gCO2/km
90
63
50 50 56
60
30
0
Prius Reva EVI 1999 Quick Tesla
Car models road star
Figure 15.9 CO2 emission per km e-cars and hybrids.
The other advantage of an e-vehicle is that there are no oil filters, air filters, spark plugs and
radiators which need maintenance.
15.4.3 Limitations
Widespread use of battery operated vehicles is constrained by high prices, limited driving range,
bar on maximum speed and battery efficiency.
In India, most e-vehicles run on lead-acid batteries which provides short bursts of power to
starter motors in cars. Also, lead is a known environmental hazard with serious health
consequences.
Lead-acid batteries will have to give way to lithium-ion batteries that improve performance
four times over. Lithium ion is currently a dominant battery technology in portable applications.
It provides the highest energy density of all rechargeable systems. REVA NXR is a new lithium-
ion powered e-car claims that a first charge for 90 minute would offer a range of 320 km a day.
The biggest challenge of e-vehicle industry is to produce batteries that can store large
amount of energy that can be released and recharged quickly.
15.5 HYDROGEN-POWERED-ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Hydrogen is a clean energy carrier that can replace liquid and gaseous fossil fuels. Hydrogen can
be used to power electric vehicles for longer distance, better speed, acceleration and cost
comparable with fossil fuel driven vehicles. Conversion of hydrogen to electricity is achieved
through fuel cells. A fuel cells is an electrochemical device that converts chemical energy of
hydrogen directly into electricity and heat without combustion. Fuel cell systems operates on
pure hydrogen and air/oxygen to produce electricity with water and heat as by-products.
A phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) is suitable for hydrogen powered electric vehicles. In
India, BHEL has field tested them and commercially available in 40 kW, 200 kW and more
sizes. Around Ajanta caves (Maharashtra), fuel cell operated bus ply within 7 km route to avoid
pollution. Fuel cell operated vehicles are eco-friendly as it eliminates noise, SO2 and nitric oxide
emissions.
15.5.1 Clean Mobility Options

Low speed e-vehicles with power less than 250 W and speed less than 25 kW/h are exempt from
Central Motor Vehicle Act and Rules. These are not categorised as motor vehicles, so driving
licenses are not required.
E-vehicles are part of the solution to air pollution and climate change. The e-vehicles will
truly become zero emitters when these are charged with electricity from renewable sources such
as solar and wind.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define hybrid energy systems. What was the need for hybrid systems.
2. Discuss different types of hybrid systems.
3. Differentiate between wind-diesel hybrid system and wind-PV hybrid system.
4. Discuss a case study of installed hybrid energy systems in your city/state.
5. Discuss in brief, how with the help of hybrid system vehicle emission can be controlled?
Chapter 1
Distributed generation and Microgrid concept
1.1 Distributed generation
Around the world, conventional power system is facing the problems of gradual
depletion of fossil fuel resources, poor energy efficiency and environmental pol-
lution. These problems have led to a new trend of generating power locally at
distribution voltage level by using non-conventional/renewable energy sources like
natural gas, biogas, wind power, solar photovoltaic cells, fuel cells, combined heat
and power (CHP) systems, microturbines, and Stirling engines and their integration
into the utility distribution network. This type of power generation is termed as
distributed generation (DG) and the energy sources are termed as distributed energy
resources (DERs). The term ‘Distributed Generation’ has been devised to distin-
guish this concept of generation from centralised conventional generation. The
distribution network becomes active with the integration of DG and hence is termed
as active distribution network.
In late 1990s, the major issues related to DG were extensively investigated
by the working groups of the International Council on Large Electric Systems
(CIGRE) and the International Conference and Exhibition on Electricity Distribu-
tion (CIRED) in their review reports.
Several country-specific strict definitions are available for DG all over the
world, depending upon plant rating, generation voltage level, etc. However, the
impact of DG on the power system is normally the same irrespective of these dif-
ferent definitions. According to several research studies, some universally accepted
common attributes of DG are as follows:
(1) It is not centrally planned by the power utility, nor centrally dispatched.
(2) It is normally smaller than 50 MW.
(3) The power sources or distributed generators are usually connected to the dis-
tribution system, which are typically of voltages 230/415 V up to 145 kV.
This book mainly deals with the concept, technical features, operational and
management issues, economic viability and market participation in deregulated
environment of DG systems and the integration of DERs in the form of Microgrid
and active distribution networks in a broad perspective.
2 Microgrids and active distribution networks
1.2 Why integration of distributed generation?

In spite of several advantages provided by conventional power systems, the following
technical, economic and environmental benefits have led to gradual development and
integration of DG systems:
(1) Due to rapid load growth, the need for augmentation of conventional genera-
tion brings about a continuous depletion of fossil fuel reserve. Therefore, most
of the countries are looking for non-conventional/renewable energy resources
as an alternative.
(2) Reduction of environmental pollution and global warming acts as a key factor in
preferring renewable resources over fossil fuels. As part of the Kyoto Protocol,
the EU, the UK and many other countries are planning to cut down greenhouse
gas (carbon and nitrogenous by-products) emissions in order to counter climate
change and global warming. Therefore, they are working on new energy gen-
eration and utilisation policies to support proper utilisation of these energy
sources. It is expected that exploitation of DERs would help to generate eco-
friendly clean power with much lesser environmental impact.
(3) DG provides better scope for setting up co-generation, trigeneration or CHP
plants for utilising the waste heat for industrial/domestic/commercial applica-
tions. This increases the overall energy efficiency of the plant and also reduces
thermal pollution of the environment.
(4) Due to lower energy density and dependence on geographical conditions of a re-
gion, DERs are generally modular units of small capacity. These are geographically
widespread and usually located close to loads. This is required for technical and
economic viability of the plants. For example, CHP plants must be placed very close
to their heat loads, as transporting waste heat over long distances is not economical.
This makes it easier to find sites for them and helps to lower construction time and
capital investment. Physical proximity of load and source also reduces the trans-
mission and distribution (T&D) losses. Since power is generated at low voltage
(LV), it is possible to connect a DER separately to the utility distribution network or
they may be interconnected in the form of Microgrids. The Microgrid can again be
connected to the utility as a separate semi-autonomous entity.
(5) Stand-alone and grid-connected operations of DERs help in generation aug-
mentation, thereby improving overall power quality and reliability. Moreover,
a deregulated environment and open access to the distribution network also
provide greater opportunities for DG integration. In some countries, the fuel
diversity offered by DG is considered valuable, while in some developing
countries, the shortage of power is so acute that any form of generation is
encouraged to meet the load demand.
1.3 Active distribution network

Electricity networks are in the era of major transition from stable passive distri-
bution networks with unidirectional electricity transportation to active distribution
Distributed generation and Microgrid concept 3
networks with bidirectional electricity transportation. Distribution networks with-

out any DG units are passive since the electrical power is supplied by the national
grid system to the customers embedded in the distribution networks. It becomes
active when DG units are added to the distribution system leading to bidirectional
power flows in the networks. To effect this transition, developing countries should
emphasise the development of sustainable electricity infrastructure while the de-
veloped countries should take up the technical and economic challenges for the
transformation of distribution networks. The UK industry regulator, the Office of
Gas and Electricity Markets (Ofgem), has named this challenge as ‘Rewiring
Britain’. Active distribution networks need to incorporate flexible and intelligent
control with distributed intelligent systems. In order to harness clean energy from
renewable DERs, active distribution networks should also employ future network
technologies leading to smartgrid or Microgrid networks.
Present ‘fit-and-forget’ strategy of DG employment needs to be changed in
active network management. It should incorporate integration of DGs in distribu-
tion networks and demand side management. It has been demonstrated by the
UK-based Centre for Distributed Generation and Sustainable Electrical Energy
(www.sedg.ac.uk) that the application of active network management methods can
greatly support more DG connections as compared to networks without active
management.
Several Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) and Ofgem reports clearly in-
dicate that intelligent active distribution networks have gained momentum. Several
factors are in favour of the evolution of active distribution networks, e.g. (i) pressing
customer expectations of high-quality reliable power distribution, (ii) increasing desire
of policy makers for accommodation of renewable DERs with energy storage devices,
(iii) carbon commitment in reducing emissions by 50% by 2050, (iv) motivating the
distribution network operators (DNOs) towards better asset utilisation and manage-
ment by deferral of replacement of age-old assets, etc.
In order to implement evolutionary active distribution networks for flexible
and intelligent operation and control, extensive research is necessary. The focus of
the research should be mainly in the following areas: (i) wide area active control,
(ii) adaptive protection and control, (iii) network management devices, (iv) real-
time network simulation, (v) advanced sensors and measurements, (vi) distributed
pervasive communication, (vii) knowledge extraction by intelligent methods and
(viii) novel design of transmission and distribution systems.
1.4 Concept of Microgrid

Microgrids are small-scale, LV CHP supply networks designed to supply electrical
and heat loads for a small community, such as a housing estate or a suburban
locality, or an academic or public community such as a university or school, a
commercial area, an industrial site, a trading estate or a municipal region. Micro-
grid is essentially an active distribution network because it is the conglomerate of
DG systems and different loads at distribution voltage level. The generators or
microsources employed in a Microgrid are usually renewable/non-conventional
DERs integrated together to generate power at distribution voltage. From opera-

tional point of view, the microsources must be equipped with power electronic
interfaces (PEIs) and controls to provide the required flexibility to ensure operation
as a single aggregated system and to maintain the specified power quality and
energy output. This control flexibility would allow the Microgrid to present itself to
the main utility power system as a single controlled unit that meets local energy
needs for reliability and security.
The key differences between a Microgrid and a conventional power plant are as
follows:
(1) Microsources are of much smaller capacity with respect to the large generators
in conventional power plants.
(2) Power generated at distribution voltage can be directly fed to the utility dis-
tribution network.
(3) Microsources are normally installed close to the customers’ premises so that
the electrical/heat loads can be efficiently supplied with satisfactory voltage
and frequency profile and negligible line losses.
The technical features of a Microgrid make it suitable for supplying power to

remote areas of a country where supply from the national grid system is either
difficult to avail due to the topology or frequently disrupted due to severe climatic
conditions or man-made disturbances.
From grid point of view, the main advantage of a Microgrid is that it is treated
as a controlled entity within the power system. It can be operated as a single ag-
gregated load. This ascertains its easy controllability and compliance with grid
rules and regulations without hampering the reliability and security of the power
utility. From customers’ point of view, Microgrids are beneficial for locally
meeting their electrical/heat requirements. They can supply uninterruptible power,
improve local reliability, reduce feeder losses and provide local voltage support.
From environmental point of view, Microgrids reduce environmental pollution and
global warming through utilisation of low-carbon technology.
However, to achieve a stable and secure operation, a number of technical,
regulatory and economic issues have to be resolved before Microgrids can become
commonplace. Some problem areas that would require due attention are the inter-
mittent and climate-dependent nature of generation of the DERs, low energy con-
tent of the fuels and lack of standards and regulations for operating the Microgrids
in synchronism with the power utility. The study of such issues would require
extensive real-time and off line research, which can be taken up by the leading
engineering and research institutes across the globe.
1.5 A typical Microgrid configuration
A typical Microgrid configuration is shown in Figure 1.1. It consists of electrical/

heat loads and microsources connected through an LV distribution network. The
loads (especially the heat loads) and the sources are placed close together to
Main grid Microgrid
CHP Heat Non-CHP Storage

source load source device
MC MC MC
415 V Microgrid bus

CB1 Feeder A
SCB SCB
in main grid
transformer
distribution
6 kV/415 V
From 6 kV main grid bus
CB4 CB2
Feeder B
CC
CC – Central controller
CHP Heat Storage Non-CHP
MC – Microsource controller
source load device source
CB – Circuit breaker
SCB – Sectionalising circuit breaker
MC MC MC CHP – Combined heat and power
CB3
Feeder C
SCB SCB
Figure 1.1 A typical Microgrid configuration

minimise heat loss during heat transmission. The microsources have plug-and-play
features. They are provided with PEIs to implement the control, metering and pro-
tection functions during stand-alone and grid-connected modes of operation. These
features also help seamless transition of Microgrid from one mode to another.
The Microgrid consists of three radial feeders (A, B and C) to supply the
electrical and heat loads. It also has two CHP and two non-CHP microsources
and storage devices. Microsources and storage devices are connected to feeders A
and C through microsource controllers (MCs). Some loads on feeders A and C are
assumed to be priority loads (i.e. requiring uninterrupted power supply), while
others are non-priority loads. Feeder B, however, contains only non-priority elec-
trical loads.
The Microgrid is coupled with the main medium voltage (MV) utility grid
(denoted as ‘main grid’) through the PCC (point of common coupling) circuit breaker
CB4 as per standard interface regulations. CB4 is operated to connect and disconnect
the entire Microgrid from the main grid as per the selected mode of operation.
Feeders A, B and C can however be connected and disconnected by operating breakers
CB1, CB2 and CB3, respectively. The microsources on feeders A and C are placed
quite apart from the Microgrid bus to ensure reduction in line losses, good voltage
profile and optimal use of waste heat. Although the control of power flow and voltage
profile along radial feeders is quite complicated when several microsources are con-
nected to a common radial feeder and not to a common generator bus, this configu-
ration is necessary to avail the plug-and-play feature of the microsources.
The Microgrid is operated in two modes: (1) grid-connected and (2) stand-
alone. In grid-connected mode, the Microgrid remains connected to the main grid
either totally or partially, and imports or exports power from or to the main grid. In
case of any disturbance in the main grid, the Microgrid switches over to stand-alone
mode while still feeding power to the priority loads. This can be achieved by either
(i) disconnecting the entire Microgrid by opening CB4 or (ii) disconnecting feeders
A and C by opening CB1 and CB3. For option (i), the Microgrid will operate as an
autonomous system with all the microsources feeding all the loads in feeders A, B
and C, whereas for option (ii), feeders A and C will supply only the priority loads
while feeder B will be left to ride through the disturbance.
The operation and management of Microgrid in different modes is controlled
and co-ordinated through local MCs and the central controller (CC) whose func-
tions are enlisted as follows:
(1) Microsource controller – The main function of MC is to independently control

the power flow and load-end voltage profile of the microsource in response to
any disturbance and load changes. Here ‘independently’ implies without any
communications from the CC. MC also participates in economic generation
scheduling, load tracking/management and demand side management by con-
trolling the storage devices. It must also ensure that each microsource rapidly
picks up its generation to supply its share of load in stand-alone mode and
automatically comes back to the grid-connected mode with the help of CC. The
most significant aspect of MC is its quickness in responding to the locally
monitored voltages and currents irrespective of the data from the neighbouring
MCs. This control feature enables microsources to act as plug-and-play devi-
ces and facilitates the addition of new microsources at any point of Microgrid
without affecting the control and protection of the existing units. Two other
key features are that an MC will not interact independently with other MCs in
the Microgrid and that it will override the CC directives that may seem dan-
gerous for its microsource.
(2) Central controller – The CC executes the overall control of Microgrid opera-
tion and protection through the MCs. Its objectives are (i) to maintain specified
voltage and frequency at the load end through power-frequency (P-f ) and
voltage control and (ii) to ensure energy optimisation for the Microgrid. The
CC also performs protection co-ordination and provides the power dispatch
and voltage set points for all the MCs. CC is designed to operate in automatic
mode with provision for manual intervention as and when necessary. Two
main functional modules of CC are Energy Management Module (EMM) and
Protection Co-ordination Module (PCM).
(i) Energy Management Module – EMM provides the set points for active and
reactive power output, voltage and frequency to each MC. This function is
co-ordinated through state-of-the-art communication and artificial intelli-
gence techniques. The values of the set points are decided according to the
operational needs of the Microgrid. The EMM must see that
(a) Microsources supply heat and electrical loads to customer satisfaction.
(b) Microgrids operate satisfactorily as per the operational a priori con-
tracts with main grid.
(c) Microgrids satisfy its obligatory bindings in minimising system losses
and emissions of greenhouse gases and particulates.
(d) Microsources operate at their highest possible efficiencies.
(ii) Protection Co-ordination Module – PCM responds to Microgrid and main
grid faults and loss of grid (LOG) scenarios in a way so as to ensure
correct protection co-ordination of the Microgrid. It also adapts to the
change in fault current levels during changeover from grid-connected to
stand-alone mode. For achieving this, there is proper communication be-
tween the PCM and the MCs and upstream main grid controllers. For main
grid fault, PCM immediately switches over the Microgrid to stand-alone
mode for supplying power to the priority loads at a significantly lower
incremental cost. However, for some minor faults, the PCM allows the
Microgrid to ride through in the grid-connected mode for some time and it
continues if any temporary fault is removed. Besides, if the grid fault
endangers the stability of the Microgrid, then PCM may disconnect the
Microgrid fully from all main grid loads (e.g. feeder B), although in that
case, effective utilisation of the Microgrid would be lost in exporting
power. If a fault occurs within a portion of the Microgrid feeder (e.g.
feeder A or C), the smallest possible feeder zone is eliminated to maintain
supply to the healthy parts of the feeder. Under-frequency and under-
voltage protection schemes with bus voltage support are normally used for
protecting the sensitive loads. PCM also helps to re-synchronise the

Microgrid to the main grid after the initiation of switchover to the grid-
connected mode of operation through suitable reclosing schemes.
The functions of the CC in the grid-connected mode are as follows:
(1) Monitoring system diagnostics by collecting information from the micro-

sources and loads.
(2) Performing state estimation and security assessment evaluation, economic gen-
eration scheduling and active and reactive power control of the microsources and
demand side management functions by using collected information.
(3) Ensuring synchronised operation with the main grid maintaining the power
exchange at priori contract points.
The functions of the CC in the stand-alone mode are as follows:

(1) Performing active and reactive power control of the microsources in order to
maintain stable voltage and frequency at load ends.
(2) Adopting load interruption/load shedding strategies using demand side man-
agement with storage device support for maintaining power balance and bus
voltage.
(3) Initiating a local black start to ensure improved reliability and continuity of
service.
(4) Switching over the Microgrid to grid-connected mode after main grid supply is
restored without hampering the stability of either grid.
1.6 Interconnection of Microgrids

Since Microgrids are designed to generate power at distribution voltage level along
with utilisation of waste heat, they have restricted energy handling capability.
Therefore, their maximum capacity is normally restricted to approximately 10 MVA
as per IEEE recommendations. Hence, it is possible to supply a large load pocket
from several Microgrids through a common distribution network, by splitting the
load pocket into several controllable load units, with each unit being supplied by one
Microgrid. In this way, Microgrids can be interconnected to form much larger power
pools for meeting bulk power demands. For interconnected Microgrids, each CC
must execute its control in close co-ordination with the neighbouring CCs. Thus, an
interconnected Microgrid would achieve greater stability and controllability with a
distributed control structure. It would also have more redundancy to ensure better
supply reliability.
1.7 Technical and economical advantages of Microgrid

The development of Microgrid is very promising for the electric energy industry
because of the following advantages:
(1) Environmental issues – It is needless to say that Microgrids would have much
lesser environmental impact than the large conventional thermal power sta-
tions. However, it must be mentioned that the successful implementation of
carbon capture and storage (CCS) schemes for thermal power plants will
drastically reduce the environmental impacts. Nevertheless, some of the ben-
efits of Microgrid in this regard are as follows:
(i) Reduction in gaseous and particulate emissions due to close control of the
combustion process may ultimately help combat global warming.
(ii) Physical proximity of customers with microsources may help to increase
the awareness of customers towards judicious energy usage.
(2) Operation and investment issues – Reduction of physical and electrical distance
between microsource and loads can contribute to:
(i) Improvement of reactive support of the whole system, thus enhancing the
voltage profile.
(ii) Reduction of T&D feeder congestion.
(iii) Reduction of T&D losses to about 3%.
(iv) Reduction/postponement of investments in the expansion of transmission
and generation systems by proper asset management.
(3) Power quality – Improvement in power quality and reliability is achieved
due to:
(i) Decentralisation of supply.
(ii) Better match of supply and demand.
(iii) Reduction of the impact of large-scale transmission and generation
outages.
(iv) Minimisation of downtimes and enhancement of the restoration process
through black start operations of microsources.
(4) Cost saving – The following cost savings are achieved in Microgrid:
(i) A significant saving comes from utilisation of waste heat in CHP mode of
operation. Moreover, as the CHP sources are located close to the customer
loads, no substantial infrastructure is required for heat transmission. This
gives a total energy efficiency of more than 80% as compared to a max-
imum of 40% for a conventional power system.
(ii) Cost saving is also effected through integration of several microsources.
As they are locally placed in plug-and-play mode, the T&D costs are
drastically reduced or eliminated. When combined into a Microgrid, the
generated electricity can be shared locally among the customers, which
again reduces the need to import/export power to/from the main grid over
longer feeders.
(5) Market issues – The following advantages are attained in case of market
participation:
(i) The development of market-driven operation procedures of the Microgrids
will lead to a significant reduction of market power exerted by the estab-
lished generation companies.
(ii) The Microgrids may be used to provide ancillary services.
(iii) Widespread application of modular plug-and-play microsources may

contribute to a reduction in energy price in the power market.
(iv) The appropriate economic balance between network investment and DG
utilisation is likely to reduce the long-term electricity customer prices by
about 10%.
1.8 Challenges and disadvantages of Microgrid development
In spite of potential benefits, development of Microgrids suffers from several

challenges and potential drawbacks as explained.
(1) High costs of distributed energy resources – The high installation cost for
Microgrids is a great disadvantage. This can be reduced by arranging some
form of subsidies from government bodies to encourage investments. This
should be done at least for a transitory period for meeting up environmental
and carbon capture goals. There is a global target set to enhance renewable
green power generation to 20% by 2020 and to reduce carbon emission by 50%
by 2050.
(2) Technical difficulties – These are related to the lack of technical experience in
controlling a large number of plug-and-play microsources. This aspect requires
extensive real-time and off line research on management, protection and con-
trol aspects of Microgrids and also on the choice, sizing and placement of
microsources. Specific telecommunication infrastructures and communication
protocols must be developed in this area. Research is going on for the imple-
mentation and roll-out of IEC 61850 in communication for Microgrid and
active distribution networks. However, lack of proper communication infra-
structure in rural areas is a potential drawback in the implementation of rural
Microgrids. Besides, economic implementation of seamless switching between
operating modes is still a major challenge since the available solutions for
reclosing adaptive protection with synchronism check are quite expensive.
(3) Absence of standards – Since Microgrid is a comparatively new area, standards
are not yet available for addressing operation and protection issues. Power
quality data for different types of sources, standards and protocols for integra-
tion of microsources and their participation in conventional and deregulated
power markets, safety and protection guidelines, etc., should be laid down.
Standards like G59/1 and IEEE 1547 should be reassessed and restructured
for the successful implementation of Microgrid and active distribution networks.
(4) Administrative and legal barriers – In most countries, no standard legislation
and regulations are available to regulate the operation of Microgrids. Gov-
ernments of some countries are encouraging the establishment of green power
Microgrids, but standard regulations are yet to be framed for implementation in
future.
(5) Market monopoly – If the Microgrids are allowed to supply energy autono-
mously to priority loads during any main grid contingency, the main question
that arises is who will then control energy supply prices during the period over
which main grid is not available. Since the main grid will be disconnected and
the current electricity market will lose its control on the energy price, Micro-
grids might retail energy at a very high price exploiting market monopoly. Thus,
suitable market infrastructure needs to be designed and implemented for sus-
taining development of Microgrids.
1.9 Management and operational issues of a Microgrid

Major management and operational issues related to a Microgrid are as follows:
(1) For maintaining power quality, active and reactive power balance must be
maintained within the Microgrid on a short-term basis.
(2) A Microgrid should operate stand-alone in regions where utility supply is not
available or in grid-connected mode within a larger utility distribution net-
work. Microgrid operator should be able to choose the mode of operation
within proper regulatory framework.
(3) Generation, supply and storage of energy must be suitably planned with re-
spect to load demand on the Microgrid and long-term energy balance.
(4) Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) based metering, control
and protection functions should be incorporated in the Microgrid CCs and
MCs. Provisions must be made for system diagnostics through state estimation
functions.
(5) Economic operation should be ensured through generation scheduling, eco-
nomic load dispatch and optimal power flow operations.
(6) System security must be maintained through contingency analysis and emer-
gency operations (like demand side management, load shedding, islanding or
shutdown of any unit). Under contingency conditions, economic rescheduling
of generation should be done to take care of system loading and load-end
voltage/frequency.
(7) Temporary mismatch between generation and load should be alleviated
through proper load forecasting and demand side management. The shifting of
loads might help to flatten the demand curve and hence to reduce storage
capacity.
(8) Suitable telecommunication infrastructures and communication protocols must
be employed for overall energy management, protection and control. Carrier
communication and IEC 61850 communication infrastructures are most likely
to be employed.
1.10 Dynamic interactions of Microgrid with main grid

The capacity of Microgrid being sufficiently small, the stability of main grid is not
affected when it is connected to the main grid. However, in future, when Micro-
grids will become more commonplace with higher penetration of DERs, the sta-
bility and security of the main grid will be influenced significantly. In such case,
the dynamic interactions between Microgrid and the main grid will be a key issue
in the operation and management of both the grids. However, as of now, since the
DERs in Microgrids are mainly meant to ensure only local energy balance within a
small load pocket, the effects of DER penetration are likely to have a low impact on
the main grid. Nevertheless, Microgrids need to be designed properly to take care
of their dynamic impacts on main grid such that overall stability and reliability of
the whole system is significantly improved.
1.11 Conclusion
The Microgrid is an alternative approach of distribution level energy supply by
integrating small-scale DERs into LV as well as MV distribution networks. This
facilitates simultaneous generation of electricity and heat to locally supply
the electrical and heat loads of the customers. Traditional connection of separate
stand-alone DER units to the existing distribution network in fit-and-forget strategy
has considerable dynamic impacts on main utility grid behaviour. On the other
hand, integrating them as Microgrids (with intelligent controllers) is more likely to
enhance overall distribution system stability and safety. Microgrids can operate
independently as autonomous islands in synchronism with the main grid. They are
normally connected to main utility grid but are capable of isolating themselves
from the latter in case of any disturbance in the main grid. This ensures economic
and stable performance to customer satisfaction.
Technically, a Microgrid is an autonomous group of controllable plug-and-
play microsources and energy storage devices that are optimally placed and operated
for the benefit of the customers. The microsources are basically renewable/non-
conventional DERs driven by a diverse set of controllable prime movers. Storage
devices are incorporated through demand side management to enable flexible oper-
ation of the microsources using their own MCs. Power electronic-based MC con-
trollers are helpful to maintain energy balance and power quality in the system by
executing necessary local controls of the microsources and energy storage devices.
They are also capable of working both with and without the intervention of the CC.
They facilitate seamless connection, disconnection and reconnection of devices
without the necessity of reconfiguring existing or new equipments.
A significant feature of the Microgrid is its presentation to the main utility grid
as a single controlled unit of electric and heat loads with local generation. Ad-
vanced PEI provides the necessary flexibility, security and reliability of operation
between microsources and the surrounding AC distribution system to customer
satisfaction. The Microgrid structure ensures minimum dynamic impacts on the
main utility. A Microgrid also benefits the main grid by decreasing congestion,
alleviating the immediate needs for generation augmentation, increasing system
stability, responding to rapid changes in loads and maintaining quality of supply to
customer satisfaction.
Microgrids, as active LV and MV networks, can potentially provide a large
number of benefits to the main power utility by increasing its efficiency of

U3+u4 Rdes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

U3+u4 Rdes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

U3+u4 Rdes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

13

13.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF AN ACIDIC FUEL CELL

Oxidant air H2O

Figure 13.1 Fuel cell operation.

13.3 TECHNICAL PARAMETER OF A FUEL CELL

End collector plate

Figure 13.2 Repeating elements used in a cell stack.

Figure 13.3 Major sub-systems in a fuel cell power plant.

13.4 FUEL PROCESSOR

Oxygen from air

Figure 13.4 Energy flow diagram in a fuel cell.

13.5 HYDROGEN FOR FUEL CELLS FROM RENEWABLE SOURCES

13.6 METHANOL (METHYL ALCOHOL) FUEL CELL

13.7 FUEL CELL TYPES

Type Operating temp. Unit size Applications

13.7.1 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs)

Figure 13.5 Alkaline electrolyte fuel cell.

13.7.2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC)

Ion exchange membrane Load

Oxygen with air Water

13.7.3 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)

Bi-polar separator plate

Figure 13.7 Schematic of repeating elements in a PAFC stack.

13.7.4 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs)

Molten carbonate electrolyte Load

Oxygen with air Steam + CO2

Figure 13.8 Molten carbonate fuel cell.

At anode H2 + CO3– – Æ H2O + CO2 + 2e

13.7.5 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

Air flow Air electrode

Air flow cavity

Figure 13.9 Solid oxide fuel cell (tubular shape).

Heat & water

Figure 13.10 Fuel cell system control.

13.8 ADVANTAGES OF FUEL CELL POWER PLANTS

13.9 FUEL CELL BATTERY–POWERED BUS SYSTEM

13.10 COMPARISON BETWEEN ACIDIC AND ALKALINE

Gear box Wheels Speed

Figure 13.11 Typical fuel cell battery-powered bus system.

13.11 STATE-OF-THE-ART FUEL CELLS

13.11.1 Microbial Fuel Cell

Figure 13.12 Microbial fuel cell.

13.11.2 World’s First Fuel Cell–Gas Turbine

13.12 ENERGY OUTPUT OF A FUEL CELL

13.13 EFFICIENCY AND EMF OF A FUEL CELL

13.14 GIBBS–HELMHOLTZ EQUATION

13.14.1 Free Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions

13.14.2 Helmholtz Free Energy

13.14.3 Gibbs Free Energy

13.15 HYDROGEN FUEL CELL ANALYSIS WITH THERMODYNAMIC

Fuel energy input – –

Quantity H2 0.5O2 H2O Change

13.16 COMPARISON OF ELECTROLYSIS AND THE FUEL CELL

13.17 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF FUEL CELLS

x represents chemical polarization,

Figure 13.15 Voltage–current density curve (polarization curve).

Internal resistance polarization

Electrolyte concentration polarization

Voltage efficiency of a fuel cell