Fuel Cell Technology

Electrolysis
What does this have to do with fuel cells?

By providing energy from a

battery, water (H2O) can be
dissociated into the diatomic
molecules of hydrogen (H2)
and oxygen (O2).

Figure 1
Fuel Cell Basics
Put electrolysis in reverse.

The familiar process of electrolysis requires work to proceed, if the process is

put in reverse, it should be able to do work for us spontaneously.

The most basic black box representation of a fuel cell in action is shown
below:

work

Figure 2

O2
fuel H2O
H2
cell

heat
 What is a Fuel Cell?
Quite simply, a fuel cell is a device that converts chemical energy into
electrical energy, water, and heat through electrochemical reactions.
Fuel and air react when they come
into contact through a porous
membrane (electrolyte) which separates
them.

This reaction results in a transfer of

electrons and ions across the electrolyte
from the anode to the cathode.

If an external load is attached to this

arrangement, a complete circuit is formed
and a voltage is generated from the flow
of electrical current.
The voltage generated by a single cell is typically rather small (< 1 volt), so many
cells are connected in series to create a useful voltage.
 Fuel Cell Vs. Battery
Basic operating principles of both are very similar, but there are several
intrinsic differences.
Hydrogen fuel cell Galvanic cell (battery)

Open system Closed system

Anode and cathode are gases in Anode and cathode are metals.
contact with a platinum catalyst. Reactants are internally consumed,
Reactants are externally supplied, need periodic recharging.
no recharging required.
 Fuel Cell Vs. Internal Combustion Engine

Similarities:

Both use hydrogen-rich fuel.

Both use compressed air as the oxidant.
Both require cooling.

Differences:
Fuel cell:
Output is electrical work.
Fuel and oxidant react electrochemically.
Little to no pollution produced.

I.C. Engine:
Output is mechanical work.
Fuel and oxidant react combustively.
Use of fossil fuels can produce significant pollution.
Fuel Cell Basics
Components

Anode: Where the fuel reacts or "oxidizes", and releases electrons.

Cathode: Where oxygen (usually from the air) "reduction" occurs.
Electrolyte: A chemical compound that conducts ions from one
electrode to the other inside a fuel cell.
Catalyst: A substance that causes or speeds a chemical reaction
without itself being affected.
Cogeneration: The use of waste heat to generate electricity.
Harnessing otherwise wasted heat boosts the efficiency of power-
generating systems.
Reformer: A device that extracts pure hydrogen from hydrocarbons.
Direct Fuel Cell: A type of fuel cell in which a hydrocarbon fuel is fed
directly to the fuel cell stack, without requiring an external "reformer"
to generate hydrogen.
Fuel Cell Basics
Putting it together.

Figure 3
Animation of PEMFC
 What is a hydrogen fuel cell?
Hydrogen fuel cells (HFCs) are a
type of electrochemical cell.

HFCs generate electricity by

reduction and oxidation reactions
within the cell.

They use three main components, a

fuel, an oxidant and an electrolyte.

HFCs operate like batteries,

although they require external fuel.

HFCs are a thermodynamically open

system.

HFCs use hydrogen as a fuel, oxygen

as an oxidant, a proton exchange
membrane as an electrolyte, and
 How do they work?
Fuel (H2) is first transported
to the anode of the cell

Fuel undergoes the anode

reaction

Anode reaction splits the

fuel into H+ (a proton) and e-

Protons pass through the

electrolyte to the cathode

Electrons can not pass

through the electrolyte, and
must travel through an
external circuit which creates
a usable electric current

Protons and electrons reach

the cathode, and undergo the
cathode reaction
 Chemistry behind the technology
Oxidation Reduction

At the anode of the cell, At the cathode of the cell, a

a catalyst (platinum second catalyst (nickel) is
powder) is used to used to recombine the
separate the proton from protons, electrons, and
the electron in the oxygen atoms to form water.
hydrogen fuel. Cathode half- reaction:
Anode half-reaction: 4H+ + O2 + 4e- 2H2O
2H2 4H+ + 4e- Eo = 0.68V
Eo = 0.00V

In electrochemistry, the Eocell value (energy) of a fuel cell is equal to the

Eo of the cathode half-reaction minus the Eo of the anode half-reaction.
For a hydrogen fuel cell, the two half reactions are shown above. So to
calculate the energy of one fuel cell, we need to subtract the anode
energy from the cathode energy. For a HFC, the Eocell = 0.68V 0.00V
which equals 0.68V
 Uses of hydrogen fuel cells
There are many different uses of fuel cells being utilized right now. Some
of these uses are
Power sources for vehicles such as cars, trucks, buses and even boats and
submarines

Power sources for spacecraft, remote weather stations and military

technology

Batteries for electronics such as laptops and smart phones

 Problems regarding hydrogen fuel cells
Lack of hydrogen infrastructure

Need for refueling stations

Lack of consumer distribution system

Cost of hydrogen fuel cells

2009 Department of Energy estimated $61/kw

Honda FCX Clarity costs about half a million dollars to make

Carbon cost of producing hydrogen

Problems with HFC cars

Short range (~260 miles)

Warm up time (~5 minutes)

Types of Fuel Cells

The five most common types:

Alkali
Molten Carbonate
Phosphoric Acid
Proton Exchange Membrane
Solid Oxide
Types of Fuel Cells

SOFC

Vorteil: Keine aufwendige Brenngas-Aufbereitung

Nachteil: Hohe Betriebstemperaturen = Hohe System-Kosten
Starke Material-Beanspruchung
Alkali Fuel Cell

compressed hydrogen and oxygen

fuel
potassium hydroxide (KOH)
electrolyte
~70% efficiency
150C - 200C operating temp.
300W to 5kW output
Figure 4

requires pure hydrogen fuel and platinum catylist

($$)
liquid filled container corrosive leaks
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)

carbonate salt electrolyte

60 80% efficiency
~650C operating temp.
cheap nickel electrode catylist
up to 2 MW constructed, up to 100
MW designs exist

Figure 5

The operating temperature is too hot for many applications.

carbonate ions are consumed in the reaction inject CO2 to
compensate
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)

phosphoric acid electrolyte

40 80% efficiency
150C - 200C operating temp
11 MW units have been tested
sulphur free gasoline can be used as a
fuel

Figure 6

The electrolyte is very corrosive

Platinum catalyst is very expensive
Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM)

thin permeable polymer sheet

electrolyte
40 50% efficiency
50 250 kW
80C operating temperature

Figure 7

electrolyte will not leak or crack

temperature good for home or vehicle use
platinum catalyst on both sides of membrane
$$
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

hard ceramic oxide electrolyte

~60% efficient
~1000C operating
temperature
cells output up to 100 kW

Figure 8

high temp / catalyst can extract the hydrogen from the fuel at the
electrode
high temp allows for power generation using the heat, but limits use
SOFC units are very large
solid electrolyte wont leak, but can crack
Benefits

Efficient: in theory and in practice

Portable:modular units

Reliable: few moving parts to wear out or break

Fuel Flexible: With a fuel reformer, fuels such as natural gas, ethanol,
methanol, propane, gasoline, diesel, landfill gas,wastewater,
treatment digester gas, or even ammonia can be used

Environmental: produces heat and water (less than combustion in both cases)
near zero emission of CO and NOx
reduced emission of CO2 (zero emission if pure H2 fuel)
Fuel cell efficiency is not an completely
defined term yet
Voltage efficiency tends to over estimate the amount of
work based on caloric fuel content
Max voltage = the reversible reaction potential at the operating
conditions
Emax = 100%, not realistic because of heat losses

Vcell
E=V x100%
voltage max
Vmax=1.23v @STP

The Change in Gibbs energy and Heat of formation of

water form the basis for the most commonly used
overall efficiency measure
()[Vcell] =0.95
E= x100% =1.48
overall
 Fuel cells operation
Example: PEMFC
The hydrogen atoms electron and proton are separated at the anode.
Only the protons can go through the membrane (thus, the name proton
exchange membrane fuel cell).
dc current
Heat
Oxygen
Hydrogen

Water
Membrane
Catalyst (Pt) (Nafion) Catalyst (Pt)
Anode (-) Cathode (+)
H 2 2 H 2e 1/ 2O2 2 H 2e 1H 2O

O2 2H 2 2H 2O (Er 1.23 V )
 Fuel cell thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics:
The energy of a system is conserved
Q W dE
Change of
Change of heat Change of systems total
provided to the work provided energy
system by the system
In conservational fields, potential functions change depend only on initial and final
values. Hence, Q W E
For a closed system (control mass system), such as a piston
E U K P
(The total energy change equals the sum of the change in internal energy, the change
in kinetic energy, and the change in potential energy)
 Fuel cell thermodynamics
For an open system with mass flow across its boundaries (control volume), such as a
steam turbine
E U K P ( pV )
pV represents the work to keep the fluid flowing (p is pressure and V is volume).
Hence, if a magnitude called enthalpy H is defined as

H U pV
Then,
H E K P
If we use the 1st law of thermodynamics for a stationary control volume (i.e. the
kinetic and potential energies are constant in time, then

H Q W
Thus, the enthalpy is the difference between the heat and the work involved in a
system such as the one defined immediately above.
 Fuel cell thermodynamics
If the change in enthalpy is negative, heat is liberated and the reaction occurs
spontaneously (contrary to endothermic reactions that requires to apply heat in order for
the reaction to occur).
H 2 2 H 2e , H 0 kJ
In the anode: 1/ 2O2 2 H 2e 1H 2O, H 285.8 kJ
In the cathode:

Hence, in a PEMFC, 285 kJ/mol are converted into heat (Q) and electricity (W). How
much electricity W can we ideally obtain?

Entropy: it is a property that indicates the disorder of a system or how much

reversible is a process. This last definition relates entropy to energy quality.

In a reversible isothermal process involving a heat transfer Qrev at a temperature T0,

the entropy is defined as
Q
S rev
T0
 Fuel cell thermodynamics
In all processes involving energy conversion or interactions S is non-negative. S
is zero only in reversible processes..

Q
For any process then S
T
The = in the above relationship will give us the minimum amount of heat Qmin
required in a process.

From the enthalpy definition a fuel cell can be considered as a system like the
following one
Q W Q

H
 Fuel cell thermodynamics

The maximum possible efficiency for a fuel cell is, then

W Q
max 1 min
H H

An alternative derivation involves using Gibbs Free Energy

The definition of entropy is relates with the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics. One of its
interpretations is that it is impossible to convert all the energy related with irreversible
processes, such as heat orchemical
G energy, into work.
max
H
Hence, it is possible to define a magnitude with units of energy called Gibbs Free
Energy that represents the reversible part of the energy involved in the process.

Hence, for fuel cells, the electrical work represents the Gibbs Free Energy and the
maximum possible energy conversion efficiency is
 Fuel cell thermodynamics

From tables:
H 2 2 H 2e , G 0 kJ
In the anode: 1/ 2O2 2 H 2e 1H 2O, G 237.2 kJ / mol
In the cathode:

And from slide #10 H equals 285 kJ/mol. Thus,

G 237.2
max 0.83
H 285.8

The Gibbs Free Energy can also be used to calculate the output voltage of an ideal fuel
cell. Since the Gibbs Free Energy equals the electrical work, and the electrical work
equals the product of the charge and voltage, then
W G 2FEo

where F is the Faraday constant (charge on one mole of electrons) the factor of two
represents the fact that two electrons per mole are involved in the chemical reaction.
 Fuel cell thermodynamics

Thus,
G
Eo
2F

and since F = 96,485 C/mole and G = -237.2 kJ/mole, then

(237200)
Eo 1.229 1.23V
(2)(96, 485)

E0 is also denoted by Er, the reversible voltage.

This is the voltage that can be obtained in a single ideal PEMFC when the
thermodynamic reaction limitations are taken into account. I.e., this is the output
voltage of a single ideal PEMFC when it behaves as an ideal voltage source.
However, additional energy loosing mechanisms further reduce this voltage.
 PEMFC electrical characteristics
Er = 1.23 V

Maximum
power operating
point

Er =1.23V
b=60mV,
i0=10-6.7Acm-2
r=0.2cm2

Activation loss Mass transport loss region

region Ohmic loss region
(linear voltage to current
relationship)
Actual PEMFCs efficiency vary between 35% and 60%
 PEMFC electrical characteristics
This past curve represent the steady state output of a fuel cell.

The steady state output depends on the fuel flow:

Amrhein and Krein Dynamic Simulation for Analysis of Hybrid Electric Vehicle
System and Subsystem Interactions, Including Power Electronics
Materials challenges of the PEM Fuel Cell
 Review of Membrane (Nafion) Properties

Chemical Structure
Proton Conduction Process
Water Transport and Interface Reactions

11/27/2017 Fuel Cell Fundamentals 35

 Chemical structures of some membrane materials

PSSA PESA
poly(styrene-co- (Polyepoxy-
styrenesulfonic succinic Acid)
acid) (PSSA)

Nafion,TM
Membrane C ,,-Trifluorostyrene
grafted onto
poly(tetrafluoro-ethylene)
with post-sulfonation)

Dow
Poly AMPS
Poly(2-acrylamido-
2-methylpropane sulfonate)
 Nafion Membrane
Chemical Structure
 Nafion Membrane
Proton Conduction Process
 The water transport through Nafion Membrane

Water flux due to electroosmotic drag (mol/cm2 s) is: Nw, drag = I()/F.
Where: I is the cell current, () is the electroosmotic drag coefficient at a
given state of membrane hydration (=N(H2O)/N(SO3H) and F is the Faraday
constant. This flux acts to dehyddrate the anode side of a cell and to
introduce additional water at the cathode side.
The buildup of water at the cathode (including the product water
from the cathode reaction) is reduced, in turn, by diffusion back down the
resulting water concentration gradient (and by hydraulic permeation of water
in differentially pressurized cells where the cathode is held at higher overall
pressure). The fluxes (mol/cm2 s) brought about by the latter two mechanisms
within the membrane are:
Nw,diff = -D()c/ z, Nw,hyd = -khyd()P/ z
where D is the diffusion coefficient in the ionomer at water content , c/ z
is a water concentration gradient along the z-direction of membrane thickness,
khyd is the hydraulic permeability of the membrane, and P/ z is a pressure
gradient along z.
 The water transport through Nafion Membrane

Many techniques have been introduced to prevent the dehydration of

the anode (including the introduction of liquid water into the anode
and/or cathode, etc. which, however, can lead to flooding problems
that inhibit mass transfer).
However, the overall question of water management, including the
issue of drag as a central component, has been solved to a very
significant extent by the application of sufficiently thin PFSA
membranes (<100 m thick) in PEFCs, combined with humidification of
the anode fuel gas stream.
An example of a development specifically enabling this to an extreme
degree is the developmental composite membrane introduced W. L.
Gore that provides usable mechanical properties for very thin (20 m
and less) perfluorinated membranes with high protonic conductivity.
 Water Transport (& Interface Reactions)
in Nafion Membrane of the PEM Fuel Cell
Materials challenges of the SOFC
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
SOFC

Air side = cathode: High oxygen partial pressure

O2
H2 + 1/2O2 D H2O

1
conductance
H2 d

H 2O

Fuel side= anode: H2 + H2O= low oxygen partial pressure

Electromotive Force (EMF)
SOFC

Chemical Reactions in 2 separated compartements:

- Cathode (Oxidation): O2 + 2e- D O2-
- Anode (Reduction): H2 + O D H2O + 2e
2- -

G = Free Enthalpie
z = number of charge carriers
F = Faraday Constant
EMF of a galvanic Cell: G0= Free Enthalpie in
standart state
(1) EMF = Gr /-z F R = Gas Constant

a ( H 2O )
SOFC: O2 + H2 D H2O (2) G G0 RT ln
a( H 2 )a(O2 )0.5

difference of G between anode und cathode

RT p ( O2 )
K
Nernst Equation:
EMK ln
4 F p ( O2 )
A
 Elektrochemische Potential
SOFC

Oxygen ions migrate due to an electrical

and chemical gradient

(O2 ) (O2 ) 2F
Electrochemichal Chemical Electrical
Potential Potential Potential

Driving force for the O2- Diffusion through the electrolyte are the
different oxygen partial pressures at the anode and the cathode
side: (O 2 )
i
ji (O )
2 ji = ionic current
i= ionic conductivity

2F
engl. Open Circuit Voltage (OCV)
SOFC

i
(O ) (O ) 2F
2 2
ji (O 2 )
2F

What happems in case :

(O ) 0
2

ji 0
No current
OCV Electrical potential difference = chemical potetial
Leistungs-Verluste
SOFC

Under load decrease of cell voltage

and internal losses

U(I) = OCV - I(RE+ RC+RA) - C - A

OCV
(RE+ RC+RA)
cell voltage U(I) [V]

Ohmic resistances

C
Non ohmic resistances=
A over voltages

cell current I [mA/cm2]

berspannungen
SOFC

Over voltages exist at interfaces of

Elektrolyte - Cathode
Elektrolyte - Anode

Reasons:

Kinetic hindrance of the electrochemical reactions

Bad adheasion of electrode and electrolyte
Diffusion limitations at high current densities
Ohms losses
SOFC

Past Future
800nm

Kathode Anode

Reduce electrolyte thickness

Leistungs-Verluste
SOFC

OCV 1
(RE+ RC+RA)

cell voltage U(I) [V]

C
A

2
cell current I [mA/cm2]
3

(1) Open circuit voltage (OCV), I = 0

(2) SOFC under Load U-I curve
(3) Short circuit, Vcell = 0

(2) 0.5

1.0
0.4

0.8
Zellspannung [V]

Leistung [W/cm ]
0.3
0.6

0.2
0.4

2
0.2 0.1

(1) 0.0
900C
in Luft/Wasserstoff (3) 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
2
Stromdichte [A/cm ]
How to determine the electrical conductance
SOFC

Iinput Umeasured
Electrical resistance:
U L
R f (T )
I A *

Electrical conductivity: U : voltage [V]

I : current [A]
0 Ea R : resistivity [ohm]
log( ) L : distance between both
T kT inner wires [cm]
A : sample surface [cm2]
1 : conductivity [S/m]
T vs. Ea Ea : activation energy [eV]
T T : temperature [K]
K : Boltzmann constant
 SOFC

SOFC-Designs
SOFC Design
SOFC

Tubular design
i.e. Siemens-Westinghouse design

Segment-type tubular design

Planar design
i.e. Sulzer Hexis, BMW design
Tubular Design Siemens-Westinghouse
SOFC
Why was tubular design
developed in 1960s by
cathode Westinghouse?
interconnection Planar cell: Thermal
expansion mismatch
cathode between ceramic and
(air) support structures leads to
problems with the gas
sealing tubular design
air flow anode (fuel)
was invented

Advantages of tubular
design:
At cell plenum: depleted air
and fuel react heat is
generated incoming
oxidant can be pre-heated.
No leak-free gas
manifolding needed in this
Tubular Design Siemens-Westinghouse
SOFC
To overcome problems new
cathode Siemens-Westinghouse HPD-
(air)
SOFC design:

New: Flat cathode tube with

ligaments

anode (fuel) electrolyte Advantages of HPD-SOFC:

Ligaments within cathode short
current pathways decrease of
ohmic resistance
High packaging density of cells
Siemens-Westinghouse shifted from
compared to tubular design
basic technology to cost reduction and
scale up.

Power output: Some 100 kW can be

produced.
Planar Design Sulzer Hexis
SOFC

interconnect Advantages of planar

cathode (air)
design:
Planer cell design of bipolar
electrolyte
plates easy stacking no
anode (fuel)
long current pathways
Low-cost fabrication
methods, i.e. Screen printing
and tape casting can be
used.

Drawback of tubular
design:
Life time of the cells 3000-
7000h needs to be
improved by optimization of
mechanical and
electrochemical stability of
used materials.
Planar Design BMW
SOFC
Air channel

bipolar plate
Cathode current collector
cathode
electrolyte
anode
porous metallic substrate
Fe-26Cr-(Mo, Ti, Mn, Y2O3) alloy
bipolar plate

Fuel channel Application

Batterie replacement in the
20-50 m Plasma spray BMW cars of the 7-series.
5-20 m Plasma spray

15-50 m Plasma spray Power output: 135 kW is

aimed.
Current Initiatives
Automotive Industry

Most of the major auto manufacturers have fuel cell vehicle (FCV) projects currently under
way, which involve all sorts of fuel cells and hybrid combinations of conventional combustion,
fuel reformers and battery power.

Considered to be the first gasoline powered fuel cell vehicle is the H20 by GM:

GMC S-10 (2001)

fuel cell battery hybrid
low sulfur gasoline fuel
25 kW PEM
40 mpg
112 km/h top speed

Figure 9
Current Initiatives
Automotive Industry

Fords Adavanced Focus FCV (2002)

fuel cell battery hybrid
85 kW PEM
~50 mpg (equivalent)
4 kg of compressed H2 @ 5000 psi

Figure 10

Approximately 40 fleet vehicles are

planned as a market introduction for
Germany, Vancouver and California
for 2004.

Figure 11
Current Initiatives
Automotive Industry

Daimler-Chrysler NECAR 5 (introduced in 2000)

85 kW PEM fuel cell

methanol fuel
reformer required
150 km/h top speed

Figure 12

version 5.2 of this model completed a California to Washington DC drive

awarded road permit for Japanese roads
Current Initiatives
Automotive Industry

Mitsubishi Grandis FCV minivan

fuel cell / battery hybrid

68 kW PEM
compressed hydrogen fuel
140 km/h top speed

Figure 13

Plans are to launch as a production vehicle for Europe in 2004.

Current Initiatives
Stationary Power Supply Units
More than 2500 stationary fuel cell systems have been installed all over the world
- in hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, office buildings, schools, utility power
plants, and an airport terminal, providing primary power or backup. In large-scale
building systems, fuel cells can reduce facility energy service costs by 20% to 40%
over conventional energy service.

Figure 14

A fuel cell installed at McDonalds restaurant, Long Island Power Authority to

install 45 more fuel cells across Long Island, including homes.(2) Feb 26, 2003
Current Initiatives
Residential Power Units

There are few residential fuel cell power units on the market but many designs
are undergoing testing and should be available within the next few years. The
major technical difficulty in producing residential fuel cells is that they must be
safe to install in a home, and be easily maintained by the average homeowner.

Residential fuel cells are

typically the size of a large
deep freezer or furnace, such
as the Plug Power 7000 unit
shown here, and cost $5000 -
$10 000.

Figure 15
If a power company was to install a residential fuel cell power unit in a home, it
would have to charge the homeowner at least 40 /kWh to be economically
profitable.(3) They will have to remain a backup power supply for the near future.
Future

...projections made by car companies themselves and energy and automotive

experts concur that around 2010, and perhaps earlier, car manufacturers will have
mass production capabilities for fuel cell vehicles, signifying the time they would
be economically available to the average consumer. Auto Companies on Fuel Cells,
Brian Walsh and Peter Moores, posted on www.fuelcells.org

A commercially available fuel cell power plant would cost about $3000/kW, but
would have to drop below $1500/kW to achieve widespread market penetration.
http://www.fuelcells.org/fcfaqs.htm

Technical and engineering innovations are continually lowering the capital cost of
a fuel cell unit as well as the operating costs, but it is expected that mass
production will be of the greatest impact to affordability.
Future

internal combustion obsolete?

solve pollution problems?
common in homes?
better designs?
higher efficiencies?
cheaper electricity?
reduced petroleum dependency?
...winning lottery numbers?
References

(1) FAQ section, fuelcells.org

(2) Long Island Power Authority press release: Plug Power Fuel Cell Installed at McDonalds Restaurant, LIPA to
Install 45 More Fuel Cells Across Long Island, Including Homes,
http://www.lipower.org/newscenter/pr/2003/feb26.fuelcell.html
(3) Proceedings of the 2000 DOE Hydrogen Program Review: Analysis of Residential Fuel Cell Systems & PNGV
Fuel Cell Vehicles, http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/28890mm.pdf

Figures
1, 3 http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/electrol.html
4 8 http://fuelcells.si.edu/basics.htm
10 http://www.moteurnature.com/zvisu/2003/focus_fcv/focus_fcv.jpg
11 http://www.granitestatecleancities.org/images/Hydrogen_Fuel_Cell_Engine.jpg
12 http://www.in.gr/auto/parousiaseis/foto_big/Necar07_2883.jpg
13 http://www3.caradisiac.com/media/images/le_mag/mag138/oeil_mitsubishi_grandis_big.jpg
14 http://www.lipower.org/newscenter/pr/2003/feb26.fuelcell.html
15 http://americanhistory.si.edu/csr/fuelcells/images/plugpwr1.jpg

Table 1 http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/tables/therprop.html#c1

Fuel cell data from: Types of Fuel Cells, fuelcells.org

Fuel Cell Vehicle data primarily from: Fuel Cell Vehicles (From Auto Manufacturers) table, fuelcells.org