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ICEST 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1090 (2021) 012060 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1090/1/012060

Theoretical assessment of using ceramic tiles as replacement

of Ordinary Portland Cement and sand

Zahraa H Joudah1, Esam Hewayde2,* , Mostafa Samadi3 and Ghasan F Huseien4,

1
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Misan, Iraq.
2
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Al-Muthanna University,
Samawa, 66001, Iraq.
3
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor,
Malaysia.
4
Department of Building, School of Design and Environment, National University of
Singapore, Singapore 117566, Singapore.

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Using of industrial wastes as replacement of cement and/or other components of

concrete is very attractive in concrete industry especially when this replacement leads to a
reduction in the cost of concrete. This study investigates the feasibility of using two forms of
ceramic tile wastes, naming: waste ceramic powder (WCP) and ceramic fine aggregate (CFA)
as replacement of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and river sand (RS), respectively. Twelve
mortar mixtures incorporating various dosages of WCP and/or CFA were prepared to compare
Carbone dioxide (CO2) emission, cost effectiveness, and energy consumption of the different
mortar mixtures. Results showed that the use of WCP as replacement of OPC significantly
reduces the CO2 emission, cost effective and energy consumption of the mortar mixtures. A
replacement of 60% by weight of OPC by WCP resulted in a reduction of approximately 50%,
40% and 30% in CO2 emission, energy consumption, and cost respectively. The replacement of
RS by different levels of CFA (up to 100%) had a marginal influence on the CO2 emission and
energy consumption, while it moderately decreased the effective cost of the mortar mixtures.
Results of using WCP as a partial replacement of cement are very encouraging and should be
gathered with laboratory results about the effect of the replacement on properties of concrete to
have a clear vision about selecting the appropriate materials of replacement for cement.

Keywords: Cost effective, environment benefits, sustainable materials, tile ceramic wastes.

1. Introduction
A significant amount of greenhouse gases' (GHG) emissions and environmental pollution (both critical
drivers of climate change) are produced during the manufacturing of all types of cement. In an attempt
to minimise this environmental damage, researches are continuously looking for greener construction
materials to replace either partially or totally cement [1-3]. Cement is used for the manufacturing of
concretes and mortars, giving that one tonne of greenhouse gas is emitted when every tonne of cement
is consumed (accounting for around 8% of GHG emissions globally). The high temperature of the
cement clinker processing is the main problem. Ecological systems across the globe are thus being
strained by the continuous production of cement at its existing rate [4, 5].

Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
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Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd 1
ICEST 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1090 (2021) 012060 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1090/1/012060

There has been significant development in the use of promising alternatives, such as those exist in
industrial wastes from construction. The fact that these solutions are environmentally better, readily
available, and available at relatively low cost has made these alternatives attractive as replacement of
cement [6-8]. Using of the industrial wastes leads to a decrease in the depletion of the natural
resources and subsequently the sustainability is boosted and waste management is became more
effective [9-11].

A range of wastes are being used to substitute cement, and a series of core factors – from economic
viability and market stability, to material durability, environmental responsiveness and sustainability
were investigated. Sustainability as a concept practised in the construction industry, in addition to
‘green manufacturing’, require the use of alternative wastes as replacements of natural resources,
including extra-cementitious materials. The call for sustainability in construction has prompted the
emergence of new materials for a range of uses, all of them cost-reducing and environmentally geared.
Ceramic tiles, as a key example, are made at high temperatures using fire clay, feldspar and quartz
[12].

Sustainability in construction also comes into play in terms of behavioural aspects and how waste
materials are used in applied practice [13-15]. In the accessible literature, there was very limited
research pertaining to the environmental merits of using Waste Tile Ceramics (WTC) mortar as a
replacement of cement and/or natural river sand (RS).

The present study thus made a series of mortar types using ceramic waste to investigate the feasibility
of using WTC as replacement of cement and/or sand in mortars. The study sourced the ceramic waste
locally and deployed it to assess whether sustainable mortars could be developed for construction
projects. The sustainability performance metrics for the as-prepared mortar samples were assessed
using a range of analyses including greenhouse emissions, energy efficiency and cost analysis.

2. Methodology

2.1 Raw materials

In accordance with ASTM C150, Type I OPC (specific gravity of 3.15) at a strength class of 42.5 was
used to prepare all mortar mixtures. Initially, the ceramic tiles were crushed to produce fine particles
of various shapes and sizes. Thereafter, crushed ceramic tiles were sieved – as per the ASTM C33– to
remove the oversize particles. A consistent volume of fine aggregate was reached, and thereafter the
fine aggregate (at 4.0 kg every time) was grounded for four hours in a Los Angeles abrasion test
machine, in order to achieve the ground waste ceramic powder (WCP). The process was continued
until the point at which about 95% of the WCP passed the 45 μm-opening sieve, as per ASTM C618.
The physical and chemical properties of the OPC and WCP are shown in Table 1. As per ASTM C618
and owing to the overall content of silica, aluminium and iron oxides (above 70%), the WCP can be
classed as Pozzolan materials. The physical properties of natural river sand and ceramic fine
aggregates (CFA) are depicted in Table 2. Figure 1 shows the process of making the WCP and ceramic
fine aggregate (CFA).

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ICEST 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1090 (2021) 012060 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1090/1/012060

Figure 1. preparation processes of WCP and CFA.

2.2 Mix proportions

Preparation of the materials and mix proportions of different types of mortars used in this study was
according to ASTM C1329. As per ASTM C320, water to cement ratio of 0.48 was selected to have
an adequate flowability and strength. A total of twelve batches (mortar mixtures) were prepared and
used in this study. Mixture (WCPM0) was used as a control mixture as it contains zero ceramic tiles
whether as a cement replacement and/or river sand. Six mortar mixtures were prepared with various
dosage of WCP (10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 60% by weight) as a partial replacement of OPC.
Four mortar mixtures were prepared having different percentages (25%, 50%, 75% and 100% by
weight) of ceramic fine aggregate CFA as a replacement of river sand. The last mortar mixture (WCP-
CFAM) consisted of 40% partial replacement of OPC by WCP and 100% replacement of river sand by
CFA.Mix proportions of the used twelve mixtures are provided in Table 3. After 24 hours of casting,
all concrete specimens were unmolded and cured in water (27 ± 2 °C) for 7 days.

Table 1: Chemical characteristics and physical properties of WCP and OPC

Materials WCP OPC
Chemical contents (% by mass)
Calcium oxide 1.13 68.30
Silica oxide 74.10 16.40
Aluminium oxide 17.80 4.24
Potassium oxide 0.44 0.22
Iron oxide 3.58 3.53
Sulfur trioxide 0.023 4.39
Magnesium oxide 1.24 2.39
Loss of ignition (LOI) 0.10 2.40
Physical properties
Specific gravity 2.35 3.15
% Passing through 45 μm sieve 99 90.0
Medium particle size (μm) 35 40

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IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1090 (2021) 012060 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1090/1/012060

Table 2. Physical properties of RS and CFA

Properties RS CFA
Mass passing 75 μm sieve (%) 0.0 0.0
Oven dry basis, bulk density (kg/m3) 1624 1450
Specific gravity 2.62 2.38
Water absorption at 24 h (%) 1.8 1.3

Table 3. Mix proportions of mortar mixtures

Binder (kg/m3) Fine aggregates (kg/m3)
Mix ID OPC WCP RS CFA
WCPM0 550 -- 1460 --
WCPM10 495 55 1460 --
WCPM20 440 110 1460 --
WCPM30 395 165 1460 --
WCPM40 330 220 1460 --
WCPM50 275 275 1460 --
WCPM60 220 330 1460 --
CFAM25 550 -- 1095 365
CFAM50 550 -- 730 730
CFAM75 550 -- 365 1095
CFAM100 550 -- -- 1460
WCP-CFAM 330 220 -- 1460

2.3 Greenhouse emission, energy efficiency and cost analysis

More environmentally friendly products can be made when construction materials are manufactured
using recycled solid wastes. These waste-based materials need to be obtained at a competitive price,
however, in order for them to be made viable options in the industry. It is also desirable that they have
ecological benefits to construction projects. This study explored the GHG emissions, production costs
and energy consumption rates of the recycled ceramic mortar (RCM) to explore its sustainability.
These indicators were chosen because they form the primary rationale for using RCM. Other features
including technical application issues, leaching, water usage factors, harmful material constituents,
emissions of environmentally dangerous gases of another kind, can also be important factors in the
selection of the appropriate waste materials.

Both the effects made by the feedstock and binder manufacturing processes, and the transport, must be
factored in an environmental benefit analysis. This study does not factor in the mixing, laying, curing
and emissions features of the various mortars over the entire working lifetime because they are
considered to be similar. The proposed method will likely give an analogous life cycle of effects rather
than an absolute one. The study established the various materials’ energy consumption figures,
production costs and GHG emission rates. The various phases in preparing the OPC, WCP, CFA and
RS are displayed in Table 4.

A transportation fee of 1 t/km was applied for all the materials, and these were incorporated into the
net cost. Details of the machinery and materials are provided in Table 5. An assumed price of 0
Ringgit Malaysia (RM) was assigned to the ceramic waste, which was acquired for free from industrial
sources. By factoring in the capacity of the engine and the duration of the operation, the overall cost of

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ICEST 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1090 (2021) 012060 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1090/1/012060

electrical consumption for the equipment was estimated, depending on the materials’ life cycles. The
estimations were premised on Malaysian electricity price rates for October 2020, as shown in Table 6.

To calculate CO2 the equivalent amount for 1 tonne of cement, the following equation was used.

Total GHG released: σ௡ଵୀଵ ݉݅൫ሺ݀݅ ‫݅݁ כ‬ሻ ൅ ‫݅݌‬൯, (1)

Where:
di: is the transportation distance, which is dependent on the direction of the transport;
ei: is the emission factor for the different methods of transportation;
pi: is the emission per unit mass of each material.

Total CO2 emissions = σ௡௜ୀଵ ݉݅ሾሺ݀݅ ൈ ‫ ݅ܦ‬ൈ ݇ͳ݅ሻ ൅ ሺ‫ ݅ܧ‬ൈ ݇ʹ݅ሻሿ (2)
Where:
mi is the mass of component i (t/m3), di is the transport distance (km), Di is the diesel consumption
(L/km), k1i is the CO2 emission for 1 L of diesel (t), Ei is the total electricity consumption (kwh), and
k2i is the CO2 emission for 1 kwh electricity (t).

Total energy consumption = σ௡௜ୀଵ ݉݅ሾሺ݀݅ ൈ ‫ ݅ܦ‬ൈ ݇͵݅ሻ ൅ ሺ‫ ݅ܧ‬ൈ ݇Ͷ݅ሻሿ (3)

Where:
k3i is the energy consumption for 1 L of diesel (GJ), Ei is the total electricity consumption (kwh), and
k4i is the energy consumption for 1 kwh of electricity (GJ).

Total cost = σ௡௜ୀଵ ݉݅ሾሺ݀݅ ൈ ‫ ݅ܦ‬ൈ ‫݅ܲܦ‬ሻ ൅ ܶ݅ ൅ ሺ‫ ݅ܧ‬ൈ ‫݅ܲܧ‬ሻሿ (4)

where
DPi is the diesel cost (RM/L), Ti is the transport charge for 1 m3 (RM/km), and EPi is the electricity
cost (RM/kwh).

Electricity consumption of component I (Ei) =σ௡௜ୀଵሺ‫ ݅ܧܯ‬ൈ ‫݅ܲܯ‬ሻ (5)

Where:
MEi is the machine capacity (t/h), and MPi is the machine power (kwh).

Table 4. WCP, OPC, CFA and RS preparation stages.

Materials Type Collection Transportation Crush Sieve Grind
WCP waste yes yes yes yes yes
OPC commercial
CFA waste yes yes yes yes -
RS natural yes yes - yes -

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ICEST 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1090 (2021) 012060 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1090/1/012060

Table 5. Details of the machinery and materials in Malaysia [16].

Items Amount
Volume of truck, m3 12
Speed of truck, km/hr 80
Consumption of diesel, litter/km 0.09
Diesel price, RM/litter 2.18
Transport charge of 1 m3, RM/km 0.75
WCP density, kg/m3 1470
CFA density, kg/m3 1440
Transport distance of WTC, km 35
RS density, kg/m3 1750
Transport distance of river sand, km 62
Crushing machine power, watt 435
Crushing machine capacity, m3 0.08
sieving machine power, watt 250
sieving machine capacity, m3 0.05
Oven power, watt 1200
Oven capacity, m3 0.18
Grinding machine power, watt 750
Grinding machine capacity, m3 0.45
CO2 release for 1 kwh electricity, ton 0.00013
CO2 release for 1 L diesel, ton 0.0027
Energy consumption for 1 L diesel, GJ 0.0384
Energy consumption for 1 kWh electricity, GJ 0.0036
Portland cement CO2 release, tonne/tonne 0.904
Energy consumption, GJ/tonne 5.13

Table 6. The October 2020’ electricity cost in accordance with the consumption rate.
Consumption The unit
(Watt) (RM/kWh)
0 to 199 0.218
200 to 299 0.334
300 to 599 0.516
600 to 899 0.546
900+ 0.571

Drawn from the data (in Tables 4, 5 and 6), the study ascertained the energy consumption and
production costs for each batch. Comparisons between mortar mixtures WCP-CFAM and WCPM0
were made regarding energy consumption, costs, cost of production and GHG emissions. This was
performed to reach a compressive strength of 30 MPa to meet the requisite for Portland cement of 460
kg/m3. By ascertaining production costs, GHG emissions and energy consumption levels for WCP,
CFA, OPC and RS, the study evaluated the sustainability and environmental merits of the mortars, as
shown in Table 7. A far greater quantity of energy was required to process OPC, associated with
higher costs and higher GHG emissions, when contrasted with the WCP. A 5.13 GJ/ton energy
expenditure emerged for OPC, as contrasted with 1.12 GJ / tonne for the WCP (four times less).
Accordingly, OPC produced GHG emissions of 0.904 ton / ton, relatively high compared to WCP
which was 0.045 ton/ton. The production costs for OPC were also the highest amongst the samples.
The manufacturing process for OPC required high levels of energy, and transporting the material
required far greater effort. In the case of OPC, production costs sat at 600 RM / ton, whereas for WCP

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IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1090 (2021) 012060 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1090/1/012060

the cost stood at 170 RM / ton. To reduce energy consumption levels and production cost, in addition
to GHG emissions, OPC needed to be applied at lower contents for mortar samples.

Table 7. WCP, OPC, CFA, and RS production process’ greenhouse gas emissions, cost effective and
energy consumption
Greenhouse gases Cost Energy consumption
Materials
(ton/ton) (RM/ton) (GJ/ton)

WCP 0.045 170 1.12

OPC 0.904 600 5.13
CFA 0.003 10 0.111
RS 0.009 35 0.134

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Greenhouse emission

Figure 2(a) shows GHG emissions (CO2 emissions) calculated for the control mortar mixture and
those incorporated WCP as a partial replacement of OPC. It can be noted that as the dosage of WCP
increases, the CO2 emission decreases. The gas emission was reduced from 0.51 t/m3 to about 0.24
t/m3 as a result of using 60% of WCP as a partial replacement of OPC. The rate of reduction in the gas
emission was linearly related to the dosage of the replacement. These drastically lowered GHG
emission levels when using WCP as the binder demonstrate that there is a viable argument for using
WCP as a sustainable material for mortar sample production. The CO2 emission of the control mortar
mixture and those incorporating CFA as replacement of river sand (RS) are shown in Figure 2(b). It
can be observed that the GHG emission was slightly trended to decrease with increasing CFA content.
Figure 2(c) illustrates a comparison between the CO2 emission of the control mortar mixture and three
other mortar mixtures naming: CFAM100 (mortar with 100% replacement of RS by CFA), WCPM40
(mortar with 40% replacement of OPC by WCP) and WCP-CFAM (mortar mixture with 40%
replacement of OPC by WCP and 100% replacement of RS by CFA). The figure clearly shows the
positive effect of using WCP as a replacement of OPC in reducing the GHG emission on one hand
while the incorporation of CFA had very limited effect, if any, on the emission of GHG on the other
hand.

3.2 Cost analysis

The cost of cubic meter of mortar mixture was calculated for the control mortar mixture and those
having various dosages of WCP as a partial replacement of OPC and results are illustrated in Figure
3(a). The figure clearly shows that the reduction in the cost is directly proportional to the level of
WCP used as a partial replacement of OPC. The rate of reduction was approximately linear. The cost
of 1 m3 of mortar was reduced by about 30% as a result of using 60% of WCP as a partial replacement
of OPC. This significant reduction in the cost is owing to the relatively affordable cost of
manufacturing the WCP compared to that of the OPC. This reduction is expected to have a big
influence on the decision of selecting the replacement materials of cement giving that the properties of
the new mixture is technically accepted

In Figure 3(b), the impact of replacing RS by CFA on the costs of mortars is shown. This
replacement caused a moderate cost reduction. The preparation phases for the materials, that affect the
cost of the mixes, were used as the basis of the price calculations by weight. The figure shows that the

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IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1090 (2021) 012060 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1090/1/012060

entire replacement of RS by CFA decreased the cost of the 1m3 of mortar from 380 RM to about 340
RM.

The production costs of mortar mixtures WCPM0, CFAM100, WCPM40, and WCP-CFAM were
compared as shown in Figure 3(c). It can be seen that the cost of the later mortar mixture (WCP-
CFAM), which has 40% replacement of OPC by WCP and 100% replacement of RS by CFA, was
decreased by about 35% compared to that of the control mortar mixture. In other words, the
incorporation of both materials WCP and CFA as a replacement of OPC and RS, respectively can lead
to a significant reduction in the cost of mortar. It should be noted that technical results, such as effect
of replacement dosage on mechanical properties of mortar and concrete, should be gathered with these
results to determine the optimum replacement level.

3.3 Cost analysis

The cost of cubic meter of mortar mixture was calculated for the control mortar mixture and those
having various dosages of WCP as a partial replacement of OPC and results are illustrated in Figure
3(a). The figure clearly shows that the reduction in the cost is directly proportional to the level of
WCP used as a partial replacement of OPC. The rate of reduction was approximately linear. The cost
of 1 m3 of mortar was reduced by about 30% as a result of using 60% of WCP as a partial replacement
of OPC. This significant reduction in the cost is owing to the relatively affordable cost of
manufacturing the WCP compared to that of the OPC. This reduction is expected to have a big
influence on the decision of selecting the replacement materials of cement giving that the properties of
the new mixture is technically accepted

In Figure 3(b), the impact of replacing RS by CFA on the costs of mortars is shown. This
replacement caused a moderate cost reduction. The preparation phases for the materials, that affect the
cost of the mixes, were used as the basis of the price calculations by weight. The figure shows that the
entire replacement of RS by CFA decreased the cost of the 1m3 of mortar from 380 RM to about 340
RM.

The production costs of mortar mixtures WCPM0, CFAM100, WCPM40, and WCP-CFAM were
compared as shown in Figure 3(c). It can be seen that the cost of the later mortar mixture (WCP-
CFAM), which has 40% replacement of OPC by WCP and 100% replacement of RS by CFA, was
decreased by about 35% compared to that of the control mortar mixture. In other words, the
incorporation of both materials WCP and CFA as a replacement of OPC and RS, respectively can lead
to a significant reduction in the cost of mortar. It should be noted that technical results, such as effect
of replacement dosage on mechanical properties of mortar and concrete, should be gathered with these
results to determine the optimum replacement level.

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IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1090 (2021) 012060 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1090/1/012060

Figure 2. GHG emission of (a) WCP as replacement of OPC, (b) CFA as replacement
of RS, (c) replacement of OPC and RS by WCP and CFA, respectively.

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IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1090 (2021) 012060 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1090/1/012060

Figure 3. Proposed mortar cost of (a) WCP as OPC replacement, (b) CFA as RS
replacement, and (c) incorporation of both WCP and CFA

3.4 Energy efficiency

By measuring the energy consumption and life cycles of the materials used to manufacture each
batch, the overall energy consumption levels in the production of the mortar mixtures were calculated.
Results were provided in Figures 4(a), (b) and (c). As it can be noted in Figure 3(a), the incorporation
of WCP as a partial replacement of OPC resulted in a significant reduction in the energy consumption
compared to that of the control mortar mixture. The energy consumption was decreased by
approximately 40% as a result of using 60% replacement of OPC by WCP. Similar to the effect of
WCP on the GHG emission and cost, the reduction rate was approximately linear. In other words, each
mortar mixture contained a specific amount of WCP in turn consumed lower amounts of energy

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IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1090 (2021) 012060 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1090/1/012060

compared to the control mortar mixture. This can be partially attributed to the reduced cost of diesel
and electricity used in the preparation of WCP. Figure 4 (b) shows that the replacement of RS by CFA
has a very marginal effect on the energy consumption. This can be logically attributed to the existing
low energy usage level associated with RS.

The incorporation of both WCP and CFA as replacement of 40% OPC and 100% RS, respectively
caused a reduction in energy consumption approximately comparable to that of mortar mixture
WCPM40. This means that the use of CFA as a replacement of RS has very little effect, if any,
whether it was used alone in mortar mixture as a replacement of RS or with mortars having WCP as a
partial replacement of OPC.

Figure 4: Calculated energy consumption of

mortars (a) WCP as replacement of OPC, (b) CFA
as replacement of RS, (c) incorporation of
bothWCP and CFAM)

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IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1090 (2021) 012060 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1090/1/012060

4. Conclusions
The Carbone dioxide emission, cost and energy consumption of twelve mortar mixtures incorporating
two forms of waste ceramic tile (WCP and CFA) were calculated. Based on results of this study, the
following conclusions were drawn.
1. The GHG emission, cost and energy consumption of OPC production are approximately 20, 4
and 4 times as high as those of WCP
2. The incorporation of various levels of WCP (10 to 60% by weight) as a partial replacement of
OPC resulted in a significant decrease in GHG emission, effective cost and energy
consumption of the mortar mixtures.
3. Although the use of CFA as replacement of RS led to a decrease in the effective cost of the
mortar mixtures, the effect of the replacement was very marginal on both GHG emission and
the energy consumption of the mortar mixtures.
4. The use of WCP and CFA as replacement of OPC and RS, respectively in the same mortar
mixture had comparable effect on GHG emission and energy consumption to that of using
only WCP in the mortar mixture.
It is worthy stating that laboratory investigation on the effect of using WCP and CFA on the
mechanical properties of mortars and concrete should be carried out and gathered with those of
this study to complete the entire picture and support the decision of selecting the appropriate
replacement materials either for cement or other components of mortars or concrete.

5. References
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[2] Huseien G F, et al. 2017 Geopolymer mortars as sustainable repair material: A comprehensive
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[3] Kubba Z, et al. 2019 Effect of sodium silicate content on setting time and mechanical
properties of multi blend geopolymer mortars Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences
14(7) 2262-7
[4] Samadi M, et al. 2020 Waste ceramic as low cost and eco-friendly materials in the production of
sustainable mortars Journal of Cleaner Production 121825
[5] Shah K W and G F Huseien 2020 Biomimetic self-healing cementitious construction materials
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[6] Huseien G F, et al. 2019 Evaluation of alkali-activated mortars containing high volume waste
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[7] Hossain F Z, et al. 2019 Mechanical properties of recycled aggregate concrete containing crumb
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[8] Mhaya A M, et al.2020 Long-term mechanical and durable properties of waste tires rubber
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[10] Hamzah H K, et al. 2020 Strength performance of free cement mortars incorporating fly ash and
slag: effects of alkaline activator solution dosage Open Journal of Science and Technology 3(2)
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[11] Samadi M, et al. 2020 Influence of glass silica waste nano powder on the mechanical and
microstructure properties of alkali-activated mortars Nanomaterials 10(2) 324
[12] Huseien G F, et al. 2020 Effects of ceramic tile powder waste on properties of self-compacted
alkali-activated concrete Construction and Building Materials 236 117574

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[13] Dung N T, et al. 2016 Cementitious properties and microstructure of an innovative slag eco-
binder Materials and Structures 49(5) 2009-24
[14] Huseien G F, Shah K W and Sam A R M 2019 Sustainability of nanomaterials based self-
healing concrete: An all-inclusive insight Journal of Building Engineering
[15] Faridmehr I, Huseien G F and Baghban M H 2020 Evaluation of mechanical and environmental
properties of engineered alkali-activated green mortar Materials 13(18) 4098
[16] Huseien G F and Shah K W 2020 Durability and life cycle evaluation of self-compacting
concrete containing fly ash as GBFS replacement with alkali activation Construction and
Building Materials 235 117458

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