National Kaohsiung First University of Science and Technology, Taiwan

Department of English

Computer
Assisted
Language
Learning and
Teaching (CALL)
written by Chi-Fen Emily Chen
Unit 1. Introduction to Computer Assisted Language
Learning (CALL)

1.1 What is CALL?

Definitions of CALL:

- Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) was the expression agreed upon at the
1983 TESOL convention in a meeting of all interested participants. This term is widely
used to refer to the area of technology and second language teaching and
learningdespite the fact that revisions for the term are suggested regularly (Chapelle,
2001, p. 3).

- Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) may be defined as the search for and
study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning (Levy,
1997, p.1).

- Given the breadth of what may go on in computer-assisted language learning (CALL), a

definition of CALL that accommodates its changing nature is any process in which a
learner uses a computer and, as a result, improves his or her language (Beatty,
2003, p. 7).

- CALL has come to encompass issues of materials design, technologies, pedagogical

theories and modes of instruction. Materials for CALL can include those which are
purpose-made for language learning and those which adapt existing computer-based
materials, video and other materials (Beatty, 2003, pp. 7-8).

1.2 Types of CALL Programs

CALL programs/materials include (from ICT4LT Module 1.4):

- CALL-specific software: applications designed to develop and facilitate language

learning, such as CD-ROMs, web-based interactive language learning exercises/quizzes
(see CD-ROM examples for language learning)

- Generic software: applications designed for general purposes, such as word-processors

(Word), presentation software (PowerPoint, see an e-book made by students "Many
Moons"), and spreadsheet (Excel), that can be used to support language learning
(see examples of usingExcel for language learning & teaching) *Also see Microsoft Office
Online Templates)

- Web-based learning programs: online dictionaries, online encyclopedias, online

concordancers, news/magazine sites, e-texts, web-quests, web publishing, blog, wiki, etc.

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 - Computer-mediated communication (CMC) programs: synchronous - online chat;
asynchronous - email, discussion forum, message board

1.3 Types of CALL Activities

- multiple-choice & true/false - writing & word-processing

quizzes - concordancing
- gap-filling exercise/cloze - web quests/searching
- matching - web publishing
- re-ordering/sequencing - online communication (synchronous and
- crossword puzzles asynchronous)
- games
- simulations

1.4 What Computers Can and Can’t “Do” (based on Meskill, 2002, p. 122)

Computers CAN Computer CAN’T

Judge predetermined right-or-wrong answers, Judge unexpected input

e.g., multiple choice and fill-in-the-blanks

Provide immediate, yet fixed, feedback, Provide individualized feedback beyond a

suggestions, and encouragement predetermined list of messages

Provide authentic information Engage learner in rich negotiation of

throughmultimedia - meaning characteristic of face-to-face
texts, images, sounds,videos, and animations interaction

Motivate task persistence Motivate depth and quality of

engagement characteristic of human interaction
•Record learner’s writing, speech, and learning
progress

* Caveat:
- Computer technology has to be treated as an aid, but not a panacea.
- The effectiveness of CALL cannot reside in the technology itself but in how it is put to
use and for what purposes.

1.5 Roles of the Computer in language learning and teaching:

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 - computer as tutor for language drills or skill practice

- computer as a tool for writing, presenting, and researching

- computer as a medium of global communication

1.6 The development of CALL – from the pedagogical perspective

I) Warschauer's Analysis (Kern & Warschauer, 2000; Warschauer, 1996; Warschauer, 2004)

(*Note: the three stages have not occurred in a rigid sequence. As each new stage has emerged,
previous stages continue.)
 Structural / Behavioristic CALL (1960s -1970s)
View of Language: Structural (a formal structural system)

English Teaching Paradigm: Grammar-Translation & Audio-lingual

Principal Use of Computers: Drill and Practice

Principal Objective: Accuracy

Characteristics:

1. Repeated exposure to the same material is believed to be beneficial or even essential to

learning.
2. A computer is ideal for carrying out repeated drills, since the machine i) does not get
bored with presenting the same material and ii) it can provide immediate non-judgmental
feedback.
3. A computer is used as a tutor, presenting material and feedback on an individualized
basis, allowing students to proceed at their own pace and freeing up class time for other
activities.
 Communicative / Cognitive CALL (1980s -1990s)
View of Language: Cognitive (a mentally constructed system through interaction)

English Teaching Paradigm: Communicative Language Teaching

Principal Use of Computers: Communicative Exercises (to practice language use; non-drill
format)

Principal Objective: Fluency

Characteristics:

1. Grammar is taught implicitly rather than explicitly.

2. Computers are used to stimulate discussion, writing or critical thinking. Students are
encouraged to generate original utterances rather than just manipulate prefabricated
language.
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 3. The programs avoid telling students that they are wrong and are flexible to a variety of
student responses.
4. Computers are used as a tool (e.g., word processors, spelling and grammar checkers, and
concordancers) and the target language is used exclusively.
 Integrative / Sociocognitive / Socioconstructive CALL (1990s -present)
View of Language: Sociocognitive (developed in social interaction through discourse
communities)

English Teaching Paradigm: Content-based & ESP/EAP

Principal Use of Computers: Authentic Discourse (to perform real-life tasks)

Principal Objective: Agency (*definition: "the satisfying power to take meaningful action and
see the results of our decisions and choices" Murray, 1997, p. 126)

Two types: Multimedia CALL (CD-ROMs) and Web-based CALL (on the Internet)

A) Multimedia CALL

Characteristics:

1. They create a more authentic learning environment using different media.

2. Language skills are easily integrated through multimedia.
3. Students have a high degree of control over their learning through hypermedia.
4. It facilitates a principle focus on the content without sacrificing a secondary focus on
language form.
B) Web-based CALL

Characteristics:

A) CMC –

1. It provides authentic synchronous and asynchronous communication channels.

Language learners can communicate directly, inexpensively, and conveniently with
other learners or native speakers of the target language at any time and in any place.

2. CMC can be carried out in several forms; it can be one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-
one.

B) The Web –

1. Students can search through millions of files around the world within minutes to locate
and access authentic materials exactly tailored to their own personal interests.
2. Students can use the Web to publish their texts or multimedia materials to share with
partner classes or with the general public.
* Question: Do you think Warschauer's analysis of the development of CALL is a good
one? Do you see any problems in his analysis?

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 [Read Bax's (2003) or see the quoted passage: Bax's criticism to Warschauer's analysis of the
development of CALL]

II) Bax's Analysis (2003)

Restricted CALL Open CALL Integrated CALL

Type of - Closed drills - Simulations - CMC

task - Quizzes - Games - Web-based programs
- CMC

Type of - Text reconstruction - Interacting with the - Frequent interaction with

student - Answering closed computer other students
activity questions - Occasional interaction with - Some interaction with
- minimal interaction with other students computer through the lesson
other students

Type of - Correct/incorrect - Focus of linguistic skills - Interpreting, evaluating,

feedback development commenting, stimulating
- Open, flexible thought

Teacher - Monitor - Monitor / facilitator - Facilitator / Manager

role
Position in - Not integrated into - Toy - Tool for learning
curriculum syllabus - optional extra - Not integrated into syllabus - Normalized
- Technology precedes - optional extra - Integrated into syllabus,
syllabus and learner needs - Technology precedes adapted to learners' needs
syllabus and learner needs - Analysis of needs and
context precedes decisions
about technology

Position in - Whole CALL lesson - Whole CALL lesson - Smaller part of every lesson
lesson

Physical - Separate computer lab - Separate lab- perhaps - In every classroom

position of devoted to language
computer

* Question: Do you think Bax's analysis of the development of CALL is a good one? Do you
see any problems in his analysis?

1.7 How Computers can be used in the Language Class

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 1) Teaching with one computer in the class
- delivery of content (PowerPoint, word-processor, Webpages, etc.)
- classroom activities/discussions mediated by the computer
- Interactive whiteboard

2) Teaching in the computer network room (network-based language teaching)

- task-based group work /activities
- computer-mediated communication (CMC): asynchronous/synchronous
- tandem learning

3) Self-access learning (independent learning)

- drills and exercises
- word processing
- resource searching

4) Distance learning (i.e. individual learners working by themselves, at a place and time of
their choice and, to some extent, at a pace and in an order also chosen by themselves.)
- delivering online course content
- CMC activities: email, discussion forum, chat rooms
- tandem learning
- community building

1.8 Principles of Using and Designing CALL Programs in Language Learning and Teaching

- student/learner-centeredness (to promote learner autonomy)

- meaningful purpose

- comprehensive input

- sufficient level of stimulation (cognitively and affectively)

- multiple modalities (to support various learning styles and strategies)

- high level of interaction (human-machine and human-human)

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Unit 3. The Internet Basics and Web Resources

3.1 Essential Vocabulary for the Internet

1. Do you know the following technical terms and acronyms related to the use of the Internet?
Please find out what they mean and stand for. You can use the following online glossaries or
dictionaries to help you.
 Glossary of Internet Terms by Walt Howe
 Glossary of Internet Terms by Matisse Enzer
 Glossary of Internet & Web Jargon by UC Berkeley
 Webopedia: Computer and Internet technology definitions
 Computer Dictionary - Technology, Network & Internet Terms

browser navigation button WWW LAN

frame hypertext HTML WAN

server pull-down menu HTTP PDF

plug-in pop-up window URL GIF

applet scroll FTP JPEG

cookie search engine ISP MIDI

Telnet domain name TCP/IP CGI

netiquette spam BBS IRC

2. Do the Exercise 3.1 The Internet Vocabulary

3.2 Finding Materials on the Web

3.2.1 Search Engines and Subject Directories

Note: You can use the following sites to help you learn more information on Web search:
1) Checklist of Internet Research Tips & Conducting Research on the Internet by SUNY
Albany
2) Boolean Searching on the Internet by SUNY Albany

3) Finding Information on the Internet: A Tutorial by UC Berkeley

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 4) The Spider's Apprentice: A Helpful Guide To Web Search Engines

I. Explore the following commonly used web search engines and compare their
functions. Also, take a look at each engine's Advanced Search/Options or Help to find
useful search tips and strategies.

Search
1.

Submit

2.

3.

Search
4.

5.

*You can submit questions in plain English and view suggested relevant sites.

6.
*It searches multiple engines and directories and organizes results into topical
categories
II. Explore the following academic and professional directories.

1. Academic Info - gateway to college and research level Internet resources maintained
by former librarian Mike Madin and a volunteer group of subject specialists

2. INFOMINE - large collection of scholarly Internet resources collectively maintained

by several libraries, including those from the University of California

3. AllLearn: Academic Directories - guides to high quality directories in the academic

disciplines maintained by Oxford, Stanford, and Yale Universities; also features a
small collection of Learning Guides in academic disciplines

4. The Best Information on the Net (BIOTN) - collection of academic resources

maintained at St. Ambrose University in Iowa
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 5. The Internet Public Library - large, selective collection from the University of
Michigan

6. BUBL Link - UK funded project of selective resources from the University of

Strathclyde Library in Glasgow, Scotland

7. Librarians' Index to the Internet - carefully chosen, organized, and annotated

directory maintained by a large group of librarians in California

8. Resource Discovery Network - searchable interface to major meta-sites in academic

disciplines

9. The Scout Report Archives - searchable database of 10,000+ critical summaries of

Internet resources for the academic and research community

10. Subject Guides A to Z - extensive collection of subject pages from the University of
Delaware Library

III. Discuss the following questions with your group members.

1. Please list THREE search engines your group members use more frequently. Compare
the three search engines and choose your favorite one and explain why this one is the
best.
2. What difference does it make when you enter keywords or phrases in quotes (e.g.,
"computer assisted language learning") in your web search?
3. If you put the word "OR" between words/phrases in your web search, what does it mean?
4. You can also use these signs " + ", " - ", and " ~ " in your web search. What function does
each sign have? Please give examples. (Be sure to include a space before a sign, but no
space after a sign. e.g., movie -video)
5. There are different domain types in websites' URLs. What do these domain types mean?
.com .edu .gov .org .net .mil
6. If you want to find images or sound files on the Web, what should you do?
7. In addition to providing easy access to billions of web pages, many search engines also
provide a number of special features to help people find what they want more efficiently.
Please find what special features those search engines have and choose THREE features
that you like the most each engine offers.
8. What web search problems have you encountered before? Please share some with your
group members and see if you can find solutions now. Each group needs to report at least
two common problems and your solutions (if you have found them).
9. Do the Exercise 3.2 Finding Materials on the Web

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3.2.2 Online Dictionaries
1. Please go to my webpage Online Dictionaries. Pay particular attention to the following
websites and find how they differ from other dictionary sites. List special features that
each of these five sites has.

- Answers.com

- Language Tools

- TheFreeDictionary.com

- OneLook Dictionary Search

- Dictionary.com

2. Did you notice that when you double-click any word on this page, you will get
an instant definition of the word ? Do you like this special feature? (Note: This feature
is provided by TheFreeDictionary.com, check Option 1)

3. Now try this function: type a word you don't know in the look-up box below and then
you can get its definition and much more. Do you like this feature?

Online Reference
Concise information in one click Dictionary, Encyclopedia & more
Go
Tell me about: Word:

by: Look it up

http://www.answers.com/main/webmasters.jsp http://www.thefreedictionary.com/lookup.htm
(check option 2)
(Note: If you are interested in adding an online lookup box to your webpage, check the
above webpages and then copy and paste the html codes that you want onto your web
source page.)
4. You can also add "Word of the Day" (or other free content including "Quote of the
Day", "Article of the Day", "This day in history", and "Today's Birthday" provided
by TheFreeDictionary.com) to your webpage (check option 3).
Word of the Day
quietude discuss
Definition: (noun) A state of peace and quiet.
Synonyms: tranquility, quietness
Usage: Who can tell how scenes of peace and quietude sink into
the minds of pain-worn dwellers in close and noisy
places.

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 Word of the Day is a free service of The Free Dictionary

5. As a web surfer, you can download a free online dictionary to your computer and use it at
any time to help you find the meaning of unfamiliar words on the web.
For example, you can download

- MSN Encarta Right-Click Dictionary

- TheFreeDictionary right-click add-on Dictionary

- CleverKeys for Windows (provides instant access to definitions

at Dictionary.com, synonyms at Thesaurus.com)

- 1-Click AnswersTM for Windows

3.2.3 Online Concordancers

1. Definition:

 A concordance is an alphabetical listing/index of the words in a text, given together

with the contexts in which they appear.

 A concordancer is a computer program that allows users to search a collection of

authentic texts (i.e. a corpus) for multiple examples of selected words or phrases.

 A corpus is a collection of either written or spoken texts (The plural is corpora). In fact,
the World Wide Web itself is a huge corpus that we can take advantage of to find
sufficient occurrences of language elements.
2. Uses of concordancers for language learning and teaching:
 Users can use a concordancer to find examples of authentic usage to demonstrate word
collocations, word usage, or eventhe structure of a text.
 Teachers can generate exercises (e.g., cloze tests) based
on authentic, interesting examples drawn from a variety of corpora rather than made-up
traditional grammar examples.
 Students can work out rules of grammar or usage and lexical features for themselves
by searching for key words in context. This helps them to raise their language awareness,
particularly in word collocations.
3. Explore the following online concordancers.

o VLC's Web Concordancer: It is a simple online concordancer available at the

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 Virtual Language Center of the Polytechnic University of Hong Kong. It contains
various types of corpora in English, Chinese, French, and Japanese.

o Online KWIC Concordancer (*KWIC: Keyword-in-Context): This concordancer

allows users to search for occurrences of selected words from many business letter
corpora (English only).

o Simple Search of BNC (British National Corpus): This site allows users to search for
occurrences of selected words in the BNC, a very large corpus of modern British
English designed to present as wide a range of modern English as possible (English
only).

o WebCorp: This concordancer works right across the Web as its corpus, riding on the
back of different search engines. It is slow but produces good, rich results. Operated
and maintained by the Research and Development Unit for English Studies (RDUES)
at the University of Liverpook, UK. (English only).

o Google: Using Google as a simple concordancer works quite well, e.g. to check for
possible collocations (multilingual).

* Note: For more information on using concordancers in language learning and teaching,
please see ICT4LT Module 2.4.

3.3 Evaluating your Ability to Use Browsers

Please download the form (designed by ICT4LT) to evaluate your ability to use browsers. Then
make sure you know how to do all the things listed on the form. If you don't know how to do
certain things, please ask your group members or the instructor.

3.4 Evaluating Websites

The Internet is totally unregulated. There are huge amounts of good material, but there are also
amounts of material of poor and dubious quality. There is no guarantee that the information of
the websites you found through search engines is accurate. Therefore, it is important for you to
determine whether the information in a website is worth trusting and using.
1. Please read the following evaluation guidelines and compare their criteria.
 Evaluating Web Pages: Techniques to Apply & Questions to Ask by UC Berkeley
(The Web Page Evaluation Checklist PDF form is available)

- Look at the URL

- Scan the perimeter of the page (authorship, currency, credentials on the subject)
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 - Examine the quality of information (sources of information, completeness,
authenticity, choice of links, viewpoints)
- Check what others say
- Find out why the site/page was created
 Evaluating Internet Resources by SUNY Albany

- Purpose
- Source
- Content (accuracy, comprehensiveness, currency)
- Style and Functionality
 Evaluating Web Sites by Northwest Missouri State University

- Authority (credentials, impact of domain on content, contact information)

- Accuracy (bias, verified content, appropriate date)
- Audience (relevancy, type of webpage, audience characteristics)
2. Develop your own website evaluation criteria with your group members and explain why
the criteria you choose are important.

3. Choose a language learning website and evaluate it together with your group members.
Then write your evaluation in the message board and give a brief oral report to the class.

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Unit 5. Using Technology to Teach Listening Skills
5.1 The Role of Listening in SLA (second language acquisition)

1. Listening was first recognized as a major component of language learning and teaching in
the late 1970s. At that time, research suggested that language instruction should focus on
the learner's listening comprehension in the early stages of acquisition, whiledelaying
oral production until the learner was more familiar with the new language.

2. This school of thought manifested itself in the form of the comprehension approach which
proposed the following:
a. Comprehension abilities precede productive skills in language learning.
b. The teaching of speaking should be delayed until comprehension skills are
established.
c. Skills acquired through listening transfer to other skills.
d. Teaching should emphasize meaning rather than form.
e. Teaching should minimize learner stress.
3. The comprehension approach was supported by Krashen's Monitor Model of second
language acquisition. This model consists of five hypotheses:

a. Acquisition-learning hypothesis (Acquisition is subconscious, whereas learning is

consciously developed by instruction and aided by error correction).
b. Monitor hypothesis (Conscious learning is limited to use as a monitor that can edit
and make corrections in the learner's output before s/he writes or speakes, but
language fluency relies on acquisition).
c. Natural order hypothesis (Learners acquire linguistic structures in a predictable
order in L1 and a similar order is present in L2 acquisition).
d. Input hypothesis (Learners acquire language by exposure to comprehensible
input: "i +1". Learning is first focused on meaningand structure is learned as a
consequence of understanding the message).
e. Affective filter hypothesis (Depending on the learner’s state of mind, the affective
filter limits what is noticed and what is acquired. The presence of an affective filter
could act as a mental block if a poor affective state existed)

5.2 Approaches to the Teaching of Listening Skills

Two approaches to the teaching of listening skills, the natural approach and the total
physical response (TPR), are supported byKrashen's Monitor Model of SLA and grouped
within the broader comprehension approach umbrella.
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5.2.1 The Natural Approach

The natural approach, developed by Krashen and Terrell (1983), focuses

on comprehensible input and the optimum affective state of the learner.
I. Principles and Pedagogical Implications (i.e., application to classroom practices):
Principles Pedagogical implications

1. Comprehension precedes productions. That a. Teachers speak in the target language

is, listening and reading skills will be only.
acquired before speaking and writing skills. b. Content is selected according to its
relevance to student interests.
c. Teachers consistently provide
comprehensible input.
2. Language production emerges from a. The "silent period" is allowed;
nonverbal responses, single students are never forced to speak
words, combinations of two or three words, before they are comfortable doing so.
to phrases, sentences, and ultimately to b. Error correction is given only when
complex discourse. errors interfere with communication.
3. The syllabus and course content is a. The teaching focus is on
organized around topics with communicating ideas with little or no
communicative goals rather than linguistic attention to grammatical accuracy in
structures. the early comprehension and
production stages.
4. The learning environment must be conducive a. Activities should ensure that students
to language learning. can practice the language in a
supportive, nonthreatening setting that
reduces anxiety, promotes motivation,
and builds self-esteem.

* Discussion Questions:
1. Is it really good for L2 learners to delay their oral production?
2. Does the natural approach attend to learners' output? Can comprehensible input alone
lead to learners' comprehensible output?
II. The Use of Computers in Teaching Listening Skills with the Natural Approach:
Comprehensible Input Low-anxiety Learning Environment

1. Computers allow teachers to add multisensory 1. Multimedia programs can be

elements, text, sound, pictures, video, and designed to present material
animation, which provide meaningful at different difficulty levels with
contexts to facilitate comprehension. adjustments in speed of delivery
2. Computers allow learners to hear the available according to individual learner
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 input as many times as neededuntil they feel needs.
they understand it. Examples:
Examples: - Randall's ESL Cyber Listening Lab
- Interactive Audio-Picture English Lessons - John's ESL Community - Listening
- Adult Learning Activities - California Distance Activities
Learning Project (news stories and Interactive 2. Computers allow learners to develop
exercises) their autonomy to review and
- British Council - Learn English: Songs and Lyrics practice materials as many times as
they wish.
3. Computers can
provide immediate, nonjudgmental
feedback and additional assistance to
learners. They correct learners' errors
without giving them embarrassment
or anxiety.

* Discussion Questions:
1. According to your language learning experience with computers, do you think those
CALL programs always provide comprehensible input, particularly in listening?
2. Do you think the feedback from the computer is sufficient for language learners to
develop their listening skills ?

5.2.2 Total Physical Response (TPR)

Total physical response, developed by Asher (1977), is frequently used as

a technique within a variety of teaching approaches and methods rather than strictly as an
approach unto itself. It focuses on psychomotor associations and lowering of the affective
filter.

I. Principles and Pedagogical Implications:

Principles Pedagogical implications

1. Listening comprehension skills are 1. Teachers speak in the target

developed before oral production skills (based language to students and focus on
on the natural order of L1 acquisition). students' listening comprehension
in the early stage.
2. Psychomotor association: Learning is 2. Teachers give command
enhanced through the association of forms (i.e. "Open the door") to
language with motor activity. Motor activity which students respond by
is a function of the right-brain, and the right- physically doing the action.

17
 brain activities should precede the language
processing functions of the left-brain.
3. TPR lowers students' affective filter andstress 3. Teachers ask students to listen only
level. but not to give an oral response.

II. The Use of Computers in Teaching Listening Skills with the TPR:
Examples:
- TPR Games (program description from TPR World Website)
- Live Action English Interactive (program description and demo)
- Review of Live Action Spanish Interactive (from Language Learning and Technology, Vol.
8, No. 3, September 2004, pp. 40-43)

* Discussion Questions:
1. TPR is usually used in the face-to-face classroom. Is there anything missing when
TPR is used on a computer?
2. Please read the program descriptions of "Live Action English Interactive" and "Live
Action Spanish Interactive" and a review of the Spanish one. Both programs use the
principles of TPR to design for beginning and intermediate adult learners. However,
TPR is usually used to teach languages to younger learners. Do you think "TPR-on-a-
computer" is good for adults to learn languages? Why or why not?

5.3 Listening Processes

Two types of processes, bottom-up and top-down, have been identified as central to
listening comprehension.
I. Principles of Bottom-up and Top-down Processing:

Bottom-up Processing Top-down Processing

1. It focuses on individual linguistic 1. It focuses on macro-features of

components of discourse. discourse such as the speaker's
purpose and thediscourse topic.

2. Comprehension is viewed as a process 2. Comprehension is viewed as a process

of activating the listener's
ofdecoding messages proceeding from
background information and
phonemes to words, to phrases and clauses schemata* (i.e. prior knowledge
and other grammatical elements, to sentences. about the context and the topic) for
a global understanding of the
message.

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 * Note: "Schemata" is defined as "plans about the overall structure of events and the relationships
between them" that are stored in the listener's long-term memory (Richards, 1990). These
schemata relate to our real-world experiences and how we expect people to behave and
events to occur.

II. Bottom-up Activities and Top-down Activities in Teaching Listening Skills:

Bottom-up Activities Top-down Activities

1. Identify sounds or lexical 1. Identify the speaker's communicative purpose or the

items according to their main idea of discourse.
linguistic function. 2. Use schemata to infer the contextual information from
2. Use phonological cues to the heard speech or conversation.
distinguish between positive 3. These activities are designed to help learners develop
and negative sentences or their pragmatic and discourse knowledge.
statements and questions.
4. These activities are often used for improving
3. These activities are communicative skills focusing on meaning rather than
designed to help learners form.
develop their phonological,
Examples:
lexical, and grammatical
- Randall's ESL Cyber Listening Lab
knowledge.
- John's ESL Community - Listening Activities
4. These activities are often
used for learning phonics
and pronunciation practice.

Examples:
- American English
Pronunciation Practice
- Emily's Pronunciation Class

* Discussion Question:
1. Based on your English (or other foreign language) learning experience, what type of
listening processes do you use more often, bottom-up or top-down? In your opinion,
what type of knowledge can CALL programs better help learners to develop,
linguistic or background knowledge? Why? Please give examples.

5.4 Listening Purposes

I. Interactional Purposes and Transactional Purposes:
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 According to Brown and Yule (1983), language communicative functions can be divided
into two types: interactional and transactionalfunctions. Both language functions are
needed for effective classroom participation. Students use interactional language to socially
interact with each other and their teacher and engage in transactional uses to develop new
skills and construct new knowledge.

Interactional Purposes Transactional Purposes

1. The focus is on harmonious 1. The focus is on conveying

communication in social contexts. information and language use
2. Interactional uses of language typically is message oriented.
include greetings and small talk that center 2. Transactional uses of language
on noncontroversial topics thatelicit include listening to lectures, taking
agreement among the participants. notes, and practicing dictations and
3. Interactional uses of language do notrequire cloze exercises that require
careful attention to details and facts. understanding of details.
3. Transactional language
is explicit, clear, and coherent in
order for the listener to
comprehend the meaning of the
message.

II. The Use of Computers in Teaching Listening Skills for Two Types of Purposes:

Teaching for Interactional Purposes Teaching for Transactional Purposes

Example: Examples:
- Learning Oral English Online - Randall's ESL Cyber Listening Lab -
This website offers interactional speaking practice Listening Quizzes for Academic
through dialogs centered on topics such as making Purposes
friends, going to a party, and dating. Students can - BBC Learning English: Watch and
practice different aspects of social conversation. Listen - Welcome to London
This site also practices another type of interactional
listening that focuses on simple service-oriented - Adult Learning Activities - California
tasks such as ordering lunch and shopping in Distance Learning Project
America. These websites provide transactional
language practice and are designed to
focus on getting information and
promote English development for
academic purposes.

* Discussion Questions:
20
1. In everyday language use, we often carry out both interactional and transactional
functions of language at the same time. Can you always distinguish which language
function you are using? If it is difficult to distinguish them, then why do we have to
learn these two functions separately?
2. In your opinion, which language function do you think CALL programs can better
help students to learn? Why? Please give examples.

21
Unit 6. Using Technology to Teach Speaking and
Pronunciation Skills

6.1 The Role of Speaking in SLA (second language acquisition)

1. Speaking is viewed in the larger context of communication with the focus on the speaker's
ability to 1) take in messages, 2) negotiate meaning, and 3) produce comprehensible
output. This view recognizes the interactive nature of listening and the crucial role of
negotiating meaning in order to produce comprehensible speech.

2. The importance of comprehensible output:

Swain (1985) argued for the importance of comprehensible output that requires the
learners to negotiate meaning and formulate and test hypotheses about the structures and
functions of the language they produce.

In this way, when non-native speakers receive feedback from their interlocutors that their
message is not clear, they revise their speech to clarify their meaning. Through this
process of adjusting their language output in order to make their messages more
comprehensible to native speakers, language learners improve the accuracy of their
language production.

3. Types of oral interactions:

Bygate's model of oral interactions (1987):

22
 Bygate's information and interaction routines (1987) correspond respectively to
the transactional and interactional functions of language proposed by Brown and Yule
(1983) (see Unit 5 - Listening Purposes).

* Discussion Questions:
1. Can you identify the differences of language use in the two types of oral interactions?
For example, you may find people use different tones, styles, and terms/words for
information and interaction routines. Can you give examples to illustrate your points?
2. Based on your foreign language learning experience, which type of oral interactions
is more difficult to learn and why? How do you think the use of technology can help
you improve your oral communication skills in the target language? Please give
specific reasons and examples.

6.2 Approaches to the Teaching of Speaking Skills

Teachers need to draw on more than one approach and use a variety of instructional tools,
such as audiotapes, videos, and multimedia computer technology, to meet different students'
needs in teaching speaking skills.
 For the beginning levels of instruction: audio-lingual method (ALM), total physical
response (TPR), the natural approach, the silent way, and suggestopedia.

 For the more advanced levels of instruction: communicative language teaching (CLT)
and the task-based approach.

Note: Please find the explanation of the various teaching approaches in the Overview of
Treatment of Speaking in Second Language Teaching Methods.

6.3 The Role of Pronunciation in SLA

A historical view of the role of pronunciation in SLA:

1940s - 1960s 1970s - 1980s late 1980s - present

- the teaching of pronunciation - pronunciation was a key

- the teaching of pronunciation
was largely ignored ingredient to the
was greatly stressed
development of
- communicativeapproaches; communicative
- behavioristic audio- lingual competence
focused more
methods; used imitation
on fluency than form - a more balanced
drills, pattern practice, and
approach that valued
23
 dialog memorization both accuracy and
fluency

6.4 Approaches to Pronunciation Instruction

1. Intuitive-imitative approach

The learner listens to and imitates the sound and rhythms of the target language without the
assistance of explicit instruction. Technologies, such as audiotapes, videos, and computer-
based programs and websites, can offer rich resources of native speech as good models.

2. Analytic-linguistic approach

The learner is provided with explicit, structured teaching of speech features utilizing
articulatory descriptions and charts of speech apparatus, phonetic alphabet and vowel charts,
and a variety of interactive speech analysis software and websites.

3. Current integrative approach

- Pronunciation is viewed as an integral component of communication, rather than an

isolated drill and practice sub-skill
- Pronunciation is practiced within meaningful task-based activities
- Use pronunciation-focused listening activities to facilitate the learning of pronunciation
- There is more focus on the suprasegmentals of stress, rhythm, and intonation as
practiced in extended discourse beyond the phoneme and word level.
- Pronunciation is taught to meet the learners' particular needs
- A dual-focus oral communication program (Morely, 1994):
a. The micro level instruction is focused on linguistic (i.e., phonetic-
phonological) competence through practice of segmentals and the
suprasegmentals.
b. The macro level attends to more global elements of communicability with the goal
of developing discourse, sociolinguingisc, and strategic competence by using the
language for communicative purposes.
- Goals of pronunciation instruction: The primary goals of pronunciation teaching are for the
learner to develop intelligible speech and to be able to effectively communicate in the
target language (Miller, 2000).

Morely (1991) identified four basic pronunciation goals that are realistic aspirations:
24
 a. Functional intelligibility
b. Functional communicability
c. Increased self-confidence
d. Speech monitoring ability and speech modification strategies

* Discussion Questions:
1. Do you think pronunciation is important in learning a second/foreign language?
2. Based on your learning experience, which pronunciation goal or goals do you think
is/are more difficult to achieve? How do you think the use of technology can help you
achieve your pronunciation goal(s)? Please give specific reasons and examples.

6.5 The Use of Computers in Teaching Speaking and Pronunciation Skills

1. Purpose of using computers:
We use the computer technology to create an environment that encourages
communication and provides increased and more varied communicative
opportunities for students to utilize their oral skills.
2. In teaching speaking skills:
a. The Computer used as a Tutor (human-to-machine interaction)
Examples: My English Tutor 我的口說英語家教(CD-ROM 試用版下載)
TriplePlay Plus (CD ROM)
b. The Computer used as an Instructional Tool (human-to-human interaction via the
computer in the classroom)
Examples: Focus English: Everyday English in Conversation
Conversation Questions for the ESL & EFL Classroom
c. The Computer used as a Communication Medium (human-to-human interaction via
the computer outside the classroom) - usingMOOs (Multi-user domains, Object
Oriented) and Chat Rooms (or IRC - Internet Rely Chat) for "live" real-time
communication (i.e. synchronous communication)
Examples: schMOOze University
ESL Cafe's Chat Central
ESL Chat Room in EnglishClub.com
Chat Room in Englishbaby.com
VLC Chat Rooms (Hong Kong)
3. In teaching pronunciation skills:
Computer-based activities/programs of pronunciation instruction include the following
a. Articulatory charts
b. Sample words utilizing the targeted sound
c. Minimal pairs/comparison words
d. Listening discrimination of minimal pairs within a sentence
25
e. Sample sentences with several words utilizing the targeted sound
f. Dictations
g. Cloze exercises
h. Suprasegmental exercises (including intonation, rhythm, stress, and timing)

26
Unit 7. Using Technology to Teach Reading Skills

7.1 The Role of Reading in SLA

7.1.1 Three Models of Reading Process

The reading process involves the text, the reader, and the interaction between the two. Theorists
have proposed three basic models of how reading occurs: bottom-up, top-down, and interactive.

 The Comparison between the Three Models:

Bottom-Up Models Top-Down Models Interactive Models

1960s - 1970s 1970s - 1980s late 1980s - present

- Reading is - Reading is a psycholinguistic - Reading is a process

a decodingprocess guessing game (focus on of constructing meaning from
(focus on the text). thereader). text through the use of both
- The phonics approach - The "whole language" approach to bottom-up and top-down
to teaching reading is teaching reading is used. processes, strategies, and skills
used. (focus on the interaction).
- The balanced approach to teaching
reading is used.

1) alphabet letters + 1) The reader receives input from the 1) Both bottom-up and top-down
sounds gwords text, makespredictions (based on processes
2) words + grammar conceptual abilities, background occur simultaneously for the
rules knowledge, and language reader to comprehend the meaning
g sentences processing of the text.
3) sentences + discourse skills),tests and confirms orrevises 2) Two levels of interaction:
rulesg paragraphs g l those prediction. - the interaction between the
onger discourse 2) Use a holistic approach to reading reader and the text.
and writing that advocates the use - the interaction between two kinds
of children's literature and of cognitive
authentic reading materials. skills: identification andinterpret
ation.

7.1.2 Reading and Schema Theory

The function of background knowledge in the reading process is formalized in schema

theory. According to schema theory, the reader brings previously acquired background knowledge
organized into interrelated patterns, or schemata, to the reading process. Then the reader creates

27
meaning by relating the text to this background knowledge, including knowledge of customs and
beliefs from his or her own experiences.

Three are three types of schemata that have an impact on reading comprehension:

1. Formal schemata: prior knowledge of rhetorical structures and conventions (e.g. different
types of expository organizational patterns: cause and effect, comparison and contrast,
problem and solution, and chronological order, etc.)

2. Content schemata: background knowledge of the subject of the text, which is often
culture-bound.

3. Linguistic schemata: decoding knowledge used to recognize words and determine their
syntax in a sentence; that is, prior knowledge of a particular vocabulary and grammar rules.

* Discussion Questions:
1. Please examine your reading process and find out what approach you usually use in reading
English. Do you use the same or different approaches when reading texts in Chinese and in
English (or other foreign languages)?
2. Recall your reading experience in English that caused you difficulty in comprehending a
particular text. Then discuss which schemata you think plays the most important role.

7.2 Teaching Reading Skills and the Use of Computers

Grabe (1991) identified six component skills and knowledge areas essential for reading fluency:

1. automatic word recognition skills

2. vocabulary and structure knowledge
3. formal discourse structure knowledge
4. content/world background knowledge
5. synthesis and evaluation skills
6. metacognitive knowledge and skills

7.2.1 Automatic Word Recognition Skills

1. Automatic recognition skills allow readers to identify letters and words without being
consciously aware of the process. Good readers are able to read rapidly because they can
recognize most words automatically, and therefore process this information very efficiently.

28
 The combination of rapid and precise word recognition has proven to be an effective
predictor of reading ability, particularly of young readers.

2. The use of computers to facilitate the development of recognition skills

Examples of using the phonics approach:
- Learn to Read at Starfall
- BBC Words and Pictures
Examples for Speed Reading:
- AceReader (download the AceReader Original Demo)
- Best Reader (download the trial version)

7.2.2 Vocabulary and Structural Knowledge

1. The importance of vocabulary learning for reading comprehension:

a. Readers need to know a large percentage (approximately 95%) of the words in any
given text in order to comprehend the meaning of the reading or to guess the meaning
of words unfamiliar to them.
b. Vocabulary is not acquired in quick doses, but rather is a process of incremental
learning and constant reinforcement. Readers need to know not just one meaning of a
word in a particular context but also its alternative meanings in different contexts and
other aspects of the word such as its grammatical properties.
2. Things needed to be included in vocabulary lessons (Zimmerman, 1997):
a. multiple exposure to words
b. exposure to words in meaningful contexts
c. rich and varied information about each word
d. establishment of ties between instructed words student experience, and prior
knowledge
e. active participation by students in the learning process
3. The use of computers to facilitate vocabulary development:

Examples:
- Online dictionaries (see 3.2.2 Online Dictionaries)
- Online concordancers (see 3.2.3 Online Concordancers)
- Word games: Word Based Games for ESL Students
Vocabulary for K-12 and ESL Kids
ESL games in EnglishClub.com
29
 4. The importance of grammar learning for reading comprehension: Grammatical structures
provide readers significant information that allows them to understand the meaning
relationships among words and among sentences in a reading text.

5. The use of computers to facilitate the development of structural skills:

Grammar Website Examples:
- English Grammar from EnglishClub.com
- Grammar from EFLnet.com
- Guide to Grammar and Writing
- Guide to Grammar and Style
- English Grammar

7.2.3 Formal Discourse Structure Knowledge

1. Knowledge of the structure of formal discourse / rhetorical organizational

patterns (i.e. formal schemata) assists the learner in understanding and remembering the
text. Research indicated that explicit teaching of rhetorical organization of text facilitated
ESL students' reading comprehension.

2. The use of computers to facilitate the development of discourse structure knowledge:

Examples:
- Advice on Academic Writing (from the University of Toronto)
- Professional Writing Handouts and Resources (from Purdue University)

7.2.4 Content / World Background Knowledge

1. Activating the reader's knowledge of the subject matter and cultural content of the text is
a significant factor in both reading comprehension and recall. Research shows that L2
learners can better recall information from text on topics familiar to them than readings of
equivalent difficulty level on subjects with which they are less familiar. Moreover, readers
can more easily comprehend and recall texts of which the content is based on their own
culture than texts based on unfamiliar and more remote cultures.

2. The use of computers to facilitate the development of content/world knowledge:

Examples:
- BBC Learning English

30
 - BBC Schools (for ages 4-11, ages 11-16, and ages 16+)
- CNN International and CNN Student News
- Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and PBS Kids
- Discovery.com and Discovery Kids.com
- New York Times Learning Network

7.2.5 Synthesis and Evaluation Skills

1. Fluent readers are able not only to comprehend the text, but to make
judgments about the information, the author's purpose, and the usefulness of the text.
They usually use strategies like predicting to assist them in anticipating text
development and evaluating the author's perspective as they read.

2. The use of computers to encourage students learning to synthesize and evaluate reading
text:

Examples:
- Ace Detectives (mystery-solving game)
- Story Mapping Activity

7.2.6 Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills

1. Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge about how learners think and self-regulate their
cognitive processes. It includes knowledge about language and ability to
recognize structural and rhetorical features of the text using suitable strategies for
accomplishing particular goals.

2. In the reading process, metacognitive skills include recognizing main ideas, adjusting
reading rate for skimming, scanning, paraphrasing, and summarizing, guessing
meaning from word formation rules, prefixes, and suffixes, and taking notes. The ability to
effectively apply metacognitive strategies to the reading process is a key ingredient to
skilled reading, especially for older readers.

3. The use of computers to assist students in developing metacognitive skills:

Examples:
- Reading Strategies: Scaffolding Students' Interactions with Texts
- Reading comprehension strategies for English language learners
- Effective Reading: Reading Strategies

31
 - Reading Your Textbooks Effectively and Efficiently

* Discussion Question:
1. Among the six component skills and knowledge areas identified by Grabe (1991), which
one or ones do you think you need the most to help you become an efficient reader in
English? Explain your reasons and discuss how the computer can provide help to your
reading development of that particular skill or knowledge area.

32
Unit 8. Using Technology to Teach Writing Skills

8.1 The Role of Writing in SLA

1. It has long been recognized that reading and writing are integrally linked and in
fact share many of the same cognitive and social processes.
- Readers and writers are both active participants in interpreting and
constructing meaning from text.
- Reading and writing both emphasize the importance of schemata in mind about
the content and form of text.
- Reading and writing are both complicated, interactive, and recursive processes.

2. The four different roles of writing in SLA :

Raimes (1991) identified four different focuses in second language writing that emerged at
different times and continue to have an impact on today's writing instruction: focus on form,
focus on the writer, focus on the content, and focus on the reader.

Focus on Form Focus on the Writer Focus on the Focus on the

(& the Writing Process) Content Reader

1960s -1970s 1970s 1980s 1980s

- Writing was viewed - Writing was viewed - Writing was - Writing was viewed
as a means of as a processof constructing perso viewed as an as a
reinforcing speech nal meaning. important acade textunderstood by
patterns(1960s). Writ mic skill. the reader.
- Student expression was viewed as
ing instruction focused
more important than linguistic - Developing - Writers need to
on sentence-
correctness. writing skills know who the
levellinguistic forms.
foracademic reader is and how
- Writing included a series
- Writing was viewed as purposes was to meet the
ofcognitive activities, such as
a productaffected more reader's
brainstorming, drafting, peer-
by L1 emphasized. expectation when
reviewing, and revising.
cultural thought they write.
- Attention was
patterns & rhetorical
given to -
forms(1970s).
thecontent and Content and rheto
the academic ric
expectations pla form (i.e.discourse
ced on students. structure) used in
academic writing
are both

33
 emphasized.

* Discussion Questions:
1. Among the four roles of writing, which one(s) do you think more important for beginners
and which one(s) more important for advanced learners? Why? Please explain your reasons.
2. Recall your own writing learning experiences in English. Which role(s) of writing do you
think your writing teachers gave more attention to? Please give examples. Do you think all
of your writing teachers used the same teaching approaches? Which one(s) do you like
better? Why?

8.2 Approaches to Teaching Writing and the Use of Computers

According to the different focuses in second language writing, there are four major
approaches to L2 writing instruction:

- Form-focused Approach
- Process-focused Approach
- Content-based Approach
- Reader/audience-dominated Approach

Good writing instruction draws on each approach in varying degrees and attends to the
interaction among these different focuses.

8.2.1 Form-focused Approach

In the 1960s, L2 writing instruction focused on sentence-level linguistic forms. By the

1970s, writing instruction moved beyond the sentence level to controlled discourse in the
form of sentence combining and controlled compositions. This was also a time when
attention was directed toward rhetorical forms and rhetorical organizational patterns.
The emphasis of this approach is on accuracy.

Form-focused instruction includes two types: 1) grammar-based instruction and 2) discourse

structure-based instruction.
1. Grammar-based instruction is found in different types of programs ranging from
simple drill and practice activities that feature a few points of grammar to
comprehensive interactive software that cover major grammatical structures from
beginning to advanced levels.
Many comprehensive interactive programs provide activities integrated with other
language skills. The use of an integrated approach attempts to address the long-standing

34
 concern that students learning grammar in isolation of other skills were unable to transfer
that grammatical knowledge to their actual language use in real-life situations.

Website Examples:
- ESL Blues
- Guide to Grammar and Writing
- Grammar Safari
- Purdue University's OWL (Online Writing Lab):
a) Grammar/Writing Resources, Handouts and Exercises for ESL Students
b) Grammar, Punctuation, and Spelling

2. Discourse structure-based instruction includes practices in recognizing and using basic

elements of well-written essays, such as introductory and concluding paragraphs, topic
sentences, supporting details, and transitions. Attention is given to the organizational
patterns and forms of different types of written text, such as expository, descriptive, and
narrative.
Website Examples:
- Writing Den (The site is designed to assist students to write creatively. Online examples
assist students in their abilities to write sentences, paragraphs, and even essays)
- Purdue University's OWL (Online Writing Lab):
a) General Writing Concerns (Planning/Writing/Revising/Genres)
b) Professional Writing Handouts and Resources
- The University of Victoria Writer's Guide
- University of Richmond Writer's Web
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign - Writer's Workshop: Tips and Techniques

8.2.2 Process-focused Approach

1. Process-focused instruction, which was largely a reaction against form-dominated

instruction, emphasizes learned-centered tasks in which students assume greater control
over what they write, how they write it, and the evaluation of their own writing.

2. Teachers allow time for pre-writing activities, including brainstorming and bridging to
students' background knowledge (i.e. schemata). Students are encouraged to write multiple
drafts, communicate with authentic audience, share feedback with peers, revise and
edittheir writing, and then publish their writing. Content and student expression are
viewed as more important than linguistic correctness.

35
 3. Technology enhances this approach in terms of providing both collaborative writing
opportunities and individualized skill development using computer-based programs.
Butler-Pascoe and Wiburg (2003) made a list showing how technology supports different
stages of the writing process:

The Writing Process Individual Skill Collaborative Group Learning

Stages Development Activities

1. Prewriting activities - Prompted writing - Accessing Web database

- Brainstorming programs - Brainstorming
- Outlining programs - List making
- Research - Electronic bibliography writers

2. Writing the draft - Composing with the word - Collaborative web-based writing
processor projects

3. Responding - Individual teacher-student - Networked peer response groups

conferencing - Electronic prompted peer review
4. Revising and editing - Word processing - Incorporating peer suggestions
- Thesaurus programs
- Spelling and grammar
checkers

5. Evaluating - Teacher-student interaction - Class critique of student writing

assessing skills and assigning using an LCD panel
software
- Self-correct

6. Developing skills - Use assigned grammar - Small group use of prompted

software writing and grammar software
- Web-based writing labs and
grammar software

7. Showcasing or - Display final copy of student - Desktop publishing group products

publishing work writing such as school magazines,
- Desktop publishing newspapers, brochures, web pages,
and other publications
- Web publishing

* Discussion Questions:
1. Based on your writing learning experiences, please give examples to illustrate what learning
activities your writing teacher(s) designed for each writing process stage. Did s/he used
computers or any writing programs (e.g. "My Access" - an online writing development tool)
to facilitate your learning of writing? If yes, how? Did you like the computer-assisted
learning activities s/he use in the writing class? Why or why not?

36
8.2.3 Content-based Approach
1. The content-based approach, which was largely a reaction to the process-focused
approach's excessive attention to the writer's making of personal meaning, emphasizes
the content of the writing and the academic expectations placed on students. This
approach particularly benefits college-level L2 students for developing writing skills for
academic purposes.
2. This approach also uses literature as a model for good writing because literature serves
as rich content for language development andreflects the culture of the target language.
3. Content-based instruction can draw on subject matter software to enhance language
skills and develop content knowledge. Pascoe and Wiburg (2003) point out four
characteristics that good content-based learning programs need to have:
a. Incorporate some combination of audio, video, and graphics to support
comprehension.
b. Stimulate critical thinking through problem-solving tasks.
c. Use easily identifiable icons for easy navigation of the program.
d. Are not heavily dependent on text.
4. The World Wide Web offers numerous resources for authentic content materials and
lesson plans.
Examples:
- Websites of world news agencies and magazines:
CNN News, BBC News, World Headlines, World Press Review, Newsweek, Time Online,

National Geographic Magazine, Reader's Digest, Weekly Reader(designed for students)

- Online encyclopedias:
Bartleby.com: Great Books Online (including encyclopedias, dictionaries, quotations,
English usage, biographies, literary works, and many other reference books)
Infoplease (including almanacs, atlas, a dictionary, and an encyclopedia)
Encyclopedia Britannica (offering news, links, and access to abbreviated encyclopedia
entries)

Encyclopedia.com (offering over 17,000 short articles from the Concise Columbia
Encyclopedia, 3rd edition)

Wikipedia (an open content, community-built encyclopedia with thousands of articles on

various topics)
MSN Encarta: Online Encyclopedia, Columbia Encyclopedia, Informationsphere,

Canadian Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia Smithsonian, Yahoo! Reference

37
 - Online literature libraries (e-texts):
Online Library of Literature, The Literature Network, Open Directory: Literature,

American and English Literature Online Books, Literary Encyclopedia,

Online Children's Stories, Classis Bookshelf, Great Books, Literature Collection

- Online lesson plans:

Please see examples in Web Resources (IV): English Teaching Resources
1) Online lesson plans for ESL/EFL
2) Online lesson plans for all grade levels and all subjects

8.2.4 Reader/audience-dominated Approach

1. Th Reader/audience-dominated approach, paralleling and complimenting the content-
based approach, gives greater attention to the reader and reader expectations in
the academic community. The reader is not just an individual, but the larger academic
discourse community into which the writer will become socialized.
2. In this approach, teachers typically develop theme-based lessons that practice
various rhetorical forms and discourse structures and assist students in the development
of academic writing skills in various essay genres such as compare and contrast, giving
instructions, case/problem analysis, persuasion, and cause and effect. Form and content
are both emphasized.
Examples of learning rhetorical forms and discourse structures:
- Please see website examples in the above discourse structure-based instruction
3. The computer technology allows students to access to an academic audience that is
worldwide. Computer-mediated communication(CMC), such as online discussion
forums and email exchange projects, makes it possible for students to engage in the target
language of a common discipline as they discuss issues in their field of interest.
Examples of online learning English discussion forums:

- Dave's ESL Cafe:

1) Student Discussion Forums, and 2) Teacher Discussion Forums
- Englishforums.com
- EnglishClub.com ESL Forums
- ESLgo.com's ESL message boards
- BBC Learning English - Communicate

Examples of email exchange projects :

38
 - Please see examples in Web Resources (III): CMC Activities and Projects

* Please read
a) "Discussion Forum" from Flexible Education. It provides the possible uses of a discussion
forum, its strengths and limitations, and tips for use.
b) "The Impact of Electronic Communication on Writing" by Abdullah, from ERIC Digest.
This digest summarizes some insights gained from research on writing behavior and
performance affected by electronic communication.

* Discussion Questions:
1. Though many educators have advocated the use of computers in the writing class to
facilitate L2 students' writing development, the research shows that the effectiveness of
using computers in teaching writing is not yet conclusive. As an advanced English learner,
what advantages and disadvantages do you see in a computer-assisted writing class using
the four different approaches mentioned above?
* Please do Exercise 8 Using Technology to Teach Writing Skills

8.3 Bringing it All Together: Reading, Writing, Listening, and Speaking

1. Pascoe and Wiburg's (2003) model of computer-based English language learning:

39
 2. Although we look at how computers assist L2 learners in their learning of four separate
language skills, it is important to combine the reading, writing, listening, and speaking
components into one holistic approach to the development of language.

* Discussion Questions:
1. Now you have read many language learning theories and principles and you have seen how
computers can be used in various ways to enhance language learning of four skills. Based
on your learning experience, in which language skill(s) do you think computers can offer
the most support for students to learn a second language? Or, do you think computers
should be used in the class where the four language skills are equally emphasized and well
integrated? Please explain your reasons.

40