MTH 111 General Mathematics I-1-1

LECTURE NOTE ON
MTH111-General Mathematics I
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY LAFIA
Purpose
Introduction
This is the digitized lecture notes of General Mathematics I of the Department of Mathema-
tics, Federal University Lafia. MTH 111 is a …rst semester 3-credit course for …rst year
undergraduate students of Science. The course is broadly divided in six modules
Each module begins with a clear statement of learning objectives, outcomes and an
introduction. This is followed by relevant de…nitions, remarks and examples. Students
are encouraged to solve each worked example as an unseen. Those who successfully do so
will match their solution against the one provided. But those who fail to do so can after an
attempt go through the solution provided. Students are expected to explore the notes and
exercises, individually and in groups, allowing the lectures to be delivered essentially in tu-
torial mode.Relevant questions can be raised in class thereafter. The notes is complemented
with solved problems; past examination questions with model answers and marking schemes.
Group assignments and laboratory sessions are part of the learning process. Exercises have
been introduced for practice and also to provide a variety of related problems illustrating
applications.
1 Elementary Set Theory and Number Systems
1.1 Objectives
In this module:
We de…ne a set and list some examples. Standard notation used in set theory is then
introduced with a collection of some commonly used sets.
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The basic set operations are de…ned and explored. Set operations are used to convert
one or more sets into new sets, resulting in the algebra of sets. Venn diagrams are
introduced to visualise operations on sets.
Relations are introduced as subsets of a Cartesian product and the domain, range
and inverse of a relation de…ned and explored. The re‡exive, symmetric and transitive
properties of relations are discussed and the concept of a function is introduced through
the study of relations.
The number system is then explored from a set theoretic perspective.
1.2 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, students should be able to:
De…ne a set and identify collections of objects that are sets and those which are not.
List commonly used sets and explore problems using the algebra of sets.
Identify di¤erent subsets of the real numbers and perform set operations with them.
1.3 Learning Activities
Students should:
Explore notes, power point presentations and exercises, individually and in groups;
Engage in discussions with lecturers and their peers using forums and other interactive
facilities on the Moodle site;
Take and pass on-line and other self assessment tests.
Solve relevant questions from past MTH111 Examinations.
1.4 Sets and Set Notation-Introduction
The theory of sets is an important tool in Mathematics. The study of sets which began in
the nineteenth century was championed by George Cantor (1845-1918). It has assumed a
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central role in every branch of Mathematics today. For example, algebra is concerned with
sets of numbers and operations on these sets whereas analysis deals with sets of functions.
A set is a well de…ned collection of objects. A collection of objects is well de…ned if given
any object, one is able to decide whether it belongs to the collection or not. Every object
that belongs to a set is called a member or an element of the set.
For example, the collection of all traders in Lafia forms a set and any trader in Lafia is a member
of this set. A teacher in Lafia is however not a member of this set. Another example of a set
is the collection of all students in Nigerian Universities. A student who is not in any of the
Nigerian Universities is not a member of this set. A teacher in Lafia is also not a member of
this set. We use upper case letters such as A; B; C; ::: to denote sets whereas the lower case
letters such as a; b; c; ::: are used to denote members of a set. The statement x 2 A means
"x is a member of, or an element of a set A; or x belongs to the set A". The statement
"y 2= A means that y is not a member of, or is not an element of A": It also means y does
not belong to the set A:
1.4.1 Methods of describing Sets
Roster method:
The most common method of describing a set is by listing its members. This is conven-
tionally done by enclosing them in a pair of braces,fg: In this convention, each element is
separated by a comma. For example, the set X whose elements are the months of the year
that begin with the letter A is ,X = fApril; Augustg :The set of integers whose squares is
less than 20 can be written as A = f 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4g
The Set-Builder Notation:
The set-builder notation (or the rule method) is a method of specifying a set in which
rather than listing all the elements of a set, we specify the set by writing within braces
a formal description that describes or identi…es the members of the set. As part of this
formal description, we use a variable (such as x) to represent any one of the members
of the set. The following convention is used in a set-builder notation: Name of Set =
fxjx is word description of the set g or Name of Set = fx:x is a word description of the setg :
Note that the slash (j) or the colon (:) is read as "such that".
Now considering the example we mentioned earlier, that is the set X whose elements are the
months of the year that begin with the letter A, we can describe the set using the set-builder
notation as follows: X = fx : x is a month of the year that begins with the letter Ag :The
statement is read: X is the set of all x such that x is a month of the year that begins with
the letter A:
Consider the set whose elements are the days in a week. Such a set can be described using the
set-builder notation as: A = fxjx is a day of the weekg : If we use the roster notation discussed earlier
the set can be written as: A = fMonday; Tuesday; Wednesday; Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sundayg :
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Exercise 1 Using the roster method, describe the following sets:
1. A = fx : x is a month of the yearg :

2. B = fx : x2 3x + 2 = 0g :
3. C = fx : x is a continentg :
4. The set of integers between 1 and 50 divisible by 9:
Exercise 2 Use the set-builder notation to describe the following sets.
1. A = fa; e; i; o; ug :
2. B = f 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6g :
1.4.2 Types of Sets
A Finite Set is a set that has a …nite number of elements. The following are
examples of …nite sets,
A = f1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6g is a set with 6 elements.
B = f 6; 5; 4; :::; 4; 5; 6g is a set with 13 elements.
C = fa; b; x; y; zg is a set with 5 elements.
De…nition 1.1 An In…nite Set is a set that has an in…nite number of elements.
The following are examples of in…nite sets.
X = f1; 2; 3; :::g ; Y = f:::; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; :::g

The three dots indicate that the established pattern of writing down the members of
the set will continue inde…nitely.
De…nition 1.2 The Empty Set or void or Null Set. A set that has no element in it
is called the empty or the null set. The empty or null set is denoted by the symbol ; or fg:
We must exercise caution not to write f;g to represent the null set. f;g is a set with one
element ( the empty set ), and is therefore non empty.
One way to describe the elements of the empty set is to take "the set of traders who live on
the moon". This is the empty set because no trader lives on the moon. Another way to
describe it is to take " the set of real numbers whoose square is negative". It is important to
note that there is only one empty set but it can be described in many di¤erent ways. That
is why we talk about THE empty set and not AN empty set.
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De…nition 1.3 The Singleton Set or the Unit Set. Any set that has exactly one element
is called a singleton set or a unit set.
Consider the set of all months with less than 30 days. This set has only one element, namely,
February. It can be listed as follows fF ebruaryg. The following are also singleton sets
1. A = fgarrig:
2. B = f2g :
De…nition 1.4 : A set X is said to be a subset of set Y if every element of set X is an

element of set Y:
We use the notation X Y to describe X is a subset of Y ; so that the symbol should

be read as “ is a subset of. We also say that X is contained in Y when X is a subset of Y:
The set X is said to be a proper subset of Y if every element of set X is an element of set
Y;and also the set Y has at least one other element that is not in X: We denote this by
X Y . This symbol is read as “X is a proper subset of Y ”. We can write Y X to mean
the same thing which can be read as Y contains X.
Given the set X = f 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3g and Y = f 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5g; set X
Y since every element of the set X is in Y and in addition the set Y has some elements that
are not in X:
De…nition 1.5 : Two sets are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements
Equivalently two sets A and B are equal if A B and B A: Let X = fa; b; f; gg and
Y = ff; a; b; gg then the set X is equal to set Y and we write X = Y:
The order in which the elements of a set are written is not important. Elements can also be
repeated without having any e¤ect.The set A = fall the vowels in English Alphabetg and
the set B = fe; o; a; u; ig are equal since both sets have the same elements. To prove that
A = B it su¢ ces to show that A B and B A:
Let A = fa; b; c; dg and B = fa; b; f; d; e; c; g; hg:Every element in set A, i.e. each of, a; b; c
and d is also contained in set B. Notice further that the two sets are not equal; so A B: The
set X = fAll students taking MTH 111 g is a subset of the set Y = fAll FULafia studentsg:In
particular, it should be noted that every set is a subset of itself and the empty set is a subset
of any given set. X is a proper subset of Y as there are FULafia students not reading MTH
111.
De…nition 1.6 : Family of Sets or Class of Sets: A Set whose members or elements
are sets is referred to as a family of sets or a class of sets. This is so to avoid using the
confusing phrase -"a set of sets".
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De…nition 1.7 : The Power Set: Given a set A, the power set of A denoted (A) is the
family of all subsets of A:
For example the power set of the set fx; yg is (fx; yg) = f;; fxg; fyg; fx; ygg: Generally,
for all integers n 0; if a set X has n elements, then the power set (X) has 2n elements.
This result can be proved by considering the number of subsets containing no elements, 1
element, 2 elements and so on until we get to subsets containing n elements.
De…nition 1.8 : Cardinality of a Set: The cardinality of a set or the cardinal number
of any set A is de…ned as the number of elements in set A: This is denoted by the symbol
n(A); read as "the number of elements in set A:" The set X = f1; 2; 4g for example has car-
dinality or cardinal number 3. That is n(X) = 3: A = fx; y; z; M oses; Y amg has cardinality
n (A) = 5
The set Y = f 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4g has cardinal number n(Y ) = 9: We note that all

the examples above are …nite sets.
De…nition 1.9 : Equivalent Sets: Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if they
can be put into one to one correspondence with each other.
Consider the two sets A = f2; 4; 6g and B = fa; b; cg. By making 2 correspond to a; 4 to
b; and 6 to c, we have established a one to one correspondence between sets A and B. The
2 sets are therefore equivalent. They are however not equal. As …nite sets they both have
exactly three elements. If we now consider the sets A = f1; 2; 3; :::g and B = f2; 4; 6; :::g,
we see that a one to one correspondence is established between the sets A and B, using a
correspondence between n and 2n. The two in…nite sets are equivalent and have the same
number of elements. The two sets are not equal.
De…nition 1.10 The Universal set: Whenever we are discussing sets, we employ the use
of a background set called the universal set. This universal set contains all the elements that
are under consideration.
Thus the set A = f2; 3g can be viewed from the perspective that its universal set U is given
by U = f1; 2; 3; :::g. Here all elements under consideration will be the natural numbers which
is the background set. Every element of A = f2; 3g is a natural number. If we consider the set
of negative integers B = f 1; 2; 3; :::g and the set of positive integers, C = f1; 2; 3; :::g,
then a suitable universal set is the set of integers, U = f:::; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; :::g.
1.4.3 Set operations
Given two sets A and B we can combine them to form a third set in several di¤erent ways.
We illustrate this with de…nitions and examples below.
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De…nition 1.11 : Union of two Sets: The union of two sets A and B denoted A [ B
(read as “ A union B“) is the collection of all elements that are either in A or B or in both
A and B. Union is called a binary operation as it combines 2 sets at a time to give a third
set. Using mathematical notation, we write A [ B = fx : x 2 A or x 2 Bg:This "or" is
called the inclusive or and prescribes that x belongs to A or B or both A and B.
We explore A [ B for given sets.

If A = f1; 2; ; 5; 6g and B = f0; 1; 2; 3; 5g ; then A [ B = f1; 2; 5; 6g [ f0; 1; 2; 3; 5g =
f0; 1; 2; 3; 5; 6g
If A = fOrange, Apple, Johng and B = fOrange,Yam,Goat,Riceg then A [ B = fOrange,
Apple, John, Yam, Goat, Riceg:
Given three sets A; B; and C and the binary operation of union, we can form (A [ B) and
then combine the new set with C to get (A [ B) [ C: We can also …rst form B [ C and then
combine it with A to get A [ (B [ C):
We explore some simple examples to con…rm that (A [ B) [ C = A [ (B [ C): This result
allows us to write A [ B [ C meaningfully.
S
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Remark 1 If A = A1 ; B = A2 and C = A3 we get: A1 [ A2 [ A3 = Ai : More generally
i=1
if A1 ; A2; :::; An are n sets, then their union is the set of all objects which belong to at least
S
n
one of them and it is denoted by A1 [ A2 [ ::: [ An = Ai :The union of in…nite sets,
i=1
S
1
A1; A2 ; :::; An ::: is given by A1 [ A2 [ ::: [ An [ ::: = Ai :
i=1
Here are some basic properties on the union of sets which we shall jointly explore.
1. A [ =A
2. A [ B = B [ A Commutativity law for union
3. A [ (B [ C) = (A [ B) [ C Associativity law for union
4. A [ A = A Idempotent law.
5. A [ U = U Universal Union
6. A B if and only if A [ B = B
The proof of one of these basic properties is given and the others are discussed.
We show that A [ B = B [ A:
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Proof: Take x 2 A [ B and show that x 2 B [ A:
x 2 A [ B Arbitrary choice
) x 2 A or x 2 B, from de…nition of union
) x 2 B or x 2 A, de…nition of union
) x 2 B [ A: Thus A [ B B [ A:
Similarly we can show that B [ A A [ B and then conclude that A [ B = B [ A:
De…nition 1.12 Intersection of Sets: The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted
as A \ B (read as "A intersection B") is the set of all elements that are in both sets A and
B. Mathematically we write A \ B = fx : x 2 A and x 2 B:g:
Now if A = f 1; 0; 2; 3; 4g and B = f0; 2; 4; 6; 8g then A \ B = f0; 2; 4g:

The intersection of n sets A1 ; A2 ; ::An is the T set of all objects which belong to every one of
them, and is denoted by A1 \ A2 \ ::: \ An = ni=1 Ai :If the number of sets is in…nite, that is,
T
A1 ; A2 ; :::An ::: then we write A1 \ A2 \ ::: \ An \ ::: = 1 i=1 Ai
The basic properties about union operation, as well as their proofs are similar to the basic
properites of intersection operaation. This is called the duality property, and the basic dual
results are given below.
1. A \ = Null intersection.
2. A \ B = B \ A Commutativity law for intersection.
3. A \ (B \ C) = (A \ B)\ C Associativity law for intersection.
4. A \ U = A Universal Intersection.
5. A \ A = A Idempotent law.
6. A B if and only if A \ B = A:
There are also laws which involve both union,[ and intersection,\: They show that union is
distrubutive over intersection and the dual.
Theorem 1 Thus for any subsets A; B;and C of some universal set U ,
1. A \ (B [ C) = (A \ B) [ (A \ C)
2. A [ (B \ C) = (A [ B) \ (A [ C):
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These identities are called the distributive laws. We shall prove the …rst identity by showing
that
[A \ (B [ C)] [(A \ B) [ (A \ C)] and conversely, i.e.
[(A \ B) [ (A \ C)] [A \ (B [ C)]:
Proof: First we show, [A \ (B [ C)] [(A \ B) [ (A \ C)]
Take x 2 [A \ (B [ C)] and show that x 2 [(A \ B) [ (A \ C)]:
x 2 [A \ (B [ C)] Arbitrary choice
) x 2 A and x 2 (B [ C), de…nition of intersection
) x 2 A and x 2 B or x 2 C , de…nition of union
) x 2 A and x 2 B or x 2 A and x 2 C
) x 2 (A \ B) or x 2 (A \ C) de…nition of intersection
) x 2 [(A \ B) [ (A \ C)] ;de…nition of union
Thus [A \ (B [ C)] [(A \ B) [ (A \ C)]::: (i)
Conversely,
let x 2 (A \ B) [ (A \ C) and show that x 2 A \ (B [ C).
x 2 (A \ B) [ (A \ C) Arbitrary choice
) x 2 (A \ B) or x 2 (A \ C) de…nition of union
) x 2 A and x 2 B or x 2 A and x 2 C de…nition of intersection
) x 2 A and x 2 B or x 2 C de…nition of union
) x 2 A and x 2 (B [ C).
) x 2 A \ (B [ C) . Thus [(A \ B) [ (A \ C)] [A \ (B [ C)] :::(ii)
From the two results (i) and (ii) above, equality follows.
Theorem 2 The general distributive laws are:
(i) A [ (B1 \ B2 \ ::: \ Bn ) = (A [ B1 ) \ (A [ B2 ) \ ::: \ (A [ Bn ):

(ii) A \ (B1 [ B2 [ ::: [ Bn ) = (A \ B1 ) [ (A \ B2 ) [ ::: [ (A \ Bn ):
These can be proved by the principle of mathematical induction (which will be discussed
later in the course).
De…nition 1.13 : Disjoint Sets: Two sets are called disjoint (or mutually exclusive) if
and only if they have no elements in common. Symbolically, A and B are disjoint if and
only if A \ B = :
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Let A = f3; 7; 9g and B = f4; 8; 10g : Then A and B are disjoint sets since A \ B = (they
have no element in common).
In general, given n sets A1 ; A2 ; :::; An they are said to be mutually disjoint (pairwise disjoint
or non overlapping) if and only if no two di¤erent sets Ai and Aj have any elements in
common. More precisely, for all i; j = 1; 2; :::; n; Ai \Aj = ; where i 6= j:
Let A1 = f2; 4; 7; 8g ; A2 = f1; 3; 6g ; and A3 = f5; 9g : A1 ; A2 and A3 are mutually
disjoint since A1 and A2 have no elements in common, A1 and A3 have no elements in
common, and A2 and A3 have no elements in common.
De…nition 1.14 : Partition of Sets: A collection of non empty sets fA1 ; A2 ; :::; An g is
a partition of set A if and only if A = A1 [ A2 [ ::: [ An and A1 ; A2 ; :::; An are mutually
disjoint.
Let A = f 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7g ; ; A1 = f 3; 2; 1g ; A2 = f0; 1; 2g ; A3 = f3; 4g

and A4 = f5; 6; 7g :
The family of setsfA1 ; A2 ; A3 ; A4 g is a partition of A since A = A1 [ A2 [ A3 [ A4 and the
sets A1 ; A2 ; A3 ; A4 are mutually disjoint.
De…nition 1.15 : Complementation: The complement of set A with respect to the

universal set U , denoted by A0 or Ac (read as “A complement”) is the set of all elements in
the universal set that are not in A:Thus if the universal set U = f1; 2; 4; 8; 9; 10; 11g and
A = f2; 4; 8; 9g then Ac = f1; 10; 11g :
If the universal set U = fall meng and Y = fall men who are marriedg, then Y c = fall
men who are not marriedg
Theorem 3 The following are some basic facts about complementation. Let A and B be
subsets of the universal set U then
1. (A0 )0 = A:
2. ?0 = U and U 0 = ?:
3. A \ A0 = ? and A [ A0 = U:
4. A B if and only if B 0 A0 :
5. (A [ B)0 = A0 \ B 0 :
6. (A \ B)0 = A0 [ B 0 :
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Statements (5) and (6) are called De-Morgan’s laws. These laws are very important in the
algebra of sets and can be generalised.
We now prove the De Morgan’s law for any pair of sets; that is, if A and B are any two sets,
(A [ B)0 = A0 \ B 0 :
Proof: Take y 2 (A [ B)0 Arbitrary choice
Then y 2
= (A [ B) de…nition of complement
)y2
= A or y 2
=B de…nition of union
) y 2 A0 and y 2 B 0 de…nition of intersection
) y 2 (A0 \ B 0 )
Thus (A [ B)0 (A0 \ B 0 )
Conversely,
Let y 2 A0 \ B 0
) y 2 A0 and y 2 B 0 de…nition of intersection
)y2
= A or y 2
=B de…nition of union
= (A [ B) ) y 2 (A [ B)0
)y2
Thus (A0 \ B 0 ) (A [ B)0 and the result follows.
Generally, if given n sets, A1 ; A2 ; :::; An ; a …nite collection of n sets, then

0
(A1 [ A2 [ ::: [ An )0 = A1 \ A02 \ ::: \ A0n . and (A1 \ A2 \ ::: \ An )0 = A01 [ A02 [ ::: [ A0n .
De…nition 1.16 : Di¤ erence of two sets: The di¤erence between sets A and B denoted
as A B (read as \A minus B ") means the set of all elements that belong to set A; but not
= Bg and we can write A B = A \ B 0 :
to set B: Symbolically, A B = fx : x 2 A but x 2
If A = f2; 4; 5; 8g and B = f2; 5g; then A B = f4; 8g:

Similarly, consider the universal set U = f1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10g: If A = f1; 2; 4; 5; 8; 9; 10g and
B = f3; 5; 6; 7; 8g; then the set A B = f1; 2; 4; 9; 10g and A \ B 0 = f1; 2; 4; 9; 10g since
B 0 = f1; 2; 4; 9; 10g:
Note that A B = A \ B 0 and observe that this is an illustration and not a proof.
1.4.4 Representation of Sets with Venn diagrams
One important way of visualizing the relationship between subsets and the corresponding
universal set is by Venn diagram. Venn diagram is therefore made up of circles or ellipses
which are drawn in a rectangle to represent set S. For example, the set A = f0; 2; 3; 4; 6; 7g
can be represented by a Venn diagram below.
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(1)
Suppose, A is a subset of B, i.e. A B; then a Venn diagram for this relationship is as

shown in the shaded …gure.
(2)
Suppose that A and B are two sets then their union and intersection can respectively be
display by the shaded Venn diagrams shown below.
(3)
and
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(4)
If sets A and B have no element in common, then the relationship can be shown by the
unshaded portion of the Venn diagram.
(5)
The complement Ac of a set A with reference to a universal set U can be represented by the
Venn diagram below.
(6)
De…nition 1.17 : Symmetric di¤ erence of Sets: If A and B are subsets of the
universal set U , then the symmetric di¤erence (or Boolean sum) of A and B is the set A + B
(or A B) de…ned by A B = (A B) [ (B A):
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An alternative way of de…ning symmetric di¤erence is A B = fx : x 2 A or x 2 B; but not
both}
If A = f1; 2; 4; 5; 8; 9; 10g and B = f3; 5; 6; 7; 8g then the symmetric di¤erence between the
two sets is
A + B = (A B) [ (B A) = f1; 2; 4; 9; 10g [ f3; 6; 7g = f1; 2; 3; 4; 6; 7; 9; 10g:
Theorem 4 Two interesting identities related to De Morgan’s laws for any sets A , B and
C are listed herewith:
(i) A (B [ C) = (A B) \ (A C);(ii) A (B \ C) = (A B) [ (A C):

We prove the …rst result.
Proof: Let x 2 A (B [ C) Arbitrary choice.
Then x 2 A but x 2
= (B [ C):
Consequently
x2
= B or C; so that x 2 A B and x 2 A C:
But this implies that x 2 (A B) \ (A C); hence A (B [ C) (A B) \ (A C):
Similarly, if x 2 (A B) \ (A C) then x 2 A B and x 2 A C which
implies that x 2 A but not B and x 2 A but not C: It follows that
x 2 A but x 2
= B or C: Therefore, (A B) \ (A C) A (B [ C):
Thus A (B [ C) = (A B) \ (A C):
De…nition 1.18 : Cartesian product of sets: The Cartesian product (also called the
cross product) of two sets A and B; denoted by A B; is de…ned as A B = f(x; y) : x 2 A; y 2 Bg :
Suppose that A = fM usa; P am; N eshig and B = fa; b; cg then A B = f(musa; a); (musa; b); (musa; c
If A = f1; 2g and B = f2; 4; 5g .Find A B and B A
A B = f(1; 2); (1; 4); (1; 5); (2; 2); (2; 4); (2; 5)g
B A = f(2; 1); (2; 2); (4; 1); (4; 2); (5; 1); (5; 2)g
De…nition 1.19 : Relation: A relation is any subset of the Cartesian product A B of

any two sets A and B:
If < is a relation in A B ( i.e. < A B) we say < is a relation from A to B: If A = B, we

simply say < is a relation in A: To give an example, let A be an arbitrary set and consider
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the subset < of A A consisting of all pairs (x; y) such that x = y: Here the relation < is
the relation of equality between elements of A:
If < is a relation, then (x; y) 2 < will sometimes be written as x<y:
The domain of a relation < is the set Dom(<) = fx : (x; y) 2 < for some yg :
The range of < is the set Ran(<) = fy : (x; y) 2 < for some xg :
1 1
The inverse of < is the set < = f(y; x) : (x; y) 2 < g :Thus < is obtained by reversing
each pair in <:
Re‡exive, symmetric and transitive relations
Let A be a set. A relation < in A is said to be
1. Re‡exive if x<x for all x 2 A;
2. Symmetric if x<y implies that y<x for all x; y 2 A;
3. Transitive if x<y and y<z implies that x<z for all x; y; z 2 A:
De…nition 1.20 : For any set A; an equivalence relation < on A is a relation < A
A satisfying (1), (2) and (3) above.
De…nition 1.21 : Image: If < is a relation and E is a set, we de…ne the image of E
under < to be the set <(E) = fy : (x; y) 2 < for some x 2 Eg
De…nition 1.22 : Single-valued Relation: A relation < is single-valued if (x; y) 2 < and
(x; z) 2 < imply that y = z; that is, if no two distinct members of < can have the same …rst
element.
1
If < and < are singled-valued, we say that < is a one-to-one relation.
De…nition 1.23 : Function: Let A and B be sets. A function from A to B is a single

valued relation < such that Dom(<) A and Ran(<) B:
From now on, we shall adopt the well-established convention of using small letters f; g; for
functions in the place of < but it is important to bear in mind all the time that a function
is a subset of the Cartesian product of two sets.
De…nition 1.24 : Surjective or Onto function: Let f be a function having A as its

domain and having its range contained in B: Let x 2 A; then there is a unique y 2 B such
that x f y: It is convenient to denote this unique element by the symbol f (x) and call it the
image of x under f or the value of f at x:
If Dom(f ) = A and Ran(f ) B; we shall say that f is a function on A and B and write
f : A ! B: If Ran(f ) = B , we say that f is a function from A onto B:or f is a surjective
function.
15
Example 1.1 : Suppose that the set U = f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10g is
a universal set, and A; B and C are subsets of the universal set U given by A = f 5; 4; 0; 1; 2; 6; 9; 10g ; B
f 3; 0; 2; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; g and C = f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3g :
Find
1. A [ B
2. A [ C
3. (A [ B) \ C
4. A B:
5. (A B) \ C:
6. Ac :
7. B c :
8. A \ B c :
9. (A [ B)c \ Ac
Solution:
1. Given that U = f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10g and A = f 5; 4; 0; 1; 2; 6; 9; 10g ;

f 3; 0; 2; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; g and C = f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3g :Then A[B = f 5; 4; 3; 0; 1; 2; 4
2. A [ C = f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 6; 9; 10g :
3. (A [ B) \ C = f 5; 4; 3; 0; 1; 2; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10g \ f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3g =
f 5; 4; 3; 0; 1; 2g
4. A B = f 5; 4; 0; 1; 2; 6; 9; 10g f 3; 0; 2; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; g = f 5; 4; 1; 9; 10g :
5. (A B) \ C = f 5; 4; 1; 9; 10g \ f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3g = f 5; 4; 1g :
6. Ac = U A = f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10g f 5; 4; 0; 1; 2; 6; 9; 10g =
f 3; 2; 1; 3; 4; 5; 7; 8g :
7. B c = f 5; 4; 2; 1; 1; 3; 9; 10g :
8. A \ B c = f 5; 4; 0; 1; 2; 6; 9; 10g \ f 5; 4; 2; 1; 1; 3; 9; 10g = f 5; 4; 1; 9; 10g :
9. (A [ B)c \ Ac = f 2; 1; 3g \ f 3; 2; 1; 3; 4; 5; 7; 8g = f 2; 1; 3g :
Example 1.2 : Given that X = f2; 3g and Y = f3; 5; 6g ;Find X Y and Y X:
16
Solution: Then X Y = f(2; 3); (2; 5) ; (2; 6) ; (3; 3) ; (3; 5) ; (3; 6)g
and Y X = f(3; 2); (3; 3) ; (5; 2) ; (5; 3) ; (6; 2) ; (6; 3)g
Example 1.3 : If A = f1; 2; 3; 4g : Find (A) and cardinality of A:
Solution: Given that A = f1; 2; 3; 4g :

Then, (A) = f;; f1g ; f2g ; f3g ; f4g ; f1; 2g ; f1; 3g ; f1; 4g ; f2; 3g ; f2; 4g ; f3; 4g ;
f1; 2; 3g ; f1; 2; 4g ; f1; 3; 4g ; f2; 3; 4g ; f1; 2; 3; 4gg and the cardinality of A is given as n (A) =
4:
Example 1.4 : Prove each of the following 2 set identities: (A[B) C = (A C)[(B C)
and A [ B = (A B) [ (B A) [ (A \ B):
Proof: Let sets A; B and C be given. Then

(A [ B) C = (A [ B) \ C 0 By alternate representation of set di¤erence.
= C 0 \ (A [ B) By commutative law for \
= (C 0 \ A) [ (C 0 \ B) By distributive law.
= (A \ C 0 ) [ (B \ C 0 ) By Commutative law for \
= (A C) [ (B C) By alternate representation of set di¤erence.

For the second result, we show as follows:
A [ B = (A [ B) \ U By de…nition of intersection ( where U is the universal set ).
= (A [ B) \ [(A0 [ B 0 ) [ (A \ B)] By de…nition of universal set
= [(A [ B) \ U ] \ [((A0 [ B 0 ) \ U ) [ (A \ B)] By the de…nition of intersection.
= [(A [ B) \ (B [ B 0 ] \ [((A0 \ B 0 ) \ (A [ A0 )) [ (A \ B)] de…nition of universal set
0
= [(A \ B 0 ) [ B] \ [((A \ B ) [ A0 ) [ (A \ B)] By the distributive law.
0
= [(A \ B 0 ) [ B] \ [((A \ B ) [ A0 )] [ (A \ B)
17
= [(A \ B 0 ) [ (B \ A0 )] [ (A \ B)]
= (A B) [ (B A) [ (A \ B)
Example 1.5 : Simplify each of the 2 set- theoretic expression as far as possible, stating
the set laws used
(A \ B 0 )0 [ B = A [ B and A \ B \ C [ Y 0 [ A0 \ C [ B 0 \ C [ C \ Y
Solution: (A \ B 0 )0 [ B = A0 [ (B 0 )0 [ B De Morgan0 s law.
= A0 [ B [ B Double complement
= A0 [ B Idempotence.
The second result is given by:
A \ B \ C [ Y 0 [ A0 \ C [ B 0 \ C [ C \ Y
= A \ B \ C [ Y 0 [ (A0 [ B 0 [ Y ) \ C Distributivity of \ over [
= (A \ B \ Y 0 [ (A0 [ B 0 [ Y )) \ C Distributivity of \ over [
= (A \ B \ Y 0 [ (A0 [ B 0 [ Y 00 )) \ C Double complement
= (A \ B \ Y 0 [ (A \ B \ Y 0 )0 ) \ C De Morgan0 s law
=U \C
=C
1.4.5 Application of Venn diagrams on Sets
We now illustrate the application of set operations with Venn diagrams.
Example 1.6 : In a class of 300 students, 200 register Mathematics and 150 register
Computer Science. (a) How many students registered both courses if only 40 students regis-
ter neither Mathematics nor Computer Science. (b) How many students registered at least
Mathematics or Computer Science.
Solution: (a) Let M and C represent Mathematics and Computer Science respectively.
Then n(M [ C)c = 40 is the number of students that register neither course. Therefore the
number of students that either of the courses = 300 40 = 260:Suppose x is the number
of students that register both Mathematics and Computer science. Then n(M \ C c ) =
200 x is the number of students that register Mathematics without Computer Science and
18
n(C \ M c ) = 150 x is the number of students that register Computer Science without
Mathematics. Thus the number of students that registered the two courses is given by
(200 x) + x + (150 x) = 260 ) 350 x = 260 ) x = 90 is the number of students that
register both courses. (b) Thus n(M \ C c ) = 200 90 = 110 is the number of students that
register Mathematics only and n(C \ M c ) = 150 90 = 60 is the number of students that
register Computer Science only. Therefore the number of students that register at least one
of the courses is 110+90+60. The solution is illustrated with the Venn diagrams below.
(7)
In a resturant, the food seller prepared rice, beans and yams in a day. 120 customers
were served rice, 100 were served beans and 90 yams. 60 were served rice and beans,
55 rice and yams, and 40 beans and yams. If 10 customers were served rice and beans
and yams, how many people were served at least one type of the three food on that day?
Solution: Let R, B and Y represent rice, beans and yams that were served to the customers.
Then n(R) = 120; n(B) = 100, and n(Y ) = 90 represent the people that were served the
three food type. Also n(R \ B) = 60; n(R \ Y ) = 55; n(B \ Y ) = 40 and n(R \ B \ Y ) = 10
represent the customers that were served two and the three meals respectively. Customers
that were served rice and beans only n(R \ B \ Y c ) = 60 10 = 50; Customers that were
served rice and yams only n(R \ B c \ Y ) = 55 10 = 45;
Customers that were served beans and yams only n(Rc \ B \ Y ) = 40 10 = 30: Customers
that were served rice only n(R \ B c \ Y c ) = 120 50 45 10 = 15;Customers that were
served beans only n(Rc \ B \ Y c ) = 100 50 30 10 = 10 and Customers that were served
yams only n(Rc \ B c \ Y ) = 90 45 30 10 = 5: Therefore the number of customers that
were served food that day is 15 + 50 + 10 + 45 + 30 + 5 + 10 = 165: The solution is illustrated
with the Venn diagrams below.
19
Exercise 3
1. Let U = f 8; 7; 6; 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12g be a uni-

versal set and let A = fx 2 Z : 2 < x 3g ; B = fx 2 Z : 8 x 5g ;and C =
fx 2 Z : 0 < x 12g where Z is an integer: Find if possible (i) A [ B (ii) B [ C: (iii)
Ac (iv) B c (v) C c (vi) (A [ B) C:(vii) (A B)\(A C) (viii)(A [ B)c \(A B):(ix)
(Ac [ B c )c \ C c : (x) (A): (xi) (B) .
2. Let X = fJohn,Maryg and Y = f2; 4; 6g : Find (i) X Y (ii) Y Y (iii) Y X:
3. Suppose that A; B, C and D are subsets of the universal set U . Prove that: (i)
(A B) \ B = ;;(ii) B A = B \ A0 ;(iii) (A B) \ (C D) = A \ C B [ D;(iv)A
(B C) = (A B) [ (A \ C);(v) A (A \ B) = A B;(vi)A 4 (B 4 C) = (A 4 B) 4 C:
4. Simplify each set- theoretic expression as far as possible, naming the set laws used:
(i) [(A \ B)0 [(A0 [ B)] [ [(A [ B)0 [(A0 \ B)]; (ii) [(A \ B 0 ) [(A0 [ B)0 ] [ [(A \ B)
\(A \ B 0 )0 ]:
5. If A and B are subsets of the universal set U; show that (i) A [ (A \ B) = A; (ii)
A \ (A [ B) = A:
6. Show that the following statements about sets A and B are equivalent: (i) A
B (ii) A \ B = A ; (iii) A [ B = B:
7. In class 3 of a Public primary school in Lafia, 25 pupils can correctly recite the multipli-
cation table, 30 can correctly recite the English alphabets, and 10 can correctly recite
both. If every pupil in the class can recite alteast one of the two correctly, how many
pupils are in the class?
20
8. In a Language class of 40 students, 25 speak Hausa, 21 speak Yoruba and 16 speak Igbo
and each of the students speaks at least one of the three Languages. If 8 speak Hausa
and Igbo, 11 speak Hausa and Yoruba and 6 speak Igbo and Yoruba. (a) Evaluate the
number of students that speak the three Languages and (b) Illustrate your solution
with a Venn diagram.
9. In a survey of 290 Newspaper readers, 181 of them read ThisDay, 142 the Guardian,
and 117 read the Punch and each read at least one of the three papers. If 75 read
ThisDay and the Guardian, 60 read ThisDay and the Punch and 54 read the Guardian
and the Punch. (a) Illustrate the above information in a Venn diagram. (b) How many
readers read: (i) all three papers; (ii) exactly two of the papers; (iii) exactly one of the
papers and (iv) the Guardian paper alone.
10. 1000 people were randomly selected from a large population. The following information
was recorded: 449 were males, 96 were left-handed, 209 were at least 1.5metres tall, 10
had all three of the above characteristics. How many had exactly two of these three
characteristics if there were 501 right-handed females under 1.5metres?
1.5 The Number System
The number system as we know it today is a result of gradual development as indicated in

the presentation below.
1.5.1 Natural numbers
The natural numbers are numbers that occur commonly and obviously in nature.
This set of numbers, which was …rst used in counting, is denoted by N : Thus N = f1; 2; 3; :::g:
The three dots after the …rst few members of the set means the pattern of adding 1 to the
preceeding number to get the next one continues inde…nitely. The symbols used to describe
the members of N have varied with the times. For example,the Romans used I,II,III,IV,...
In mathematical expressions, lowercase, italicized letters represent unknown or unspeci…ed
numbers and the most common for the natural numbers is n.
Addition of natural numbers
If a and b are natural numbers, then their sum a + b is also a natural number, for example
5 + 3 = 8. For this reason the set of natural numbers is said to be closed under the operation
of addition.
Multiplication of natural numbers
Given any two natural numbers a and b, their product, a b; a:b or ab is also a natural
number.
21
For instance 2 3 = 6: This therefore means that the natural numbers are closed with respect
to multiplication.
It should be observed that the order of the terms in the products just like the summands
has no in‡uence on the result; for example 5 4 = 4 5 = 20 and 6 8 = 8 6 = 48: Since
this property of the summands or products holds for all natural numbers, one can write
that a + b = b + a or ab = ba and these are known as the commutative law of addition and
multiplication, respectively.
It should be noted that the di¤erence, a b between any two natural numbers a and b;
is not always a natural number, e.g. 3 7 = 4. In otherwords, the closure property on
subtraction ; of the natural numbers does not hold.
The natural numbers can be ordered in the sense that given any two natural numbers n1
and n2 ; exactly one of the following relations holds: n1 < n2 i.e n1 is less than n2 , for example
10 < 35;OR n1 = n2 i.e n1 is equal to n2 for example 48 = 48 OR n1 > n2 i.e n1 is greater
than n2 ; for example 95 > 40:
These order relations have a property called transitivity; for example if n1 < n2 and n2 < n3
then n1 < n3 . Also if n4 > n5 and n5 > n6 then n4 > n6:
This relationship orders the natural numbers linearly. The illustration of this linear order is
the number line otherwise called the number ray.
On this number ray, the natural numbers are represented by a set of isolated (discrete) points.
The fact that n1 is less than n2 means that the point on the number ray corresponding to
n1 lies to the left of the point corresponding to n2 :
The set N is called a countable set.( sometimes the term denumerable is used). Any other
set which can be put in one to once correspondence with N is also called countable.
Countability refers to the fact that, even though there might be an in…nite number of
elements in the set, those elements can be (COUNTED). Essentially that is equivalent to
putting them in an orderly arranged list or in one to one correspondence with the elements
of N .
1.5.2 Integers
Integers arose to permit solutions of equations such as x+b = a;where a and b are any natural
numbers. The integers therefore consist of the numbers f0; 1; 2; 3:::g and their negatives
f 1; 2; 3; :::g. The set of all integers is usually denoted by Z which stands for Zahlen
(German name for ”number”).
Integers can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and ordered ( or compared ). The ordering
is given by::: < 2 < 1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < :::
Introducing the negative integers makes it possible to solve all equations of the form a+x = b
(where a and b are natural numbers ( constants ) for the unknown x. If x is constrained to
a natural numbers, only some of these equations are solvable.
22
We call an integer positive if it is greater than zero; zero itself is neither considered to be
positive nor negative.
The order is compatible with the algebraic operations in the following way:
1. If a < b and c < d, then a + c < b + d:
2. If a < b and c_ > 0, then ac < bc:
1.5.3 Rational numbers
In mathematics, a rational number (or informally a fraction) is a ratio of two integers, usually
written as ab , where b is not zero.
The operations of rational numbers are guided by the following rules:
a c ad+bc
1. b
+ d
= bd
; and
a c ac
2. b d
= bd
:
a c
Two rational numbers b
and d
are equal if and only if ad = bc.
The set of rational numbers is denoted by Q. Rational numbers such as 34 ; 72 ; 15 ; :::;arose
from the need to …nd solutions of equations such as bx = a for all integers a and b where
b 6= 0:This leads to the operation of division or inverse of multiplication, and we write x = ab
or a b (called the quotient of a and b) where a is the numerator and b is the denominator.
Each rational number can be written in many forms, for example 36 = 24 = 12 : The simplest
form is when a and b are coprime; i.e.they have no common factors, and every rational
number has a simplest form of this type. The decimal expansion of a rational number is
either …nite or eventually periodic, and this property characterises rational numbers.
It should be noted that the set of integers is a subset of the set of rational numbers, since
the integers correspond to rational numbers ab where b = 1:The set of rational numbers is
closed under the operations of addition, multiplication, subtraction and division, so long as
division by zero is excluded. If r and t are rational numbers such that r < t, then there
exists a (in…nitely many ) rational number s such that r < s < t. This is true no matter
how small the di¤erence between r and t, as long as the two are not equal.
1.5.4 Irrational numbers
An irrational number is any number that is not a rational number, i.e.a number that cannot
be expressed as ab with a and b integers and b not zero. The irrational numbers are precisely
those numbers whose decimal expansion never ends and p never enters a periodic pattern.
p
Some irrational numbers are algebraic numbers such as 2 (the square root of two) and 3 3
(the cube root of 3) but others are not; for instance e and .
23
p
Example 1.7 : Prove that log2 3 and 2:are irrational numbers.
Proof: Take log2 3: The argument we present is one by contradiction (reductio ad absur-
dum).
We suppose log2 3 is rational. Then for some positive integers m; n we can write log2 3 = m n
:
m
m n m
Consequently 2 = 3. So 2 = 3 : But 2 is even (because at least one of its prime factors
n
is 2) while 3n is odd (because none of its prime factors is 2 (they are 3)). That is impossible.
This therefore implies that log2 3 is not rational. When a number is not rational we say it is
irrational.
p
Proof: We now consider 2:The discovery of irrational numbers is usually attributed to
Pythagoras or one of his followers, who produced a (most likely geometrical) proof of the
irrationality of the square root of 2.
One proof of this irrationality is by reductio ad absurdum-by the method of contradiction.
The proposition is proved by assuming the opposite and showing that, it leads to a conclusion
which is false. We conclude therefore that the proposition must be true.
p
Assume
p that 2 is a rational number. Meaning that there exists integers a and b so that
a
b
= 2:
p
Then 2 can be written as an irreducible fraction ab (the fraction is simpli…ed as much as
possible) such that a and b are coprime (i.e.a and b have no common factors other than 1).
Squaring both sides implies that ( ab )2 = 2.
2
It follows that ab2 = 2 or a2 = 2b2 :Therefore a2 is even because it is equal to 2b2 which is
obviously even.
It follows that a must be even. (Odd numbers have odd squares and even numbers have
even squares.)
Because a is even, there exists an integer k such that a = 2k
We substitute a = 2k in the equation a2 = 2b2 giving (2k)2 = 2b2 and we get 4k 2 = 2b2 or
b2 = 2k 2 :
It then follows that b2 is also even which means a and b are both even, contradicting the fact
that ab is irreducible.
p
Since we have found a contradiction from the assumption that 2 is a rational number, Our
assumption is therefore false.
p
We have proved that 2 is irrational. This proof can be generalized.
1.5.5 Real Numbers
The real numbers R is made up of the rational and irrational numbers, i.e.R = Q [ Qc .
24
If x and z are real numbers such that x < z, then there is always a real number y such
that x < y < z. In working with real numbers, it is often convenient to have a geometrical
representation before us or in our minds. This representation of numbers by points takes the
form of a line called the number line or ideal ruler. To do this, we draw a line L which is
assumed to extend inde…nitely in both directions. A reference point is chosen arbitrarily on
L and labeled 0. The point 0 divides the line L into two equal half-lines,the half to the right
of 0 is designated positive and the half to the left of 0 is designated negative. The point 0
is called the origin. Suppose now that P is any point on L distinct from 0 and suppose that
the distance from 0 to P equals the real number x (which must be positive since distance is
always nonnegative), then we take P to represent the number x or the number x according
as P lies on the negative or positive half of L. In either case, given the point P on the line
L, the real number x or x is uniquely determined.
Conversely, given a real number x > 0,we shall assume (at least from intuition) that there
is one and only one point P lying to the right of 0 such that the distance of P from 0 is
x. If x < 0, then P is assumed to lie to the left of 0. In this way we obtain a one to one
correspondence between the set of all points on L and the set of all real numbers(the point
0 corresponding to the real number zero).In view of this correspondence, no distinction need
to be made between the line L and the real number system R and for this reason we often
use point and real number interchangeably.
We shall denote the set of real numbers by R: There are some sets of real numbers called
intervals. An interval is the set of all points between given points a and b: If an interval
contains the points a and b then such an interval is called a closed interval denoted by
[a; b]:More formally, if a 2 R and b 2 R; with a < b; then [a; b] = fx 2 R : a x bg is
called a closed interval. This interval can be represented geometrically as
(8)
The shaded part constitutes the closed interval [a; b]: For example, the set [1; 2] = fx 2 R :
1 x 2g is a closed interval. Its graphical representation can be shown.
On the other hand if the interval does not contain its end points a and b, then such an
interval is called an open interval. We write (a; b) = fx 2 R : a < x < bg to indicate that
this interval is open. Graphically an open interval of the form (a; b) can be represented by
the following example: The open interval ( 2; 1) = fx 2 R : 2 < x < 1g and is the set of
real numbers lying between 2 and 1. Its graphical representation is given below.
(9)
Intervals that include only one of the end points are called half-open intervals (sometimes
25
referred to as half-closed). We write [a; b) = fx 2 R : a x < bg and (a; b] = fx 2 R : a <
x bg to denote these intervals respectively. A half open interval of the form (a; b] can be
represented as follows:
(10)
The lower end of the interval is open whereas the upper end is closed.
Sets of the form [a; 1) = fx 2 R : x ag are referred to as unbounded intervals. Other
unbounded intervals are (a; 1) = fx 2 R : x > ag; ( 1; b] = fx 2 R : x bg; ( 1; b)
= fx 2 R : x < bg and ( 1; 1) = fx 2 R : 1 < x < 1g
1.5.6 Elementary operations on set of real numbers
Elementary set operations such as the union of sets, intersection of sets, and complementation
of a set can be performed on sets of real numbers. We illustrate these with some examples.
Example 1.8 : Let A = fx 2 R : 2 x 20g; B = fx 2 R : 0 x 10g;and

C = fx 2 R : 15 < x 5g: Find if possible (i) A[B, (ii) A\B, (iii) Cc
Solution:
A [ B = fx 2 R : 2 x 20g [ fx 2 R : 0 x 10g = fx 2 R : 2 x 20g:
A \ B = fx 2 R : 2 x 20g \ fx 2 R : 0 x 10g = fx 2 R : 0 x 10g:
0 0
In a similar way, the complement of the set C denoted as C or C c is given by C =
( 1; 15] [ (5; 1):
0
We can now …nd more complicated combinations: (A [ B)0 \ C and A \ C as follows:
Since A [ B = fx 2 R : 2 x 20g it follows that (A [ B)0 = fx 2 R : 1<x< 2g [
fx 2 R : 20 < x < 1g = ( 1; 2) [ (20; 1):
Now using alternative notation A0 = ( 1; 2) [ (20; 1) and B 0 = ( 1; 0) [ (10; 1)giving
A0 \ B 0 = ( 1; 2) [ (20; 1)
(A [ B)0 = A0 \ B 0 as expected from De Morgan’s laws.
Similarly (A [ B)0 = ( 1; 2) [ (20; 1):Therefore (A [ B)0 \ C = f( 1; 2) [ (20; 1)g \
( 15; 5]
(A [ B)0 \ C = f( 1; 0) \ ( 15; 5]g [ f(20; 1) \ ( 15; 5]gby distributive laws
(A [ B)0 \ C = ( 15; 2): This can be written in another form as (A [ B)0 \ C = fx 2 R :
15 < x < 2g:
26
To determine A \ C 0 ; recall that C 0 = ( 1; 15] [ (5; 1): Therefore, A \ C 0 = [ 2; 20] \
f( 1; 15] [ (5; 1)g
= f[ 2; 20] \ ( 1; 15)g [ f[ 2; 20] \ (5; 1)g = [ 2; 15] [ (5; 20):
1. If A = fx 2 R : 12 x < 30g; B = fx 2 R : 5 x 35g and C 0 = fx 2 R : 5 <

x < 13g: Determine: A0 ;B 0 ;C 0 ; (A \ B)0 ; (A [ B)0 ; (C [ B) \ A0 ;
(A \ B) [ C 0 ; and A0 \ (B 0 [ C)
2. Suppose N is the set of natural numbers and that the sets E; F are de…ned as E =
fx 2 N [ f0g : 0 x 35g and F = fx 2 N : 2 x 100g :Determine:(E \ G) [ F ;
(E 0 [ F 0 ) \ E ; En f0g and (E G) [ (E4G)
3. Given that Z; the set of integers is the universal set, and the sets X; Y and W are
de…ned as X = fx 2 Z : 15 x 70g; Y = fx Z : 10 < x < 10gand
W = fx Z : 17 < x < 23g :Find: X ; Y ; W ; (X [ Y ) ; (X [ W ) \ Y 0 ; X Y
0 0 0 0
and (X4Y ) W .
2 Mathematical induction and Binomial theorem
2.1 Learning Objectives
In this module:
We introduce the principle of mathematical induction and consolidate its use as a
method of proof.
We expose students to the expansion of expressions of the form (a+x)n in several ways
specifying the best option for use when n is a large natural number.
We demonstrate the use of the binomial expansions of expressions with fractional and
negative powers.
At the end of this module, students should be able to:

Identify when and how to use mathematical induction as a method of proof.
Expand expressions using the binomial theorem for positive, negative and fractional
indices.
Students should:
27
Explore notes, power point presentations and exercises, individually and in groups.
facilities on the Moodle site.
Take and pass online and other self assessment tests.
2.4 Mathematical Induction
Introduction
It is a common knowledge that whereas experimental scientist search for evidence to sup-
port a theory, mathematicians search for a proof to validate a statement. The Principle
of Mathematical Induction is one of the famous ways of establishing mathematical proofs.
Mathematical induction is a technique for proving propositions or statements about the nat-
ural numbers. It also provides a uniform framework for studying the natural numbers. We
will now formally state the Principle of Mathematical Induction.
2.4.1 The Principle of Mathematical Induction
The principle of mathematical induction is used to prove that a proposition P (n) is true for
all positive integers n, or for all postive integers n k0 :
We do so in the following way: We …rst prove that P (1) is true. We then assume P (k) is
true, and use the proof and the assumption to show that P (k + 1) is true. It follows then
that P (n) is true for every positive integer n.
The …rst step (i.e prove that P (1) is true) is usually called the basis step and the second
step assumes P (k) is true, and then show that P (k + 1) is true) is called the inductive step.
What the inductive step does is to assert that if the process has reached some stage, then it
will go one stage further, and the result follows.
Example 2.1 : Use the principle of Mathematical induction to show that
X
n
n(n + 1)
r = 1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + n =
r=1
2
28
Solution: Let P (n) be the statement that
X
n
n(n + 1)
r = 1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + n =
r=1
2
X
1
1(1+1)
Basis step: Since RHS = r =1 = 2
= LHS. This means that P (1) is true.
r=1
Inductive step: Assume that the P (k) is true and proceed to prove that P (k + 1) is true.
By the inductive hypothesis
X
k
k(k + 1)
r = 1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + k =
r=1
2
We now show that

X
k+1
(k + 1)(k + 2)
r = 1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + k + (k + 1) = :
r=1
2
X
k+1 X
k
k(k + 1) k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1) (k + 1)(k +
r = 1+2+3+:::+k+(k+1) = r+(k+1) = +(k+1) = =
r=1 r=1
2 2 2
Since the basis step and the inductive step have been veri…ed, the principle of mathematical
induction tells us that P (n) is true for all positive integers n.
Example 2.2 :
Use the principle of Mathematical induction to show that
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
1:2 + 2:3 + 3:4 + ::: + n(n + 1) =
3
and that
2
n(n + 1)
13 + 23 + 33 + ::: + n3 =
2
Solution: Let P (n) be the proposition:

X
n
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
r(r + 1) = 1:2 + 2:3 + 3:4 + ::: + n(n + 1) =
r=1
3
29
X
1
1(1+1)(1+2) 1(2)(3)
Basis Step: Note that LHS = r(r + 1) = 1:2 = 3
= 3
= 2 = LHS; and
r=1
P (1) is true:
Inductive Step: Assume that the P (k) is true and proceed to prove that P (k + 1) is true.
X
k
k(k+1)(k+2)
P (k) is true means r(r + 1) = 1:2 + 2:3 + 3:4 + ::: + k(k + 1) = 3
:
r=1
X
k+1 X
k
k(k + 1)(k + 2)
r(r + 1) = r(r + 1) + (k + 1)(k + 2) = + (k + 1)(k + 2)
r=1 r=1
3
k(k + 1)(k + 2) + 3(k + 1)(k + 2) (k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3)
= =
3 3
Since the basis step and the inductive step have been veri…ed, the principle of mathematical
induction tells us that P (n) is true for all positive integers.
Xn h i2
We prove that r3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + ::: + n3 = n(n+1)2
n=1
X
1 h i2
1(1+1)
Basis Step: When n = 1, we see that LHS = r3 = 13 = 2
= 1 = RHS. This
n=1
means P(1) is true.
Inductive Step: We assume that P(k) is true, that is:
X
k
k(k + 1)
2
r3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + ::: + k 3 =
n=1
2
We show that P(k+1) is true in the following way:,

X
k+1 X
k h i2
r3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + ::: + k 3 + (k + 1)3 = r3 + (k + 1)3 = k(k+1)
2
+ (k + 1)3
n=1 n=1
2
k2 +4(k+1)3 2 h i2
(k(k+1))2 +4(k+1)3 (k+1) [ ] (k+1) [k2 +4k+4] (k+1)(k+2)
= 4
= 4
= 4
= 2
This shows that if P(k) is true implies P(k+1) is true. Therefore P(n) must be true for all
n.
Example 2.3 : Use induction to show that 4n 1 is divisible by 3 for n = 1; 2; 3; :::
Basis Step: If n = 1; 4n 1 = 41 1 = 3 which is divisible by 3.

Inductive Step: Assume that the statement is true for n = k. That is 4k 1 is divisible
by 3. We now show that 4k+1 1 is divisible by 3: To relate the (k + 1)th case to the kth
case, we write 4k+1 1 = 4:4k 1 = 4k 1 + 3:4k :
30
By assumption, 4k 1 is divisible by 3 and since 3:4k is divisible by 3, the sum 4k 1 +
3:4k = 4k+1 1, is divisible by 3.
Since the basis step and the inductive step have been veri…ed, the principle of Mathematical
induction tells us that 4n 1 is divisible by 3 for n = 1; 2; 3; :::
Exercise 4
Establish the identity by induction:

1 1 1 n
+ + ::: + = :
1 3 3 5 (2n 1)(2n + 1) 2n + 1
1. Establish the identity by induction
12 22 n2 n(n + 1)
+ + ::: + =
1 3 3 5 (2n 1)(2n + 1) 2(2n + 1)
2. Establish the identity by induction:
a(1 rn )
a + ar + ::: + arn 1
=
1 r

1 1 1 n
+ + ::: + =
1:2 2:3 n(n + 1) n+1

1 1 1 3 2n + 3
+ + ::: + = f orn 2
1:3 2:4 n(n + 2) 4 2(n + 1)(n + 2)
2.5 Binomial theorem
Introduction
Expansion of expressions of the form (a + x)n where n = 1; 2; 3; ::. can easily be
done,but when n becomes very large,negative or fractional ,such expansions cannot easily
be done.Pascal (1623-1662) in a search of a way to expand such expressions with large and
31
fractional n produced what is known as the Pascal triangle.This he derived by observing the
pattern formed in the expansion
(1 + x)n ; n > 0 (1:4)
Binomial Expansion Coe¢ cients

(1 + x)0 1 1
(1 + x)1 1 x 1 1
(1 + x)2 1 2x x2 1 2 1
(1 + x)3 1 3x 3x2 x3 1 3 3 1
It is interesting to note that in the coe¢ cients of the various expansions which form the
Pascal triangle,the next line is generated from the previous. In all cases,the …rst and the last
terms is 1:
To carry out expansion using the Pascal triangle for large n will not be easy,thus we
need a more general form for such an expansion.To achieve that,we desire a formula for the
coe¢ cients of xr
The expansion (1 + x)n is then given by:
(1 + x)n =n C0 +n C1 x +n C2 x2 +n C3 x3 +n C4 x4 + ::: +n Cr xr + ::: +n Cn 1 xn 1

+n Cn xn
The coe¢ ceints in the expansion of (1 + x)n gives the pattern
n(n 1) n(n 1)(n 2) n(n 1)(n 2):::(n r + 1)

1; n; ; ; :::; ; :::; n; 1
1 2 1 2 3 r(r 1)(r 2) 3:2:1
where n(nr(r1)(n 2):::(n r+1)

1)(r 2) 3:2:1
= n Cr = n!
r!(n r)!
is the number of combinations of n objects taken
r at a time.
The two statements above together form the binomial theorem for (1 + x)n .
The binomial theorem for the general expansion of (a + x)n where n is a positive, negative
or fractional power is stated as follows:
(a + x)n =n C0 an +n C1 xan 1
+n C2 x2 an 2
+ ::: +n Cr xr an 1 xr + ::: +n Cn xn
2.5.1 The Binomial expansion for positive number
We prove the theorem using the principle of mathematical induction.
32
Let P (n) be the proposition.
(1 + x)n =n C0 +n C1 x +n C2 x2 +n C3 x3 +n C4 x4 + ::: +n Cr xr + ::: +n Cn 1 xn 1

+ ::: +n Cn xn
P (1) is true since LHS = (1 + x)1 = 1 +1 C1 x = RHS.

We assume P (k) is true:
(1 + x)k =k C0 +k C1 x +k C2 x2 + ::: +k Cr xr + ::: +k Ck 1 xk 1

+k Ck xk
We show this implies P(k+1) is true:

LHS =
(1 + x)k+1 = (1 + x)(1 + x)k = (1 + x)( 1 +k C1 x +k C2 x2 + ::: +k Cr xr + ::: +k Ck 1 xk 1

+ xk )
= 1 + (1 +k C1 )x + (k C2 +k C1 )x2 + ::: + (k Cr +k Cr 2 )xr + xk+1 ;but k C1 + 1 =

k + 1 =k+1 C1
and more generally,
k+1 k
Cr = Cr + k Cr 1
Hence the result.
Example 2.4 : Expand (x 2y)5 by the binomial theorem.
Solution: (x 2y)5 = x5 +5 C1 x4 ( 2y) +5 C2 x3 ( 2y)2 +5 C3 x2 ( 2y)3 +5 C4 x( 2y)4 +5

C5 ( 2y)5
= x5 10x4 y + 40x3 y 2 80x2 y 3 + 80xy 4 32y 5
Example 2.5 : Find the coe¢ cient of x6 in the expansion ( x12 x)18 :
Solution: Given the expansion (x+y)n ;the coe¢ cient of xr is given by n

Cr xn r y r
Thus we have n Cr ( x12 )n r (x)r with n = 18 using the general term
18 1 18 r r 18 2(18 r) r
Cr ( ) (x) = Cr x x =18 Cr (xr ) 36+2r+r
=18 Cr x3r 36
x2
We now want 3r 36 = 6 and this condition gives r = 14:
18
Thus Cr (x)3r 36
= 18
C14 x42 36
=18 C14 x6 = 3060x6 ; thus the coe¢ cient is 3060bbbbbb:
3
Example 2.6 : Find the term independant of y in the expansion ( xy 2 + x 8
3y
)
33
Solution: The procedure is essentially the same as in the previous example.
We take the general term with n = 8
n y3 n r x r y3 8 r x r
Cr xn r y r = n
Cr ( ) ( ) =8
Cr ( ) ( )
x2 3y x2 3y
For the term to be independant of y , we want the powers of r in the numerator to be
equal to the power of r in the denominator: 24 3r = r; which gives r = 6:
For r = 6 we get the term independent of y in the expansion as
8 x2 8! x2 28x2
C6 = =
36 6!2! 36 729
Example 2.7 : Find the value of k if the coe¢ cients of y 2 in the expansion of (1+ky)4 (2
y)3 has value 6
Solution: (1 + ky)4 = 1 + 4(ky) + 6(ky)2 + 4(ky)3 + (ky)4

(2 y)3 = 23 + 3 22 ( y) + 3 2( y)2 + ( y)3 = 8 12y + 6y 2 y3
Thus
(1 + ky)4 (2 y)3 : = (1 + 4ky + 6k 2 y 2 + 4k 3 y 3 + k 4 y 4 )(8 12y + 6y 2 y3)
Put the coe¢ cient of y 2 equal to 6 to get 6 48k +48k 2 = 6; k(k 1) = 0 and k = 0; k = 1
.
Example 2.8 : Expand (x + 3y)5 :Hence evaluate (1:03)5 correct to 3 decimal places.
(x+3y)5 = x5 +5x4 (3y)+10x3 (3y)2 +10x2 (3y)3 +5x(3y)4 +(3y)5 = x5 +15x4 y+90x3 y 2 +270x2 y 3 +405xy 4 +
To evaluate (1:03)5 we substitute x = 1; and y = 0:01 to get:

(1:05)5 = 1+15(0:01)+90(0:01)2 +270(0:01)3 +405(0:01)4 +243(0:01)5 = 1+0:15+0:009+0:00027 = 1:159
2.5.2
The Binomial expansion for negative and fractional numbers
n
It can be veri…ed that for 1< 2
< 1;
n n
n n ( 1) 2 n2 ( n2 1)( n2 2)
(1 + x) 2 = 1+ x+ 2 2
x + x3 + :::
2 2! 3!
which is also a binomial theorem.
34
Example 2.9 : If y is so small that its fourth and higher powers can be neglected,show
q
that ( 1+2y
1 2y
)n = 1 + 2ny + 2n2 y 2 + 43 n(n2 + 2)y 3 : By letting y = 17 and n = 1,prove that
p
5 = 2295
1029
q n n
Solution: ( 1+2y
1 2y
)n = (1 + 2y) 2 (1 2y) 2
Expanding by the binomial theorem as given

n n n n
n ( 1) ( 1)( n 2)
(1 + 2y) 2 = 1 + n2 (2y) + 2 2
2!
(2y)2 + 2 2
3!
2
(2y)3 + :::
4n(n 2) 2 8n(n 2)(n 4) 1 1

= 1+ny+ y + y 3 +::: = 1+ny+ (n2 2n)y 2 + (n3 6n2 +8n)y 3 +:::
8 48 2 6
n n n n n
n n ( )( 1) ( )( 1)( 2)
Also (1 2y) 2 = 1 2
( 2y) + 2
2!
2
( 2y)2 + 2 2
3!
2
( 2y)3 + :::
n ( n2 + 2) 2 n ( n2 + 2)( n2 + 4) 3 1
= 1+ny+ 4y + 8y +::: = 1+ny+(n2 +2n)y 2 + (n3 +6n2 +8n)y 3 +:::
2 2! 2 3! 6
n n
The product is (1 + 2y) 2 (1 2y) 2 = (1 + ny + 12 (n2 2n)y 2 + 16 (n3 6n2 + 8n)y 3 + :::)(1 +
ny + (n2 + 2n)y 2 + 61 (n3 + 6n2 + 8n)y 3 + ::: )
which gives
4
= 1 + 2ny + 2n2 y 2 + n(n2 + 2)y 3 + :::
3
for n = 1; y = 17 then
r
(1+ 27 )
(1 2 )
= 1 + 27 + 49
2
+ 4
343
:
7
s r
9
7 9 343 + 98 + 14 + 4 459
5 = = =
7
5 343 343
p 2295
Thus we get the result 5 = 1029
:
p
3 459 3 5 459 p 459 5
p = ; = ; 5=
5 343 5 343 343 3
p p
Example 2.10 : Find the expansion of 1 3x:Hence evaluate 0:7correct to four
decimal places.
35
n(n 1) n(n 1)(n 2)
Solution: (1 3x)n = 1 + n( 3x) + 2!
( 3x)2 + 3!
( 3x)3 + :::
and
p 1 1 1 1
( 1) 2 1 1
( 1)( 12 2) 3 9 81 3
(1 3x) = (1 3x) 2 = 1 (3x)+ 2 2 9x 2 2
27x3 +::: = 1 x x2 x +:::
2 2! 3! 2 8 48
p 1 1
We write 0:7 = (0:7) 2 = (1 3(0:1)) 2 with x = 0:1:
Substituting gives:
p 1 1 3 9 81
0:7 = (0:7) 2 = (1 3(0:1)) 2 = 1 (0:1) (0:1)2 (0:1)3 +::: = 1 0:15 0:01125 = 0:8388
2 8 48
Exercise 5
1 p
1. Expand (1 + 3x) 3 : Hence evaluate 3 1:06 correct to 4 decimal places.
2. Obtain the …rst 4 terms of the expansion (1 + 2x)12 in ascending powers of x. Hence
…nd the value of (0:998)12 correct to four decimal places.
p
3. Show that (9 + y 2 ) t 3 + 16 x2 316 1
x4 :For what values of x is the expansion valid.?
10
x5 y3
4. Find the term independent of x in the expansion y4
+ 2xx
:
q
1+2x
5. Expand in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x2 . By
1 2x
1
p 7
substituting x = 100 .Show that 5 t 7 50 .
q
6. If x is so small that its fourth and higher powers can be negleted, show that ( 1+x
1 x
)3 =
1 + 3x + 29 x2 + 38x3 :
18
1
7. Find the coe¢ cients of y 9 in the expansion y3
y :
1
8. Expand (1 + x) 1 + (1 + 2x) 2 as far as terms in x3 .State the range of values for which
the expansion is valid.
3
1+ 12 y 2
9. Find the expansion of 1 12 y
in ascending powers of y as far as the term in y 3 .
10. If x is so small that terms in xn , n > 3 can be negleted and 3+ax 1

3+bx
= (1 x) 3 .Find
1
the values of a and b . Hence evaluate (0:96) 3 .
11. Find b if the coe¢ cients of x in the expansion of (1 + bx)8 (1 + 3x)4 (1 + x)3 (1 + 2x)4
is zero.What is the coe¢ cient of x3 .
36
3 Real Sequences and Series
3.1 Objectives
In this module:
We introduce the concepts of sequences and series and explain the relationship between
them.
We discuss with examples the Arithmetic and Geometric progressions as special cases.
We end the module with discussions on the Arithmetic mean, the Geometric mean and
the Sum to in…nity of a geometric progression.
At the end of this module students should be able to:
De…ne a sequence and identify di¤erent types of sequences.

De…ne a series and identify various types of series.
Identify an Arithmetic Progression (AP) and …nd the sum of n terms of any AP.
Identify a Geometric Progression (GP) and …nd the sum of n terms, or the sum to
in…nity of any GP.
Find the Arithmetic Mean and the Geometric Mean of progressions.
Students should:
Explore notes and exercises, individually and in groups;

Take and pass on-line and other self assessment tests.
37
3.4 Sequences
Introduction:
De…nition 3.1 : A sequence fun gkn=1 = fu1 ; u2 ; u3 ; :::uk g or fun g1

n=1 = fu1 ; u2 ; u3 ; :::un ; :::g
is a function whose domain is a subset of natural numbers.
In other words, it is a set of numbers or quantities u1 ; u2 ; :::; un ; :: each of which is obtained

by a prescribed rule, that is un = f (n): Speci…c terms can be obtained by substituting
n = 1; 2; 3:::; in the general term un .
For example: 1; 3; 5; 7; :::; is a sequence in which un = 2n 1: The …fth term of the sequence
is u5 = 2(5) 1 = 9:
Similarly 2; 8; 32; :::; is a sequence in which un = 2 4n 1 : Thus u5 = 2 44 = 2 256 = 512:
12 ; 22 ; 32 ; 42 ; :::; is a sequence in which un = ( 1)n 1 n2 :Thus u5 = ( 1)(5 1)
:52 = 25:
When the pattern in which the terms of a sequence can be obtained is not so easily recognised,
the form of the general term un is more di¢ cult to establish, as we see in the following
example; 1; 7; 15; 25; :::; is a sequence in which un = ( 1)n [n(n + 3) 3]: Thus u5 =
( 1)5 [5(5 + 3) 3] = 1:37 = 37:
De…nition 3.2 : Finite Sequence: A sequence that contains only a …nite number of terms
is called a …nite sequence. Finite sequences have domains that are proper …nite subsets of N.
In general fun gkn=1 = fu1 ; u2 ; u3 ; :::uk g:
5
In particular f1; 3; 5; 7; 9g = f2n 1g5n=1 and f( 1)n 1 n2 gn=1 = f12 ; 22 ; 32 ; 42 ; 52 g =
f1; 4; 9; 16; 25g:In these two examples the domain of the function f (n) is the set of …ve
…rst natural numbers f1; 2; 3; 4; 5g:
De…nition 3.3 : In…nite Sequence: A sequence is said to be in…nite if the terms of the
sequence are not …nite.In general fun g1
n=1 = fu1 ; u2 ; u3 ; :::un ; :::g . In…nite sequences have
domain N or any in…nite subset of N that is equivalent to N .

1
In particular f1; 3; 5; 7; :::g = f2n 1g1
n=1 : and f( 1)
n 1 2
n gn=1 = f12 ; 22 ; 32 ; 42 ; 52 ; :::g =
f1; 4; 9; 16; 25; :::g are examples of in…nite sequences. So are reciprocals of natural num-
bers f1, 21 ; 13 ; :::g = f n1 g1
n=1 :
In…nite sequences are more interesting than …nite ones and lead to the de…nition of series.
When successive terms of an in…nite sequence get closer and closer to a real number L, we say
L is the limit of the sequence. Thus n1 gets closer and closer to 0 as n gets larger and larger and
we say the sequencef n1 g1n=1 has limit 0. The sequence is said to converge. Some sequences
do not converge. For example the terms in the sequence f1; 3; 5; 7; :::g = f2n 1g1 n=1 gets
larger and larger as n increases and the sequence does not converge. We say such sequenes
diverge. This means that a sequence that is not convergent is said to diverge.
38
3.5 Series
De…nition 3.4 : Given a sequence fun g1 1

n=1 we can form a new sequence fSn gn=1 by
taking sum to n terms of the given sequence.
X
1 X
2 X
k
We let S1 = un = u1 ; S2 = un = u1 + u2 ; and generally Sk = un = u1 + u2 +
n=1 n=1 n=1
u3 + ::: + uk .
X
1
Sn is called the nth partial sum of the sequence and the in…nite sum un = u1 + u2 + u3 +
n=1
::: + un + un+1 + ::: is called a series.
The sum S of an in…nite series is given by the limit of Sn as n tends to 1. When this sum
exists, we say the in…nite series is convergent. When this sum does not exist the series is
said to be nonconvergent. Suppose that for any given positive number k, Sn > k for all n
or Sn < k then the series is said to diverge. Thus 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16: is the fourth partial
Xk X1
sum of (2n 1) and is a …nite series. The in…nite series (2n 1) is not convergent.
n=1 n=1
We shall be looking at some special cases of in…nite series which are convergent in the next
section.
3.5.1 Arithmetic Progression (AP)
We de…ne an Arithmetic Progression (AP) as a …nite sequence of terms in which each term
other than the …rst is obtained from the preceding one by adding a constant number. Thus
if u1 = a, say, u2 = u1 + d = a + d; similary u3 = u2 + d = (a + d) + d = a + 2d and in general
un = un 1 + d = a + (n 1)d. We see that the di¤erence between any two consecutive terms
is the constant d; uk uk 1 = d. This is why the constant d, is called the common di¤erence
of the AP. For an AP with n terms we call the nth term the last term and it is denoted by
l. In order to …nd out whether a given sequence is an AP, we con…rm that the di¤erence
between consecutive terms is constant.
Example 3.1 : If the third term of an Arithmetic Progression is 10 and the seventh term
is 34. Find the …rst term and the common di¤erence of the AP.
Solution: Let a be the …rst term and d the common di¤erence of the AP. Then the third
and seventh terms are a + 2d and a + 6d respectively.
Thus a + 2d = 10 and a + 6d = 34: Solving for a and d we obtain a = 2 and d = 6.
Example 3.2 : If the 9th term of an AP is three times the 5th term, …nd a relationship
between a and d. Prove that the 8th term is …ve times the 4th term.
39
Solution: Let a be the …rst term and d the common di¤erence of the AP. Then the 9th and
5th terms are therefore a + 8d and a + 4d respectively.
Thus a + 8d = 3(a + 4d) ) a + 8d = 3a + 12d ) 2a = 4d ) a = 2d
This is the relationship we seek.
To prove that the 8th term is …ve times the 4th term, we have that the 8th and the 4th
terms are a + 7d and a + 3d respectively. But a = 2d, thus the 8th term is 5d: Similarly
the 4th term is d:
The 8th term is …ve times the 4th term.
De…nition 3.5 : Arithmetic Series: The Arithmetic series is de…ned as the sum of the
terms of an AP.
n
Example 3.3 : Consider the sum of the …rst n positive integers, that is Sn = r=1 r =
1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + n.
Solution: Writing the sum as Sn with the smallest term …rst we have Sn = 1 + 2 + 3 + ::: +
n.
Rewriting the sum as Sn with the largest term …rst we have Sn = n + (n 1) + (n 2) +
::: + 1.
Adding the 2 equations term by term we have 2Sn = (n + 1) + (n + 1) + ::: + (n + 1) (n
times)
= n(n + 1). Thus Sn = n2 (n + 1)
This result can also be proved using the principle of induction.
Example 3.4 : Consider the sum of the …rst n odd positive integers.
Pn
Solution: It can be written as Sn = 1 + 3 + 5 + ::: + (2n 1) = r=1 (2r 1)
Using the method we introduced above we rewrite it as Sn = (2n 1) + (2n 3) + (2n
5) + ::: + 1
Adding the 2 equations we get 2Sn = 2n + 2n + 2n + ::: + 2n (n times)
= n(2n) = 2n2 : Thus Sn = n2 :
In general, when Sn denotes the sum of n terms of an Arithmetic Progression,
Sn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + ::: + [a + (n 2)d] + [a + (n 1)d] and we can rewrite it
as:
Sn = [a + (n 1)d] + [a + (n 2)d] + [a + (n 3)d] + ::: + (a + d) + a
40
Adding the 2 equations we get, 2Sn = [2a + (n 1)d] + [2a + (n 1)d] + [2a + (n 1)d] +
::: + [2a + (n 1)d]
= n[2a + (n 1)d] ( n times). Thus Sn = n2 [2a + (n 1)d]:
Denoting the nth term of an AP with n terms, by l we can write the result in the form
Sn = n2 [a + a + (n 1)d] = n2 (a + l); where l = a + (n 1)d.
This result can also be established using the principle of induction.
Example 3.5 : The 10th term of a certain AP is 29 and the 20th term is 69. Find the
sum of the …rst 20 terms of the AP.
Solution: The 10th and the 20th terms are a+9d and a+19d respectively. Thus a+9d = 29
and a + 19d = 69
Solving for a and d, we obtain a = 7 and d = 4.
20
Now S20 = 2
[2(7) + (20 1)( 4)] = 10[14 76] = 620
Example 3.6 : The 9th term of an AP is 24 and the sum of the …rst 9 terms is 126. Find
an expression for the nth term and the sum to n terms.
Solution: The 9th term is a + 8d. Thus a + 8d = 24

The sum of the …rst 9 terms is S9 = 92 [2a + (9 1)d] = 126 ) 92 [a + a + 8d] = 126
Substituting for a + 8d we have 9(a + 24) = 252 ) 9a + 216 = 252 ) a = 4
5
Substituting for a we have d = 2
Thus the expression for the nth term is l = a + (n 1)d = 4 + (n 1) 52 = 5n+3

2
,
5n2 +11n
and the expression for sum to n terms is Sn = n2 [2a + (n 1)d] = n2 [8 + 5n 5
2
] = 4
De…nition 3.6 : The Arithmetic Mean (AM)): Let x; y and z be three consecutive
terms of an AP. We call y the Arithmetic mean between x and z. Now the common di¤erence
of the AP is given by d = y x = z y: Therefore 2y = x + z: Hence y = x+z 2
.
Also, in a …nite Arithmetic Progression, u1 = a; u2 = a + d; u3 = a + 2d; :::; un 1 =

a + (n 2)d; un = a + (n 1)d; the terms in between the …rst term u1 and the last un (i.e
u2 ; u3 ; ::; un 1 ) are called the Arithmetic means between u1 and un .
For example, in the …nite AP 2; 7; 12; 17; 22; 27; 32; the numbers 7; 12; 17; 22; 27 are the …ve
Arithmetic means between 2 and 32.
Example 3.7 : Insert three Arithmetic means between 25 and 9.
41
Solution: In this case, we have u1 = 25; u2 ; u3 ; u4 ; u5 = 9: Since u5 = a + 4d; we have
9 = 25 + 4d ) d = 4: Thus u2 = a + d = 25 4 = 21
u3 = a + 2d = 25 8 = 17
u4 = a + 3d = 25 12 = 13
Therefore, the AP is 25; 21; 17; 13; 9:
Example 3.8 : p; q; r are three consecutive terms of an AP whose sum is 21. The ratio
p : r = 6 : 1. Find p; q and r.
Solution: By assumption, the sum of the three terms of the AP is 21. That is
p + q + r = 21:
p 6
p:r=6:1) r
= 1
or p = 6r
p+r
But q = 2
Since p; q; r are three consecutive terms of an AP.

6r+r 7r
Substituting we have q = 2
= 2
and
7r
6r + 2
+ r = 21 ) 12r + 7r + 2r = 42 ) r = 2
) p = 6r = 6(2) = 12 and q = 7r
2
= 7(2)
2
=7
) (p; q; r) = (12; 7; 2):
3.5.2 Geometric Progresion(GP)
De…nition 3.7 : A Geometric Progression (GP) is a sequence of numbers in which each

term other than the …rst is obtained from the preceding one by the multiplication of a non-zero
constant number called the common ratio.
In otherwords, it is a progression in which the ratio between any two consecutive terms is con-
stant (i.e the same). The common ratio is usually denoted by r. The …rst term of a GP is usu-
ally denoted by a. Hence a typical GP takes the following form: a; ar; ar2 ; :::; arn 1 :Consequently
the nth term of a GP is given by un = l = arn 1 :
Example 3.9 : The third term of a Geometric Progression is 10, and the sixth term is 80.
Find the common ratio and the …rst term of the GP.
Solution: Let a and r denote the …rst term and the common ratio respectively of the GP.
Then ar2 = 10 and ar5 = 80 . Eliminating a, we have r3 = 8 ) r = 2:Hence 4a = 10 )
a = 10
4
= 2 12 :
42
De…nition 3.8 : Geomtric Series: A Geometric series is de…ned as the sum of the
terms of a Geometric Progression. The sum of n terms of a GP is easily obtained by the
following argument.
A typical Geometric series is given by Sn = a + ar + ar2 + ::: + arn 2

+ arn 1
Multiplying each term in the equation above by r we get rSn = ar+ar2 +ar3 +:::+arn 1 +arn
Subtracting the second equation from the …rst equation we have
a(1 rn )
Sn rSn = a arn ) (1 r)Sn = a(1 r n ) ) Sn = 1 r
:
a(1 r n ) a(r n 1)
Hence Sn = 1 r
; for 1 < r < 1 or Sn = r 1
; for j r j > 1:
Or simply,
a(1 r n ) a(r n 1)
Sn = 1 r
; if r < 1 and Sn = r 1
; if r > 1 .
Example 3.10 : Find the sum of the …rst eight terms of the GP 5 + 15 + 45 + :::
a(r n 1)
Solution: In this case a = 5; and r = 3:Hence Sn = r 1
; since r > 1
5(38 1) 5(6561 1)
That is S8 = 3 1
= 2
= 16400:
Example 3.11 : In a GP, the sum of the second and third terms is 9; and the seventh term
is eight times the fourth term. Find the …rst term, the common ratio and the …fth term.
Solution:
Let a and r denote the …rst term and the common ratio respectively. Then
ar + ar2 = 9 ) ar(1 + r) = 9 and ar6 = 8ar3 ) r3 = 8 ) r = 2:
Substitute r = 2 in the …rst equation to have 6a = 9 ) a = 23 :
3
Thus the …rst term a = 2
and the common ratio r = 2. Therefore the …fth term is ar4 :That
is 23 (24 ) = 24:
De…nition 3.9 : Geometric Mean (GM): Let x; y and z be three consecutive terms of a
GP with common ratio r. We call y the geometric mean between x and z. Thus r = xy = yz :
p
Hence y 2 = xz and so y = xz
In a …nite Geometric Progreession, u1 = a; u2 = ar; u3 = ar2 :::; un 1 = arn 2 ; un = arn 1 ;

the terms in between u1 and un (i.e u2 ; u3 ; :::; un 1 ) are called the geometric means between
u1 and un . For instance, in the …nite GP 2; 6; 18; 54; 162; the numbers 6; 18; 54 are the three
Geometric means between 2 and 162.
1
Example 3.12 : Insert four geometric means between 2 and 16384
:
43
1
Solution: In this case, we have u1 = 2; u2 ; u3 ; u4 ; u5 ; u6 = 16384
:
Since u6 = ar5 ; we have that
1 1 1 1 1
16384
= 2r5 ) r5 = 2(16384)
i.e r5 = 215
)r= 23
= 8
:
1 1
Hence u2 = ar = 2( 8
) = 4
1 2 1
u3 = ar2 = 2 8
= 32
1 3 1
u4 = ar3 = 2 8
= 256
1 4 1
u = ar4 = 2 8
= 2048
Thus the four geometric means are 14 ; 1

; 1 ;
32 256
1
2048
:
Hence the GP is 2; 41 ; 1
; 1 ;
32 256
1
; 1 :
2048 16384
243
Example 3.13 : The third term of a geometric progression is 36 and the sixth term is 2
:
Find the …rst term, the common ratio and the sum of the …rst eight terms.
Solution: Let a be the …rst term and r the common ratio of the GP. Then we have that
243
u3 = ar2 = 36 and u6 = ar5 = 2
.
Solving for a and r, we have a = 16 and r = 32 : Thus the sum of the …rst eight terms is
h 8
i
16 ( 32 ) 1
S8 = 3
1
= 788 18 :
2
Example 3.14 : The …fth, nineth and the sixteenth terms of an AP are consecutive terms
of a GP. The sum of the …rst twelve terms of the AP is 492. Find the …rst term of the AP
and the common ratio of the GP.
Solution: Let a be the …rst term and d the common di¤erence of the AP. Then we have
that
u5 = a + 4d; u9 = a + 8d and u16 = a + 15d:
Since these form three consecutive terms of a GP, then the common ratio r is given by
a+8d a+15d
r= a+4d
= a+8d
:
) (a + 8d)2 = (a + 4d) (a + 15d)

) a2 + 16ad + 64d2 = a2 + 19ad + 60d2
) 64d2 60d2 = 19ad 16ad
) 4d2 = 3ad
3a
)d= 4
:
44
The sum of the …rst twelve terms is 492. That is
12
S12 = 2
[2a + 11d] = 492; ) 6 [2a + 11d] = 492 ) 2a + 11d = 82
3a
Substitute for d to get 2a + 11 4
= 82 ) 8a + 33a = 328 ) 41a = 328 ) a = 8:
3 8
Substitute for a to get d = 4
= 6:
Substituting for a and d in the …rst equation in order to …nd r we have
8+8(6) 8+48 56
r= 8+4(6)
= 8+24
= 32
= 74 :
Thus the …rst term of the AP is 8 and the common ratio of the GP is 74 :
Execise
1. If x + 1; x + 3 and x + 7 are consecutive terms of a GP, …nd the value(s) of x.
2. The third term of a GP is …ve and the eighth term is 160. Find the …rst term and the
common ratio of the GP.
3. The …rst term of a GP is 18 and the sum to in…nity is 20. Find the common ratio and
the sum of the …rst 6 terms.
1 1 1 1
4. Prove that the sum to n terms of the GP 1 + a
+ a2
+ a3
+ ::: + an 1 is equal to
an 1
a 1
a1 n :
5. The …rst three tems of a GP are also the …rst, nineth and eleventh terms respectively
of an AP. Given that the terms of the GP are all di¤erent, …nd the common ratio r, if
the sum to in…nity of the GP is 8. Find also the …rst term and the common di¤erence
of the AP.
6. The coe¢ cients of y n ; y n+1 ; y n+2 in the binomial expansion of (1 + y)14 are in AP. Find
the possible values of n.
7. The sum of the …rst q terms of an AP is Q and the sum of the …rst r terms of the AP
is R. Show that the common di¤erence of the AP is 2(rQ qR)
qr(q r)
:
8. The pth, qth and rth terms of an AP are consecutive terms of a GP. Prove that the
q 2 pr
ratio of the …rst term of the AP to its common di¤erence is 1 + r+p 2q
: Hence given
2
that 3(q pr) = r + p 2q and that the 12th term of the AP is 74, …nd the common
di¤erence of the AP.
9. Show that the sum to n terms of the series log a + log ax + log ax2 + ::: is n log a +
1
2
n(n 1) log x:
10. If the sum of n terms of the series 1 + 8 + 15 + 22 + ::: is 5500, then …nd n.
45
11. The sum of the second and fourth terms of an AP is 15, and the sum of the …fth and
sixth terms is 25. Find the …rst term and the common di¤erence of the AP.
12. The sum of the …rst two terms of a GP is 3, and the sum of the second and third terms
is 6. Find the …rst term and the common ratio.
3.5.3 In…nite Series
In the work so far on Arithmetic Progressions and Geometric Progressions, we have been
concerned with a limited number of terms of the series. That is, we have found Sn ; where n
is a …nite number. But in some situations, the series goes on for ever and the problem then
arises to …nding the sum Sn as n tends to in…nity.
With an AP, Sn = n2 [2a + (n 1)d] : Therefore with …nite values for a and d, as n increases,
so does the value of Sn : Thus if n tends to in…nity, then Sn tends to in…nity in a positive or
negative sense depending on the series.
n
On the other hand, the sum of n terms of a GP is given by Sn = a(11 rr ) for jrj < 1:
Recall that for jrj < 1; rn gets smaller and smaller as n gets larger and larger. In the lim-
iting situation, therefore, when n approaches in…nity, rn tends to zero. This limiting value
of Sn is called the sum to in…nity of the in…nite GP. Then the sum of the GP becomes
S = S1 = limn!1 Sn = 1 a r .
4 Quadratic Equations and Remainder Theorem
In this module:
We introduce various methods of solving quadratic equations and explore the properties
of the roots.
We explore quadratic inequalities and their solutions.
We introduce the remainder theorem and highlight its relationship with solutions of
quadratic equations.
46
Find the roots of quadratic equations using di¤erent methods as appropriate.
Construct quadratic equations based on given root properties.
Solve simple problems involving properties of roots of quadratic equations.
Discuss and solve quadratic inequalities.
Decide when and how to use the remainder theorem.
4.3 Learning activities
Students should:
4.4 Quadratic Equations
De…nition 4.1 : Quadratic Equation: Any equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where
a 6= 0; b and c are constants is called a quadratic equation. Examples include 3x2 + 2x + 4 =
0; x2 6x = 0 and x2 7 = 0
De…nition 4.2 : Solutions to Quadratic Equations: A number p is said to be a

solution or a root of a quadratic equation if by replacing x by p the LHS and the RHS of the
quadratic equation are equal. For example, x = 3, is the solution or a root of x2 5x + 6 = 0
because when 3 is substituted in the LHS, we have 32 5(3) + 6 = 9 15 + 6 = 0 = RHS:
When p1 and p2 are two distinct roots of a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, we can write
ax2 + bx + c = (x p1 )(x p2 ):
The factorisation of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is simple in the special cases
when b = 0 or c = 0.
If c = 0, we have ax2 + bx = 0 ) x(ax + b) = 0 ) x = 0 or ax + b = 0 :
47
)The solutions of the equation are x = 0 and x = a
b
:
Similarly If b = 0, we have ax2 + c = 0:
q q q
) x2 + ac = 0 ) x2 = a
c
and our solutios are x = a
c
and x = a
c
:
Example 4.1 : Solve the equations: 2x2 14x = 0 and 3x2 9 = 0:
Solution: 2x2 14x = 2x(x 7)

) 2x2 14x = 0 ) 2x(x 7) = 0 ) 2x = 0 and x 7 = 0:
) x = 0 and x = 7:
p p p
Similarly 3x2 9 = 0 ) 3x2 = 9 ) x = 3)x= 3 and x = + 3:
we note that the quadratic equations each have 2 distinct solutions.
De…nition 4.3 : The Discriminant: Given any quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, the
quantity D = b2 4ac is called the discriminant of the equation. It is used to determine the
nature of roots of the quadratic equation.
We can always give the general solution to the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 by
completing the square in the following way:
b2 b2 4ac
ax2 + bx + c = afx2 + ab x + ac g = af(x + b 2
2a
) + c
a 4a2
g = af(x + b 2
2a
) + 4a2
g
b 2 b2 4ac
Hence if ax2 + bx + c = 0 then f(x + 2a
) + 4a2
g = 0 as we are given a 6= 0:
Thus, p p
b b2 4ac b D
x= =
2a 2a
Whenp
the discriminant b2 4ac = D is a a perfect square d2 , that is D = d2 and x =
b D b d
2a
= 2a :
b d b+d
then (x 2a
) and (x 2a
) are the factors of the quadratic equation.
b d b+d
The solutions of the equation are therefore x = 2a
and x = 2a
:
Example 4.2 : Let us use this scheme to factorise 2x2 7x + 3 = 0:
Solution: The discriminant, b2 4ac = 72 4(2)(3) = 25 = D is a perfect square and d is 5:

2 1 12
Our solutions are x = 4
= 2
and x = 4
= 3:
Exercise 6 Solve the following equations.
48
1. .x2 5x 6=0
2. 3x2 7x = 0
3. 4x2 8x + 4 = 0
4. x(x 3) = x2 6
5. 3 x 2x2 = 0
6. x2 2ax + a2 = 0
1 1
7. x2
1= x
1
8. x(1 x) = x(2x 1)
9. (x 2)(x + 3) = (x 2)(4 x)
1 2
10. x+1
+ x+2
=1
4.4.1 Solution of Quadratic Equations without Rational Roots
When a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 does not have rational roots (and this we know
is when the discriminant b2 4ac is not a perfect square), We can still use the method of
completing the square to obtain the solution.
Example 4.3 : Solve the equation 2x2 5x + 1 = 0
Solution: We now give a special case of the method of completing the square.
5
We divide the equation by 2 , the coe¢ cient of x2 and we obtain x2 2
x+ 12 = 0 ) x2 5
2
x =
1
2
Add the square of half of the coe¢ cient of x in the last expression above; i.e. ( 12 5 2
2
) to
both sides to make the LHS a perfect square, we have:
q
2 2 2
x2 52 x2 + 54 = 12 + 54 ) x 54 = 17 16
) x 5
4
= 17
16
:
q p p
5 17 5 17 5 17
)x= 4 16
) x = 4
+ 4
and x = 4 4
:
Generally, for ax2 + bx + c = 0; we can always follow this same procedure.

Thus dividing the equation by a , the coe¢ cient of x2 and we obtain x2 + ab x + c
a
= 0:
) x2 + ab x = a
c
:
Add the square of half of the coe¢ cient of x in the last expression above to both sides to
2 2
make the LHS a perfect square, x2 + ab x + 12 ab = ac + 12 ab :
49
b 2 c b 2 b 2 4ac+b2 b2 4ac
) x+ a
= a
+ 2a
) x+ a
= 4a2
= 4a2
:
b 2 b2 4ac
i.e x + a
= 4a2
:
q p p
b b2 4ac b2 4ac b b2 4ac
) x+ a
= 4a2
= 2a
)x= 2a 2a
:
p
)x= b b2 4ac
2a
This is called the quadratic formula.
4.4.2 Nature of the Roots of Quadratic Equations

p
b+ b2 4ac
Using the quadratic
p
formula to solve the equation ax2 +bx+c = 0;we see that x = 2a
2
and x = b 2ab 4ac
Therefore in general, a quadratic equation has two solutions (called the roots).
p
If b2 4ac is positive, then b2 4ac can be evaluated and the equation will have two real
and distinct(di¤erent) roots. This includes the case when it is a perfect square.
If b2 4ac is zero, then the equation can be satis…ed by x = 2ab and we say it has repeated
roots or equal roots
p
If b2 4ac is negative, b2 4ac has no real value and we say the equation has complex roots
In summary, the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two real and distinct roots if b2 4ac > 0;has
equal roots if b2 4ac = 0 and it has complex roots if b2 4ac < 0:
Example 4.4 : Determine the nature of roots of the equations.
1. 4x2 7x + 3 = 0
2. x2 + ax + a2 = 0
3. x2 px q 2 = 0:
Solution:
1. Given 4x2 7x + 3 = 0; ) b2 4ac = ( 7)2 4(4)(3) = 1 i.e b2 4ac = 1 > 0, So the

equation has two distinct roots. More over, 1 is a perfect square so the equation also
has rational roots.
2. x2 + ax + a2 = 0 ) b2 4ac = a2 4(1)(a2 ) = 3a2 since a2 is positive for all real and
non zero a, ) 3a2 < 0: i.e b2 4ac < 0 so the equation has no real roots for any real
and non zero value of a It has complex roots.
3. x2 px2 q 2 = 0; b2 4ac = ( p)2 4(1)( q 2 ) = p2 + 4q 2 :As p2 and q 2 are both
positive b2 4ac > 0 therefore, the equation has two real and distinct roots
50
Example 4.5 : Find the value of k if 2x2 kx + 8 = 0 has equal roots.
Solution: For the roots of 2x2 kx + 8 = 0 to be equal, the discriminant must be zero.
i.e b2 4ac = 0 ) ( k)2 4(2)(8) = 0 ) k 2 64 = 0 ) k = 8:
Exercise 7 Find the roots of the following equations.
1. 2x2 6x + 4 = 0:
2. x2 + 4x 8 = 0:
3. 2x2 + 7x + 3 = 0
4. x2 2x + a = 0:
5. x2 -2ax + b = 0:
6. ax2 bx + c = 0:
Exercise 8 Determine the nature of roots of the following equations and hence …nd them.
1. x2 6x + 9 = 0:
2. 2x2 5x + 3 = 0:
3. x2 6x + 10 = 0:
4. 3x2 + 4x + 2 = 0:
5. 4x2 12x + 9 = 0:
6. 4x2 12x 9 = 0:
7. For what value of k is 9x2 + kx + 16 a perfect square?
8. The roots of 3x2 + kx + 12 = 0 are equal, …nd k:
9. Prove that kx2 2x (k 2) = 0 has real roots for any value of k:
10. Show that the roots of ax2 + (a + b)x + b = 0 are real for any values of a and b .
11. Find the relationship between p and q if the roots of px2 + qx + 1 = 0 are equal.
12. If f = x2 +1
2x 1
is real and p = 3 x2 +1
2x 1
; prove that p2 = 3 (p + 3) > 0:
51
4.4.3 Relationship between the Roots and Coe¢ cients of a Quadratic Equation
Let and be the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 +bx + c = 0:

The equations (x ) (x ) = 0 and ax2 + bx + c = 0 have the same solution.
) x2 ( + )x + = 0 and x2 + ab x + ac = 0 have the same solution. As the LHS and
the RHS of both equations have the same coe¢ cients of x2 ; it follows that the coe¢ ceints of
x and the constant terms are equal
Hence x2 ( + )x + x2 + ab x + c
a
= 0:
) + = b
a
and = c
a
and the equation may be written as
x2 ( sum of roots) x + product of roots = 0:
3 3 6
So if 2x2 3x + 6 = 0 then the sum + = ( 2
) = 2
and the product = 2
= 3:
Also if a quadratic equation has roots whose sum is 7 and whose product is 10, then the
equation can be written as x2 7x + 10 = 0:
Symmetry of the roots: An expression involving the roots ; of a quadratic equation is
said to be symmetric if is subtituted for and for ; the expression remains the same.
For example, 1 + 1 becomes 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 when we replace by and by in the
expression. However 2 ; this becomes 2 which is not the same as the original
expression and is therefore not symmetric.
Example 4.6 : If and are the roots of the quadratic equation 2x2 7x+4 = 0; calculate
the values of (i) 2 + 2 (ii) + (iii) (iv) 3 + 3 :
7
Solution: From the given equation, the sum of the roots, + = 2
= 72 , and the
product of the roots, = 42 = 2: Thus, (i) ( + )2 = 2
+ 2
+2 ) 2+ 2 =
( + )2 2 :
7 2
But + = 7
2
and = 2: ) 2
+ 2
= 2
2(2) = 49
4
4= 33
4
:
2+ 2 33
33
(ii) + = = 4
2
= 8
using the results of (i) above.
(iii) Observe that ( )2 = 2

+ 2
2 = ( + )2 2 2 :
i.e ( )2 = ( + )2 4 :
q q q p
7 2
) = ( + )2 4 = 2
4 (2) = 17
4
= 17
2
(iv) Consider( + )3 = 3
+3 2
+3 2
+ 3
= 3
+ 3
+3 ( + ):
) ( + )3 3 ( + )= 3
+ 3
:
3
or 3
+ 3
=( + ) 3 ( + ) = ( + ) ( + )2 3 :
52
h i
7 7 2 175
= 2 2
3 (2) = 4
:
2 2
Example 4.7 : Write the equation of the quadratic function whose roots are ; where
; are the roots of the quadratic equation 2x2 + 7x + 4 = 0:
Solution: + = 72 ; = 4
2
= 2 and the equation may be written as x2 (sum of roots) x+
product of roots = 0.
Since 2
; 2 are the roots of the equation, sum of roots = 2
+ 2
= ( + )2 2 =
7 2
2
2 (2) = 33
4
:
Product of roots = 2 2
=( )2 = (2)2 = 4:
)The equation is x2 33
4
x +4 = 0 or 4x2 33x + 16 = 0:
Example 4.8 : If ; are the roots of the quadratic equation x2 3x 2 = 0; …nd the
quadratic equation whose roots are 3 ; 3 :
3 2
Solution: Since ; are the roots of x2 3x 2 = 0; + = 1
= 3 and = 1
= 2:
Now sum of roots of desired equation 3
+ 3
= ( + ) ( + )2 3 = 3 (32 3 ( 2)) =
45:
Product of roots of desired equation = 3 3
=( )3 = ( 2)3 = 8:
) The equation whose roots are 3
; 3
is x2 45x 8=0
Example 4.9 : (i)Find the range of values of k for which the equation x2 2x k = 0 has
real roots (ii) If the roots of this equation di¤er by one, …nd the value of k:
(i) If x2 2x k = 0 has real roots, then b2 4ac 0 ) ( 2)2 4 (1) ( k) = 0 ) 4 + 4k

0)k 1:
(ii) Let one root of the equation be ; then the other root is +1: Sum of roots = + +1 =
2 + 1 = ( 2) ) 2 + 1 = 2 ) = 21 :product of roots = ( + 1) = k; since = 12 ;
then k = 43 :
1. Write down the sum and the product of the roots of the following equations: (a)
x2 3x + 2 = 0 (b) 4x2 + 7x 3 = 0 (c) x(x 3) = x + 4 (d) x 2 1 = x+2
3
(e) x2 kx + k 2 =
0 (f) ax2 x(a + x) a = 0:
2. Write down the sums, the products and the equations whose roots are (a) 3,4 (b) 2; 12
2
(c) 13 ; 52 (d) - 14 ; 0 (e) a,a2 (f) (k + 1) ; k 2 3 (g)- ab ; cb
53
3. The roots of the equation 2x2 4x + 5 = 0 are and : Find the value of (a) 1 + 1
(b) ( + 1) ( + 1) (c) 2 + 2 (d) 2 + 2 (e)( )2 (f) + :(g) +1
1 1
+ +1 (h)
1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3
2 +
+ +2 (i) 2 +1 + 2 +1 (j) (k) + (l) :
4. The roots of x2 2x + 3 = 0 are and ; …nd the equations whose roots are (a) + 2
, + 2 (b) 1 ; 1 (c) 2 ; 2 (d) + (e) ; :
5. Write down and simplify the equation whose roots are the reciprocal of the roots of
3x2 + 2x 1 = 0 without solving the given equation.
6. Write down and simplify the equation whose roots are the double of those of 4x2
5x 2 = 0 without solving the equation.
7. Write down and simplify the equation whose roots are one less than those of 5x2 +
3x 2 = 0:
8. Write down the equation whose roots are minus those of 2x2 3x 1 = 0:
9. Find the value of k if the roots of 3x2 + 5x k di¤er by two.
10. Find the value of p if one root of x2 + px + 8 = 0 is the square of the other.
1
11. If and are the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0; …nd the equation whose roots are and
1
:
12. Find the relationship between a and c if one root of ax2 + bx +c = 0 is the reciprocal
of the other.
13. If one root of ax2 + bx + c = 0 is the triple of the other, prove that 3b2 16ac = 0
14. If and are the roots of the equation x2 + px + q = 0; …nd the roots of the equation
x2 + p2 x + p2 q = 0 in terms of and :
4.4.4 The Curve of a Quadratic Function
Quadratic function: Any function f whose general form is f (x) = ax2 + bx + c where
a; b and c are constants and a 6= 0 is called a quadratic function. Completing the square of
the RHS of the expression gives
h i
b2 b2
f (x) = a x2 + ab x + ac = a x2 + ab x + c = a x2 + ab x + 4a 2 4a 2 +c
h i h i
b2 b2 b2 2
= a x2 + ab x + 4a 2 + 4a
+ c
a
= a x 2
+ b
a
x + 4a2
+ b 4a4ac
b 2 4ac b2
=a x+ 2a
+ 4a
4ac b2 b 2
Now whatever value x takes, 4a
is a constant k say. Then x + 2a
0 as it is a square
quantity.
54
Therefore the function has a general form which is f (x) = a (zero or a +ve quantity) +k: So
2
if a is positive, i.e a 0; f (x) has value at least k i.e f (x) has its least value 4ac4a b when
x = 2ab : When a is negetive, i.e a < 0 then f (x) can never be greater than k. i.e f (x) has
2
the greatest value of 4ac4a b when x = 2ab
b
Now, x = 2a is the value of x corresponding to the greatest and least value of f (x): Taking
b b b b
two values of x that are symmetric about x = 2a i.e - 2a k gives f ( 2a +k) = f ( 2a k) =
4ac b2 b
2
ak + 4a i.e input of x symmetric about x = 2a give the same output of f (x):
From the analysis, we can deduce that when f (x) = ax2 + bx + c; then
b b
f (x) has (i) a least value of f ( 2a ) if a > 0 (ii) a greatest value of f ( 2a ) if a < 0 and is
b
symmetric in shape around the line x = 2a which is called the axis of the curve.
The diagrams below represent the two alternative graphs of the quadratic function, where
a > 0 (…rst red graph) and a < 0 (second blue graph) respectively.
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The curves representing any partiular quadratic function can now be sketched using this
information. For example, to sketch the curve representing f (x) = 2x2 7x 4; we proceed
as follows:
a = 2; b = 7 and c = 4
) f ( 2a
b
) = f ( 74 ) = 81
8
i.e f (x) has the least value of - 81
8
; when x = 74 : To locate the
curve accurately on the axes, we need one more pair of x and f (x): f (0) is easy to …nd i.e
f (0) = 4: Again we need the points at which f crosses the x axis. This is the solution of
2x2 7x 4 = 0 which is x = 12 and x = 4 The curve is shown below:
55
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For any quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c; the point at which the curve cuts the
x-axis is the solution of f (x) = 0 i.e ax2 + bx + c = 0: If ax2 + bx + c = 0 has real and
distinct roots, the curve cuts the x-axis at two di¤erent points which are the roots of the
quadratic:If the equation has equal roots, then the curve cuts (touches) the x-axis at 2
b
coincindent points which means it touches the x-axis at the point x = 2a .When the roots
are complex, the curve never touches the x-axis. Below are the possible diagrams of the
curve of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c; with black(…rst) depicting two di¤erent roots, red (second)
depicting real repeated roots while blue (third) complex roots.
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56
4.4.5 Quadratic Inequalities
Any inequality relationship that involves a quadratic function is called a quadratic inequality.
The range of values of x that satis…es the quadratic inequality (x 2)(2x+1)>0 can be found
graphically as follows.
Let f (x) = (x 2)(2x+1): The diagram below shows a sketch of f (x) from which we see that
f (x) > 0 (i.e the portion of the curve above the y-axis) are for values x greater than 2 and x
less than 12 : Therefore the range of values of x satisfying the inequality (x 2)(2x + 1) > 0
1
is x : x < 2
or x>2 :
Alternatively, we can solve the inequality by analytic method.
Consider (x 2)(2x + 1) > 0; (x 2) and (2x + 1) must have the same sign.
Either both are negetive or both are positive
) (x 2) > 0 and (2x + 1) > 0 or (x 2) < 0 and (2x + 1) < 0
1 1 1
) either x > 2 and x > 2
or x < 2 and x < 2
; ) x > 2 or x < 2
Example 4.10 : Find the range of values which are satis…ed by the inequality x2 8x+15 <
0
Solution: The LHS of the inequality can be factorised as (x 3)(x 5)

Graphical method:
The sketch of f (x) = (x 3)(x 5) is given below.
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The portion of the curve satis…ed by the inequality (portion below the x-axis) are for x
between 3 and 5 . Therefore the range of values satis…ed by the inequality is 3 < x < 5
Analytic method
Again, this can be solved analytically by observing that if (x 3)(x 5) < 0 then x 3 and
x 5 must have di¤erent signs. Either x 3 > 0 and x 5 < 0 or x 3 < 0 and x 5 > 0:
) either x > 3 and x < 5 or x < 3 and x > 5:
57
But the interval x < 3 and x > 5 has no solution because if x is greater than 3, it cannot be
less than 5:
) The range is x > 3 and x < 5 ) x 2 (3; 5) or 3 < x < 5:
Exercise 9 Find the range(or ranges) of x satisfying the following inequalities
1. (x + 2) (x 2) > 0:
2. (x 1) (x 2) > 0:
3. (2x 1) (x + 1) < 0:
4. x2 4x > 5:
5. (x 3) (x + 5) < 0:
6. 5x2 > 3x + 2:
7. (2 x) (x + 4) < 0:
8. 3x > x2 + 2:
9. (3 2x) (x + 5) > 0:
10. (x 1) (x + 2) < x (4 x) :
Example 4.11 : Find the range of values of k for which the equation x2 kx +k + 3 = 0
has real roots.
Solution: For x2 kx +k + 3 = 0 to have real roots, then b2 4ac 0:

) ( k)2 4 (1) (k + 3) 0 ) k2 4k 12 0:
From the graph of f (k) k2 4k 12 ) f (k) (k + 2) (k 6) :
From the diagram, we see that k 2 and k 6:
Example 4.12 : Find the set of values of p for which f (x) x2 3px + p > 0 for all x.
3p 2 3p 2 3p 2 9p2
Solution: f (x) x2 3px + p = x2 + 3px + 2 2
+p x+ 2
+p 4
:
9p2
)The least value of f (x) is p 4
:
9p2
So for f (x) to be greater than zero for all x, we must have that p 4
> 0:
) 4p 9p2 > 0 ) p (4 9p) > 0:
The sketch of f (p) = p (4 9p) is as below:
58
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y = p(4 9p)
) p > 0 and p < 49 :
Therefore, f (x) > 0 for all real x holds for the set of values of p such that 0 < p < 49 :
Example 4.13 : Find the range of values of x for which 2x 1 < x2 4 < 12
Solution: There are two inequality relationships here, viz

(a) 2x 1 < x2 4 and (b) x2 4 < 12:
For (a) 2x 1 < x2 4) x2 + 2x + 3 < 0 ) x2 2x 3 > 0 ) (x 3) (x + 1) > 0:
Let f (x) (x 3) (x + 1) : The graph of f (x) is as drawn below.
y = (x 3)(x + 1):
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From the graph, we can see that the region satis…ed by (a) is x < 1 and x > 3:
For (b) x2 4 < 12 ) x2 16 < 0 ) (x + 4) (x 4) < 0:
Let g(x) = (x + 4) (x 4) : The graph of g is as sketched below:
59
y = (x + 4)(x 4)
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From the graph of g(x), then g(x) < 0; if 4<x<4

The range of f (x) and g(x) can be represented on the same number line (see chapter one) to
obtain the range of values that satisfy (a) and (b) simultaneously.From the above we see that
the ranges of x that satisfy both a and b (this is where the lines overlap) are 4<x< 1
and 3 < x < 4:
Exercise 10
1. Find the range of values of k for which x2 + (k 3) x + k = 0 has (a) real and distinct
roots (b) roots of the same sign.
2. If x is real and x2 + (2 k)x + 1 2k = 0; show that k cannot lie between certain

limits and …nd these limits.
3. Find the limitations required on the values of real number c in order that the equation
x2 + 2cx c + 2 = 0 shall have real roots.
4. Prove that if x2 > k (x + 1) for all real x then 4 < k < 0:
5. Find the condition that must be satis…ed by k in order that the expression 2x2 + 6x +
1 + k (x2 + 2) may be positive for all real values of x:
6. Find the the range of values of x for which x 4 < x (x 4) 5:
7. (a) If x = 2 is a root of the equation 2 x2 + 2 (2 5) x + 8 = 0; …nd the possible

value(s) of and the corresponding value(s) of x:(b)Find the range(s) of possible values
of the real number if 2 x2 + 2 (2 + 5) x + 8 = 0 for all real values of x.
60
8. Determine for each of the expressions f (x) and g(x) the range(s) of values of x for
which it is positive. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places. Explain brie‡y the
reason for your answers. (a) f (x) = x2 + 4x 6 (b) g(x) = x2 8x + 2:
9. (a) State the range of values of x for which 2x2 + 5x 12 is negative. (b) The value of
a constant is such that the quadratic function f (x) = x2 4x + a + 3 is never negative.
Determine the nature of roots of the function f (x) = (x2 + 1)(a 1): Deduce the values
of a for which the equation has equal roots.
10. By eliminating x and y from the equation x1 + y1 = 1; x + y = a and xy = m; where a 6= 0:

Obtain a relationship between m and a given that a is real. Determine the ranges of
values of a for which m is real.
11. If a > 0; prove that the quadratic expression ax2 +bx+c is positive for all real values of
x; when b2 < 4ac: Hence …nd the range of values of p for which the quadratic function
f (x) 4x2 + 4px (3p2 + 4p 3) is positive for all real values of x: Illustrate your
result by sketching the graphs for each case p = 0; p = 1:
12. (a) If a is a positive constant, …nd the set of values of x for which a(x2 + 2x 8) is
negative.Find the value of a if this fuction has a minimum value of 11. (b) Find two
quadratic functions of x which are 0 at x = 1; which take value 10 when x = 0 and
has a maximum value of 18: Sketch the graph of these two functions.
13. Find the set of values of k for which f (x) 3x2 5x k is greater than unity for all
values of x: Show that for all k; the minimum value of f (x) occurs when x = 65 : Find
k if this minimum value is 0:
14. Prove that 3x2 4x + 2 > 0 for all real values of x.
15. Find the value of k(6= 1) so that the quadratic function k(x + 2)2 (x 1) (x 2) is
equal to 0: Find also (a) the range of k for which the function possesses a minimum
value, (b) The range of values of k for which the value of the function never exceeds
12:5: Sketch the graph of the funtion for k = 21 and for k = 2 12 :
16. Find the set of values of x for which 2x2 + 3x + 2 > 0
17. The root of the equation 9x2 + 6x + 1 = 4kx where k is a constant are denoted by
and
(a) Show that the equation whose roots are 1 and 1 is x2 + 6x + 9 = 4kx:(b) Find the
set of values of k for which and are real. (c) Find also the values of k for which
and are real and positive.
18. De…ne the function f as f : x ! x2 3x 4, for x 2 R: Find the range of f and the
values of x for which f (x) = 0:
61
4.5 The Remainder and Factor Theorems
The remainder theorem enables us to …nd the remainder when certain algebraic expres-
sions are divided by a given factor without necessarily performing the actual division. An
immediate consequence of the remainder theorem is the factor theorem.
4.5.1 The Remainder Theorem
If P (x) is a polynomial in x; then the remainder when P (x) is divided by (x b) is P (b).

Let P (x) be a polynomial in x; Q(x) be the quotient when P (x) is divided
by (x b) and R be the remainder. Thus P (x) = (x b)Q(x) + R:
) P (b) = (b b)Q(b) + R = 0Q(b) + R = R:
4.5.2 The Factor theorem
If P (x) vanishes when x = a, then (x a) is a factor of P (x). Thus, P (a) = 0 if (x a) is

a factor of P (x):
Example 4.14 : Find the remainder when x3 + 5x2 2x 1 is divided by (x + 3):
Solution: Let f (x) = x3 + 5x2 2x 1:Applying the remainder theorem we have:

f ( 3) = ( 3)3 + 5( 3)2 2( 3) 1= 27 + 45 + 6 1 = 23:
) the remainder is 23:
Example 4.15 : Find the values of the constants g and h if (x 1)and (3x 1)are both
factors of the polynomial 3x4 + gx3 6x2 + hx 1:
Solution: Let f (x) = 3x4 + gx3 6x2 + hx 1;

if (x 1) is a factor, then f (1) = 0;
thus f (1) = 3 + g 6+h 1 = 0; i.e. g + h = 4:::(i)
If (3x 1) is a factor, then f ( 31 ) = 0;
thus f ( 31 ) = 3( 13 )4 + g( 13 )3 6( 13 )2 + h 13 1 = 0:
1 g 2 h
) 27
+ 27 3
+ 3
1 = 0;
g h 44
i.e. 27
+ 3
= 27
or g + 9h = 44:::(ii):
From (i) and (ii) we have a system of simultaneous equations and solving we have g = 1
and h = 5:
62
Example 4.16 : Find the value of m if (x 2) is a factor of x3 + mx2 4x + 4. Find the
other factors of the expression.
Solution: Let f (x) = x3 + mx2 4x + 4;Then f (2) = 23 + 4m 8 + 4 = 0 =) 4m = 4

m= 1: The expression is x3 x2 4x + 4:
Using factor theorem let’s check whether (x 1) and (x + 2) are factors:
f ( 1) = 1 1 + 4 + 4 = 6; thus (x + 1) is not a factor.
f (1) = 1 1 4 + 4 = 0; hence (x 1) is a factor.
f ( 2) = ( 2)3 4 4( 2) + 4 = 8 4 + 8 + 4 = 0; giving (x + 2) as a factor. Now,
(x 2)(x 1)(x + 2) = (x2 3x + 2)(x + 2) = x3 x2 4x + 4:
) the other factors are (x 1)and (x + 2):
Example 4.17 : The equations x2 + 9x + 2 = 0 and x2 + hx + 5 = 0 have a common root.
Find the quadratic equation giving the two possible values of h:
Solution: Let the common root be a. Then (x a) will be a factor of both x2 + 9x + 2

and x2 + hx + 5:
Thus a2 + 9a + 2 = 0 and a2 + ha + 5 = 0: i.e. a2 + 9a + 2 = a2 + ha + 5
i.e. (9 h)a = 3: ) a = 3
9 h
; substituting this in a2 + 9a + 2 = 0;
9 27
we get: (9 h)2
+ 9 h
+ 2 = 0: i.e. 9 + 27(9 h) + 2(9 h)2 = 0
i.e. 9 + 27:9 27h + 2:(92 18h + h2 ) = 0;or 9 + 27:9 27h + 2:92 36h + 2h2 = 0
2h2 63h + 414 = 0 is the required quadratic equation for h:
Exercise 11
1. Find the remainder when: (i) x4 6x2 + 1 is divided by (x + 2) and (ii) x2 1 is

divided by (x + 1):
2. Find the value of the constant k if the remainder is 22 when the expression 3x3 + kx2
4x + 6 is divided by (x 4):
3. Find the values of m and n if (x 2) and (x 3) are both factors of x3 + mx2 + nx + 6:
4. Find the value of the constant k for which the polynomial x4 + x3 + kx2 + 5x 10 has
(x + 2) as a factor.
5. The expression gx2 + hx 2 has (x + 2) as a factor. When the expression is divided
by (x 1), the remainder is 6. Find the values of g and h .
63
6. Whem x2 +mx+n is divided by x h the remainder is the same as when the quadratic
expression is divided by x 2h: Find two possible values of h:
5 Trigonometry
5.1 Objectives
In this module we:
Revisit the trigonometry ratios introduced by the study of the relationships between
the sides and the angles of a triangle.
Explore the various trigonometric ratios for some special angles between 0 and 360 .
Revisit the relationship between degree and radian measure of an angle and do some
conversions.
Explore the special case of even and odd functions including the trigonometric ratios.
Plot and sketch graphs of trigonometric functions.
Establish the fundamental trigonometric identities, study multiple angles, the sine and
cosine rules and then discuss the factor formulae.
Investigate the general solutions of equations of the form y = a sin x+b cos x; equations
involving factor formulae and parametric equations.
Identify and use all the trigonometric ratios.

Recall and routinely use the trigonometric ratios for some special angles between 0
and 360 .
Do conversions from degree to radian and radian to degree.
Manipulate the trigonometric functions, identify their properties and plot their graphs
with ease.
Establish the fundamental trigonometric identities, including those involving multiple
angles.
Use the sine and cosine rules, the factor formulae, and parametric equations.
64
Students should:
5.4 The Trigonometric Ratios
Introduction
Trigonometry has been introduced before as a branch of mathematics that deals with the
study of the relationships between the sides and the angles of a triangle. These relationships
are de…ned in terms of trigonometric ratios such as sine(sin);cosine(cos); and tangent(tan):
Relative to a right-angled triangle ABC below, with the angle marked (theta) as the
reference angle, the side AB is called the opposite side and the side BC is called the adjacent
side. The side AC is called the hypotenuse and it is the side opposite the right angle.
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65
We de…ne the trigonometric ratios as follows, where a; b and c are the sides of a triangle,
opposite angles A; B and C respectively.
Opposite side to angle c Adjacent side to angle a
sin = = ; cos = = ;
Hypotenuse b Hypotenuse b
From these 2 basic trigonometric ratios, we can de…ne many others.
We …rst of all de…ne tan by
sin Opposite side to angle a
tan = = =
cos Adjacent side to angle c
From the right angled triangle ABC, angle A = 90 , and we see that
a
sin(90 )= = cos
b
Similarly
c
cos(90 )= = sin
b
:
Note that angles and (90 ) are complementary (that is, they add up to 90 ) hence
we conclude that the sine of an angle is always equal to the cosine of its complement.
Other trigonometric ratios such as secant,cosecant and cotangent can also be de…ned in terms
of sine, cosine and tangent thus:
1 1 1 cos
sec = ; cosec = ; cot = =
cos sin tan sin
:
We derive from the …gure above the following trigonometric identities:
a
tan(90 )= c
= cot :
a2 +c2 b2
We also note that (sin )2 + (cos )2 = ( cb )2 + ( ab )2 = b2
= b2
= 1; (since by Pythagoras’
theorem, a2 + b2 = c2 ):
) sin2 + cos2 = 1
Dividing through the equation above by sin2 and then by cos2 ; to obtain respectively,
1 + cot2 = cos ec2
and
1 + tan2 = sec2
These are the basic trigonometric identities:
66
5.4.1 Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles
f0 ; 30 ; 45 ; 60 ; 90 g
We consider an equilateral triangle ABC of side 2 units, with a perpendicular bisector AD

of the base BC drawn from A to D which also bisects the vertical angle as shown below:
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p p
From
p the triangle above, the height h of the triangle ABC = h = AD = 22 1= 4 1=
3:
p
) sin 30 = 12 ; cos 30 = 2
3
; and tan 30 = p1 :
3
p
3
p
Similarly sin 60 = 2
; cos 60 = 12 ; and tan 60 = 3:
Now, consider the unit sqaure P QRS with the diagonal P R.
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From the …gure the diagonal P R = d is given by:

p
d2 = 12 + 12 = 2; ) d = 2: Hence:
67
p p
1 2 1 2
sin 45 = p = ; cos 45 = p = ;
2 2 2 2
We deduce that tan 45 = 1:

For trigonometric ratios of angles between 0 and 90 , we can consider the right-angled
triangle P QR; right angled at Q with angle P RQ =
PQ
Then sin = PR
: As P approaches Q; approaches 0 ; i.e. as P ! Q; ! 0 , hence
P R ! QR:
) sin 0 = jQRj0
= 0; and thus cos90 = 0; since the sine of an angle is always equal to the
cosine of its complement:
QR
Similarly, cos0 = QR
= 1 (since ! 0 implies P R ! QR).
5.4.2 Trigonometric Ratios of Angles between 0 and 360
Consider the circle of radius r below
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In the …rst Quadrant, Second Quadrant
68
y y
sin = r
(positive) sin = r
(positive)
x x
cos = r
(positive) cos = r
(negative)
y y
tan = x
(positive) tan = x
(negative)
All the trigonometric ratios in Only sine has a
…rst quadrant are positive. positive value in
. the second quadrant
Third Quadrant Fourth Quadrant
y y
sin = r
(negative) sin = r
(negative)
x x
cos = r
(negative) cos = r
(positive)
y y y
tan = x
= x
(positive) tan = x
(negative)
In the third quadrant, only tangent is positive. In the fourth quadrant, only cosine has a
positve value.
Some people use acronyms such as CAST or ACTS to enable them remember the signs
of trigonometric ratios of angles of all magnitudes, see diagram below:
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Starting from the fourth quadrant and moving anti-clockwise, we use CAST, while starting
from the …rst quadrant and moving in the clockwise direction, we use ACTS.
We note that in the …rst quadrant,
sin = + sin ; cos = + cos ; and tan = + tan
69
In the second quadrant,
sin = + sin(180 ); cos = cos(180 ); and tan = tan(180 )
The third quadrant has
sin = sin( 180 ); cos = cos( 180 ); and tan = + tan( 180 )
and the fourth quadrant has
sin = sin(360 ); cos = + cos(360 ); and tan = tan(360 )
Example 5.1 : Express in terms of the trigonometric ratios of positive acute angles: (a)
sin160 (b) cos(400 ) (c) sin( 200 ) (d) cos( 300 ) (e) tan( 900 ):
Solution: 1 (a) sin 160 = sin(180 160 ) = sin 20 (b) cos 400 = cos(400 360 ) =
cos 40 (c) sin( 200 ) = sin( 200 + 360 ) = sin 160 = sin(180 160 ) = sin 20 ; or
sin( 200 ) = sin 200 = ( sin(200 180 )) = sin 20 (d) cos( 300 ) = cos( 300 +
360 ) = cos 60 (e) tan( 900 ) = tan( 900 + 360 ) = tan( 540 ) = tan( 540 + 360 ) =
tan( 180 ) = tan( 180 + 360 )
= tan(180 ) = tan(180 180 ) = tan 0 :
Example 5.2 : Evaluate without using tables:
(a) cos 210 (b) cos2 330 (c) 2 sin 120 cos 120 (d) cos2 300 sin2 300
p
Solution: (a) cos 210
p
= cos(210 180 ) = cos 30 = 23 (b) cos2 330 = cos2 (360
330 ) = cos2 30 = ( 23 )2 = 34 :(c) 2 sin 120 cos 120 = 2 sin(180 120 )( cos(180 120 ))
p p
= 2 sin 60 cos 60 = 2 2
3 1
2
= 2
3
: (d) cos2 300 sin2 300 = cos2 (360 300 )
( sin(360 300 ))2
p
= cos2 60 sin2 60 = ( 21 )2 ( 2
3 2
) = 1
2
:
sin 3 +tan
Exercise 12 Find in its simpest form, the value of 1+cos 2
if = 60 :
5
Example 5.3 : Given that sin A = 13
and A is an obtuse angle, …nd without using tables,
the value of 2 sin
1
A cos A
tan A
:
2
70
p p
Solution: Note that x2 + y 2 = r2 : Therefore, x = 132 52 = 144 = 12 units:
) cos A = 12
13
; tan A = 5
12
:
5 12 10
2 ( ) + 12
) 2 sin A cos A
1
tan A
= 1
13
( 5
13
)
= 13
1
13
5
+ 12
= 24
13
:
2 2 12 2
sin +tan
Example 5.4 : Show that cot +cos ec
= sin tan :
sin +tan sin +tan sin tan

Solution: LHS = 1
+ sin1
= sin +tan = (sin + tan )( (sin +tan )
) = sin tan = RHS.
tan sin tan
Exercise 13
1. Express in terms of the trigonometric ratios of positive acute angles: (i) sin 140 (ii) sin( 945 ) (ii
2. Evaluate without using tables, giving your answer in simpli…ed surd form where neces-
sary: (i) sin 135 (ii) sin2 330 (iii) cos2 210 sin2 210 (iv) 11+cos 210
cos 210
(v) 1tantan
330 +tan 240
330 tan 240
:
3. If sin = p and is obtuse, …nd expressions for cos and tan in terms of p:
4. If tan A = 43 ; where A is an acute angle, …nd the value of 4 cos A 3 sin A

4 cos A+3 sin A
:
cos
5. Show that 1+sin
= sec tan :
2
6. Show that (1 + tan )2 + (1 tan )2 = cos2
:
5.4.3 Degree and Radian Measure of an Angle
Two kinds of units commonly used in measuring angles are the degree and the radian: The
degree is a more familiar and more commonly used unit of angular measure in elementary
1
mathematics. A degree ( ) is de…ned as 360 of a complete rotation. It has sub-divisions
1 1
such as the minute (p ) which is 60 of a degree and the second (pp ) which is 60 of a minute.
The radian measure is employed almost exclusively in advanced mathematics and in many
branches of science and engineering. In this section, we introduce the concept of radian and
examine the relationship between degrees and radians.
A radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle, by an arc equal in length to the
radius of the circle. Let us consider a circle with centre O and radius r and the arc P Q be
equal in length to r and is the angle subtended at the centre of the circle, and = 1rad:
2
Example 5.5 : Express each of the given angles in degrees: (i) 3
(ii) 30
(iii)
5
9
(iv) 38 :
71
180
Solution: Note that 1rad = :
) (i) 2
3
= 2
3
180
= 120 (ii) 30
= 30
180
=6
5 5 180 3 3 180
(iii) 9
= 9
= 100 (iv) 8
= 8
= 67 12 :
Exercise 14
4 8
1. Express the following in degrees: (i) 7 rad (ii) 7
rad (iii) 9
rad (iv) 0:45rad (v) 9 rad:
2. Express the following in radians: (i) 36 (ii) 112 40p (iii) 135 (iv) 1p (v) 270 (vi) 394 32p :
5.4.4 Even and Odd Functions
De…nition 5.1 : Even function: A function f is even if f ( x) = f (x), for all x in its
domain of de…nition. The function is odd if f ( x) = f (x).
f (x) = x2 , f ( ) = cos ; are even functions while f (x) = x3 , f ( ) = sin are odd functions.
Trigonometric ratios can be even or odd functions.
De…nition 5.2 : Periodic Function: A function f is said to be periodic if there exists

T > 0 such that f (x + T ) = f (x). The function has period T , if T is the smallest value for
which the relation holds. A function involving trigonometric ratios is called a trigonometric
function. All trigonometric functions are periodic.
f (x) = sin x, g(x) = cos x are periodic with period T = 2 rads.
5.4.5 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
The graphs of y = sin y = cos ; for 0 2 :cos ,0 2 :
(23)
72
(24)
5.4.6 Fundamental Trigonometric Identities
We study in this subsection, some more important identities involving trigonometric func-
tions.These identities can be employed to simplify or change the form of trigonometric ex-
pressions.
5.4.7 Addition Formulae
The following identities are often referred to as addition formulae or addition theorems in
trigonometry:
sin( + ) = sin cos + cos sin
cos( + ) = cos cos sin sin
Consider the triangle ABC and construct a perpendicular bisector AD of BC.
73
(25)
sin<BAC sin<ABC
Using the sine rule, we obtain jBCj
= jACj
h
) sin( + )
x+y
= sin(90
w
)
= z
w
= h
wz
:
) sin( + ) = h(x+y)
wz
= hx
wz
+ hy
wz
= ( xz )( wh ) + ( hz )( wy ) = sin cos + cos sin :
Using cosine rule, we obtain in a similar manner
2 +jABj2 jBCj2
h i
cos < BAC = jACj 2jACjjABj jACj
= 12 jABj + jABj
jACj
jBCj jBCj
:
jACj jABj
h i h i
(x+y) (x+y) 1 w2 +z 2 x2 +2xy+y 2
This implies cos( + ) = 12 wz + wz w
: z
= 2 wz wz
h 2 2 2 2
i h 2
i
= 12 w +z xwz 2xy y = 12 2h wz2xy ; since w2 y 2 = z 2 x2 = h2 :
x y
= hz : wh :
z w
= cos cos sin sin :
Thus,
sin( + ) = sin cos + cos sin ; cos( + ) = cos cos sin sin
Putting = in the above formulae, we obtain
sin( ) = sin cos cos sin ; cos( ) = cos cos + sin sin
sin cos cos sin
sin( + ) sin cos +cos sin cos cos
+ cos cos tan +tan
Thus, tan( + ) = cos( + )
= cos cos sin sin
= cos cos sin sin = 1 tan tan
:
cos cos cos cos
74
tan + tan
) tan( + ) =
1 tan tan
Similarly,
tan tan
tan( )=
1 + tan tan
Example 5.6 : Find without using tables the value of (i) sin 512 (ii) cos 12
p
2
p
3
p
2 1
p
2
p
Solution: (i) sin 512 = sin( 4 + 6 ) = sin 4 cos 6 +cos 4 sin 6
= 2
: 2
+ :
2 2
= 2
3+1
p p p
2
(ii) cos 12 = cos( 4 6 ) = cos 4 cos 6
+ sin 4 sin 6
= 2
: 23 + 2 1
:
2 2
p p
= 22 3+1 :
5
Note that 12
and 12
are complementary angles, hence sin 512 = cos 12 :
5
Example 5.7 : If sin = 13
; and cos = 15 ; …nd the possible values of sin( + ):
Solution: sin(
p
+ ) = sin cos + cos sin : If and are acute angles, then cos =
12 24
13
; sin = 5 ;
p p
5 1 12 24 5+24 6
hence, sin( + ) = 13 5
+ 13 5
= 65
,
p p
But pif is acute and 3
2
2 , then sin = 24
5
: ) sin( + ) = 5
13
1
5
+ 12
13
( 24
5
) =
5 24 6
65
:
Example 5.8 : Find without using tables the value of sin 15 :
Solution: sin 15 = sin(45 30 ) = sin 45 cos 30 cos 45 sin 30

p p p p p
= 22 : 23 : = 42 ( 3 1):
2 1
2 2
Exercise
1. Use the addition formulae to prove the following identities: (i) sin(180
p
+ ) = sin (ii) tan(180
cos 3 sin
) = tan : (iii) sin( 2 ) = cos (iv) cos(300 )= 2
: (v) tan(225
1 tan
) = 1+tan (vi) cos 3x cos 2x + sin 3x sin 2x = cos x:
2. Find without using tables the value of tan 15 :
3. Show that sin2 A + sin2 (A + 120 )+ sin2 (A 120 ) = 32 :

2 2
4. If sin = 3
and cos = 7
; …nd the possible values of cos( + ):
75
5.4.8 Multiple Angles
By putting = in the addition formulae, we obtain sin( + ) = sin 2 = 2 sin cos ;
cos( + ) = cos 2 = cos2 sin2 = 2 cos2 1=1 sin2 :
) tan( + ) = tan 2 = tan +tan

1 tan tan
= 2 tan
1 tan2
:
Using the above formulae, we can express tan in terms of tan 2
thus,
tan 2 +tan 2 tan 2
tan = tan 2( 2 ) = 1 tan2 2
2
= 1 tan2 2
:
If we let t = tan 2 ; then,
2t
tan =
1 t2
2 sin 2 cos 2 2 tan 2 2t
Similarly, sin = 2 sin 2 cos 2
= cos2 2 +sin2 2
= 1+tan2 2
= 1+t2
:
2t
) sin =
1 + t2
cos2 sin2 1 tan2 1 t2
and cos = cos2 2
sin2 2
= cos2
2
+sin2
2
= 1+tan2
2
= 1+t2
:
2 2 2
Hence
1 t2
cos = :
1 + t2
Since cos = cos2 2

sin2 2
= 2 cos2 2
1;
) 2 cos2 2
= 1 + cos
r
1 + cos
) cos = :
2 2
Similarly, cos =1 2 sin2 2 ;

r
1 cos
) sin =
2 2
Also, q
1 cos r
sin 2 2 1 cos
tan = = p = :
2 cos 2 1+cos 1 + cos
2
b2 +c2 a2 A b2 +c2 a2
From the cosine rule, cos A = 2bc
;) cos A = 2 cos2 2
1= 2bc
:
76
A (b+c)2 a2 (a+b+c)(b+c a)
) 2 cos2 2
= 2bc
= 2bc
:
a+b+c
Let a + b + c = 2s; where s is the semi-perimeter of triangle ABC, i.e s = 2
:
) 2 cos2 A
2
= 4s(s a)
2bc
= 2s(s a)
bc
:
r
A s(s a)
) cos = :
2 bc
In the same vein, r r
B s(s b) C s(s c)
cos = ; cos = :
2 ac 2 ab
b2 +c2 a2
Also, cos A = 1 2 sin2 A
2
= 2bc
:
) 2 sin A2 = (a+b c)(a b+c)

2bc
= 4(s c)(s b)
2bc
= 2(s b)(s c)
bc
:
r
A (s b)(s c)
) sin = :
2 bc
Hence, r r
B (s a)(s c) C (s a)(s b)
sin = ; sin = :
2 ac 2 ab
q
sin A
Similarly, tan A2 = cos A = (s s(sb)(sa) c) :
2
2
s s s
A (s b)(s c) B (s a)(s c) C (s a)(s b)
) tan = ; tan = ; tan = :
2 s(s a) 2 s(s b) 2 s(s c)
5.4.9 Sine and Cosine Rules
5.4.10 Sine rule
The sine rule states that in any triangle ABC,
77
(26)
a b c
sin A
= sin B
= sin C
:
Consider a triangle ABC, and construct a perpendicular from A to BC:
Construct a perpendicular AD to meet BC at D. From the …gure above sin B = hc ; ) h =
c sin B; and similarly, sin C = hb ) h = b sin C:
) h = c sin B = b sin C; ) b
sin B
= c
sin C
:
a c
Similarly sin A
= sin C
:
a b c
) = = :
sin A sin B sin C
The formula also holds for obtuse angled triangles.
5.4.11 Cosine Rule:
The cosine rule states that in any triangle ABC,

a2 = b 2 + c 2 2bc cos A
b 2 = a2 + c 2 2ac cos B
c 2 = a2 + b 2 2ab cos C:
Proof: from the triangle above,
c2 = (a x)2 + h2 = a2 2ax + x2 + h2 ; by Pythagoras’rule.
) c 2 = a2 2ax + b2 ; since b2 = h2 + x2 :
But x = b cos C; ) c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C:
In the same vein, a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos A; and b2 = a2 + c2 2ac cos B:
78
) a2 = b2 +c2 2bc cos A; b2 = a2 +c2 2ac cos B; c2 = a2 +b2 2ab cos C:
Example 5.9 : Given that in triangle ABC; a = 4; b = 5; c = 6. Find the angles A; B, and
C:
Solution: Using cosine rule, 42 = 52 + 62 2 5 6 cos A ) cos A = 0:75; ) A =

cos 1 0:75 ' 41:4 :
Also, 52 = 42 + 62 2 4 6 cos B: ) cos B = 0:5625 ) B = cos 1
0:5625 ' 55:8 :
c2 +b2 a2 36+25 16 45
cos A = 2bc
= 60
= 60
= 0:75; ) A = cos 1 (0:75) = 41:41
Similarly,
c2 +a2 b2 36+16 25 27
cos B = 2ac
= 48
= 48
) B = cos 1 ( 27
48
9
) = cos 1 ( 16 ) = 55:77
Also,
a2 +b2 c2 16+25 36 5 5
cos C = 2ab
= 40
= 40
; ) C = cos 1 ( 40 ) = 82:8 :
Exercise 15
1. Solve each of the following triangles, given that (i) a = 12; b = 10; c = 8 (ii) A =
123 ; B = 62 ; c = 0:34 (iii) a = 26:35; A = 37 23p ; B = 43 31p :
2. Show that a2 + bc = b2 + c2 ;if A = 60 :
3. Prove that a2 + b2 + c2 = 2bc cos A + 2ac cos B + 2ab cos C:
5.4.12 The Area of a Triangle
h
Consider the triangle ABC, with height, h; sin C = b
) h = b sin C:
79
(27)
) Area, A = 12 ab sin C = 12 ab:2 sin C2 cos C2 = ab sin C2 cos C2 :

q q
= ab (s a)(sab
b) s(s c)
ab
:
p
) A= s(s a)(s b)(s c):
The formula above is usually referred to as Hero0 s formula.
Example 5.10 : Express tan 3A in terms of tan A:
2 tan A
+tan A 3 tan A tan3 A
tan 2A+tan A 1 tan2 A
tan A = tan(2A + A) = 1 tan 2A tan A
= 1 2 tan A
tan A
= 1 3 tan2 A
:
1 tan2 A
Example 5.11 : Show that cos 3 = 4 cos3 3 cos :
Solution: cos 3 = cos(2 + ) = cos 2 cos sin 2 sin = (2 cos2 1) cos 2 sin cos sin
= 2 cos3 cos 2 cos sin2 = 2 cos3 cos 2 cos (1 cos2 ) = 4 cos3 3 cos :
Exercise 16
1. Express (i) sin 4 in terms of sin , (ii) tan 4 in terms of tan :
80
p
2 3
2. Show that sin 12 cos 512 = 4
:
p
3. Given that sin 10 = 14 ( 5 1); …nd the exact value of cos 5 :
4. Find without using tables the values of (i) cos 22 21 (ii) tan 22 12 :
1+sin cos
5. Prove that 1+sin +cos
= tan 2 :
6. Without using tables, determine the value of tan 7 12 :
7. Using the formulae sin 3 = 3 sin 4 sin3 ; and cos 3 q= 4 cos3 3 cos ; express
1
p
cos 5 in terms of cos : Hence, prove that cos 18 = 4 (10 + 2 5); and evaluate
cos 54 ; leaving your result in surd form.
8. Find the area of the triangle with the following dimensions: (i) a = 623cm; b =
913cm; A = 34 (ii) A = 57:9; b = 126:3; c = 137:2:
9. The sides of a triangle are 13k; 20k; and 21k units; and the area of the triangle is 14
square units. Find the numerical value of k:
5.4.13 Factor Formulae
Recall sin( + ) = sin cos + cos sin ;

and sin( ) = sin cos cos sin :
Adding corresponding members of these equations, we obtain
sin( + ) + sin( ) = 2 sin cos ;
1
) sin cos = [sin( + ) + sin( )] :
2
Similarly, cos( + ) + cos( ) = 2 cos cos ;
1
) cos cos = [cos( + ) + cos( )] :
2
By subtracting the expressions, we obtain

sin( + ) sin( ) = 2 cos sin ;
1
) cos sin = [sin( + ) sin( )] :
2
and cos( + ) cos( )= 2 sin sin :
81
1
) sin sin = [cos( ) cos( + )] :
2
If in these identities, we put + = A and = B; then
= 21 (A + B) ; and = 12 (A B) ; we obtain
1 1 1 1
sin A+sin B = 2 sin (A + B) cos (A B) ; cos A+cos B = 2 cos (A + B) cos (A B) :
2 2 2 2
and
1 1 1 1
sin A sin B = 2 cos (A + B) sin (A B) ; cos A cos B = 2 sin (A + B) sin (A B) :
2 2 2 2
Example 5.12 :
1. Express these quantities as products: (i) cos 50 +cos 12 (ii) sin 40 +sin 20 (iii) sin 152
sin 30 : (iv) cos 2 + cos 4 :
2. Prove that cos A + 2 cos 3A + cos 5A = 4 cos2 A cos 3A:
3. If A; B and C are the angles of triangle ABC; show that cos A + cos B + cos C =
1 + 4 sin A2 sin B2 sin C2 :
sin 4! sin 2!
4. Prove that cos 4!+cos 2!
= tan !:
Solution:
1. (i) cos 50 + cos 12 = 2 cos 12 (50 + 12) cos 12 (50 12) = 2 cos 31 cos 19 : (ii) sin 40 +
sin 20 = 2 sin 12 (40 + 20 ) cos 12 (40 20 ) = 2 sin 30 cos 10 : (iii) sin 152 sin 30 =
2 cos 12 (152 +30 ) sin 21 (152 30 ) = 2 cos 91 sin 61 :(iv) cos 2 +cos 4 = 2 cos 12 (2 +
4 ) cos 12 (2 4 ) = 2 cos 3 cos ::
2. LHS = (cos A + 2 cos 3A) + (cos 3A + cos 5A) = 2 cos 21 (A + 3A) cos 12 (A 3A) +
2 cos 21 (3A+5A) cos 12 (3A 5A) = 2 cos 2A cos ( A)+2 cos 4A cos ( A) = 2 cos 2A cos A+
2 cos 4A cos A = 2 cos A(cos 2A+cos 4A) = 2 cos A 2 cos 12 (2A + 4A) cos 12 (2A 4A) =
2 cos A(2 cos 3A cos( A)) = 4 cos2 A cos 3A = RHS.
3. cos A+cos B+cos C = cos A+2 cos 21 (B+C) cos 12 (B C) = 1 2 sin2 A2 +2 sin A2 cos 12 (B
C) = 1 + 2 sin A2 cos 12 (B C) sin A2 = 1 + 2 sin A2 cos 12 (B C) cos 12 (B + C) =
1 + 2 sin A2 2 sin B2 sin C2 = 1 + 4 sin A2 sin B2 sin C2 :
sin 4! sin 2! 2 cos 12 (4!+2!) sin 12 (4! 2!) 2 cos 3! sin ! sin !
4. cos 4!+cos 2!
= 2 cos 12 (4!+2!) cos 12 (4! 2!)
= 2 cos 3! cos !
= cos !
= tan !
82
Exercise 17
1. Express as a product: (i) sin 40 + sin 20 (ii) cos 50 + cos 30 (iii) cos 8 cos 2 :
2. Express as sums or di¤erences: (i) sin 30 cos 50 (ii) cos 3x cos 4x (iii) sin 4x cos 2x:
sin 6x sin 4x sin sin 2 +sin 3
3. Prove that (i) cos 5x
= 2 sin x (ii) cos cos 2 +cos 3
= tan 2 :
4. If A; B and C are angles of a triangle, show that sin A+sin B+sin C = 4 cos A2 cos B2 cos C2 :
cos +cos
5. Prove that sin sin
= cot 2
:
5.4.14 Trigonometric Equations
To solve any equation involving trigonometric functions, appropriate trigonometric identities

may be employed to simplify such equations before solutions are obtained. We illustrate this
by using the following examples:
Example 5.13 : Solve the following equations for values of between 0 and 360 :
(i) sin = cos 55 (ii) 2 sin2 + 2 cos 2 = 1
Solution: (i) sin = cos 55 ) =sin 1 (cos 55 ) = 35
(ii) 2 sin2 + 2 cos 2 = 1 ) 2 sin2 + 2(1 2 sin2 ) = 1

)2 2 sin2 = 1; ) sin2 = 12 :Hence, sin = p1 :
2
) sin = p1
2
) = 45 ; 135 :
and sin = p1 ) = 225 ; 315 :

2
) the solution is = 45 ; 135 ; 225 ; 315 :
5.4.15 The General Solution of sin = c
If sin = c; with c a constant such that 1 c 1; we see that there is always a solution
of the equation between 2 and 2 : Such a solution is usually referred to as the principal
solution: Suppose the principal solution is ; then the general expression for the solution of
the equation is given by = k + ( 1)k+1 ; where k 2 Z; is called the general solution of
the equation sin = c:
Example 5.14 : Find the general solution of the equation cos 2x + 3 sin x + 1 = 0:
83
Solution: cos2 x sin2 x + 3 sin x + 1 = 2 2 sin2 x + 3 sin x; ) 2 + 3 sin x 2 sin2 x = 0;
) 2 + 4 sin x sin x 2 sin x = 0; ) (2 sin x)(1 + 2 sin x) = 0
) 2 sin x = 0 or 1 + 2 sin x = 0; i.e sin x = 2 or sin x = 1
2
:
But sin x = 2 is impossible (why)?
) sin x = 1
2
)x= 6
is the principal solution.
) the general solution is x = k + ( 1)k+1 ( 6 ):
Similarly, the general solution of cos = c; 1 c 1; is given by = 2n ; n 2 Z and

0 < < is the principal solution.
For the equation tan = c; the principal solution lies between 2
and 2
and the general
solution is given by = n ; n 2 Z:
Example 5.15 : Find the general solution of the equation 2 cos2 3 cos 2 = 0:
Solution: ) (cos 2)(2 cos + 1) = 0 ) cos = 1

2
or cos = 2(which is impossible!)
) the principal solution is = 2
3
:Thus the general solution is = 2n 2
3
:
Example 5.16 : Find the general solution of the equation 3 tan2 x 1 = 0:
Solution: If tan x = p13 ; the principal solution is x = 6 and if tan x = p1 ;

3
the principal
solution is x = 6 : Hence the general solution is x = n 6
:
5.4.16 The Function y = a sin x + b cos x
The expression a sin x + b cos x; where a and b are constants can be written as R sin(x + )
R sin x cos + R cos x sin ;
provided that R cos = a and R sin =b
p
) (R cos )2 + (R sin )2 = a2 + b2 ) R2 = a2 + b2 : ) R = a2 + b 2 :
) y = a sin x + b cos x R sin(x + );has a maximum value R, when x + = 2;
3
and a minimum value R; when x + = 2
:
5.4.17 The Equation a sin x + b cos x = c
To solve the equation a sin x + b cos x = c;where a, b and c are constants, we express a sin x +
b cos x R sin(x ) or a sin x + b cos x R cos(x );where R > 0 and 0 2 ; R and
are to be determined.
84
For example, a sin x + b cos x R sin(x ) = R sin x cos R cos x sin ;
p
where R cos = a and R sin = b such that R = a2 + b2 ; and tan = ab :
Hence the original equation becomes R sin(x ) = c:
The signs of a and b determine the quadrant in which lies. For instance, if a < 0 and
b > 0; lies in the second quadrant .
Example 5.17 : Solve the equation 4 cos x + 3 sin x = 2; for values of x between 0 and
360 :
p p p
Solution: ) R cos = 4 and R sin = 3: ) R = 42 + 32 = 16 + 9 = 25 = 5
and tan = 43 ) = tan 1 3
4
' 36:9 ; ) the equation becomes 5 cos(x 36:9 ) = 2 )
cos(x 36:9 ) = 0:4:
) x 36:9 = 66:4 ; 293:6 ) x = 103:3 ; 330:5 :
Example 5.18 : Express the following functions in the form A sin(x + ); and hence …nd
the maximum and minimum values of each: (a) sin x + cos x (b) 4 sin x 3 cos x:
p
Solution: ) A sin = 1; and A cos = 1; ) A2 = 2; hence, A = 2; and tan = 1; )
= tan 1 1 = 4 :
p p
(a) sin x + cos x 2 sin(x + 4 ): Hence the maximum value is 2; and it is attained when
p
x + 4 = 2 ; i.e x = 4 ; while a minimum value of 2 is attained when x + 4 = 32 ; i.e x = 54 :
(b) 4 sin x 3 cos x A sin(x ) = A sin x cos A cos x sin :
) A sin = 4; and A cos = 3; ) A = 5; and tan = 0:75; ) = tan 1
0:75 '
143:1 :
) 4 sin x 3 cos x 5 sin(x 143:1 ): ) maximum value is 5; and minimum value 5:
Example 5.19 : Solve the equation 4 sin x 3 cos x = 2 by means of the substitution
t = tan x2 :
2t 2
Solution: Substituting for sin x and cos x in the equation, we obtain 4( 1+t 2) 3( 11+tt2 ) = 2
) 8t 3(1 t2 ) = 2(1 + t2 ); ) 8t 3 + 3t2 = 2 + 2t2 :
p p
) t2 + 8t 5 = 0; ) t = 8
2
64+20
= 8
2
84
= 8 9:165
2
:
) t = 0:5825 or t = 8:5825:
Thus, tan x2 = 8:5825; ) x
2
= tan 1
8:5825 = 96:65 ; 276:65 ;
) x = 193:3 ; 553:3 :
or tan x2 = 0:5825; ) x
2
= tan 1
0:5825 = 30:22 ; 210:22 ;
) x = 60:44 ; 420:44 : ) t = 60:44 ; 193:3 ; 420:44 ; 553:3 :
85
5.4.18 Equations Involving Factor Formulae
Example 5.20 : Solve the equation sin 3x + sin 5x = sin 4x; 0 x 2 :
Solution: sin 3x + sin 5x = 2 sin 21 (3x + 5x) cos 12 (3x 5x) = sin 4x
) 2 sin 4x cos x = sin 4x; ) 2 sin 4x cos x sin 4x = 0:
) sin 4x(2 cos x 1) = 0; ) sin 4x = 0 or 2 cos x 1 = 0;
) 4x = ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; ) x = 4 ; 2 ; 34 ; ; 54 ; 32 ; 74 ; 2
or cos x = 0:5; ) x = cos 1
0:5 = 3 ; 53 :
Hence the complete solution is x = 4 ; 3 ; 2 ; 34 ; ; 54 ; 53 ; 32 ; 74 ; 2 :
Exercise 18
1. Solve
p
the following equations for values of between 0 and 360 (i) cos = 21 (ii) sin =
2
2
(iii) sin2 sin 2 = 0 (iv) 4 sin2 tan tan = 0 (v) 3 tan2 5 sec + 1 = 0:
p
2. Find the general solution of each of the following equations: (i) sin x = 23 (ii) 3 tan2 x =
1 (iii) 2 sin2 x + 3 cos x = 0 (iv) sin 5 + sin 3 + cos = 0 (v) cos sin 2 = cos 5 :
3. Express each of the following in the form R sin(x + ); hence …nd its maximum and
minimum values: (i) sin x + cos x (ii) 2 sin x + 3 sin x (iii) 4 sin x 3 cos x (iv) 2 cos x +
3 sin x:
4. Find the values of x between

p 0 and 2 for which (i) sin x + cos x = 1 (ii) 2 cos x +
3 sin x = 3 (iii) sin x 3 cos x = 1:
5. Find all the angles between 0 and 360 inclusive for which sin2 + 2 cos 2 = 2 cos :
p
6. Prove that sin x+sin 2x+cos x+cos 2x = 2 2 cos 12 x sin( 3x
2
+ 4 ): Hence, or otherwise,
determine all values of x between 0 and 2 for which sin x + sin 2x + cos x + cos 2x = 0:
p
7. Solve the equation 1tantan
2 +tan
2 tan
= 3; for 0 2 :
8. Solve by means of the substitution t = tan x2 ; the equation 2 sin x+3 cos x = 1; for 0
x 2 :
5.4.19 Parametric Functions in Trigonometry
A function of the form X = x(t); Y = y(t) is said to be a parametric function with t as a

parameter.
Consider the diagram below:
86
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From the diagram,
y x
sin = ; ) y = r sin ; and cos = ; ) x = r cos
r r
Note that x2 + y 2 = r2 sin2 + r2 cos2 = r2 (sin2 + cos2 ) = r2 :
) x2 + y 2 = r2 ; which is the equation of a circle of radius r with centre at the origin.Observe
that a cartesian equation can be obtained from a parametric equation by eliminating the
parameter.
Example 5.21 : (a) Eliminate t from the equations x = 2 + 3 cos t; y = 1 + 3 sin t:(b)
Eliminate from the equations x = cos + sin ; y = 1 cos (c) If x = tan sin ; y =
2 2 2
tan + sin ; prove that (x y ) = 16xy:
Solution (i) x 2
3
= cos t; y 3 1 = sin t ) (x 2)2 + (y 1)2 = 9
(ii) Students to solve this.
(iii) x2 y 2 = (tan sin + tan + sin )(tan sin tan sin ) = (2 tan )( 2 sin ):
) x2 y2 = 4 tan sin
) (x2 y 2 )2 = ( 4 tan sin )2 = 16 tan2 sin2 = 16 [tan2 (1 cos2 )]
= 16(tan2 sin2 ) = 16(tan + sin )(tan sin ) = 16xy:
) (x2 y 2 )2 = 16xy:
Exercise 19
1. Eliminate from each of the following equations: (i) x = sin ; y = cos : (ii) x =
cos + sin ; y = 1 cos (iii) x = sin ; y = tan 2 (iv) x = cos 2 ; y = cos :
87
2. If x = 2 cos cos 2 and y = 2 sin sin 2 ; show that (x2 +y 2 )2 6(x2 +y 2 )+8x 3 =
0:
3. Express as a cartesian equation the pair of parametric equations x = a cos3 t; y =

b sin3 t:
4. If u = x cos + y sin ;and v = x sin y cos ; Show that u2 + v 2 = x2 + y 2 :
88
6 Complex Numbers
In this module we:
Introduce the complex numbers as an extension to the real numbers.
Examine properties of complex numbers and discuss di¤erent ways of representing

them.
Discuss De Moivre’s theorem and the roots of complex numbers
Manipulate complex numbers, be aware of the similarites with real numbers and the
di¤erences between them.
Identify situations in which it is advantageous to use the algebraic or geometric repre-

sentation of complex numbers.
Use De Moivre’s theorem to establish trigonometric identities and explore the complex
roots of numbers.
89
Students should:
6.4 Introduction to complex numbers
Complex nnumbers originated from the inability to …nd real roots or solutions to quadratic
equations of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 for which the discriminant b2 4ac < 0:
De…nition 6.1 : Complex Numbers: Let x and y be two real numbers,then the ordered
pair (x; y) of real numbers is called a complex number.If z denotes a complex number (x; y),
then we can write z = (x; y);where the real numbers x and y are called the real and imaginary
parts respectively of z; i:e: <z = x and =z = y:
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For example, the real and imaginary parts of the complex number z =(3; 4) are 3 and
4 respectively.If the real part of a complex number is zero, i.e. z = (0; y) then the complex
number z is said to be purely imaginary. For instance, (0; 5) is purely imaginary. Suppose
the imaginary part of a complex number z is zero, then we can write z = (x; 0) as x; i:e:z =
90
(x; 0) = x: We say such a complex number is real. Hence the real numbers are a subset of
the complex numbers.
Equality of complex numbers: Given two complex numbers z1 = (x1 ; y1 ) and z2 = (x2 ; y2 )
then z1 = z2 if and only if their component parts are equal, i.e. i¤ x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 :
Sum and product of complex numbers
Let z1 = (x1 ; y1 ) and z2 = (x2 ; y2 ) be two complex numbers. Then their sum is de…ned
by z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ; y1 + y2 )
The product of z1 and z2 is given by z1 z2 = (x1 x2 y 1 y 2 ; x1 y 2 + x 2 y 1 ) :
For instance, if z1 = (3; 4) and z2 = ( 5; 2) then z1 + z2 = (3 + ( 5); 4 + 2) = ( 2; 6) while
z1 z2 = (3 ( 5) + 4 2; 3 2 + ( 5) 4) = ( 7; 14)
Let i denotes the purely imaginary number (0; 1) and x = (x; 0) then using the de…nition
of sum and product above, we can write a complex number z = (x; y) = (x; 0)+(0; 1)y
in Cartesian form as z = x + iy or z = x + yi where i = (0; 1) with the property that
i2 = ( 1; 0) = 1: With i so de…ned, we can also write the sum and product of two
complex numbers as z1 + z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) = x1 + x2 + i(y1 + y2 ) and z1 z2 =
x1 x2 y1 y2 + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 ) respectively: The properties of the sum and product of complex
numbers are the same as for real numbers.
The commutative laws for sum and product are respectively, z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 ; and
z1 z2 = z2 z1 ;
The associative laws are given by: (z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 ); and (z1 z2 )z3 = z1 (z2 z3 ):
These properties follow easily from addition and multiplication of real numbers.
Thus if z1 = x1 +iy1 and z2 = x2 +iy; then z1 +z2 = (x1 +iy1 )+(x2 +iy2 ) = x1 +x2 +i(y1 +y2 ) =
x2 + x1 + i(y2 + y1 ) = (x2 + iy2 ) + (x1 + iy1 ) = z2 + z1 :
Similarly, z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 ) = x1 x2 y1 y2 + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 ) = x2 x1 y2 y1 + i(x2 y1 +
x1 y2 ) = (x2 +iy2 )(x1 +iy1 ) = z2 z1 : ative
The proof of the distributive law z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 is left as an exercise.
The numbers 0 = 0 + i0 and 1 = 1 + i0 are respectively called the additive and multiplicative
identities of the complex numbers.That is for any complex number z; then z + 0 = z and
z 1 = z: Note that 0 and 1 are the only numbers with such properties.
Subtraction: Given any complex number z = x + iy; we de…ne z = x iy as its additive
inverse which satis…es the equation z + ( z) = 0: Moreover, for a given complex number z,
there is only one additive inverse namely z.Additive inverses are used to de…ne subtraction:
z1 z2 = z1 + ( z2 ). So if z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy) then z1 z2 = x1 x2 + i(y1 y2 ).
Complex Conjugate: Given a complex number z = x + iy then the complex number
z = x iy is called the complex cojugate of z: For example, if z = 3 + 4i then its complex
conjugate is z = 3 4i. This number z represented by the point (x; y); is the re‡ection of the
point (x; y) about the real axis. We can easily verify that for any complex number z; z = z:
91
We note that although z and z are complex, it is always truep thatpz:z = z z is always real.
In fact it is given by z:z = x2 + y 2 if z = x + iy: We call z:z = x2 + y 2 the modulus of z
and it is denoted by jzj :
For any nonzero complex number z = x + iy,there is a number z 1 such that zz 1 = 1:This
number z 1 is called the multiplicative inverse of z:To …nd the inverse w = u + iv of z =
x + iy;we need to solve the equation (x + iy)(u + iv) = 1 for u and v in terms of x and y:This
x y
gives u = x2 +y 2 and v = x2 +y 2 : Therefore the multiplicative inverse of z is
w = u + iv = xx2 +yiy2 : We can get the inverse by using the complex congugate as follows:
1
z
= z1 : zz = jzjz 2 = xx2 +yiy2 :
Division: Given two complex numbers z1 and z2 6= 0 then the quotient zz12 is a complex
number de…ned by zz21 = z1 z2 1 = x1 x2 +y1 y2x+i(y 1 x2 y 2 x1 )
2 +y 2 = x1xx22+y
+y1 y2
2 + i y1 xx22 +yy22x1 ; where z1 =
2 2 2 2 2 2
x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy); z2 6= 0: This quotient is not de…ned when z2 = 0; as z2 = 0 means
that x22 + y22 = 0 .
Example 6.1 :
1. Evaluate the following sums:(i) (3 + i) + (1 + 2i) (ii) ( 5 + 3i) + (1 i):
2. Perform the following di¤erences (i)(2 3i) (1 + 2i) (ii)( 5 + 3i) (3 + i) :
3. Find the following products (i)(2 3i) (4+5i) (ii)(3 4i) (3 + 4i) ;hence evaluate (iii)(p+
iq)(p iq):
4. Simplify the following quotients (i) 3i 2

1+2i
(ii)( 2 13i )( 1+i
1 cos
) (iii) cos +i sin
i sin
:
Solution:
1. (i) (3 + i) + (1 + 2i) = 3 + 1 + i(1 + 2) = 4 + 3i and (ii) ( 5 + 3i) + (1 i) =

5 + 1 + 3i i = 4 + 2i:
2. (i) (2 3i) (1 + 2i) = 2 1 3i 2i = 1 5i: and (ii) ( 5 + 3i) (3 + i) =

5 3 + 3i i = 8 + 2i:
3. (i) (2 3i) (4+5i) = 2:4+2:5i 3i:4 3i:5i = 8+10i 12i 15i2 = 8+15 2i = 23 2i
(ii) (3 4i (3 + 4i) = 3:3 + 3:4i 4i:3 4i:4i = 9 + 12i 12i 16i2 = 9 + 16 = 25 (iii)
From the second example we can conclude that (p + iq)(p iq) = p2 + q 2 :
3i 2 3i 2 1 2i 3i:1+3i( 2i) 2:1 2( 2i) 3i 6i2 2+4i 3i+6 2+4i 4+7i 4 7i
4. (i) 1+2i
= :
1+2i 1 2i
= 1:1+1( 2i)+2i:1+2i( 2i)
= 1 2i+2i 4i2
= 1+4
= 5
= 5
+ 5
:
1
(ii) ( 2 13i )( 1+i ) = 2:1+2:i 1:13i:1 3i:i
= 1
2+2i 3i 3i2
= 1
2 i+3
= 1
5 i
= 1:5+i
5 i(5+i)
= 5+i
5:5+5:i i:5 i:i
=
5+i
25+5i 5i+1
= 5+i26
5
= 26 + 26i :
cos +i sin cos +i sin cos +i sin cos cos +i cos sin +i sin cos +i2 sin sin
(iii) cos i sin
= cos i sin
: cos +i sin
= cos cos +i cos sin i sin cos i2 sin sin
92
cos cos +i(cos sin +sin cos ) sin sin cos cos sin sin +i(cos sin +sin cos ) cos( )+i sin( )
= cos cos +i cos sin i sin cos +sin sin
= cos2 +sin2
= 1
= cos ( )+i sin ( ) :This follows from the fact that cos ( )=cos cos +sin sin
and sin ( ) = sin cos cos sin :
It is natural to associate the complex number z = x + iy with a point in the plane whose
cartesian coordinates is (x; y). Each complex number corresponds to just one point, and
conversely.The number 1 + i;for instance, is represented by the point ( 1; 1) in the …gure
below.
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The number z can also be thought of as a directed line segment, or vector, from the origin
to the point (x; y): In fact, we often refer to a complex number z as the point z or the
vector z.When used for the purpose of displaying the numbers z = x + iy geometrically,the
xy plane is called the complex plane or the z-plane.The x-axis is called the real axis, and
the y-axis is known as the imaginary axis.
Given any two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 the sum z1 + z2 corresponds
to the point (x1 + x2 ; y1 + y2 ): It also corresponds to a vector with those coordinates as its
components. Hence z1 + z2 may be obtained vectorially as shown in the …gure below.
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The di¤erence z1 z2 = z1 + ( z2 ) corresponds to the sum of the vectors for z1 and z2 (See
the …gure). Note that the number z1 z2 can be interpreted as the directed line segment
from the point (x2 ; y2 ) to the point (x1 ; y1 ) just as we can do with vectors.
93
Although the product of two complex numbers z1 and z2 is itself a complex number repre-
sented by a vector, that vector lies in the same plane as the vectors for z1 and z2 : Evidently,
then, this product is neither the scalar nor the vector product used in ordinary vector
analysis.We shall discuss the geometrical interpretation of the product of z1 and z2 later.
Absolute Value: Given a complex number z = x + iy, its modulus p or magnitude or
1
absolute value jzj is de…ned as the nonnegative real number jzj = x + y 2 = (x2 + y 2 ) 2 :
2
Geometrically, the number jzj is the distance between the point (x; y) and the origin (0; 0)
or the length of the vector representing z: It reduces to the usual absolute value in the real
number system when y = 0: It should be noted that there is no ordering in the complex
number system i.e. it is meaningless to say z2 < z1 unless both z1 and z2 are real. But the
statement jz2 j < jz1 j means that the point z2 is closer to the origin than the point z1 :
p
1. Find the modulus of (i) 3 4i (ii) 1 + i (iii) 1 i 3:
2. Which of these points 3 + i2 and 1 + 4i is closer to the origin?
Solution:
1 1 1 1
1. (i) jzj = jx + iyj = (x2 + y 2 ) 2 = (32 + ( 4)2 ) 2 = (9 + 16) 2 = (25) 2 = 5:(ii) jzj =
1
1 p p 1
jx + iyj = (x2 + y 2 ) 2 = ( 1)2 + 12 2 = 1 + 1 = 2:(iii)jzj = jx + iyj = (x2 + y 2 ) 2 =
h p i1 p p
2 2 2
1 + 3 = 1+3= 4=2
q p p
1
2 jz1 j = jx + iyj = (x21 + y12 ) 2 = ( 3)2 + 22 = 9 + 4 = 13 and jz2 j = jx2 + iy2 j =
1 p p p
(x22 + y22 ) 2 = 11 + 42 = 1 + 16 = 17
Therefore z1 is closer to the origin than z2 is.

The distance between two points represented by the complex numbers
q
z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 is given by jz1 z2 j = (x1 x2 )2 + (y1 y2 )2 =
q
(x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 = jz2 z1 j . The complex numbers z corresponding to the points
lying on the
q circle with centre z0 and radius r thus satisfy the equation jz z0 j = r;or
jz z0 j = (x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 = r and conversely.
Example 6.2 : Show that the equation jz 1 + 3ij = 2 represents a circle.
Solution:
q Let z = x+iy;then jz 1+3ij = 2 =) jx + iy 1 + 3ij = j(x 1) + (y + 3) ij =
(x 1) + (y + 3)2 = 2
2
=) (x 1)2 + (y + 3)2 = 22 =) (x 1)2 + (y + 3)2 = 4: This last expression is the equation

of a circle centred at (1; 3) with radius of 2 units.
94
Recall that if z = x + iy then x = <z and y = =z and we can from the de…nition of
absolute value write jzj2 = x2 + y 2 = (<z)2 + (=z)2 and also state that <z j<zj jzj and
=z j=zj jzj ;and jzj = jzj:
Example 6.3 : Given two complex numbers z 1 = x 1 + iy 1 and z 2 = x 2 + iy 2 we can show

that (i) z1 + z 2 = z 1 + z 2 ; the conjugate of a sum is equal to the sum of the conjugates.
(ii) z1 z2 = z1 z 2 ;the conjugate of a di¤erence is equal to the di¤erence of the conju-

z1
gates.(iii) z1 z 2 = z 1 z 2 ; the conjugate of a product is equal to the product of the conjugates.(iv) z2
=
z1
z2
; z2 6= 0; the conjugate of a quotient is equal to the quotient of the conjugates.
Solution: (i) z1 + z 2 = (x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) = x1 + x2 + i(y1 + y2 ) = x1 + x2 i(y1 +

y2 ) = x1 + x2 iy1 iy2 = x1 iy1 + x2 iy2 = z 1 + z 2
(ii)- (iv) are left as exercises.
The sum z + z of a complex number z and its conjugate z is the real number 2x = 2<z:
The di¤erence z z is the purely imaginary number 2iy = 2i=z:
z+z z z
Hence we have the two identities: <z = 2
and =z = 2i
:
An important identity relating the conjugate of a complex number z = x + iy to its modulus
is zz = jzj2 = x2 + y 2 : This provides another way of simplifying the quotient zz12 : The
procedure is to rationalise the denominator by multiplying both numerator and denominator
by the conjugate z 2 of the denominator z2 so that the denominator becomes the real number
jz2 j2 = x22 + y22 :
1+3i
Example 6.4 : Simplify the quotient 2 i
:
1+3i ( 1+3i) (2+i) 5+5i 5+5i

Solution: 2 i
= (2 i) (2+i)
= j2 ij2
= 5
= 1+i
We shall now state and prove some of the following results:
(i) jz1 z2 j = jz1 jjz2 j i.e.absolute value of product is equal to product of absolute values.
jz1 j
(ii) j zz12 j = ;z
jz2 j 2
6= 0 i.e.absolute value of quotient is equal to quotient of absolute values.
(iii) jz1 + z2 j jz1 j + jz2 j: This is called the triangular inequality.
Proof: (i) jz1 z2 j2 = (z1 z2 )(z1 z2 ) (* jzj2 = zz)
= (z1 z2 )(z 1 z 2 ) = z1 z2 z 1 z 2 (* z1 z2 = z1 z2 )
= z1 z 1 z2 z 2 = jz1 j2 j z2 j2 [* jzj2 = zz]:
Hence jz1 z2 j2 = jz1 j2 jz2 j2 : Taking square roots of both sides yields the results: jz1 z2 j =
jz1 jjz2 j:
95
(ii) We follow the steps used in (i) above to verify the second result.
(iii) jz1 + z2 j2 = (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 ) (* jzj2 = zz)
= (z1 + z2 )(z 1 + z 2 ) (* z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 )
= z1 z 1 + z1 z 2 + z2 z 1 + z2 z 2
= jz1 j2 + 2<(z1 z 2 ) + jz2 j2 (* z1 z 2 + z2 z 1 = 2<(z1 z 2 ) = 2<(z 1 z2 ))
jz1 j2 + 2j<(z1 z 2 )j + jz2 j2 (* <z1 j<z1 j)
jz1 j2 + 2jz1 z 2 j + jz2 j2 (* j<z1 j jz1 j)
jz1 j2 + 2jz1 jjz 2 j + jz2 j2 (* jz1 z2 j = jz1 jjz2 j)
jz1 j2 + 2jz1 jjz2 j + jz2 j (* jzj = jzj)
i.e. jz1 + z2 j2 (jz1 j + jz2 j)2
Taking the square root of both sides to obtain the moduli (nonnegative), we have the result:
jz1 + z2 j jz1 j + jz2 j:
We can generalise the triangular inequality to any …nite number of terms. That is, one can
write that
P
n P
n
jz1 + z2 + ::: + zn j (jz1 j + jz2 j + ::: + jzn j) or zi jzi j :
i=1 i=1
This can be veri…ed by means of mathematical induction.
6.4.1 Polar representation of complex numbers
Let (r; ) be the polar coordinates of a point (x; y) corresponding to the complex number
z = x + iy. Since x =pr cos and y = r sinp then z can be written as z = r(cos + i sin ):
For instance,1 + i = 2(cos 4 + i sin 4 ) = 2(cos 47 + i sin 47 ): The number or angle is
called the argument or amplitude of the complex number z = x + iy and it is given by the
formula = arctan xy = tan 1 xy :
Geomerically, argz is the angle (measured in radians) that z makes with the positive real axis
when z is interpreted as a directed line segment from the origin.The argument is not unique
since if is argz so is + 2 n; n = 0; 1; 2; ::::Thus for any nonzero complex number z;the
value of arg z that lies in the range < is called the principal value denoted by Arg
z.This principal value is unique.
If z = 0; is not de…ned and so, we shall always assume that the complex number z is
nonzero when using polar form.
If z 6= z0 ;the representation z z0 = (cos + i sin ) of z zo in polar form can be
interpreted geometrically as below.
96
= jz z0 j is the distance between the points z and z0 while arg(z z0 ) = is the angle of
inclination of the vector representing z z0 :
6.4.2 Identities involving Arguments
Theorem 5 Given two complex numbers z1 and z2 ;then (i) arg(z1 z2 ) = argz1 + arg z2 and
(ii) arg( zz12 ) = argz1 argz2 provided z2 6= 0:
Proof: (i) Let z1 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 ) then arg z1 = 1 ;and arg z2 =
2 so z1 z2 = r1 r2 [cos ( 1 + 2 ) + i sin ( 1 + 2 )] which implies that arg (z1 z2 ) = 1 + 2 =
arg z1 +arg z2 :Hence the result. Note that these statements about the argument is not true for
the principal value. For example, if z1 = 1 and z2 = i then Argz1 = ; and Argz2 = 2 but
Argz1 z2 = 2 and not 32 :
z1 r1
(ii) Let z1 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1) and z2 = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2) then z2
= r2
[cos ( 1 2) + i sin ( 1 2 )]
z1
which shows that arg z2
= 1 2 = arg z1 arg z2 ; concluding the proof.
6.4.3 Exponential form of complex numbers
It is sometimes more convenient to express ei as cos + i sin : This is known as Euler’s

(pronounced Oiler’s) Formula, i.e.ei = cos + i sin :
If z1 = ei 1 and z2 = ei 2 then using Euler’s Formula we can show that z1 z2 = ei 1 ei 2 =
i
ei( 1 + 2 ) : Similarly we can also show that zz21 = eei 12 = ei( 1 2 ) This is equivalent to the case
of ex for real x:Thus if z1 = r1 ei 1 and z2 = r2 ei 2 then z1 z2 = r1 r2 ei 1 ei 2 = r1 r2 ei( 1 + 2 ) :
6.4.4 Powers and roots of unity of complex numbers
The intergral powers of a nonzero complex number z = rei is given by z n = rn ein ;which is
n
valid for all n = 0; 1; 2; ::: For r = 1; ei = ein ; n = 0; 1; 2; ::: or (cos + i sin )n =
cos n + i sin n : This is known as De Moivre’s theorem. The theorem is useful in the com-
putation of the roots of nonzero complex numbers.
Example 6.5 : Solve the equation z n = 1: This can be restated as …nd the nth roots of
unity.
n
Solution: For non zero z = rei ;we look for r and such that rei = 1 or rn ein =
1ei(0+2 k) : Hence rn = 1 and n = 0+2 k; k = 0; 1; 2; ::: Consequently, r = 1; and = 2nk
2 k
and so we have n distinct solutions given by c = ei( n ) = cos 2 k +i sin 2 k ; k = 0; 1; :::; n 1:
k n n
It should be noted that for values of k greater than n 1, the roots are repeated.
97
This fact demostrate the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra which states that a polynomial
2 k
equation of n degree has exactly n (roots) solutions. The complex numbers, ck = ei( n ) =
cos 2nk + i sin 2nk ; k = 0; 1; :::; n 1 are the nth distinct roots of unity.
Geometrically, the n roots of unity represent the vertices of a regular polygon with n sides
inscribed in a unit circle centred at the origin and one of the roots is c0 = 1:
Remark 2 Note that if c 6= 1 is one of the root of unity, then it is easy to show that
1 + c + c2 + c3 + ::: + cn 1 = 0 using the sum of n terms of a GP.
Example 6.6 : Solve the equation z 3 = 1 and discuss the roots.
2 k
Solution: ck = ei( 3 ) = cos 2 3pk
+ i sin 2 3k are the solutions of the given equation i.e.
p
c0 =
2 2 1 3 2 2 2 2 4 4 1 3
1; c2 = cos 3 + i sin 3 = 2 + i 2 ; c3 = cos 3 + i sin 3 = cos 3 + i sin 3 = 2 i 2 :The
roots represent the vertices of an equilateral triangle inscribed in a unit circle centred at
the origin.Using either c2 or c3 from the above given example, we can easily verify that
1 + c2 + c22 = 1 + c3 + c23 = 0:
Exercise 22 Solve the equation z 4 = 1 and discuss the roots.
6.4.5 Roots of complex numbers other than unity
The concept of roots of unity can be used to …nd the roots of the nonzero complex number
z0 = r0 exp i 0 : The roots are obtained by solving the equation z n = z0 for z; and these roots
are given by the numbers
p
ck = n r0 exp i n0 + 2kn ; k = 0; 1; 2; ::::; n 1::::( )
p
where the number n r0 is the length of each radius vector representing the n roots. An argu-
ment of the …rst root, c0 is n0 and the other roots are obtained by adding integral multiples
of 2n :Consequently, as the case with the nth root of unity,the roots when n = 2;always lie
at the opposite ends of a diameter of a circle, one root being the negative of the other; and
when n 3;they lie at the vertices of a regular polygon of n sides.If c is any particular nth
root of z0 ; the set of all other nth roots can be written as c; cwn ; cwn2 ; cwn3 ; ::::; cwnn 1 where
wn = exp i( 2n ):This is true because multiplication of any nonzero complex number by wn
corresponds to increasing the argument of that number by 2n : We shall denote the set of
1
nth roots of a nonzero complex number z0 by z0n : If in particular z0 is a positive real num-
1 p
ber r0 ; then the symbol r0n denotes a set of roots while n r0 is reserved for the one positive
root.When the value of 0 that is used in the expression for the roots, ck ( ) is the principal
value of the argz0 ( < ); then the number c0 is often referred to as the principal nth
p
root of z0 : Thus, when z0 is a positve real number r0 ; its principal root is n r0 : If z0 = 0;
then z n = z0 has only one solution z = 0: Hence the only nth root of zero is zero.
98
It is sometimes more convenient to write z0 in its general exponential form z0 = r0 exp [i ( 0 + 2k )] ; k =
1 p
0; 1; 2; ::: and then we write z0n = n r0 exp i 0 +2k n
; where k = 0; 1; 2; :::n 1:This
formula is valid where n = 1; 2; 3; ::::
1
Example 6.7 : Find all the values (roots) of ( 8i) 3 (cube roots of 8i)
q p
Solution: r0 = j 8ij = ( 8)2 = 64 = 8; 0 = 2 as is the case with all negative purely
imaginary numbers. Therefore 8i = 8 exp i 2 + 2k ; where k = 0; 1; 2; ::: so
2 k
that the desired distinct roots are ck = 2 exp i 6 + 3 ; where k = 0; 1; 2: In cartesian
coordinates, the roots are
p
c0 = 2 exp i 6 = 2 cos 6 + i sin 6 = 3 i;
2 3
c1 = 2 exp i 6
+ 3
= 2 exp i 6
= 2 cos 2
+ i sin 2
= 2i;
and
p
c2 = 2 exp i 6 + 2 3 2 = 2 exp i 116 = 2 cos 116 + i sin 116 = 3 i: These roots
lie at the vertices of an equilateralptriangle inscribed in a circle of radius 2 units centred at the
origin. The principal root is c0 = 3 i:
99

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LECTURE NOTE ON

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY LAFIA

1 Elementary Set Theory and Number Systems

The number system is then explored from a set theoretic perspective.

1.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1.3 Learning Activities

facilities on the Moodle site;

Take and pass on-line and other self assessment tests.

Solve relevant questions from past MTH111 Examinations.

1.4 Sets and Set Notation-Introduction

1.4.1 Methods of describing Sets

1. A = fx : x is a month of the yearg :

Exercise 2 Use the set-builder notation to describe the following sets.

1.4.2 Types of Sets

X = f1; 2; 3; :::g ; Y = f:::; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; :::g

De…nition 1.4 : A set X is said to be a subset of set Y if every element of set X is an

We use the notation X Y to describe X is a subset of Y ; so that the symbol should

The set Y = f 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4g has cardinal number n(Y ) = 9: We note that all

1.4.3 Set operations

We explore A [ B for given sets.

2. A [ B = B [ A Commutativity law for union

3. A [ (B [ C) = (A [ B) [ C Associativity law for union

Now if A = f 1; 0; 2; 3; 4g and B = f0; 2; 4; 6; 8g then A \ B = f0; 2; 4g:

2. A \ B = B \ A Commutativity law for intersection.

3. A \ (B \ C) = (A \ B)\ C Associativity law for intersection.

Theorem 1 Thus for any subsets A; B;and C of some universal set U ,

Theorem 2 The general distributive laws are:

(i) A [ (B1 \ B2 \ ::: \ Bn ) = (A [ B1 ) \ (A [ B2 ) \ ::: \ (A [ Bn ):

Let A = f 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7g ; ; A1 = f 3; 2; 1g ; A2 = f0; 1; 2g ; A3 = f3; 4g

De…nition 1.15 : Complementation: The complement of set A with respect to the

Generally, if given n sets, A1 ; A2 ; :::; An ; a …nite collection of n sets, then

If A = f2; 4; 5; 8g and B = f2; 5g; then A B = f4; 8g:

1.4.4 Representation of Sets with Venn diagrams

Suppose, A is a subset of B, i.e. A B; then a Venn diagram for this relationship is as

(i) A (B [ C) = (A B) \ (A C);(ii) A (B \ C) = (A B) [ (A C):

De…nition 1.19 : Relation: A relation is any subset of the Cartesian product A B of

If < is a relation in A B ( i.e. < A B) we say < is a relation from A to B: If A = B, we

De…nition 1.23 : Function: Let A and B be sets. A function from A to B is a single

De…nition 1.24 : Surjective or Onto function: Let f be a function having A as its

1. Given that U = f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10g and A = f 5; 4; 0; 1; 2; 6; 9; 10g ;

8. A \ B c = f 5; 4; 0; 1; 2; 6; 9; 10g \ f 5; 4; 2; 1; 1; 3; 9; 10g = f 5; 4; 1; 9; 10g :

Example 1.2 : Given that X = f2; 3g and Y = f3; 5; 6g ;Find X Y and Y X:

Example 1.3 : If A = f1; 2; 3; 4g : Find (A) and cardinality of A:

Solution: Given that A = f1; 2; 3; 4g :

Proof: Let sets A; B and C be given. Then

= C 0 \ (A [ B) By commutative law for \

= (A \ C 0 ) [ (B \ C 0 ) By Commutative law for \

= (A C) [ (B C) By alternate representation of set di¤erence.

= [(A [ B) \ U ] \ [((A0 [ B 0 ) \ U ) [ (A \ B)] By the de…nition of intersection.

= [(A [ B) \ (B [ B 0 ] \ [((A0 \ B 0 ) \ (A [ A0 )) [ (A \ B)] de…nition of universal set

1.4.5 Application of Venn diagrams on Sets

We now illustrate the application of set operations with Venn diagrams.

1. Let U = f 8; 7; 6; 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12g be a uni-

2. Let X = fJohn,Maryg and Y = f2; 4; 6g : Find (i) X Y (ii) Y Y (iii) Y X:

1.5 The Number System

The number system as we know it today is a result of gradual development as indicated in

1.5.1 Natural numbers

1. If a < b and c < d, then a + c < b + d: