MTH 101 LECTURE NOTE

ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS 1
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
FACULTY OF NATURAL SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY OF JOS
NIGERIA
mathslist@ unijos.edu.ng

May 13, 2006

Contents

1 Elementary Set Theory and Number System 2

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Methods of Describing Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Types of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Mathematical Induction and Binomial Expansion 22

2.1 Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3 Real Sequences and Series 30

3.1 Introduction: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4 Quadratic Equations and Remainder Theorem 39

4.1 Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

5 Indices and Logarithms 54

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

6 Trigonometry 59
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

7 Complex Numbers 77

8 Matrices 87
8.1 Matrices and their Applications to Solution of Simultaneous
Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

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Chapter 1

Elementary Set Theory and

Number System

1.1 Introduction
The theory of sets is an important tool in modern Mathematics. The study of
sets which began in the later part of the nineteenth century by George Cantor
(1845-1918) has assumed a central role in every branch of Mathematics today.
For example, algebra is concerned with sets of numbers and operations on
these sets whereas analysis deals mainly with sets of functions.

De…nition 1.1 (set)

A set can be de…ned as a collection of well-de…ned objects.

Every object that belongs to the set is called a member or an element of

the set. For example, the collection of all traders in Jos forms a set and any
trader in Jos would be a member of this set. A teacher in Jos would however
not be a member of this set. Another example of a set is the collection of all
students in Nigerian Universities. This clearly shows that any student who
is not in any of the Nigerian Universities would not be a member of this set.
A teacher in Jos is also not a member of this set. We use upper cases such as
A; B; C; ::: to denote sets whereas the lower cases such as a; b; c; ::: are used
for members of the set.
The statement x 2 A means "x is a member of or an element of or x
belongs to the set A" while y 2= A means that y is not a member of or is not
an element of A:

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1.1.1 Methods of Describing Sets
(a) Roster method: The most elementary method of describing a set is
by listing its members. This is conventionally done by enclosing them in a
pair of braces, fg : In this convention, each element’s name is separated by a
comma. For example the set X; whose elements are the months of the year
that begin with the letter A is X = fApril; Augustg
The set of integers whose squares is less than 20 can be written as A =
f 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4g :
(b) The Set-Builder Notation: The set-builder notation (or the rule
method) is a method of specifying a set in which, rather than listing all the
elements of a set, speci…es a set by writing within braces a formal description
that describes or identi…es the members of the set. As part of this formal
description, we use a variable (such as x) to represent any one of the members
of the set. The following convention is used in a set-builder notation.
Name of Set = fxjx is word description of the set g or
Name of Set = fx:x is a word description of the setg
Note that the slash (j) or the colon (:) is pronounced ”such that”.
Now considering the example we mentioned earlier, that is the set X whose
elements are the months of the year that begin with the letter A, we can
describe the set using the set-builder notation as follows:

X = fx : x is a month of the year that begins with the letter Ag :

The statement is read: X is the set of all x such that x is a month

of the year that begins with the letter A: Consider the set whose elements
are the days in a week. Such a set can be described using the set-builder
notation as:
A = fxjx is a day of the week:g

If we use the roster notation discussed earlier, the set can be written as:
A = fMonday; Tuesday; Wednesday; Thursday; Friday; Saturday; Sundayg :
Exercise 1.1
1) Using the roster method, describe the following sets:
(i) A = fx : x is a month of the yearg : (ii) B = fx : x2 3x + 2 = 0g
(iii) C = fx : x is a continentg (iv) Set of integers between 1 and 50
divisible by 9
2) Use the set-builder notation to describe the following sets.
(a) A = fa; e; i; o; ug (b) B = f 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6g

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1.1.2 Types of Sets
.
(1) Finite Set: Any set that contains a de…nite number of elements is
called a …nite set. The following are examples of …nite sets,
A = f1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6g
B = f 6; 5; 4; :::; 4; 5; 6g
C = fa; b; x; y; zg
(2) In…nite Sets: These are sets that have unlimited number of ele-
ments. The following are examples of in…nite sets.
X = f1; 2; 3; :::g Y = f::: 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; :::g
The three dots indicate that the established pattern will continue
inde…nitely.
(3) Empty Sets (or Null Sets). Any set that has no element in it
is called an empty or a null set. We denote such sets by the symbol ; or
fg : We must exercise caution not to write f;g to indicate the null set. This
notation does not represent the null set because there is an object contained
within the braces. The symbol f;g represents the set with the element ;:
An obvious example of the null set is the set of traders who live on the moon.
This is an empty set because no trader lives on the moon.
(4) The Unit Set (singleton set). Any set that has exactly one
element is called a unit set or a singleton set. Consider the set of all months
with less than 30 days. This set has only one element, namely, February.
The following are also singleton sets.(i) A = fgarig;(ii) B = f2g
De…nition 1.2(Subsets)
A set X is said to be a subset of set Y if every element of set X is an
element of set Y: We use the notation X Y to describe this, so that
the symbol should be read as “ is a subset of ’. We also say that X
is contained in Y: The set X is said to be a proper subset of Y if every
element of set X is an element of set Y; and also set Y has at least one
other element that is not in X: We denote this by X Y . This symbol
is read as “X is a proper subset of Y ” sometimes we use Y X to mean
the same thing but that should be read as Y contains X. For instance if the
set X = f 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3g and Y = f 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5g then
the set X Y since every element of the set X is in Y and in addition the
set Y has some elements that are not in X:
De…nition 1.3(Equality of Sets)
Two sets are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements. In
other words equality between two sets A and B imply that A B and B A:
For example if X = fa; b; f; gg and Y = ff; a; b; gg then the set X is equal to
set Y and it is denoted as X = Y: The order in which the elements of a set are

4
written is not important. The set A = fall the vowels in English Alphabetg
and the set B = fe; o; a; u; ig are also equal since both sets have the same
elements. To prove that A = B it su¢ ces to show that A B and B A:
Example
Let A = fa; b; c; dg and B = fa; b; f; d; e; c; g; hg: Every element in set A,
i.e., a; b; c and d is also contained in set B. Notice further that the two sets
are not equal; so A B: The set X = fAll basketball players in Jos g is a
subset of the set Y = fall athletes in Jos.g
Remark
Every set is a subset of itself and the empty is a subset of any given set;
and these two sets are the improper subsets of any given set. This calls for a
clear distinction between a subset and a proper subset. The notations used
to represent improper subset is and proper subset is should serve as an
aid in distinguishing between the two concepts.
De…nition 1.4: Sets whose members are sets are referred to as class or
family.
De…nition 1.5 (Power Set)
Given a set A, the power set A denoted (A) is the set of all subsets of
A: For instance the power set of the set fx; yg is (fx; yg) = f;; fxg; fyg; fx; ygg:
Generally for all integers n 0 if a set X has n elements, the the power set,
(X) has 2n elements.
De…nition 1.6 (Cardinality of a Set)
The cardinal number of any set A is de…ned as the number of elements in
set A: This is denoted by the symbol n(A); read as ”the number of elements
in set A:"
Example (i) The set X = f1; 2; 4g has cardinal number 3. That is
n(X) = 3
(ii) A = fx; y; z; M oses; Y amg has cardinal number n (A) = 5:
(iii) The set Y = f 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4g has cardinal number n(Y ) =
9:
Remark Repetition of elements in a given set does not alter the set nor
its cardinality. For example, the set A = fx; y; zg is the same as the set
B = fx; x; z; y; zg :Their cardinality is the same.
De…nition 1.7 (Equivalent Sets)
Set A and B are said to be equivalent if they can be put into one-one cor-
respondence. Consider the two sets A = f2; 4; 6g and B = fa; b; cg. These
two sets are not equal, but they have exactly the same number of elements.
Each set contains three elements. Note that in every day English “equiv-
alent” means the same thing. However in the discussion of sets, equality
and equivalence are not the same thing. If two sets are equal, they are also

5
equivalent, but if two sets are equivalent they are not necessarily equal.

De…nition 1.8 (The Universal set)

Whenever we are discussing problems involving sets, we normally employ
the use of a general set called the universal set. This contains the elements
of the other sets being considered in a given problem. We may wish to
de…ne the universal set as follows: If all sets in a given discussion are to
be subsets of a …xed overall set U then the set U is called the Universal set.
For example if we wish to discuss the set of negative integers and the set of
positive integers, then a suitable universal set is the set of integers. Note
that the universal set may vary from discussion to discussion.
1.3 SET OPERATIONS:
If A and B are sets, it is sometimes natural to wish to unite their elements
into a comprehensive set. One way of describing such a comprehensive set is
to require it to contain all the elements that belong to at least one of the two
members of the pair (A; B). The comprehensive set that consist of elements
from A and B is called the union of the two sets.
De…nition 1.9 (Union of Sets) The union of two sets A or B denoted
A [ B (read as “ A union B “) means the set of all elements that are either
in A or B or both. Using mathematical notation, we write
A [ B = fx : x 2 A or x 2 Bg:
Example If A = f1; 2; ; 5; 6g and B = f0; 1; 2; 3; 5g then A [ B =
f1; 2; ; 5; 6g [ f0; 1; 2; 3; 5g = f0; 1; 2; 3; 5; 6g
Example If A = fOrange, Apple, Johng and B = fOrange,Yam,Goat,Riceg
then
A [ B = fOrange, Apple, John, Yam, Goat, Rice:g
More generally if A1 ; A2; :::; An are sets, then their union is the set of
all objects which belong to at least one of them and it is denoted by A1 [
Sn
A2 [ ::: [ An = Ai :The union of in…nite sets, A1; A2 ; :::; An ::: is given by
i=1
S
1
A1 [ A2 [ ::: [ An [ ::: = Ai :
i=1
Here are some basic properties about the union of sets.
(i) A [ = A
(ii) A [ B = B [ A Commutativity of union
(iii) A [ (B [ C) = (A [ B) [ C Associativity of union
(iv) A [ A = A Idempotent
(v) A [ U = U Universal union
(vi) A B if and only if A [ B = B

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 The proofs are based on the corresponding elementary properties of the
logic operator \ or":
De…nition 1.10 (Intersection of Sets)
The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted as A \ B (read as \A
intersects B") means the set of all elements that are in both sets A and B at
the same time. In another notation we write the intersection of A and B as
A \ B = fx : x 2 A and x 2 B:g
For instance, if A = f 1; 0; 2; 3; 4g and B = f0; 2; 4; 6; 8g then A \ B =
f0; 2; 4g:
The intersection of n sets A1 ; A2 ; ::An is the set of all objects which belong
T
n
to every one of them, and is denoted by A1 \ A2 \ ::: \ An = Ai : If the
i=1
sets are in…nite, that is, A1 ; A2 ; :::An ::: then we write A1 \ A2 \ ::: \ An \ :::
T
1
= Ai :
i=1
The basic facts about intersection, as well as their proofs are similar to
the basic facts about unions.
(i) A \ = Null intersection
(ii) A \ B = B \ A Commutativity of intersection
(iii) A \ (B \ C) = (A \ B)\ C Associativity of intersection
(iv) A \ U = A
(v) A \ A = A Idempotent
(iv) A B if and only if A \ B = A
Two useful facts about unions and intersection involve both the operations
at the same time. For any subsets A; B;and C of the set U ,
(i) A \ (B [ C) = (A \ B) [ (A \ C)
(ii) A [ (B \ C) = (A [ B) \ (A [ C):
These identities are called the distributive laws.
We shall attempt proving the …rst identity. The proof involves showing
that
[A \ (B [ C)] [(A \ B) [ (A \ C)] and conversely, [(A \ B) [ (A \ C)]
[A \ (B [ C)]:
For [A \ (B [ C)] [(A \ B) [ (A \ C)]
Let x 2 A \ (B [ C) (and show that x 2 (A \ B) [ (A \ C))
) x 2 A and x 2 (B [ C). de…nition of intersection
) x 2 A and x 2 B or x 2 C de…nition of union
) x 2 A and x 2 B or x 2 A and x 2 C
) x 2 (A \ B) or x 2 (A \ C) de…nition of intersection
) x 2 (A \ B) [ (A \ C) de…nition of union
Thus A \ (B [ C) (A \ B) [ (A \ C) (1)
Conversely

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 Let x 2 (A \ B) [ (A \ C) (and show that x 2 A \ (B [ C)).
) x 2 (A \ B) or x 2 (A \ C) de…nition of union
) x 2 A and x 2 B or x 2 A and x 2 C de…nition of intersection
) x 2 A and x 2 B or x 2 C de…nition of union
) x 2 A and x 2 (B [ C).
) x 2 A \ (B [ C)
Thus (A \ B) [ (A \ C) A \ (B [ C) (2)
From (1) and (2) the result follows.
The general distributive laws are:
(i) A [ (B1 \ B2 \ ::: \ Bn ) = (A [ B1 ) \ (A [ B2 ) \ ::: \ (A [ Bn ):
(ii) A \ (B1 [ B2 [ ::: [ Bn ) = (A \ B1 ) [ (A \ B2 ) [ ::: [ (A \ Bn ):
These can be proved by the principle of mathematical induction (which
will be discussed later on).
De…nition 1.11 (Disjoint Sets)
Two sets are called disjoint(or mutually exclusive) if, and only if, they
have no elements in common. Symbolically, A and B are disjoint if and only
if A \ B = :
Example. Let A = f3; 7; 9g and B = f4; 8; 10g : A and B are disjoint
sets since they have no element in common.
In general sets A1 ; A2 ; :::; An are mutually disjoint (pairwise disjoint or
non over lapping) if, and only if, no two sets Ai and Aj with distinct subscripts
have any elements in common. More precisely, for all i; j = 1; 2; :::; n;
Ai \Aj = ; where i 6= j:
Example: Let A1 = f2; 4; 7; 8g ; A2 = f1; 3; 6g and A3 = f5; 9g : A1 ; A2
and A3 are mutually disjoint since A1 and A2 have no elements in common,
A1 and A3 have no elements in common, and A2 and A3 have no elements
in common.

De…nition 1.12(Partition of Sets)

A collection of non empty sets fA1 ; A2 ; :::; An g is a partition of set A if,
and only if,
(i) A = A1 [A2 [:::[An and (ii) A1 ; A2 ; :::; An are mutually disjoint.
Example: Let A = f 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7g ; A1 = f 3; 2; 1g ;
A2 = f0; 1; 2g ; A3 = f3; 4g and A4 = f5; 6; 7g : Is fA1 ; A2 ; A3 ; A4 g a par-
tition of A?
Solution. Yes. By inspection. A = A1 [ A2 [ A3 [ A4 and sets
A1 ; A2 ; A3 ; A4 are mutually disjoint.
De…nition 1.13 (Complementation)
The complement of set A with respect to the universal set U , denoted by
A or Ac (read as “A complement”) is the set of all elements in the universal set
0

8
that are not in A: For instance if the universal set U = f1; 2; 4; 8; 9; 10; 11g and
A = f2; 4; 8; 9g then Ac = f1; 10; 11g :
If the universal set U = fall meng and Y = fall men who are marriedg,
then
Y c = fall men who are not marriedg
The following are some of the basic facts about complementation. If A
and B are subsets of the universal set U then
i) (A0 )0 = A
ii) ?0 = U and U 0 = ? (where U is the universal set)
iii) A \ A0 = ? and A [ A0 = U
iv) A B if and only if B 0 A0 ; and
v) (A \ B)0 = A0 [ B 0 : Its dual is (A [ B)0 = A0 \ B 0 :
Statement (v) is the so-called De-Morgan’s law. These laws hold also for
larger collection of sets and not just two sets.
We shall prove the De Morgan’s law for any two pair of sets; that is, if A
and B are any two sets,
(A [ B)0 = A0 \ B 0 :
Proof:
Let y 2 (A [ B)0
)y2 = (A [ B) de…nition of complement
)y2 = A or y 2=B de…nition of union
) y 2 A0 and y 2 B 0 de…nition of intersection
) y 2 (A0 \ B 0 )
Thus (A [ B)0 (A0 \ B 0 )
Conversely
Let y 2 (A0 \ B 0 )
) y 2 A0 and y 2 B 0 de…nition of intersection
)y2 = A or y 2=B de…nition of union
)y2 = (A [ B)
) y 2 (A [ B)0
Thus (A0 \ B 0 ) (A [ B)0 and the result follows.
Generally if A1 ; A2 ; :::; An is a collection of …nite sets, then (A1 \ A2 \
0
::: \ An )0 = A01 [ A02 [ ::: [ A0n and (A1 [ A2 [ ::: [ An )0 = A1 \ A02 \ ::: \ A0n .
De…nition 1.14 (Di¤erence of Sets)
The di¤erence between sets A and B denoted as A B (read as \A
minus B ") means the set of all elements that belong to set A; but not to set
B: Symbolically,
A B = fx : x 2 A but x 2 = Bg:
Example (i) If A = f2; 4; 5; 8g and B = f2; 5g; then A B = f4; 8g: (ii)
Similarly, consider the universal set U = f1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10g: If A =

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f1; 2; 4; 5; 8; 9; 10g and B = f3; 5; 6; 7; 8g; then the set A B = f1; 2; 4; 9; 10g
and A \ B 0 = f1; 2; 4; 9; 10g since B 0 = f1; 2; 4; 9; 10g: Note that A B =
A \ B 0 and observe that this is an illustration and not a proof.
De…nition 1.15 (Symmetric di¤erence of Sets)
If A and B are subsets of the universal set U , then the symmetric dif-
ference (or Boolean sum) of A and B is the set A + B (or A B) de…ned
by
A B = (A B) [ (B A):
An alternative way of de…ning symmetric di¤erence is
A B = fx : x 2 A or x 2 B; but not both}
For example if A = f1; 2; 4; 5; 8; 9; 10g and B = f3; 5; 6; 7; 8g then the
symmetric di¤erence between the two sets is A + B = (A B) [ (B A) =
f1; 2; 4; 9; 10g [ f3; 6; 7g = f1; 2; 3; 4; 6; 9; 10g:
Another way of stating De Morgan’s laws for any sets A , B and C using
the concept of di¤erence and symmetric di¤erence is
i) A (B [ C) = (A B) \ (A C):
ii) A (B \ C) = (A B) [ (A C):
Proof
If x 2 A (B [C);then x 2 A but x 2 = (B [C): Consequently x 2
= B or C;
so that x 2 A B and x 2 A C: But this implies that x 2 (A B)\(A C);
hence A (B [ C) (A B) \ (A C): Similarly, if x 2 (A B) \ (A C)
then x 2 A B and x 2 A C which implies that x 2 A but not B
and x 2 A but not C: It follows that x 2 A but x 2 = B or C: Therefore,
(A B) \ (A C) A (B [ C): This completes the proof of the De
Morgan’s law. The second is obtained by similar reasoning.
De…nition 1.16 (Cartesian product of sets)
The Cartesian product (also called the cross product) of two sets A and
B; denoted A B; is de…ned as
A B = f(x; y) : x 2 A; y 2 Bg :

Example: Suppose that A = fM usa; P am; N eshig and B = fa; b; cg then

A B = (musa; a); (musa; b); (musa; c); (P am; a); (P am; b);
(P am; c); (N eshi; a); (N eshi; b); (N eshi; c) :

Example: If A = f1; 2; g and B = f2; 4; 5g .Find (i) A B (ii) B A

Solution: (i)A B = f(1; 2); (1; 4); (1; 5); (2; 2); (2; 4); (2; 5)g
(ii) B A = f(2; 1); (2; 2); (4; 1); (4; 2); (5; 1); (5; 2)g
De…nition 1.17 (Relation)
A relation is any subset of the Cartesian product A B of any two sets
A and B:

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 If < is a relation in A B ( i.e. < A B) we say < is a relation from
A to B: If A = B, we simply say < is a relation in A: To give an example, let
A be an arbitrary set and consider the subset < of A A consisting of all
pairs (x; y) such that x = y: Here the relation < is the relation of equality
between elements of A:
If < is a relation, then (x; y) 2 < will sometimes be written as x<y:
The domain of a relation < is the set Dom(<) = fx : (x; y) 2 < f or some yg
and the range of < is the set ran(<) = fy : (x; y) 2 < f or some xg : The in-
verse of < is the set < 1 = f(x; y) : (y; x) 2 < g : Thus < 1 is obtained by
reversing each pair in <:
De…nition 1.18 (Re‡exive, symmetric and transitive)
Let A be a set. A relation < in A is said to be
(i) re‡exive if x<x for all x 2 A;
(ii) symmetric if x<y implies that y<x for all x; y 2 A;
(iii) transitive if x<y and y<z implies that x<z for all x; y; z 2 A:
For any set A; an equivalence relation < on A is a relation < A
A satisfying (i), (ii) and (iii) above.
De…nition 1.19 (Image)
If < is a relation and E is a set, we de…ne the image of E under < to be
the set <(E) = fy : (x; y) 2 < f or some x 2 Eg
De…nition 1.20 (Single-valued Relation)
A relation < is single-valued if (x; y) 2 < and (y; z) 2 < imply that y = z;
that is, if no two distinct members of < can have the same …rst element.
If < and < 1 are singled-valued, we say that < is a one-to-one relation.
De…nition 1.21 (Function)
Let A and B be sets. A function from A to B is a single valued relation
< such that Dom(<) A and Ran(<) B:
Remark
From now on, we shall adopt the well-established convention of using
small letters f; g; and so on for functions in the place of < but it is important
to bear in mind all the time that a function is a subset of the Cartesian
product of two sets.
De…nition 1.22 Let f be a function having A as its domain and having
its range contained in B: Let x 2 A; then there is a unique y 2 B such that
x f y: It is convenient to denote this unique element by the symbol f (x) and
call it the image of x under f or the value of f at x:
If Dom(f ) = A and Ran(f ) B; we shall say that f is a function on
A and B and write f : A ! B: If Ran(f ) = B , we say that f is a function
from A onto B:
Examples

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 1. Suppose that the set U = f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10g is
a universal set, and the sets A; B and C given as A = f 5; 4; 0; 1; 2; 6; 9; 10g ; B =
f 3; 0; 2; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; g and C = f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3g are subsets of
the universal set U: Find the followings:
(a) A [ B (b) A [ C (c) (A [ B) \ C (d) A B (e) (A B) \ C (f)
A (g) B c (h) A \ B c
c

(i) (A [ B) \ C
2. If X = f2; 3g and Y = f3; 5; 6g : Find (i) X Y (ii) Y X
3. If A = f1; 2; 3; 4g : Find (i) (A): (ii) Cardinality of A:
4. Prove each of the following set identities.
i) (A[B) C = (A C)[(B C) ii) A[B = (A B)[(B A)[(A\B)
5. Simplify each set- theoretic expression as far as possible, naming the
set laws used
(a) (A \ B 0 )0 [ B (b) A \ B \ C [ Y 0 [ A0 \ C [ B 0 \ C [ C \ Y

Solutions
1. Given that U = f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10g and
that A = f 5; 4; 0; 1; 2; 6; 9; 10g ; B = f 3; 0; 2; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; g and C =
f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3g : Then

(a)

A [ B = f 5; 4; 0; 1; 2; 6; 9; 10g [ f 3; 0; 2; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; g
= f 5; 4; 3; 0; 1; 2; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10g

(b) A [ C = f 5; 4; 0; 1; 2; 6; 9; 10g [ f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3g
= f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 6; 9; 10g :

(c)

(A [ B) \ C = (f 5; 4; 0; 1; 2; 6; 9; 10g [ f 3; 0; 2; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; g)
\ f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3g
= f 5; 4; 3; 0; 1; 2; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10g
\ f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3g
= f 5; 4; 3; 0; 1; 2g :

(d)

A B = f 5; 4; 0; 1; 2; 6; 9; 10g f 3; 0; 2; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; g
= f 5; 4; 1; 9; 10g

12
 (e) (A B) \ C = f 5; 4; 1; 9; 10g \ f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3g =
f 5; 4; 1g :

(f)

Ac = U A = f 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10g
f 5; 4; 0; 1; 2; 6; 9; 10g
= f 3; 2; 1; 3; 4; 5; 7; 8g :

(g) B c = f 5; 4; 2; 1; 1; 3; 9; 10g

(h)

A \ B c = f 5; 4; 0; 1; 2; 6; 9; 10g \ f 5; 4; 2; 1; 1; 3; 9; 10g
= f 5; 4; 1; 9; 10g :

(i) (A [ B)c \ Ac = f 2; 1; 3g \ f 3; 2; 1; 3; 4; 5; 7; 8g = f 2; 1; 3g :

2. Given that X = f2; 3g and Y = f3; 5; 6g : Then

(i) X Y = f(2; 3); (2; 5) ; (2; 6) ; (3; 3) ; (3; 5) ; (3; 6)g
(ii) Y X = f(3; 2); (3; 3) ; (5; 2) ; (5; 3) ; (6; 2) ; (6; 3)g
3. Given that A = f1; 2; 3; 4g : Then

(i)

(A) = ;; f1g ; f2g ; f3g ; f4g ; f1; 2g ; f1; 3g ; f1; 4g ; f2; 3g ; f2; 4g ; f3; 4g

; f1; 2; 3g ; f1; 2; 4g ; f1; 3; 4g ; f2; 3; 4g ; f1; 2; 3; 4g :

(ii) Cardinality of A is given as n (A) = 4:

4. i) Let sets A; B and C be given. Then

(A [ B) C = (A [ B) \ C 0 By alternate representation of set
di¤erence:
= C 0 \ (A [ B) By commutative law for \
0 0
= (C \ A) [ (C \ B) By distributive law.
= (A \ C 0 ) [ (B \ C 0 ) By Commutative law for \
= (A C) [ (B C) By alternate representation of set
di¤erence.
ii) A [ B = (A [ B) \ U By de…nition of \ ( Where U is the
universal set ).

13
 = (A [ B) \ [(A0 [ B 0 ) [ (A \ B)] By de…nition of universal set
= [(A [ B) \ U ] \ [((A0 [ B 0 ) \ U ) [ (A \ B)] By the de…nition
of intersection.
= [(A [ B) \ (B [ B 0 ] \ [((A0 \ B 0 ) \ (A [ A0 )) [ (A \ B)]
de…nition of universal set
0
= [(A \ B 0 ) [ B] \ [((A \ B ) [ A0 ) [ (A \ B)] By the distributive
law.
0
= [(A \ B 0 ) [ B] \ [((A \ B ) [ A0 )] [ (A \ B)
= [(A \ B 0 ) [ (B \ A0 )] [ (A \ B)]
= (A B) [ (B A) [ (A \ B)
5(a) (A \ B 0 )0 [ B = A0 [ (B 0 )0 [ B De Morgan0 s law.
0
=A [B[B Double complement
=A[B Idempotence
0 0 0
(b) A \ B \ C [ Y [ A \ C [ B \ C [ C \ Y
= A \ B \ C [ Y 0 [ (A0 [ B 0 [ Y ) \ C Distributivity of \ over [
= (A \ B \ Y 0 [ (A0 [ B 0 [ Y )) \ C Distributivity of \ over [
= (A \ B \ Y 0 [ (A0 [ B 0 [ Y 00 )) \ C Double complement
0 0 0
= (A \ B \ Y [ (A \ B \ Y ) ) \ C De Morgan0 s law
=U \C Union of complements
=C \ identity element.

Exercise 1.3
1. Let U = f 8; 7; 6; 5; 4; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12g be
a universal set and let A = fx 2 Z : 2 < x 3g ; B = fx 2 Z : 8 x 5g ; and
C = A = fx 2 Z : 0 < x 12g where Z is an integer: Find if possible (a)
A [ B (b) B [ C (c) Ac (d) B c (e) C c (f) (A [ B) C
(g) (A B) \ (A C) (h) (A [ B)c \ (A B) (i) (Ac [ B c )c \ C c : (j)
(A) (k) (B)
2. Let X = fJohn; M aryg and Y = f2; 4; 6g : Find (i) X Y (ii)
Y Y (iii) Y X
3. Suppose that A; B, C and D are subsets of the universal set U . Prove
that
i) (A B) \ B = ; ii) B A = B \ A0
iii) (A B) \ (C D) = A \ C B [ D iv) A (B C) =
(A B) [ (A \ C)
v) A (A \ B) = A B vi) A 4 (B 4 C) = (A 4 B) 4 C
4. Simplify each set- theoretic expression as far as possible, naming the
set laws used.
(i) [(A \ B)0 [(A0 [ B)] [ [(A [ B)0 [(A0 \ B)]
(ii) [(A \ B 0 ) [(A0 [ B)0 ] [ [(A \ B) \(A \ B 0 )0 ]:

14
 5. If A and B are subsets of the universal set U; show that (i) A[(A\B) =
A
(ii) A \ (A [ B) = A:
6 Show that the following statements about sets A and B are equivalent
(a) A B (b) A \ B = A (c) A [ B = B
1.4 THE NUMBER SYSTEM
The number system as we know it today is a result of gradual development
as indicated in the following list.
1.4.1 Natural numbers
The natural numbers are numbers that occur commonly and obviously in
nature. As such, they are whole, non-negative numbers. This set of numbers,
which were …rst used in counting, can be de…ned by: IN = f1; 2; 3; :::g; the
three dots leave much to the imagination. The symbols varied with the times,
for example,the Romans used I,II,III,IV,...
In mathematical expressions, lowercase, italicized letters represent un-
known or unspeci…ed numbers and the most common for the natural numbers
is n.
Addition
If a and b are natural numbers, then their sum a + b is also a natural
number, for example 5 + 3 = 8. For this reason the set of natural numbers
is said to be closed under the operation of addition.
Multiplication
Given any two natural numbers a and b, their product, a b; a:b or ab is
also a natural number, for instance 2 3 = 6: This therefore means that the
natural numbers are closed with respect to multiplication.
It should be observed that the order of the products just like the sum-
mands has no in‡uence on the result; for example 5 4 = 4 5 = 20 and
6 8 = 8 6 = 48: Since this property of the summands or products holds
for all natural numbers, one can write that a+b = b+a or ab = ba and this is
known as the commutative law of addition and multiplication, respectively.
Remark
It should be noted that the di¤erence, a b between any two natural
numbers a and b; is not always a natural number, e.g. 3 7 = 4. In
otherwords, the closure property on subtraction ; of the natural numbers
is not satis…ed.
The natural numbers can be ordered in the sense that given any two
natural numbers n1 and n2 ; exactly one of the following relations holds:
n1 < n2 i.e n1 is less than n2 , for example 10 < 35; or n1 = n2 i.e n1 is equal
to n2 for example 48 = 48 or n1 > n2 i.e n1 is greater than n2 ; for example
95 > 40:

15
 These order relations have a property called transitivity; for example if
n1 < n2 and n2 < n3 then n1 < n3 .Also if n4 > n5 and n5 > n6 then n4 > n6:
This relationship orders the natural numbers linearly. The illustration of
this linear order is the number ray/ line. In it, the natural numbers are
represented by a set of isolated (discrete) points. The fact that n1 is less
than n2 means that the point on the number ray belonging to n1 lies to the
left of the point n2 :
The set IN , is a denumerable (countable) set. Denumerability refers to
the fact that, even though there might be an in…nite number of elements
in the set, those elements can be orderly arranged in a list that implies the
identity of every element in the set. Every natural number a has a successor
denoted by a + 1
1.4.2 Integers
Integers arose to permit solutions of equations such as x + b = a;where
a and b are any natural numbers. The integers therefore consist of the num-
bers f0; 1; 2; 3:::gand their negatives f 1; 2; 3; :::g. The set of all integers
is usually denoted by Z which stands for Zahlen (German name for ”num-
ber”).
Integers can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and compared(ordered).
The ordering is given by

::: < 2 < 1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < :::

Introducing the negative integers makes it possible to solve all equations
of the form a + x = b (where a and b are constant natural numbers) for the
unknown x; if x is constrained to the natural numbers, only some of these
equations are solvable.
We call an integer positive if it is greater than zero; zero itself is neither
considered to be positive nor negative.
The order is compatible with the algebraic operations in the following
way:
1. if a < b and c < d, then a + c < b + d
2. if a < b and c_ > 0, then ac < bc
1.4.3 Rational numbers
In mathematics, a rational number (or informally fraction) is a ratio of
two integers, usually written as a=b, where b is not zero.
The operations of rational numbers are as follows:
(i) a=b + c=d = (ad + bc)=bd; and (ii) a=b c=d = ac=bd
Two rational numbers a=b and c=d are equal if and only if ad = bc.
The set of rational numbers is denoted by Q.
Rational numbers such as 3=4; 7=2; 1=5; :::arose from the need to …nd
solutions of equations such as bx = a for all integers a and b where b 6= 0:This

16
leads to the operation of division or inverse of multiplication, and we write
x = ab or a b (called the quotient of a and b) where a is the numerator and
b is the denominator.
Each rational number can be written in many forms, for example 3=6 =
2=4 = 1=2: The simplest form is when a and b are coprime i.e.they have no
common factors, and every rational number has a simplest form of this type.
The decimal expansion of a rational number is either …nite or eventually
periodic, and this property characterises rational numbers.
It should be noted that the set of integers is a subset of the set of ra-
tional numbers, since the integers correspond to rational numbers ab where
b = 1:The set of rational numbers is closed under the operations of addi-
tion, multiplication, subtraction and division, so long as division by zero is
excluded.
If r and t are rational numbers such that r < t, then there exists a
(in…nitely many ) rational number s such that r < s < t. This is true no
matter how small the di¤erence between r and t, as long as the two are not
equal.
1.4.4 Irrational numbers
An irrational number is any number that is not a rational number, i.e.a
number that cannot be expressed as a=b with a and b integers and b not zero.
The irrational numbers are precisely those numbers whose decimal expansion
never ends and never enters a periodic pattern. p
Some irrational p numbers are algebraic numbers such as 2 (the square
root of two) and 3 3 (the cube root of 3).
Examples of some irrational numbers
Perhaps thepnumbers most easily proved to be irrational are logarithms
like log2 3 and 2:
Proof
( I ) log2 3
The argument by contradiction (reductio ad absurdum) is as follows:
Suppose log2 3 is rational. Then for some positive integers m; n we have
log2 3 = m=n: Consequently 2m=n = 3. So 2m = 3n .But 2m is even
(because at least one of its prime factors is 2) while 3n is odd(because
none of its prime factors are 2 (they’re all 3)) so that is impossible.
This p therefore implies that log2 3 is not rational but irrational.
( II ) 2
The discovery of irrational number is usually attributed to Pythagoras or
one of his followers, who produced a (most likely geometrical) proof of the
irrationality of the square root of 2.
One proof of this irrationality is the following reductio ad absurdum.
The proposition is proved by assuming the opposite and showing that, it is

17
false,which in mathematics
p means that the proposition must be true.
1. Assume that 2 is a rationalp number. Meaning that there exists
integers a and p b so that a=b = 2:
2. Then 2 can be written as an irreducible fraction a=b(the fraction is
simpli…ed as much as possible) such that a and b are coprime (i.e.a and b have
no common factors other than1) .Squaring both sides implies that(a=b)2 = 2.
3. It follows that a2 =b2 = 2 or a2 = 2b2 :
4. Therefore a2 is even because it is equal to 2b2 which is obviously even.
5. It follows that a must be even.
(Odd numbers have odd squares and even numbers have even squares.)
6. Because a is even, there exists an integer k such that a = 2k:
7. We insert a = 2k in the last equation of (3) giving 2b2 = (2k)2 which
is equivalent to 2b2 = 4k 2 or b2 = 2k 2 :
8. Because 2k 2 is even it follows that b2 is also even which means that
b is even because only even numbers have even squares, i.e.b = 2l for some l:
9. By (5) and (8) a and b are both even, which contradicts that a=b
is irreducible as stated
p in (2).Since we have found a contradiction to the
assumption (1) that 2 is a rational number.
p Our supposition is therefore
false. The opposite is proven, that is 2 is irrational. This proof can be
generalized to show that any root of any natural number is either a rational
or irrational number.
1.4.5 Real Numbers
The real numbers IR is made up of the rational and irrational numbers,
i.e.IR = Q [ Qc .
If x and z are real numbers such that x < z, then there is always a real
number y such that x < y < z.
In working with real numbers, it is often convenient to have a geometrical
representation before us or in our minds. This representation of numbers by
points takes the form of a line called the number line or ideal ruler. To
do this, we draw a line L which is assumed to extend inde…nitely in both
directions. A reference point is chosen arbitrarily on L and labelled 0. The
point 0 divides the line L into two equal half-lines,the half to the right of 0 is
designated positive and the half to the left of 0 is designated negative. The
point 0 is called the origin. Suppose now that P is any point on L distinct
from 0 and suppose that the distance from 0 to P equals the real number x
(which must be positive since distance is always nonnegative), then we take
P to represent the number x or the number x according as P lies on the
negative or positive half of L. In either case,given the point P on the line L,
the real number x or x is uniquely determined.
Conversely, given a real number x > 0,we shall assume (atleast from
intuition) that there is one and only one point P lying to the right of 0 such

18
that the distance of P from 0 is x. If x < 0, then P is assumed to lie to the
left of 0. In this way we obtain a one to one correspondence between the set
of all points on L and the set of all real numbers(the point 0 corresponding to
the real number zero).In view of this correspondence, no distinction need be
made between the line L and the real number system IR and for this reason
we often use point and real number interchangeably.
We shall denote the set of real numbers by IR: There are some certain
sets of real numbers called intervals. An interval is the set of all points
between given points a and b: If an interval contains the points a and b then
such an interval is called a closed interval denoted by [a; b]: More formally, if
a 2 IR and b 2 IR; with a < b; then
[a; b] = fx 2 IR : a x bg
is called a closed interval. This interval can be represented geometrically
as:

xx aa bb

The shaded part constitute the closed interval [a; b]: For example, the set
[1; 2] = fx 2 IR : 1 x 2g is a closed interval. Its graphical representation
is

xx a1 b2

On the other hand if the interval does not contain its end points , then
such an interval is called an open interval. We write
(a; b) = fx 2 IR : a < x < bg
to indicate this open interval. Graphically an open interval of the form
(a; b) can be represented as follows:

xx aa bb

An example of an open interval is the set ( 2; 1) = fx 2 IR : 2<x<

1g: This interval consist of the set of real numbers lying between 2 and 1.
Its graphical representation is

xx -2 2 11

Intervals that include only one of the end points are called half-open
intervals(sometimes referred to as half-closed). We write [a; b) = fx 2 IR :
a x < bg and (a; b] = fx 2 IR : a < x bg to denote these intervals
respectively. A half open interval of the form (a; b] can be represented as
follows:

19
 xx aa bb

The lower end of the interval is open whereas the upper end is closed.
Sets of the form
i) [a; 1) = fx 2 IR : x ag are referred to as unbounded inter-
vals.
Other unbounded intervals are
ii) (a; 1) = fx 2 IR : x > ag
iii) ( 1; b] = fx 2 IR : x bg
iv) ( 1; b) = fx 2 IR : x < bg and
v) ( 1; 1) = fx 2 IR : 1 < x < 1g:
1.5 ELEMENTARY OPERATIONS ON SET OF REAL NUM-
BERS
Elementary set operations such as the union of sets, intersection of sets,
complements and a host of others can be performed on the set of real numbers
also.
For instance if,
A = fx 2 IR : 2 x 20g
B = fx 2 IR : 0 x 10g
and C = fx 2 IR : 15 < x 5g
Then A [ B = fx 2 IR : 2 x 20g [ fx 2 IR : 0 x 10g
= fx 2 IR : 2 x 20g
and
A \ B = fx 2 IR : 0 x 10g
0
In a similar way, the complement of the set C denoted as C or C c is
given by
0
C = ( 1; 15] [ (5; 1):
0
We can equally determine (A [ B)0 \ C and A \ C as follows:
Since A [ B = fx 2 IR : 2 x 20g it follows that
(A [ B)0 = fx 2 IR : 1 < x < 2g \ fx 2 IR : 20 < x < 1g
or
(A [ B)0 = ( 1; 2) [ (20; 1)
Therefore (A [ B)0 \ C = f( 1; 2) [ (20; 1)g \ ( 15; 50]
(A [ B)0 \ C = f( 1; 0) \ ( 15; 5)g [ f(20; 1) \ ( 15; 5]g
by distributive laws
(A [ B)0 \ C = ( 15; 2)
This can be written in another form as
(A [ B)0 \ C = fx 2 IR : 15 < x < 0g:
Now to determine A \ C 0 ; recall that C 0 = ( 1; 15] [ (5; 1)
Therefore,
A \ C 0 = [ 2; 20] \ f( 1; 15] [ (15; 1)g

20
 = f[ 2; 20] [ ( 1; 15)g \ f[ 2; 20] [ (15; 1)g
= ( 1; 20] \ [ 2; 1)
= [ 2; 20]
Exercise 1.5
1) If A = fx 2 IR : 12 x < 30g; B = fx 2 IR : 5 x 35g and
C 0 = fx 2 IR : 5 < x < 13g:
Determine if possible
(i) A0 (ii)B 0 (iii)C 0 (iv) (A \ B)0 (v) (A [ B)0 (vi) (C [ B) \ A0
(vii) (A \ B) [ C 0 (viii) A0 \ (B 0 [ C)
2) Suppose IN is the set of natural numbers and that the sets E; F are
de…ned as
E = fx 2 IN [ f0g : 0 x 35g
F = fx 2 IN : 2 x 100g
Determine if possible
i) (E \ G) [ F ii) (E 0 [ F 0 ) \ E iii) En f0g iv) (E G) [ (E4G)
3) Suppose that Z; the set of integers is the university set, and the sets
X; Y and W are de…ned as
X = fx 2 Z : 15 x 70g
Y = fx Z : 10 < x < 10g and W = fx Z : 17 < x < 23g
Find if possible
(i)X 0 , (ii) Y 0 (iii) W 0 (iv) (X [ Y )0 (v) (X [ W ) \ Y 0 (vi) X Y (vii)
(X4Y ) W

21
Chapter 2

Mathematical Induction and

Binomial Expansion

2.1 Mathematical Induction

It is a common knowledge that whereas experimental scientists search for
evidence to support a theory, mathematicians search for a proof to validate
a statement. The mathematical induction is one of the famous ways of es-
tablishing mathematical proofs.
Mathematical induction is a technique for proving statements (or propo-
sitions) about the natural numbers. It also provides a uniform framework
for studying the natural numbers. We will now formally state the principle
of mathematical induction.
2.1 The Principle of Mathematical Induction
Suppose that for each positive integer n we have a statement P (n) that
is either true or false. Suppose that
P (1) is true; (2.1).
If P (k) is true, for all k < k + 1 (2.2)
) P (k + 1) is true, then P (n) is true for every positive integer n. The
…rst step (i.e. condition (2.1)) is usually called the basis step and the second
step (2.2) is called the inductive step. What the inductive step does is to
assert that if the process has reached some stage, then it will go one stage
further.
Example
Use the principle of Mathematical induction to show that
1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + n = n(n+1)
2
.
Proof: (By Mathematical induction).
Let P(n) be the assertion that

22
 1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + n = n(n+1)
2
.
1(1+1)
Basis step: Since 1 = 2 , it means that P (1) is true.
Inductive step: Assume that the kth case is true and proceed to prove
that the (k + 1)th case is true. By the inductive hypothesis
1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + k = k(k+1)
2
.
Now consider the case n = k + 1, we have
1 + 2 + 3 + :: + k + (k + 1) = k(k+1)
2
+k+1
= (k + 1)[ k2 + 1]
= 12 (k + 1)(k + 2).
This is the same when we substitute n = k + 1 in the assertion. That is,
1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + k + 1 = (k+1)(k+1+1)
2
= 12 (k + 1)(k + 2).
Since the basis step and the inductive step have been veri…ed, the principle
of mathematical induction tells us that P (n) is true for all positive integers
n.
Example

Establish the following identities using induction

(a) 1:2 + 2:3 + 3:4 + ::: + n(n + 1) = n(n+1)(n+2)
h i2 3
3 3 3 3 n(n+1)
(b) 1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + n = 2
:
Proof:(By Mathematical Induction).
(a) Let P (n) be the proposition that
1:2 + 2:3 + 3:4 + ::: + n(n + 1) = n(n+1)(n+2)
3
:
1(1+1)(1+2)
Basis Step: Note that 1:2 = 3
= 2 and therefore the assertion
is true for the case n = 1.
Inductive Step: Assume that the proposition is true for the case n = k
and proceed to show that it is also true for the case n = k +1. By hypothesis,
1:2 + 2:3 + 3:4 + ::: + k(k + 1) = k(k+1)(k+2)
3
,
therefore
1:2 + 2:3 + 3:4 + ::: + k(k + 1) + (k + 1)(k + 2) = k(k+1)(k+2)
3
+ (k + 1)(k + 2)
= (k + 1)(k + 2)[ k3 + 1]
= 13 (k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3):
Since the inductive step is also true, then the proposition P (n) must be
true for all positive integers n. h i
2
(b) Given that 13 + 23 + 33 + ::: + n3 = n(n+1)
2
Basish Step:i When n = 1, we see that
13 = 1(1+1)
2
= 1:
Therefore the statement is true for the case n = 1.
Inductive Step: Assume that

23
 h i2
3 3 3 3 k(k+1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + k = is true. 2
Next we show that the statement ishtrue for i2 n = k + 1. That is,
13 + 23 + 33 + ::: + k 3 + (k + 1)3 = k(k+1)
2
+ (k + 1)3
h i
2
= (k + 1)2 k2 + (k + 1)
2
= (k + 1)2 k +4k+4
4
h i2
= (k+1)(k+2)
2
:
This shows that the statement is true for the (k + 1)th case and therefore
by the principle of mathematical induction, the statement must be true for
all positive integers n.

Example
Use induction to show that 4n 1 is divisible by 3 for n = 1; 2; 3; :::
Proof:
Basis Step: If n = 1; 4n 1 = 41 1 = 3 which is divisible by 3.
Inductive Step: Assume that the statement is true for n = k. That is
k
4 1 is divisible by 3. We now show that 4k+1 1 is divisible by 3. To
relate the the (k + 1)th case to the kth case, we write
4k+1 1 = 4:4k 1 = 4k 1 + 3:4k :
By assumption, 4k 1 is divisible by 3 and since 3:4k is divisible by 3,
the sum
4k 1 + 3:4k = 4k+1 1, is divisible by 3.
Since the basis step and the inductive step have been veri…ed, the principle
of mathematical induction tells us that 4n 1 is divisible by 3 for n = 1; 2; 3; :::
Exercise 2.1
Establish the following identities by induction:
(i) 1 1 3 + 3 1 5 + ::: + (2n 1)(2n+1)
1 n
= 2n+1 :

12 22 n2 n(n+1)
(ii) 1 3
+ 3 5
+ ::: + (2n 1)(2n+1)
= 2(2n+1)

a(1 rn )
(iii) a + ar + ::: + arn 1
= 1 r

1 1 1 n
(iv) 1:2
+ 2:3
+ ::: + n(n+1)
= n+1

1 1 1 3 2n+3
(v) 1:3
+ 2:4
+ ::: + n(n+2)
= 4 2(n+1)(n+2)
for n 1

2.2 BINOMIAL THEOREM

Expansions of expressions of the form (a + x)n where n = 1; 2; 3; ::.
can easily be obtained. However, when n becomes very large,negative or

24
fractional, such expansions cannot easily be obtained. Pascal (1623-1662)
in search of a way to expand such expressions with large and fractional n
produced what is known as the pascal triangle. This he derived by observing
the pattern formed in the expansion
(1 + x)n ; n > 0 (2.3)

Binomial expansion coe¢ cients

0
(1 + x) 1 1
1
(1 + x) 1 x 1 1
(1 + x)2 1 2x x2 1 2 1
3 2 3
(1 + x) 1 3x 3x x 1 3 3 1
It is interesting to note that in the coe¢ cients of the various expansions
which form the Pascal triangle,the next line is generated from the previous.
In all cases,the …rst and the last terms is 1:
2.2.1 Binomial theorem for n a positive number
To carry out expansions using the Pascal triangle for large n will not be
easy. Thus the need for a more general form for such expansion. To achieve
this,we desire a formula for the coe¢ cients of xr which is denoted by n Cr :
The expansion (1 + x)n is then given by:
(1+x)n = 1+n C1 x+n C2 x2 +n C3 x3 +n C4 x4 +:::+n Cr xr +:::+xn (2:4)
The coe¢ cients in the expansion of (1 + x)n give the pattern
where n(nr(r 1)(n 2):::(n r+1)
1)(r 2)::: 3:2:1
=n Cr (2:5) and n! =
n(n 1)(n 2):::(n r+1):::3:2:1 is called the n factorial.

One notices that in the numerator of (2:5) factors begin at n and de-
crease to (n r + 1) while in the denominator they begin at r and reduce
to1.Equations(2:4) and (2:5) together form the binomial theorem.
Then binomial theorem gives the general expansion of the binomial (a +
n
x) where n is a positive,negative or fractional power and is expressed as
follows:
(a+x)n = an +n C1 xan 1 +n C2 x2 an 2 +:::+n Cr xr an r +:::+n Cn xn (2:6)
where n Cr is as in (2:5) and can be expressed as n Cr = r!(nn! r)!
Proof of the Binomial theorem for n a positive number
The method (2.4) and (2.5) suggest that the result is true for all positive
integer values of n. Thus we shall prove by mathematical induction.
For n = 1; 2; 3::: (2.4) and (2.5) are true.
We assume true for a value of n = k then prove for n = k + 1
(1 + x)k = 1 +k C1 +k C2 x2 + ::: +k Cr xr + ::: +k Ck 1 xk 1 + xk
and

25
 (1 + x)k+1 = (1 + x)(1 + x)k = (1 + x)( 1 +k C1 +k C2 x2 + ::: +k Cr xr +
::: +k Ck 1 xk 1 + xk )
= 1+(1+k C1 )x+(k C2 +k C1 )x2 +:::+(k Cr +k Cr 1 )xr +xk+1
but C1 + 1 = k + 1 =k+1 C1
k

and
k+1
Cr =k Cr +k Ck 1
Hence our assumption leads to
(1 + x)k+1 = 1 + k+1 C1 x +k+1 C2 x2 + ::: +k+1 Cr xr + ::: +k+1 Ck xk + xk+1
Since (2.2) and (2.3) are true for a positive number n = k, and true for
the next value of n i.e n = k + 1,then it is true for all positive integer values
of n:
Example Expand (x 2y)5 by the binomial theorem.
Solution.
(x 2y)5 = x5 +5 C1 x4 ( 2y)+5 C2 x3 ( 2y)2 +5 C3 x2 ( 2y)3 +5 C4 x( 2y)4 +5
C5 ( 2y)5
= x5 10x4 y + 40x3 y 2 80x2 y 3 + 80xy 4 32y 5
Example
Find the coe¢ cient of x6 in the expansion of ( x12 x)18 :
Solution.
Given the expansion (x+y)n ;the coe¢ cient of xr is given by n Cr xn r y r
Thus using (2:7); in our problem we have
n
Cr ( x12 )n r (x)r , n = 18
18
Cr ( x12 )18 r (x)r =18 Cr x 2(18 r) xr
=18 Cr (xr ) 36+2r+r
=18 Cr x3r 36
but 3r 36 = 6

) r = 14:
thus 18 Cr (x)3r 36
= 18
C14 x42 36
18
= C14 x6 = 3060:
Example
3
Find the term which is independent of y in the expansion of ( xy 2 + 3y
x 8
)
Solution
3
n
Cr xn r y r = n Cr ( xy 2 )n r ( 3y
x r
)
3
=8 Cr ( xy 2 )8 r ( 3y
x r
)
8 C x 16+3r y 24 3r
r
= 3r

For the term independent of y ,it means that 24 4r = 0

) r = 6:
For r =8 6 16+3r 24 3r
Cr x y
= 3r

26
 )
2 8! x2 28x2
8
C6 x36 = 6!2! 36
= 729
Example
Find the value of k if the coe¢ cients of y 2 in the expansion of (1 +
ky) (2 y)3 :
4

Solution
(1 + ky)4 = 1 + 4(ky) + 6(ky)2 + 4(ky)3 + (ky)4
(2 y)3 = 23 + 3 22 ( y) + 3 2( y)2 + ( y)3
= 8 12y + 6y 2 y 3
thus (1+ky)4 (2 y)3 : = (1+4ky+6k 2 y 2 +4k 3 y 3 +k 4 y 4 )(8 12y+6y 2 y 3 )
The coe¢ cient of y 2 is 6 48k + 48k 2 = 6
k2 k = 0
k(k 1) = 0
) k = 0; k = 1
Example
Expand (x + 3y)5 :Hence evaluate (1:03)5 correct to 3 decimal places.
Solution
(x + 3y)5 = x5 + 5x4 (3y) + 10x3 (3y)2 + 10x2 (3y)3 + 5x(3y)4 + (3y)5
= x5 + 15x4 y + 90x3 y 2 + 270x2 y 3 + 405xy 4 + 243y 5
To evaluate (1:03)5 , it implies that x = 1; y = 0:01; thus
(1:05)5 = 1 + 15(0:01) + 90(0:01)2 + 270(0:01)3 + 405(0:01)4 + 243(0:01)5
= (1 + 0:15 + 0:009 + 0:00027) = 1: 159 27
2.2.2 Binomial expansion for n negative and n a fraction
It can be veri…ed that for 1 < n2 < 1;
n n n n
n ( 1) ( 1)( n 2)
(1+x) 2 = 1+ n2 x+ 2 22! x2 + 2 2 3! 2 x3 +:::which is also a binomial
theorem.
Example
If y is so small that its fourth and higher powers can be neglected.show
thatq
( 1+2y
1 2y
)n = 1 + 2ny + 2n2 y 2 + 34 n(n2 + 2)y 3
p
By letting y = 17 and n = 1,prove that 5 = 2295 1029
Solution
q n n
( 1+2y
1 2y
)n = (1 + 2y) 2 (1 2y) 2
Expanding by the binomial theorem
n n n n
n ( 1) ( 1)( n 2)
(1 + 2y) 2 = 1 + n2 (2y) + 2 22! (2y)2 + 2 2 3! 2 (2y)3 + :::
= 1 + ny + 4n(n8 2) y 2 + 8n(n 48 2)(n 4) 3
y + :::
1 2 2 1 3
= 1 + ny + 2 (n 2n)y + 6 (n 6n + 8n)y 3 + :::
2
(2:8)
n n
n n ( 2 )( 2 1) 2 ( n )( n 1)( n 2)
(1 2y) 2 = 1 2 ( 2y)+ 2!
( 2y) + 2 2
3!
2
( 2y)3 +
:::
( n +2) ( n +2)( n +4)
= 1 + ny + n2 22! 4y 2 + n2 2 3! 2 8y 3 + :::

27
 = 1 + ny + (n2 + 2n)y 2 + 61 (n3 + 6n2 + 8n)y 3 + ::: (2:9)
n n
(1 + 2y) (1 2y) 2 = (1 + ny + 12 (n2 2n)y 2 + 16 (n3 6n2 + 8n)y 3 + :::)
2

(1 + ny + (n2 + 2n)y 2 + 16 (n3 + 6n2 + 8n)y 3 + ::: )

expanding yields
= 1 + 2ny + 2n2 y 2 + 43 n(n2 + 2)y 3 + :::
for n = 1; y = 71
r
(1+ 27 )
(1 27 )
= 1 + 27 + 49 2 4
+ 343
r
9
7
5 = 343+98+14+4
343
7
q
9
5
= 459 343
p p
p3 = 459 ; 3 5 = 459 ; 5 = 459 5
5 p 343 5 343 343 3
) 5 = 2295 1029
Example p p
Expand 1 3x and hence evaluate 0:7correct to four decimal places.
Solution
(1 3x)n = 1 + n( 3x) + n(n2! 1) ( 3x)2 + n(n 1)(n 3!
2)
( 3x)3 + :::
then
p 1 1 1 1
1 ( 1) ( 1)( 1 2)
(1 3x) = (1 3x) 2 = 1 12 (3x) + 2 22! 9x2 2 2 3! 2 27x3 + :::
= 1 32 x 98 x2 81 x3 + :::
p 1 1
48
if 0:7 = (0:7) 2 = (1 3(0:1)) 2 ;thus x = 0:1 p
substituting x = 0:1 into the expansion of 1 3x gives the value of
p 1 1
2 as
p0:7 = (0:7)32 = (1 93(0:1)) 2 81
0:7 = 1 2 (0:1) 8 (0:1) 48
(0:1)3 + :::
= 1 0:15 0:01125
= 0:8388
Exercise 2.2 p
1
(1) Expand (1+3x) 3 hence evaluate 3 1:06 correct to 4 decimal places.
(2) Obtain the …rst 4 terms of the expansion (1 + 2x)12 in ascending
powers of x.Hence p …nd the value of (0:998)12 correct to four decimal places.
(3) Show that (9 + y 2 ) t 3 + 16 y 2 316 1 4
y :For what values of y is the
expansion valid.?
5 3 10
y
(4) Find the term independent of x in the expansion of xy4 + 2x 3
q
(5) Expand 1+2x1 2x
in ascending powers of x up to and including the term
1
p 7
in x2 .By substituting x = 100 , show that 5 t 7 50 .
(6) If xqis so small that its fourth and higher powers can be negleted.
Show that ( 1+x
1 x
)3 = 1 + 3x + 92 x2 + 38x3 :

28
 18
1
(7) Find the coe¢ cient of y 9 in the expansion of y3
y :
3
1+ 12 y 2
(8) Find the expansion of 1 12 y
in ascending powers of y as far as the
term in y 3 .
(9) If x is so small that terms in xn ,n > 3 can be neglected and
3+ax 1 1
3+bx
= (1 x) 3 .Find the values of a and b .Hence evaluate (0:96) 3 .
(10) Find b if the coe¢ cients of x in the expansion of (1 + bx)8 (1 + 3x)4
(1 + x)3 (1 + 2x)4 is zero. What is the coe¢ cient of x3 .

29
Chapter 3

Real Sequences and Series

3.1 Introduction:
In Mathematics, many sets of numbers are written in a de…nite order, and
there is always a simple rule by which the terms are obtained.
De…nition 3.1( Sequence)
A sequence fun g1 1
n=1 or fun g1 is a function whose domain is the set of
natural numbers or positive integers. In otherwords it is a set of numbers or
quantities u1 ; u2 ; :::; un ; each of which is obtained by a prescribed rule, that
is un = f (n): Individual terms can be obtained by substituting n = 1; 2; 3:::;
in the general term un .
For example:
(i) 1; 3; 5; 7; :::; is a sequence in which un = 1 + 2(n 1): That is the …fth
term would be u5 = 1 + 2(4) = 9:
(ii) 2; 8; 32; :::; is a sequence in which un = 2 4n 1 : That is u5 = 2 44 =
2 256 = 512:
(iii) 12 ; 22 ; 32 ; 42 ; :::; is a sequence in which un = ( 1)n 1 n2 :
The patterns in which the terms of a sequence can be obtained are not
so easily recognised: thus the form of the general term un is more di¢ cult
to establish. For example, 1; 7; 15; 25; :::; is a sequence in which un =
( 1)n [n(n + 3) 3]:
De…nition 3.2 (Finite Sequence)
A sequence that contains only a …nite number of terms is a …nite se-
quence.The house numbers in a street form a …nite sequence.
De…nition 3.3 (In…nite Sequence)
A sequence is said to be in…nite if the terms of the sequence are not
…nite.The natural numbers 1,2,3,... form an in…nite sequence.

De…nition 3.4 (Series)

30
 A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence. Thus 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + :::
is a series. As with the terms of a sequence, un represents the nth term of a
given sequence. The sum of the …rst n terms of a sequence (that is the nth
term of a series) is denoted by Sn and it is a partial sum of the series.
3.1 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (AP)
We de…ne an Arithmetic Progression (AP) as a sequence of terms in which
each term other than the …rst is obtained from the preceding one by adding
a constant number. We call the constant number the common di¤erence and
it is usually denoted by d. The …rst term of an Arithmetic Progression is
usually denoted by a, while the nth term is denoted by l. In order to …nd out
whether a given sequence is an AP, we …nd the di¤erence between consecutive
terms. If the di¤erence obtained is the same, then we say the sequence is an
AP. A typical AP is thus given by
a; a + d; a + 2d; a + 3d; :::; a + (n 1)d. Hence l = a + (n 1)d is the nth
term of the AP.
Example
The third term of an Arithmetic Progression is 10 and the seventh term
is 34. Find the …rst term and the common di¤erence of the AP.
Solution:
Let a be the …rst term and d the common di¤erence of the AP. Then the
third and seventh terms are a + 2d and a + 6d respectively.
Thus a + 2d = 10
a + 6d = 34
Solving for a and d we obtain a = 2 and d = 6.
Example
The 9th term of an AP is three times the 5th term. (i) Find a relation
between a and d, and (ii) Prove that the 8th term is …ve times the 4th term.
Solution
(i) Let a be the …rst term and d the common di¤erence of the AP. Then
the 9th and 5th terms are a + 8d and a + 4d respectively.
Thus a + 8d = 3(a + 4d)
) a + 8d = 3a + 12d
) 2a = 4d
) a = 2d
Thus the relation between a and d is a = 2d.
(ii) To prove that the 8th term is …ve times the 4th term, we have that
the 8th and the 4th terms are a + 7d and a + 3d respectively. But a = 2d,
thus the 8th term is 5d and the 4th term is d which shows that the 8th term
is …ve times the 4th term.
De…nition 3.5 (Arithmetic Series)

31
 The Arithmetic series is de…ned as the sum of the terms of an AP.
(i) Consider the sum of the …rst n positive integers, that is
n
r=1 r = 1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + n.
Writing the sum as S we have that
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + ::: + n. (3.1)
and
S = n + (n 1) + (n 2) + ::: + 1. (3.2)
Adding equations (3.1) and (3.2) termwise we have
2S = (n + 1) + (n + 1) + ::: + (n + 1) (n times)
= n(n + 1)
Thus S = n2 (n + 1)
(ii) Consider the sum of the …rst n odd positive integers. Writing this
sum as S, we have P
S = 1 + 3 + 5 + ::: + (2n 1) = nr=1 (2r 1) (3.3)
Also S = (2n 1) + (2n 3) + (2n 5) + ::: + 1 (3.4)
Adding the two equations together, we have
2S = 2n + 2n + 2n + ::: + 2n (n times)
= n(2n)
= 2n2
Thus S = n2 :
(iii) In general, let Sn denotes the sum of n terms of an Arithmetic Pro-
gression. Then
Sn = a+(a+d)+(a+2d)+:::+[a+(n 2)d]+[a+(n 1)d] (3.5)
Also Sn = [a + (n 1)d] + [a + (n 2)d] + [a + (n 3)d] + ::: + (a + d) + a
(3.6)
Adding the two equations together, we have
2Sn = [2a + (n 1)d] + [2a + (n 1)d] + [2a + (n 1)d] + ::: + [2a + (n 1)d]
(n times)
= n[2a + (n 1)d]
Thus Sn = n2 [2a + (n 1)d]:
Denoting the nth term of an AP by l we have that
Sn = n2 [a + a + (n 1)d] = n2 (a + l) where l = a + (n 1)d.
Example
The 10th term of a certain AP is 29 and the 20th term is 69. Find
the sum of the …rst 20 terms of the AP.
Solution:
The 10th and the 20th terms are a + 9d and a + 19d respectively. Thus
a + 9d = 29
a + 19d = 69
Solving for a and d, we obtain a = 7 and d = 4.
Now S20 = 20 2
[2(7) + (20 1)( 4)]

32
 = 10[14 76]
= 620
Example
The 9th term of an AP is 24 and the sum of the …rst 9 terms is 126. Find
an expression for the (i) nth term, (ii) sum to n terms.
Solution:
The 9th term is a + 8d. Thus
a + 8d = 24 (3.7)
and the sum of the …rst 9 terms is
S9 = 92 [2a + (9 1)d] = 126
) 29 [a + a + 8d] = 126 (3.8)
Substituting (3.7) into (3.8) we have
9(a + 24) = 252
) 9a + 216 = 252
)a=4
Substituting for a in (3.7) we have
d = 25
(i) Thus the expression for the nth term is
l = a + (n 1)d = 4 + (n 1) 52 = 5n+3 2
, and
(ii) the expression for sum to n terms is
2
Sn = n2 [2a + (n 1)d] = n2 [8 + 5n2 5 ] = 5n +11n 4
De…nition 3.6 (The Arithmetic Mean (AM)
Let x; y and z be three consecutive terms of an AP. We call y the Arith-
metic mean between x and z. Now the common di¤erence of the AP is given
by d = y x = z y: Therefore 2y = x + z Hence y = x+z 2
.
Also, in a …nite Arithmetic Progression, u1 = a; u2 = a + d; u3 = a +
2d; :::; un 1 = a + (n 2)d; un = a + (n 1)d; the terms in between the …rst
term u1 and the last un (i.e u2 ; u3 ; ::; un 1 ) are called the Arithmetic means
between u1 ; and un .
For example, in the …nite AP 2; 7; 12; 17; 22; 27; 32; the numbers 7; 12; 17; 22; 27
are the …ve Arithmetic means between 2 and 32.
Example
Insert three Arithmetic means between 25 and 9.
In this case, we have u1 = 25; u2 ; u3 ; u4 ; u5 = 9: Since u5 = a + 4d; we
have
9 = 25 + 4d
)d= 4
Thus u2 = a + d = 25 4 = 21
u3 = a + 2d = 25 8 = 17
u4 = a + 3d = 25 12 = 13
Therefore, the AP is 25; 21; 17; 13; 9:

33
 Example
p; q; r are three consecutive terms of an AP whose sum is 21. The ratio
p : r = 6 : 1. Find p; q and r.
Solution:
By assumption, the sum of the three terms is 21. That is p + q + r = 21
(3.9)
and p : r = 6 : 1 ) pr = 61 or p = 6r (3.10)
p+r
But q = 2 (3.11)
Substitute (3.10) in (3.11) to have
q = 6r+r 2
= 7r2
(3.12)
Substitute (3.10) and (3.11) in (3.9) to get
6r + 7r 2
+ r = 21
) 12r + 7r + 2r = 42
)r=2
) p = 6r = 6:2 = 12
and q = 7r 2
= 7:22
=7
) (p; q; r) = (12; 7; 2):
3.2 GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (GP)
A geometric Progression (GP) is a sequence of numbers in which each
term other than the …rst is obtained from the preceding one by the multipli-
cation of a non-zero constant number called the common ratio. In otherwords
it is a progression in which the ratio between any two consecutive terms is
constant (i.e the same). The common ratio is usually denoted by r. The …rst
term of a GP is usually denoted by a. Hence a typical GP takes the following
form:
a; ar; ar2 ; :::; arn 1 :
Consequently the nth term of a GP is given by l = arn 1 :
Example
The third term of a Geometric Progression is 10, and the sixth term is
80. Find the common ratio and the …rst term.
Solution:
Let a and r denote the …rst term and the common ratio respectively. Then
ar2 = 10 (3.13)
5
ar = 80 (3.14)
Dividing equation (3.14) by (3.13) we have
ar 5
ar 2
= 80
10
) r3 = 8
) r = 2:
Hence 4a = 10
) a = 10 4
= 2 12

34
 De…nition 3.7 (Geomtric Series)
A Geometric series is de…ned as the sum of the terms of a Geometric
Progression. The sum of n terms of a GP is easily obtained by the following
argument. A typical Geometric series is given by
Sn = a + ar + ar2 + ::: + arn 2 + arn 1 (3.15)
Multiplying equation (3.15) throughout by r we get
rSn = ar + ar2 + ar3 + ::: + arn 1 + arn (3.16)
Subtracting equation (3.16) from equation (3.15) we have
Sn rSn = a arn
) (1 r)Sn = a(1 rn )
n
) Sn = a(11 rr ) :
n
Hence Sn = a(11 rr ) ; for 1 < r < 1
n
or Sn = a(rr 1 1) ; for j r j > 1:
n
Or simply Sn = a(11 rr ) ; if r < 1 (3.17)
a(r n 1)
and Sn = r 1 ; if r > 1 .
Example
Find the sum of the …rst eight terms of the GP 5 + 15 + 45 + :::
Solution
In this case a =n 5; and r = 3
Hence Sn = a(rr 1 1) ; r > 1
8
That is S8 = 5(33 11) = 5(6561
2
1)
= 16400:
Example
In a GP, the sum of the second and third terms is 9; and the seventh
term is eight times the fourth term. Find the …rst term, the common ratio
and the …fth term.
Solution
Let a and r denote the …rst term and the common ratio respectively.
Then
ar + ar2 = 9 ) ar(1 + r) = 9 (3.18)
and ar6 = 8ar3 ) r3 = 8 ) r = 2:
Substitute r = 2 in equation (3.18) we have
6a = 9 ) a = 23 : (3.19)
Thus the …rst term is 32 and the common ratio is 2. Therefore the …fth
term is ar4 :
That is 23 (24 ) = 24:
De…nition 3.8 (Geometric Mean (GM))
Let x; y and z be three consecutive terms of a GP with common ratio
r. We call y the geometric mean (GM) between x and z. Thus r = xy = yz :
p
Hence y 2 = xz and so y = xz

35
 Also in a …nite Geometric Progreession, u1 = a; u2 = ar; u3 = ar2 :::; un 1 =
ar ; un = arn 1 ; the terms in between u1 and un (i.e u2 ; u3 ; :::; un 1 ) are
n 2

called the Geometric means between u1 and un . For instance, in the …nite GP
2; 6; 18; 54; 162; the numbers 6; 18; 54 are the three Geometric means between
2 and162.
Example
1
Insert 4 Geometric means between 2 and 16384 :
Solution
1
In this case, we have u1 = 2; u2 ; u3 ; u4 ; u5 ; u6 = 16384 :
5
Since u6 = ar ; we have that
1 1
16384
= 2r5 ) r5 = 2(16384) i.e r5 = 2115 ) r = 213 = 18 :
Hence u2 = ar = 2( 18 ) = 14
1 2 1
u3 = ar2 = 2 8
= 32
1 3 1
u4 = ar3 = 2 8
= 256
1 4 1
u = ar4 = 2 8
= 2048
1 1 1 1
Thus the 4 geometric means are 4 ; 32 ; 256 ; 2048 :
1 1 1 1 1
Hence the GP is 2; 4 ; 32 ; 256 ; 2048 ; 16384 :
Example
The third term of a geometric progression is 36 and the sixth term is 243 2
:
Find the …rst term, the common ratio and the sum of the …rst eight terms.
Solution
Let a be the …rst term and r the common ratio of the GP. Then we have
that
u3 = ar2 = 36 (3.18)
and
u6 = ar5 = 243 2
(3.19)
Solving for a and r, we have a = 16 and r = 23 : Thus the sum of the …rst
eight termsh is i
8
16 ( 23 ) 1
S8 = 3
1
= 788 18 :
2
Example
The …fth, nineth and the sixteenth terms of an AP are consecutive terms
of a GP. The sum of the …rst twelve terms of the AP is 492. Find the …rst
term of the AP and the common ratio of the GP.
Solution:
Let a be the …rst term and d the common di¤erence of the AP. Then we
have that
u5 = a + 4d; u9 = a + 8d and u16 = a + 15d:
Since these form consecutive terms of a GP, the common ratio r is given
by

36
 r = a+8d
a+4d
= a+15d
a+8d
(3.20)
a+8d a+15d
) a+4d = a+8d
) (a + 8d)2 = (a + 4d) (a + 15d)
) a2 + 16ad + 64d2 = a2 + 19ad + 60d2
) 64d2 60d2 = 19ad 16ad
) 4d2 = 3ad
) d = 3a 4
(3.21)
And the sum of the …rst Twelve terms is 492. That is
S12 = 122
[2a + 11d] = 492
) 6 [2a + 11d] = 492
) 2a + 11d = 82 (3.22)
Substitute equation (3.21) in equation (3.22) to get
2a + 11 3a 4
= 82
) 8a + 33a = 328
) 41a = 328 ) a = 8:
Substitute for a in equation (3.22), to get
d = 3 4 8 = 6:
Substituting for a and d in any of the equations in (3.20), we have
r = 8+8(6)
8+4(6)
= 8+48
8+24
= 56
32
= 74 :
Thus the …rst term of the AP is 8 and the common ratio of the GP is
7
4
: Alternatively, we can get the common ratio r of the GP by substituting
equation (3.21) directly into any of the equation (3.20).
Exercise 3.1
(1) If x+1; x+3 and x+7 are consecutive terms of a GP, …nd the value(s)
of x.
(2) The third term of a GP is …ve and the eighth term is 160. Find the
…rst term and the common ratio of the GP.
(3) The …rst term of a GP is 18 and the sum to in…nity is 20. Find the
common ratio and the sum of the …rst 6 terms.
(4) Prove that the sum to n terms of the GP 1 + a1 + a12 + a13 + ::: + an1 1
n
is equal to aa 11 a1 n :
(5) The …rst three tems of a GP are also the …rst, nineth and eleventh
terms respectively of an AP. Given that the terms of the GP are all di¤erent,
…nd the common ratio r, if the sum to in…nity of the GP is 8. Find also the
…rst term and the common di¤erence of the AP.
(6) The coe¢ cients of y n ; y n+1 ; y n+2 in the binomial expansion of (1 + y)14
are in AP. Find the possible values of n.
(7) The sum of the …rst q terms of an AP is Q and the sum of the …rst r
terms of the AP is R. Show that the common di¤erence of the AP is 2(rQ qR)
qr(q r)
:

37
 (8) The pth, qth and rth terms of an AP are consecutive terms of a GP.
Prove that the ratio of the …rst term of the AP to its common di¤erence is
q 2 pr
1 + r+p 2q
: Hence given that 3(q 2 pr) = r + p 2q and that the 12th term
of the AP is 74, …nd the common di¤erence of the AP.
(9) Show that the sum to n terms of the series log a + log ax + log ax2 + :::
is n log a + 21 n(n 1) log x:
(10) If the sum of n terms of the series 1 + 8 + 15 + 22 + ::: is 5500, then
…nd n.
(11) The sum of the second and fourth terms of an AP is 15, and the
sum of the …fth and sixth terms is 25. Find the …rst term and the common
di¤erence of the AP.
(12) The sum of the …rst two terms of a GP is 3, and the sum of the
second and third terms is 6. Find the …rst term and the common ratio.
3.2.1. INFINITE SERIES
In the work so far on Arithmetic Progressions and Geometric Progres-
sions, we have been concerned with a limited number of terms in the series,
that is we have found Sn where n is a …nite number. But in some situations,
the series goes on for ever and the problem then arises to …nding the sum Sn
as n tends to in…nity.
With an AP, Sn = n2 [2a + (n 1)d] : Therefore with …nite values for a
and d, as n increases, so does the value of Sn : Thus if n tends to in…nity, then
Sn tends to in…nity in a positive or negative sense depending on the series.
a(1 r n )
Consider the sum of n terms of a GP given by Sn = 1 r for jrj < 1:
Recall from equation (3.17) that for jrj < 1; rn gets smaller and smaller as n
gets larger and larger. In the limit, therefore, when n approaches in…nity, rn
tends to zero. Then the sum of the GP becomes
S1 = 1 a r .

38
Chapter 4
Quadratic Equations and Remainder Theorem

4.1 Quadratic Equations

De…nition 4.1(Quadratic Equations)
Any equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a 6= 0; b and c are
constants is called a quadratic equation. Examples include 3x2 + 2x + 4 =
0; x2 6x = 0 and x2 7 = 0
De…nition 4.2 (Solutions to Quadratic Equations)
A number p is said to be the solution or root of a quadratic equation if by
replacing x by p the LHS and the RHS of the Quadratic equation are equal.
For example, x =3, is the solution or a root of x2 5x + 6 = 0 because when
3 is substituted in the LHS, we have 32 5(3) + 6 = 9 15 + 6 = 0 = RHS
Given any quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, the quantity b2 4ac is
called the discriminant and it is often needed to calculate or determine the
nature of roots of the Quadratic Equation.
When the discriminant b2 4ac is a perfect square, we can factorise
the Quadratic Equation. Consider 2x2 7x + 3 = 0;the discriminant is
b2 4ac = 72 4(2)(3) = 25 and 25 is a perfect square so we can go ahead
to factorise 2x2 7x + 3: We take the following steps to factorise the given
expression.
1. Multiply the …rst term by the third term.
2. Find the factors of the product in 1, which sums up to give the second
term.
3. Replace the second term by the sum of these factors in 2
4 Pair the terms in 3 and factorise completely.
Example
Factorise 2x2 7x + 3 = 0 and solve the equation 2x2 7x + 3 = 0:
Solution
Step1 : 2x2 3 = 6x2

39
 Step 2 : -6x and -x are the factors of 6x2 sum up to 7x i.e 7x = 6x x
Step3 : 2x2 7x + 3 = 2x2 6x x + 3
Step4:2x2 6x x + 3 = (2x2 6x) + ( x + 3) = 2x(x 3) 1(x 3)
= (x 3)(2x 1) ) 2x2 7x + 3 = (x 3)(2x 1)
) 2x2 7x + 3 = 0 ) (x 3)(2x 1) = 0 ) (x 3) = 0 or (2x 1) = 0
) x = 3 or x = 21
The factorisation of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 can be simple
if it is of a special case where b = 0 or c = 0.
If c = 0, we have ax2 + bx = 0 ) x(ax + b) = 0 ) x = 0 or ax + b = 0 :
)The solution is x = 0 or x = ab
If b = 0, we have:;
ax2 + c = 0
) x2 + ac = 0
q
c
) x2 =
q a q
c c
i.e x = a
or x = a
Example
Solve the following equations:
(i) 2x2 14x = 0
(ii)3x2 9 = 0
Solution (i)
2x2 14x = 2x(x 7)
) 2x2 14x = 0 ) 2x(x 7) = 0 ) 2x = 0 or x 7 = 0
) x = 0 or x = 7 p p p
(ii) 3x2 9 = 0 ) 3x2 = 9 ) x = 3)x= 3 or x = + 3
Example
Now consider t(t 3) = t2 4 and the following solution.
Solution
t(t 3) = t2 4
) t2 3t = t2 4
) 4 3t = 0
) t = 43
Exercise 4.1
Solve the following quadratic equations
1.x2 5x 6 = 0
2.3x2 7x = 0
3:4x2 8x + 4 = 0
4.x(x 3) = x2 6
5.3 x 2x2 = 0
6 x2 2ax + a2 = 0

40
 7. x12 1 = x1 1
8.x(1 x) = x(2x 1)
9 (x 2)(x + 3) = (x 2)(4 x)
1 2
10. x+1 + x+2 =1
4.2 SOLUTION OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS THAT DO
NOT FACTORIZE
When a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 does not factorize (and this
we know when the discriminant b2 4ac is not a perfect square), we use the
method of completing the square to obtain the solution.
For example, consider 2x2 5x + 1 = 0
Dividing through by 2 we obtain x2 52 x + 12 = 0
) x2 52 x = 12
Add ( 12 52 )2 to both sides to make LHS a perfect square, we have:
2 2
x2 52 x2 + 54 = 12 + 54
2
) x 54 = 17
q16
5 17
)x 4 =
q 16
) x = 54 17
16
p p
) x = 54 + 417 or x = 54 17
4
) x = 2:28 or x = 0:22:
Generally, for ax2 +bx+c = 0; we follow the same procedure above. Thus
x2 + ab x + ac = 0
) x2 + ab x = ac
2 2
) x2 + ab x + 12 ab = ac + 12 ab
2 b 2
) x + ab = ac + 2a
2 2 2
) x + ab = 4ac+b 4a2
= b 4a4ac
2
b 2 b2 4ac
i.e x + a = 4a2
q p
b2 4ac b2 4ac
) x + ab = 4a2
= 2a
p
b b2 4ac
)x= 2a 2a
) p
b b2 4ac
x=
2a
This is called the quadratic formula.
4.3 NATURE OF THE ROOTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
2
Using the quadratic
p formula to solve
p the equation ax + bx + c = 0;we see
b+ b2 4ac b b2 4ac
that either x = 2a
or x = 2a
Therefore in general, a quadratic equation has two solutions (called the
roots).

41
 p
If b2 4ac is positive, then b2 4ac can be evaluated and the equation
will have two real and distinct(di¤erent) roots.
If b2 4ac is zero, then the equation can be satis…ed by x = 2ab and we
say it has repeated rootspor equal roots
If b2 4ac is negative, b2 4ac has no real value and we say the equation
has complex roots
In summary, the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
(i) has two real and distinct roots if b2 4ac > 0
(ii) has equal roots if b2 4ac = 0
(iii) has complex roots if b2 4ac < 0
Example
Determine the nature of roots of the equations
(a) 4x2 7x + 3 = 0 (b) x2 + ax + a2 = 0 (c) x2 px q 2 = 0
Solution
(a)4x2 7x + 3 = 0 ) b2 4ac = ( 7)2 4(4)(3) = 1 i.e b2 4ac f>g0,
So the equation has two distinct roots. More over, 1 is a perfect square so
the equation also has rational roots
(b) x2 + ax + a2 = 0 ) b2 4ac = a2 4(1)(a2 ) = 3a2 since a2 is positive
for all real and non zero a, ) 3a2 < 0
i.e b2 4ac < 0 so the equation has no real roots for any real and non
zero value of a
(c) x2 px2 q 2 = 0
b2 4ac = ( p)2 4(1)( q 2 ) = p2 + 4q 2 As p2 and q 2 are both positive
b2 4ac > 0 therefore, the equation has two real and distinct roots
Example
Find the value of k if 2x2 kx + 8 = 0 has equal roots.
Solution
For the root of 2x2 kx + 8 = 0 to be equal, the discriminant must be
zero.
i.e b2 4ac = 0
) ( k) 4(2)(8) = 0
) k 2 64 = 0
)k= 8
Exercise 4.2
Solve the following quadratic equations by completing the squares
(1) 2x2 6x + 4 = 0 (2) x2 + 4x 8 = 0 (3) 2x2 + 7x + 3 = 0
(4) x2 2x + a = 0 (5) x2 -2ax + b = 0 (6) ax2 bx + c = 0
Determine the nature of roots of the following equations and hence solve
the equations.
(7) x2 6x + 9 = 0 (8) 2x2 5x + 3 = 0 (9) x2 6x + 10 = 0
(10) 3x2 + 4x + 2 = 0 (11) 4x2 12x + 9 = 0

42
 (12) 4x2 12x 9 = 0:
(13) For what value of k is 9x2 + kx + 16 a perfect square?
(14) The roots of 3x2 + kx + 12 = 0 are equal …nd k:
(15) Prove that kx2 2x (k 2) = 0 has real roots for any value of k:
(16) Show that the roots of ax2 + (a + b)x + b = 0 are real for any values
of a and b .
(17) Find the relationship between p and q if the roots of px2 + qx + 1 = 0
are equal.
(18) If f = 2xx2 +1
1
is real and p = 3 2x x2 +1
1
; prove that p2 = 3 (p + 3) > 0:
4.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ROOTS AND COEF-
FICIENTS OF A QUADRATIC EQUATION
Let and be the roots of the quadratic equation
ax2 +bx + c = 0
i.e (x ) (x )=0 (4.1)
2
ax + bx + c = 0 (4.2)
(4.1) and (4.2) must have the same solution
) x2 ( + )x + =0 (4.3) and
x2 + ab x + ac = 0 (4.4)
must have the same solution. As the LHS and the RHS of (4.3) and (4.4)
have the same coe¢ cients of x2 ; it follows that the coe¢ ceints of x and the
constant terms are equal
i.e x2 ( + )x + x2 + ab x + ac = 0
) + = a and b c
= a and the equation may be written as
2
x ( sum of roots) x + product of roots = 0
So if 2x2 3x + 6 = 0 then the sum + = ( 23 ) = 32 and the product
= 62 = 3:
Also if a quadratic equation has roots whose sum is 7 and whose product
is 10, then the equation can be written as x2 7x + 10 = 0
De…nition 4.3 (Symmetry of the roots)
An expression involving the roots of ; of a quadratic equation is said
to be symmetric if when is subtituted for and for ; the expression
either remains the same or the expression becomes exactly negetive of the
original expression.
For example, 1 + 1 becomes 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 when we replace by and
2
by in the expression. Another example is 2 which becomes 2
2 2 2
= :
But consider 2 ; this becomes 2 which is neither the same as
the original expression nor negetive of the original expression
Example

43
 If and are the roots of the quadratic equation 2x2 7x + 4 = 0;
calculate the values of (i) 2 + 2 (ii) + (iii) (iv) 3 + 3
Solution
From the given equation,
7
The sum of the roots, + = 2
= 72 , and the product of the roots,
= 42 = 2: Thus
(i) ( + )2 = 2 + 2 + 2 ) 2 + 2 = ( + )2 2
) 2 + 2 = ( + )2 2 but + = 72 and =2
2
) 2 + 2 = 27 2(2) = 49
4
33
4= 4
2 2 33
(ii) + = + = 24 = 33 8
(iii) Observe that ( 2
) = 2
+ 2
2 = ( + )2 2 2
i.e ( )2 =q( + )2 4 q q p
7 2
) = ( + ) 2
4 = 2
4 (2) = 17
4
= 17
2
(iv) Consider( + )3 = 3 + 3 2 + 3 2
+ 3 = 3+ +3 ( + ) 3

)( + ) 3
3 ( + )= 3+ 3
3
3
or h + 3
=( + i ) 3 ( + ) = ( + ) ( + )2 3
2
= 72 72 3 (2) = 175 4
Example
Write the equation of the quadratic function whose roots are 2 ; 2 where
; are the roots of the quadratic equation 2x2 + 7x + 4 = 0
Solution
+ = 72 ; = 42 = 2 and the equation may be written as
x2 (sum of roots) x + product of roots = 0 and since 2 ; 2 are the roots
7 2
of the equation, sum of roots = 2 + 2 = ( + )2 2 = 2
2 (2) = 33
4
product of roots = 2 2 = ( )2 = (2)2 = 4
)The equation is x2 33 4
x +4 = 0 or 4x2 33x + 16 = 0
Example If ; are the roots of the quadratic equation x2 3x 2 = 0;
Find the quadratic equation whose roots are 3 ; 3
Solution
3
Since ; are the roots of x2 3x 2 = 0; + = 1
= 3 and
2
= 1 = 2
Now sum of roots of desired equation = 3 + 3 = ( + ) ( + )2 3 =
2
3 (3 3 ( 2)) = 45
Product of roots of desired equation = 3 3 = ( )3 = ( 2)3 = 8
) The equation whose roots are 3 ; 3 is x2 45x 8 = 0
Example (i) Find the range of values of k for which the equation x2
2x k = 0 has real roots (ii) If the roots of this equation di¤er by one, …nd
the value of k:

44
 Solution
If x2 2x k = 0 has real roots, then b2 4ac 0 ) ( 2)2 4 (1) ( k) =
0 ) 4 + 4k 0 ) k 1
(ii)Let one root of the equation be ; then the other root is + 1 Sum of
roots = + + 1 = 2 + 1 = ( 2) ) 2 + 1 = 2 ) = 21
product of roots = ( + 1) = k; since = 21 ; then k = 43
Exercise 4.3
(1) Write down the sum and the product of the roots of the following
equations
(a) x2 3x + 2 = 0 (b) 4x2 + 7x 3 = 0 (c) x(x 3) = x + 4 (d) x 2 1 = x+2 3
2 2
(e) x kx + k = 0
(f) ax2 x(a + x) a = 0
(2)Write down the sums, the products and the equations whose roots are
2
(a) 3,4 (b) 2; 12 (c) 13 ; 52 (d) - 14 ; 0 (e) a,a2 (f) (k + 1) ; k 2 3 (g)- ab ; cb
(3)The roots of the equation 2x2 4x + 5 = 0 are and : Find the value
of
(a) 1 + 1 (b) ( + 1) ( + 1) (c) 2 + 2 (d) 2 + 2 (e)( )2 (f) +
2
(g) +11 1
+ +1 (h) 2 1+ + +2
1
(i) 21+1 + 21+1 (j) 2 (k) 3 + 3 (l) 3 3

(4)The roots of x2 2x + 3 = 0 are and ; …nd the equations whose

roots are (a) + 2 , + 2 (b) 1 ; 1 (c) 2 ; 2 (d) + (e) ;
(5) Write down and simplify the equation whose roots are the reciprocal
of of the roots of 3x2 + 2x 1 = 0 without solving the given equation
(6)Write down and simplify the equation whose roots are the double of
those of 4x2 5x 2 = 0 without solving the equation.
(7)Write down and simplify the equation whose roots are one less than
those of 5x2 + 3x 2 = 0
(8) Write down the equation whose roots are minus those of 2x2 3x 1 =
0
(9) …nd the value of k if the roots of 3x2 + 5x k di¤er by two.
(10) Find the value of p if one root of x2 + px + 8 = 0 is the square of the
other.
(11)If and are the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0; …nd the equation whose
roots are 1 and 1
(12) Find the relationship between a and c if one root of ax2 + bx +c = 0
is the reciprocal of the other.
(13) If one root of ax2 + bx + c = 0 is the triple of the other, prove that
2
3b 16ac = 0
(14) If and are the roots of the equation x2 + px + q = 0; …nd the
roots of the equation x2 + p2 x + p2 q = 0 in terms of and :
4.5 CURVE OF A QUADRATIC FUNCTION

45
 De…nition 4.4 (Quadratic function)
Any function f whose general form is f (x) = ax2 + bx + c where a; b and
c are constants and a 6= 0 is called a quadratic function. Completing the
square of the RHS of the expression gives h i
2 b c 2 b 2 b b2 b2
f (x) = a x + a x + a = a x + a x + c = a x + a x + 4a2 4a2 + c
h i h i
b2 b2 b2 2
= a x2 + ab x + 4a 2 + 4a
+ c
a
= a x 2
+ b
a
x + 4a2
+ b 4a4ac
b2 2
= a x + 2a + 4ac4a b
2
Now what ever value x takes 4ac4a b is a constant and equal to k say and
b 2
x + 2a 0 as it is a square quantity.
Therefore the function has a general form
f (x) = a(zero or a + ve quantity) +k: So if a is positive, i.e a 0; f (x)
2
is at least k i.e f (x) has at least 4ac4a b occuring when x = 2ab : When a is
negetive, i.e a < 0 then f (x) can never be greater than k. i.e f (x) has the
2
greatest value of 4ac4a b when x = 2a b
b
Now, x = 2a is the value of x corresponding to the greatest and least
b
value of f (x): Taking two values of x that are symmetric about x = 2a
b b b 2
i.e - 2a k gives f ( 2a + k) = f ( 2a k) = ak 2 + 4ac4a b i.e input of x is
b
symmetric about x = 2a give the same output of f (x)
From the analysis, we can deduce that when f (x) = ax2 + bx + c; then
b b
f (x) has (i) a least value of f ( 2a ) if a > 0 (ii) a greatest value of f ( 2a )
b
if a < 0 and is symmetric in shape around the line x = 2a which is called
the axis of the curve.
The diagrams below represent the two alternative graphs of the quadratic
function.

The curves representing any partiular quadratic function can now be

sketched using this information. For example, to sketch the curve repre-
senting f (x) = 2x2 7x 4; we proceed as follows:
a = 2; b = 7 and c = 4
) f ( 2a b
) = f ( 74 ) = 81
8
i.e f (x) has the least value of - 81
8
; when x = 74 :
To locate the curve accurately on the axes, we need one more pair of x and
f (x): f (0) is easy to …nd i.e f (0) = 4: Again we need the points at which
f crosses the x axis. This is the solution of 2x2 7x 4 = 0 which is x = 21
and x = 4 The curve is shown below:

For any quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c the point at which the
curve cuts the x-axis is the solution of f (x) = 0 i.e ax2 + bx + c = 0: If
ax2 + bx + c = 0 has real and distinct roots, the curve cuts the X-axis at two

46
points and the roots are the point at which the curve cuts the x-axis.If the
equation has equal roots, then the curve only touches the x-axis at the point
b
x = 2a .When the roots are complex, the curve never touches the x-axis.
Below are the possible diagrams of the curve of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c with
respect to the x-axis

4.6 QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

Any inequality relationship that involves a quadratic function is called a

Quadratic inequality. For example (x 2)(2x + 1) > 0
The range of values of x that sais…es the quadratic inequality can be
found graphically as follows.

Let f (x) = (x 2)(2x + 1): The diagram below shows a sketch of f (x)
from which we see that f (x) > 0 (i.e the portion of the curve above the
y-axis) are for values x greater than 2 and x less than 21 :

Therefore the range of values of x satisfying the inequality (x 2)(2x+1) >

0 is x : x < 21 or x > 2
Alternatively, we can solve the inequality by analytic method.
consider (x 2)(2x + 1) > 0;
) (x 2) and (2x+1) must have the same signs. Either both are negetive
or both are positive
) (x 2) > 0 and (2x + 1) > 0 or (x 2) < 0 and (2x + 1) < 0
) either x > 2 and x > 12 or x < 2 and x < 12
) x > 2 or x < 21
Example
Find the range of values which are satis…ed by the inequality x2 8x+15 <
0
Solution
The LHS of the inequality can be factorised as (x 3)(x 5)
Graphical method:
The sketch of f (x) = (x 3)(x 5) is given below

47
 The portion of the curve satis…ed by the inequality (portion below the
x-axis) are for x between 3 and 5 . Therefore the range of values satis…ed by
the inequality is 3 < x < 5
Analytic method
Again, this can be solved analytically by observing that if (x 3)(x 5) <
0 then x 3 and x 5 must have di¤erent signs
I:e either x 3 > 0 and x 5 < 0 or x 3 < 0 and x 5 > 0
)either x > 3 and x < 5 or x < 3 and x < 5 but x < 3 and x > 5 has
no solution because if x is greater than 3, it cannot be less than 5:
) The range is x > 3 and x < 5 ) x 2 (3; 5) or 3 < x < 5
Exercise 4.4
Find the range(or ranges) of x satisfying the following inequalities
(1) (x + 2) (x 2) > 0 (2)(x 1) (x 2) > 0 (3) (2x 1) (x + 1) < 0 (4)
2
x 4x > 5 (5) (x 3) (x + 5) < 0 (6) 5x2 > 3x + 2 (7) (2 x) (x + 4) < 0
(8) 3x > x2 + 2 (9) (3 2x) (x + 5) > 0 10 (x 1) (x + 2) < x (4 x)
FURTHER EXAMPLES
Example
Find the range of values of k for which the equation x2 kx +k + 3 = 0
has real roots.
Solution
For x2 kx +k + 3 = 0 to have real roots, then b2 4ac 0
) ( k)2 4 (1) (k + 3) 0
) k 2 4k 12 0
From the sketch of f (k) k 2 4k 12 ) f (k) (k + 2) (k 6)
From the diagram, we see that k 2 and k 6
(2) Find the set of values of p for which f (x) x2 3px + p > 0 for all
x.
Solution
2 3p 2
f (x) x2 3px + p = x2 + 3px + 3p 2 2
+p
3p 2 9p2
= x+ 2 +p 4
2
) T he least value of f (x) is p 9p4
2
So for f (x) to be greater than zero for all x, we must have that p 9p4 > 0
) 4p 9p2 > 0 ) p (4 9p) > 0:
The sketch of f (p) = p (4 9p) is as below:

) p > 0 and p < 49

Therefore, f (x) > 0 for all real x holds for the set of values of p such that
0 < p < 49 :

48
 Example
Find the range of values of x for which 2x 1 < x2 4 < 12
Solution
There are two inequality relationships here. viz
(a) 2x 1 < x2 4 and (b) x2 4 < 12
For (a) 2x 1 < x2 4 ) x2 + 2x + 3 < 0 ) x2 2x 3 > 0 )
(x 3) (x + 1) > 0
Let f (x) (x 3) (x + 1) : The graph of f (x) is as drawn below

From the diagram, we can see that the region satis…ed by (a)is x < 1
and x > 3
For (b) x2 4 < 12 ) x2 16 < 0 ) (x + 4) (x 4) < 0
Let g(x) = (x + 4) (x 4) The graph of g is as sketched below:

From the graph of g(x), the g(x) < 0 if 4 < x < 4

The range of f (x) and g(x) can be represented on the same number
line (see chapter one) to obtain the range of values that satisfy (a) and (b)
simultaneously.From the above we see that the ranges of x that satisfy both

a and b (this is where the lines overlap) are 4 < x < 1 and 3 < x < 4:
Exercise 4.5
(1) Find the range of values of k for which x2 + (k 3) x + k = 0 has (a)
real and distinct roots (b) roots of the same sign
(2) If x is real and x2 + (2 k)x + 1 2k = 0; show that k cannot lie
between certain limits and …nd these limits
(3) Find the limitations required on the values of real number c in order
that the equation x2 + 2cx c + 2 = 0 shall have real roots.
(4) Prove that if x2 > k (x + 1) for all real x then 4 < k < 0
(5) Find the condition that must be satis…ed by k in order that the
expression 2x2 + 6x + 1 + k (x2 + 2) may be positive for all real values of
x
(6) Find the the range of values of x for which x 4 < x (x 4) 5
(7)(a) If x = 2 is a root of the equation 2 x2 + 2 (2 5) x + 8 = 0; …nd
the possible value(s) of and the corresponding value(s) of x .
(b)Find the range(s) of possible values of the real number if 2 x2 +
2 (2 + 5) x + 8 = 0 for all real values of x.

49
 (8) Determine for each of the expressions f (x) and g(x) the range(s) of
values of x for which it is positive. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal
places. Explain brie‡y the reason for your answers
(a) f (x) = x2 + 4x 6 (b) g(x) = x2 8x + 2:
(9) (a) State the range of values of x for which 2x2 + 5x 12 is negative.
(b) The value of a constant is such that the quadratic function f (x) =
x2 4x+a+3 is never negative. Determine the nature of roots of the function
af (x) = (x2 + 1)(a 1): Deduce the values of a for which the equation has
equal roots.
(10) By eliminating x and y from the equation x1 + y1 = 1; x + y = a and
y
x
= m; where a 6= 0: Obtain a relationship between m and a given that a is
real. Determine the ranges of values of a for which m is real.
(11) If a > 0; prove that the quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c is positive
for all real values of x; when b2 < 4ac: Hence …nd the range of values of p for
which the quadratic function f (x) 4x2 + 4px (3p2 + 4p 3) is positive
for all real values of x Illustrate your result by making sketch of the graphs
for each case p = 0; p = 1:
(12)(a) If a is a positive constant, …nd the set of values of x for which
2
a(x + 2x 8) is negative.Find the value of a if this fuction has a minimum
value of 11.
(b) Find two quadratic functions of x which are 0 at x = 1; which take
value 10 when x = 0 and has a maximum value of 18: Sketch the graph of
these two functions.
(13) Find the set of values of k for which f (x) 3x2 5x k is greater
than unity for all values of x: Show that for all k; the minimum value of f (x)
occurs when x = 56 : Find k if this minimum value is 0:
(14) Prove that 3x2 4x + 2 > 0 for all real values of x.
(15) Find the value of k(6= 1) so that the quadratic function k(x + 2)2
(x 1) (x 2) is equal to 0: Find also (a) the range of k for which the function
possesses a minimum value, (b) The range of values of k for which the value
of the function never exceeds 12:5: Sketch the graph of the funtion for k = 21
and for k = 2 12 :
(16) Find the set of values of x for which 2x2 + 3x + 2 > 0
(17)The root of the equation 9x2 + 6x + 1 = 4kx where k is a constant
are denoted by and
(a) Show that the equation whose roots are 1 and 1 is x2 + 6x + 9 = 4kx
(b) Find the of the set of values of k for which and are real.
(c) Find also the values of k for which and are real and positive
(18) De…ne the function f as f : x ! x2 3x 4, for x 2 IR: Find the
range of f and the values of x for which f (x) = 0:

50
 4.7 REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREMS
The remainder theorem enables us to …nd the remainder when certain
algebraic expressions are divided by a given factor without necessarily per-
forming the actual division. An immediate consequence of the remainder
theorem is the factor theorem.
4.7.1 Remainder theorem
If P (x) is a polynomial in x; then the remainder when P (x) is divided by
(x b)
is P (b).
Proof: Let P (x) be a polynomial in x; Q(x) be the quotient when P (x)
is divided
by (x b) and R be the remainder. Thus P (x) = (x b)Q(x) + R:
) P (b) = (b b)Q(b) + R = 0Q(b) + R = R:
4.7.2 Factor Theorem
From 4.7.1, if P (x) vanishes when x = a, then (x a) is
a factor of P (x). Thus, P (a) = 0 if (x a) is a factor of P (x):
Example
Find the remainder when x3 + 5x2 2x 1 is divided by (x + 3):
Solution: Let f (x) = x3 + 5x2 2x 1:
Applying the remainder theorem we have:
f ( 3) = ( 3)3 + 5( 3)2 2( 3) 1 = 27 + 45 + 6 1 = 23:
) the remainder is 23:
Example
Find the values of the constants g and h if (x 1)and (3x 1)are both
factors of the polynomial 3x4 + gx3 6x2 + hx 1:
Solution: Let f (x) = 3x4 + gx3 6x2 + hx 1;
if (x 1) is a factor, then f (1) = 0;
thus f (1) = 3 + g 6 + h 1 = 0; i.e. g + h = 4:::(i)
If (3x 1) is a factor, then f ( 31 ) = 0;
thus f ( 31 ) = 3( 13 )4 + g( 13 )3 6( 13 )2 + h 13 1 = 0:
1 g 2
27
+ 27 3
+ h3 1 = 0
g
i.e. 27 + h3 = 4427
or g + 9h = 44:::(ii):
From (i) and (ii) we have a system of simultaneous equations and solving
we
have g = 1 and h = 5:
Example
Find the value of m if (x 2) is a factor of x3 + mx2 4x + 4.
Find the other factors of the expression.
Solution: Let f (x) = x3 + mx2 4x + 4:
Then f (2) = 23 + 4m 8 + 4 = 0

51
 =) 4m = 4
m = 1:
the expression is x3 x2 4x + 4:
Using factor theorem let’s check whether (x 1) and (x + 2) are factors:
f ( 1) = 1 1 + 4 + 4 = 6; thus (x + 1) is not a factor.
f (1) = 1 1 4 + 4 = 0; hence (x 1) is a factor
f ( 2) = ( 2)3 4 4:( 2) + 4 = 8 4 + 8 + 4 = 0; giving (x + 2) as a
factor. Now,
(x 2)(x 1)(x + 2) = (x2 3x + 2)(x + 2) = x3 x2 4x + 4:
) the other factors are (x 1)and (x + 2):
Example
The equations x2 + 9x + 2 = 0 and x2 + hx + 5 = 0 have a common root.
Find the quadratic equation giving the two possible values of h:
Solution: Let the common root be a. Then (x a) will be a factor of
both
x2 + 9x + 2 and x2 + hx + 5: Thus a2 + 9a + 2 = 0 and a2 + ha + 5 = 0:
i.e. a2 + 9a + 2 = a2 + ha + 5
i.e. (9 h)a = 3
) a = 9 3 h ; substituting this in a2 + 9a + 2 = 0;
we get: (9 9h)2 + 927h + 2 = 0:
i.e. 9 + 27(9 h) + 2(9 h)2 = 0
i.e. 9 + 27:9 27h + 2:(92 18h + h2 ) = 0
or 9 + 27:9 27h + 2:92 36h + 2h2 = 0
2h2 63h + 414 = 0 is the required quadratic equation for h:
Exercise 4.7
1. Find the remainder when:-
(i) x4 6x2 + 1 is divided by (x + 2)
(ii) x23 1 is divided by (x + 1):
2. Find the value of the constant k if the remainder is 22 when the
expression 3x3 + kx2 4x + 6 is divided by (x 4):
3. Find the values of m and n if (x 2) and (x 3)are both factors
of
x3 + mx2 + nx + 6:
4. Find the value of the constant k for which the polynomial
x3 + kx2 + 5x 10 has (x + 2) as a factor.
5. The expression gx2 + hx 2 has (x + 2) as a factor. When the
expression is
divided by (x 1), the remainder is 6. Find the values of g and h .

52
 6. Whem x2 + mx + n is divided by x h the remainder is the same as
when
the quadratic expression is divided by x 2h: Find two possible
values of h:

53
Chapter 5

Indices and Logarithms

5.1 Introduction
The concept of indices and loarithms have been very important in the devel-
opment of Mathematics. We start by de…ning am ; where a is any integer, m
a natural number, and develop rules for writing down the product, quotient,
e.t.c., of two such quantities. We thereafter discover meanings for am when
m is negative, fractional or zero. We …nally apply these rules in solving
related problems. We next introduce the concept of logarithms whose basic
theory follows naturally from that of indices.
5.1 INDICES
When we mutliply a quantity a by itself, say …ve times, the resulting
product we have is a to power 5; i:e:a a a a a = a5 . Thus, in general,
given m a natural number, am denotes the product of m factors each equal
to a, and the number m expressing the power is called the index (indices for
plural) and a is
called the base. am itself is called an index number.
We have three fundamental laws of indices, and we state them as follows:
(i) am an = am+n
(ii) am an = am n
(iii) (am )n = amn :
Where m and n are natural numbers and m > n in (ii) . These formulae
can
easily be proved from …rst principles as follows:
(i) From the de…niton of am and an ;
am = a a a ::: to m factors,
an = a a a ::: to n factors, so that
am an = a a a ::: to (m + n) factors,

54
 = am+n :
(ii) am
a = aa aa aa :::::: to
n m factors
to n factors
With m > n, the n factors in the denominator will cancel with n of the
m factors
in the numerator leaving (m n) factors, so that,
am an = a a a :::to(m n) factors,
= am n :
(am )n = am am am :::to n factors
= am+m+m+m::: to n terms, by (i),
= amn :
The results above can be extended to cases where m is negative, fractional
and
zero. And this wep do as follows:
(iv) (ap=q )q = a( q )q = ap by (iii)).
m
(v) aam = am m = ao by (ii)).
am
But we know that am = 1:
) ao = 1: Thus any number (except 0) raised to the power of zero equals
1.
o
(vi) a1m = aam = ao m = a m (by (ii)&(v)).
Hence a1m = a m :
Thus a m is the reciprocal of am :
Example If f(a3 )4 a2 g=a9 = ah ; …nd h:
3 4 2
a12 a2 12+2
Solution: (a )a9 a = a9
= a a9 = a14 9 = a5 ; thus h = 5:
2
4
Example Given that g = 27 3 and h = 3 ; …nd (without using tables)
the value of g 2 h p
2
Solution: g = 27 3 = 3 (27)2 = 32
Thus, g 2 h = (32 )2 3 4 = 34 314 = 1:
Example Evaluate:
1 1 1 2 1 1
(i) 4 2 8 3 , and (ii) (24) 2 (32) 3 66 33 :
1 1 1 1
Solution: (i) 4 2 8 3 = (22 ) 2 (23 ) 3 = 2 2 = 4:
1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1
(ii) (24) 2 (32) 3 6 6 3 3 = (23 x3) 2 (25 ) 3 (2 3) 6 3 3
3 1 10 1 1 1 3 10 1 1 1 1
= 22 32 2 3 2 6 3 6 3 3 = 2( 2 + 3 + 6 ) 3( 2 + 6 + 3 )
30 6
=26 3 6 = 25 31 = 32 3 = 96:
Example: Solve the equations.
(i) 32h = 8; (ii) 4x 6:2x + 23 = 0:
Solution:
(i) 32 = 25 and 8 = 23 :
Hence (25 )h = 23

55
 Thus 25h = 23
) 5h = 3 and we have h = 35 :
(ii) Let y = 2x : Then the equation becomes
y 2 6y + 8 = 0
) (y 2)(y 4) = 0 and y = 2 or y = 4
If y = 2; then 2x = 21 =) x = 1:
If y = 4; then 2x = 22 =) x = 2:
fng ) x = 1 or 2:
Exercise 5.1
1. Evaluate:
3 121 1 1 1 1 1
(i) 81 4 ( 144 ) 2 ; (ii) 27 3 3 3 18 2 2 2 ;
1 1 1 1
(iii) 16 4 81 2 5 3 25 3 :
1 1 (a+b)
2. Simplify: (i) 1 x2 x 2 1
; (ii) a 1 +b 1 ;

x x 1 y 1 1+y 1 1 x 1
(iii) x 1
; (iv) 1 , (v) 1+y
, (vi) x 1
y2 1
7 4 1 1
(vii) (2a 4a + 2a 3 ) (2a 3 ):
3 3

3. Solve the equation(s):

2 3
(i) 8x 3 = 29 ; (ii) 64x 4 = 27; (iii) 3y = 19 ;
(iv) 9x 10:3x + 32 = 0; (v) 9x 4:3x+1 + 33 = 0:
4. If g h = hg ; show that (g=h)g=h = g (g h)=h ; if h = 2g; …nd the value of
h:
1 1 1 1 1
5. If x = 1:44; …nd the values of x 2 ; xo ; x 2 and (x 2 x 2 ) x 2 :
5.2 Logarithms
The logarithm of a number, say y, to base b is the power to which b must
be
raised to give the number y, i.e. if y = bx then x = logb y:Where the base
is not
indicated, we assume it to be base 10.
We have three important formulae connecting loarithms which corre-
spond to the three formulae of indices. The logarithm formulae are:
(i) logb xy = logb x + logb y
Proof: Let u = logb x and v = logb y:
Then (by de…nition) bu = x and bv = y
) xy = bu :bv = bu+v :
Thus from de…nition;
logb xy = u + v = logb x + logb y:
(ii) logb xy = logb x logb y:

56
 Proof: Let u = logb x and v = logb y
Then bu = x and bv = y:
u
Thus xy = bbv = bu v :
Hence from de…nition, logb xy = u v = logb x logb y
n
(iii) logb x = n logb x
Proof: Let u = logxb =) bu = x:
) xn = (bu )n = bun
From de…nition, logb xn = un = nu = n logb x:
We can also …nd the log of 1 to any base, that of the base itself; and
change from one base to another as follows:
(i) log1b = 0, since bo = 1: (ii) logbb = 1 since b1 = b
(iii) logb x = log ax
loga b
:
Proof: Let u = logb x; so that bu = x:
Taking log to base a, we have: loga bu = loga x or u loga b = loga x

)u= loga x
loga b
i.e. logb x = loga x
loga b
:

Example
If loga q = 5 + loga b and c = a4 : prove that q = abc:
Solution: loga q = 5 + loga b can be written as loga q loga b = 5; thus
loga qb = 5:
By de…nition of logarithm we have: a5 = qb =) q = a5 b = aba4 = abc:
Example
Simplify: (i) aloga x ; (ii) a 2 loga x
Solution:
(i) Let u = aloga x , then loga u = loga (aloga x )
i.e. loga u = loga x loga a = loga x; since loga a = 1:
Thus, loga u = loga x
) u = x; i.e. aloga x = x:
2
(ii) Let v = a 2 loga x ; so that loga v = loga (aloga x )

2 2
i.e. loga v = loga x loga a = loga x

)v=x 2
= 1
x2

2 loga x 1
i.e. a = x2
:
Example
If log 2 = 0:3010 and log 3 = 0:4771 …nd the values of (i) log 5 (ii)
1
log (0:3) 3
Solution:

57
 (i) log 5 = log( 10
2
) = log 10 log 2 = 1 log 2 = 1 0:3010 = 0:6990:
1 1 1 3 1
(ii) log(0:3) = log(0:3) = log
3
3 3 10
= 3
(log 3 log 10) = 13 (0:4771 1)
= 13 0:5229 = 0:1743:
Example p 21
If log 5 = 0:6990; …nd
p 21 21the number of digits in the integral part of ( 5) :
21
Solution: log( 5) = 2 log 5 = 2 0:6990 = 7:3395:
p
Hence 10 has to be raised to more than the seventh power to give ( 5)21
and this quantity will ) contain 8 digits in its integral part.
Example
Without using tables, …nd the value of log2 ( 35 ) + log2 ( 67 ) log2 ( 28
5
):
5 6 5 5 6 5 5 2
Solution: log2 3 + log2 7 log2 28 = log2 ( 3 7 = 28 ) = log2 ( 7 5 28)
= log2 2 4 = log2 23 = 3:

Exercise 5.2
1. Prove that:
(i) logq p: logr q: logp r = 1: (ii) loga N: logb M = logb N loga M
(iii) If logb a = c and logc b = a then logc a = ac:
2. If log8 h = 12 k; log2 2h = m and m k = 4; …nd h:
3. Find, without using tables, the values of x if (i) log x log 3 = 1;
1
(ii) logx 2 = 32 ;(iii) x = log6 216:
4. Given that log 2 = 0:30103 and log 3 = 0:47712 …nd the value of
log(2 1 + 3 1 ) to four decimal places.

p 5.20 If log 3 = 0:4771; …nd the number of digits in the decimal point of
( 3)
and …nd the value of x for which 3x = 100:

58
Chapter 6

Trigonometry

6.1 Introduction
Trigonometry is a branch of Mathematics that deals with the study of the re-
lationships between the sides and the angles of a triangle. These relationships
are de…ned in terms of trigonometric ratios such as sine(sin);cosine(cos);
and tangent(tan): Relative to a right-angled triangle ABC,with the angle
marked (theta) as the reference angle, the side AB is the opposite, BC
is the adjacent;and the hypotenuse is AC, which is the side opposite the
right angle. We de…ne
the trigonometric ratios as follows:

where a; b and c are the sides of a triangle.

Opposite side to angle c Adjacent side to angle a
sin = = ; cos = = ;
Hypotenuse b Hypotenuse b

Opposite side to angle

and tan = Adjacent side to angle
= ac
Relative to angleA = 90 , we obtain
sin(90 ) = ab = cos
cos(90 ) = cb = sin :
Note that angles and (90 ) are complementary (that is, they
0
add up to 90 ) hence we conclude that the sine of an angle is always
equal to the cosine of its complement.
Other trigonometric ratios such as secant,cosecant and cotangent can be
de…ned in terms of the other ratios sine,cosine and tangent thus:
sec = cos1 ; cosect = sin1 ; cot = tan1 :
We derive from the …gure above the following trigonometric identities:

59
 tan(90 ) = ac = cot ; cos
sin
= ( cb ) ( ab ) = ac = tan :
) tan = cossin
(6:1)
a2 +c2 2
Also, (sin ) + (cos ) = ( b ) + ( b ) = b2 = bb2 = 1;
2 2 c 2 a 2

since by Pythagoras’theorem, a2 + b2 = c2 :

) sin2 + cos2 = 1 (6:2)

Dividing through (6.2) by sin2 and then by cos2 ; we obtain

1 + cot2 = cos ec2 (6:3)

and
1 + tan2 = sec2 (6:4)
The identities (6.2), (6.3) and (6.4) are sometimes referred to as P ythagoras0 T heorem:
6.2 Trigonometric Ratios of Some Special Angles

f0 ; 30 ; 45 ; 60 ; 90 g

We consider an equilateral triangle ABC of side 2 units, with a perpen-

dicular bisector AD of the base BC drawn from A to D which also bisects
the vertical angle as follows: p p
From the triangle above,the p height h = 22 p 1 = 3:
) sin 30 = 21 ; cos 30 = 23 ; and tan 30 = 33 :
p p
Also, sin 60 = 23 ; cos 60 = 12 ; and tan 60 = 3:
Consider a square P QRS of side 1unit and draw the diagonal QS.
From the …gure,
p p
d2 = 12 + 12 = p 2: p
Hence, sin 45 = 2 ; cos 45 = 22 ; and tan 45 = 1:
2

For trigonometric ratios of 0 and 90 , we consider the right-angled

triangle P QR:
Then, sin = PQR Q
: As P approachesQ; approaches 0 ;
i.e. as P ! Q; ! 0 , hence P R ! QR:
) sin 0 = jQRj0
= 0; thus cos90 = 0; since the sine of angle is always
equal to the cosine of its complement:
QR
Similarly, cos0 = QR = 1 (since ! 0 implies P R ! QR).
6.3 Trigonometric Ratios of Angles Between 0 and 360
Consider the circle of radius r below
In the …rst Quadrant, Second Quadrant
y y
sin = r (fpositiveg) sin = r (fpositiveg)
cos = xr (fpositiveg) cos = rx (negative)
tan = xy (fpositiveg) tan = yx (negative)

60
 All the trigonometric ratios in Only sine has a
…rst quadrant are positive. positive value in
. the second quadrant
Third Quadrant Fourth Quadrant
sin = ry (negative) sin = ry (negative)
cos = rx (negative) cos = xr (positive)
y y
tan = x = x (positive) tan = xy (negative)
In the third quadrant, only In the fourth quadrant, only
tan gent has a positve value. cosine has a positive value.
Some people use acronyms such as CAST or ACTS to enable them
remember the signs of trigonometric ratios of angles of all magnitudes, see
diagram below:
Starting from the fourth quadrant and moving anti-clockwise, we use
CAST, while
starting from the …rst quadrant and moving in the clockwise direction,
we use ACTS.
We note that in the …rst quadrant,

sin = + sin ; cos = + cos ; and tan = + tan

In the second quadrant,

sin = + sin(180 ); cos = cos(180 ); and tan = tan(180 )

The third quadrant has

sin = sin( 180 ); cos = cos( 180 ); and tan = + tan( 180 )

and the fourth quadrant has

sin = sin(360 ); cos = + cos(360 ); and tan = tan(360 )

Example
1. Express in terms of the trigonometric ratios of positive acute angles:
(a) sin160 (b) cos(400 ) (c) sin( 200 ) (d) cos( 300 ) (e) tan( 900 ):
Solution
1 (a) sin 160 = sin(180 160 ) = sin 20
(b) cos 400 = cos(400 360 ) = cos 40
(c) sin( 200 ) = sin( 200 + 360 ) = sin 160 = sin(180 160 ) =
sin 20 ;

61
 or sin( 200 ) = sin 200 = ( sin(200 180 )) = sin 20 :
(d) cos( 300 ) = cos( 300 + 360 ) = cos 60
(e) tan( 900 ) = tan( 900 + 360 ) = tan( 540 ) = tan( 540 + 360 )
= tan( 180 ) = tan( 180 + 360 ) = tan(180 ) = tan(180 180 ) =
tan 0 :

Example
2. Evaluate without using tables:
(a) cos 210 (b) cos2 330 (c) 2 sin 120 cos 120 (d) cos2 300 sin2 300
Solution p
(a) cos 210 = cos(210 180 ) = cos 30 = p 23
(b) cos2 330 = cos2 (360 330 ) = cos2 30 = ( 23 )2 = 34 :
(c) 2 sin 120 cos 120 = 2 sin(180 p
120 )(p cos(180 120 ))
3 1 3
= 2 sin 60 cos 60 = 2 2 2
= 2:
2 2 2
(d) cos 300 sin 300 = cos (360 p
300 ) ( sin(360 300 ))2
= cos2 60 sin2 60 = ( 21 )2 ( 23 )2 = 12 :
Example
3. Find in its simpest form, the value of sin1+cos 3 +tan
2
if = 60 :
p p
sin 3 +tan
Solution: When = 60 ; 1+cos 2 = 1+cos 120 sin 180 +tan 60
= 0+
1
3
1 = 2 3:
2

Example
5
4. Given that sin A = 13 and A is an obtuse angle, …nd without using
2 sin A cos A
tables, the value of 1
tan A
:
2
2 2 2
Solution:
p Note that
p x + y = r : Therefore,
x = 132 52 = 144 = 12 units:
) cos A = 12
13
5
; tan A = 12 :
5 12 10
2 ( ) + 12
) 2 sin A cos A
1
tan A
= 1
13
( 5
13
)
= 13
1
13
5
+ 12
= 24
13
:
2 2 12 2
5. Show that
sin +tan
cot +cos ec
= sin tan :
Solution:
LHS = sin1 +tan
+ 1 = sin +tan
sin +tan = (sin +tan ) (sinsin tan
+tan )
= sin tan =
tan sin sin tan
RHS.
Exercise 6.3
1. Express in terms of the trigonometric ratios of positive acute angles:
(i) sin 140 (ii) sin( 945 ) (iii) cos 310 (iv) tan( 700 ) (v) cos( 910 )
2. Evaluate without using tables, giving your answer in simpli…ed surd
form
where necessary:
(i) sin 135 (ii) sin2 330 (iii) cos2 210 sin2 210 (iv) 1+cos 210
1 cos 210

62
 (v) 1tantan
330 +tan 240
330 tan 240
3. If sin = p and is obtuse, …nd expressions for cos and tan in
terms of p:
4. If tan A = 34 ; where A is an acute angle, …nd the value of 44 coscos A 3 sin A
A+3 sin A
:
cos
5. Show that 1+sin = sec tan :
6. Show that (1 + tan ) + (1 tan )2 = cos22 :
2

6.4 DEGREE AND RADIAN MEASURE OF AN ANGLE

Two kinds of units commonly used in measuring angles are the degree and
the radian: The degree is a more familiar and more commonly used unit of
angular measure in elementary mathematics than the radian. A degree ( ) is
1
de…ned as 360 of a complete rotation. It has sub-divisions such as the minute
1 1
( ) which is 60 of a degree and the second (pp ) is 60
p
of a minute.
The radian measure is employed almost exclusively in advanced math-
ematics and in many branches of science and engineering. In this
section, we introduce the concept of radian and examine the relationship
between degrees and radians:
De…nition 6.2 : A radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle
by an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle.
Let us consider a circle with centre O and radius r and the arc P Q be
equal in length to r and is the angle subtended at the centre of the circle,
and = 1rad:
(iv) 144 = 144 180
rad = 45 rad:
Example
Express each angle in degrees: (i) 23 (ii) 30 (iii) 5
9
(iv) 38 :
Solution
Note that 1rad = 180 :
) (i) 23 = 23 180
= 120 (ii) 30 = 30 180 = 6
5
(iii) 9
= 59 180
= 100
3 3 180
(iv) 8 = 8 = 67 12 :
Exercise 6. 2
1. Express the following in degrees:
(i) 7 rad (ii) 47 rad (iii) 89 rad (iv) 0:45rad (v) 9 rad:
2. Express the following in radians:
(i) 36 (ii) 112 40p (iii) 135 (iv) 1p (v) 270 (vi) 394 32p :

Even and Odd Functions:

De…nition 6.3 A function f is even if f ( x) = f (x), for all x in its
domain of de…nition. The function is odd if f ( x) = f (x).
For example, f (x) = x2 , f ( ) = cos ; are even functions while f (x) = x3 ,
f ( ) = sin are odd functions.

63
 Periodic Functions: A function f is said to be periodic if there exists
T >0
such that f (x + T ) = f (x). The function has period T , if it is the
smallest value
for which the relation holds. A function involving trigonometric ratios is
called a trigonometric function. All trigonometric functions are periodic.
For example, f (x) = sin x, g(x) = cos x are periodic with period T = 2 :
Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
The graphs of y = sin y = cos ; for 0 2 :cos ,0 2

y = sin

y = cos
6.5 Fundamental Trigonometric Identities
We study in this section , some more important identities involving trigono-
metric functions.These identities can be employed to simplify or change the
form of trigonometric expressions.
6.5.1 Addition Formulae
The following identities are often referred to as addition formulae or
addition theorems in trigonometry:
sin( + ) = sin cos + cos sin
cos( + ) = cos cos sin sin
Proofs:
Consider the triangle ABC and construct a perpendicular bisector AD
of BC.

aB bA cC dD

Using the sine rule, we obtain

sin<BAC
jBCj
= sin<ABC
jACj
h
) x+y = sin(90w
sin( + ) )
= z
w
= h
wz
:
) sin( + ) = h(x+y) wz
= hx
wz
hy
= ( xz )( wh ) + ( hz )( wy ) = sin cos +
+ wz
cos sin :
Using cosine rule, we obtain in a similar
h manner i
jACj2 +jABj2 jBCj2 1 jACj jABj jBCj jBCj
cos < BAC = 2jACjjABj
= 2 jABj
+ jACj
:
h i jACj h jABj i
1 w z (x+y) (x+y) 1 w2 +z 2 x2 +2xy+y 2
This implies cos( + ) = 2 z + w w
: z = 2 wz wz

64
 h i h i
1 w2 +z 2 x2 2xy y 2 1 2h2 2xy
= 2 wz
= 2 wz
; since w2 y2 = z2 x2 = h2 :

x y
= hz : wh :
z w
= cos cos sin sin :
Thus,

sin( + ) = sin cos + cos sin ; cos( + ) = cos cos sin sin

Putting = in the above formulae, we obtain

sin( ) = sin cos cos sin ; cos( ) = cos cos + sin sin
sin cos cos sin
sin( + ) sin cos +cos sin cos cos
+ cos cos
Thus, tan( + ) = cos( + )
= cos cos sin sin
= cos cos sin sin =
cos cos cos cos
tan +tan
1 tan tan
:
tan + tan
) tan( + ) =
1 tan tan
Similarly,
tan tan
tan( )=
1 + tan tan
Example
Find without using tables the value of (i) sin 512 (ii) cos 12
Solution: p p p p p
(i) sin 512 = sin 4 cos 6 + cos 4 sin 6 = 22 : 23 + 22 : 12 p= p22 p3 + 1
(ii) cos 12p = cos( 4 6 ) = cos 4 cos 6 + sin 4 sin 6 = 22 : 23 + 22 : 12
p
= 22 3+1 :
Note that 12 and 512 are complementary angles, hence sin 512 = cos 12 :
Example
5
If sin = 13 ; and cos = 15 ; …nd the possible values of sin( + ):
Solution: sin( + ) = sin cos + cos sin p
24
If and are acute angles,pthen cos p= 12 13
; sin = 5
; hence,
5 1 12 24 5+24 6
sin( + ) = 13 5 + 13 5
= 65 , p
3 24
otherwise, if is acute and 2 p
2 , then p
sin = 5
:
) sin( + ) = 13 5 + 13 ( 5 ) = 65 :
5 1 12 24 5 24 6

Example
Find without using tables the value of sin 15 :
Solution: sin 15 = sin(45 30 ) = sin 45 cos 30 cos 45 sin 30

65
 p p p
= 2p2 : 23 2 1
:
2 2
2
p
= 4 ( 3 1):
Exercise 6.5 a
1. use the addition formulae to prove the following identities:
(i) sin(180 + ) = sin (ii) tan(180 ) = ptan
(iii) sin( 2 ) = cos (iv) cos(300 ) = cos 2 3 sin
1 tan
(v) tan(225 ) = 1+tan (vi) cos 3x cos 2x + sin 3x sin 2x = cos x:
2. Find without using tables the value of tan 15 :
3. Show that sin2 A + sin2 (A + 120 )+ sin2 (A 120 ) = 32 :
4. If sin = 23 and cos = 27 ; …nd the possible values of cos( + ):
6.5.2 Multiple Angles
By putting = in the addition formulae, we obtain
sin( + ) = sin 2 = 2 sin cos ;
cos( + ) = cos 2 = cos2 sin2 = 2 cos2 1 = 1 sin2 :
) tan( + ) = tan 2 = 1tantan+tan tan
= 1 2 tan
tan2
Using the above formulae, we can express tan in terms of tan 2 thus,
tan +tan 2 tan
tan = tan 2( 2 ) = 1 2tan2 2 = 1 tan22 :
2 2
If we let t = tan 2 ; then,
2t
tan =
1 t2
2 sin 2 cos 2 2 tan 2 2t
Similarly, sin = 2 sin 2 cos 2
= cos2 2 +sin2 2
= 1+tan2 2
= 1+t2
:
2t
) sin =
1 + t2
cos2 sin2 1 tan2 1 t2
and cos = cos2 2
sin2 2
= cos2
2
+sin2
2
= 1+tan2
2
= 1+t2
:
2 2 2
Hence
2
1 t
cos = :
1 + t2
Since cos = cos2 2 sin2 2
= 2 cos2 2
1;
) 2 cos2 2 = 1 + cos
r
1 + cos
) cos = :
2 2
2
Similarly, cos =1 2 sin 2
;
r
1 cos
) sin =
2 2

66
 Also, q
1 cos r
sin 2 2 1 cos
tan = = p = :
2 cos 2 1+cos 1 + cos
2
2 2 2
From the cosine rule, cos A = b +c2bc a ; ) cos A = 2 cos2 A
2
1 =
b2 +c2 a2
2bc
:
2 a2
) 2 cos2 A2 = (b+c)
2bc
= (a+b+c)(b+c
2bc
a)
:
Let a + b + c = 2s; where s is the semi-perimeter of
triangle ABC, i.e s = a+b+c2
:
) 2 cos 2 = 2bc = bc :
2 A 4s(s a) 2s(s a)

r
A s(s a)
) cos = :
2 bc
In the same vein,
r r
B s(s b) C s(s c)
cos = ; cos = :
2 ac 2 ab
2 2 2
Also, cos A = 1 2 sin2 A2 = b +c2bc a :
) 2 sin A2 = (a+b c)(a
2bc
b+c) c)(s b)
= 4(s 2bc = 2(s b)(s
bc
c)
:
r
A (s b)(s c)
) sin = :
2 bc
Hence,
r r
B (s a)(s c) C (s a)(s b)
sin = ; sin = :
2 ac 2 ab
q
sin A
Similarly, tan A2 = cos A2 = (s s(sb)(sa) c) :
2

s s s
A (s b)(s c) B (s a)(s c) C (s a)(s b)
) tan = ; tan = ; tan = :
2 s(s a) 2 s(s b) 2 s(s c)

6.5.3. Sine and Cosine Rules

Sine rule: The sine rule states that in any triangle ABC,
a
sin A
= sinb B = sinc C :

4B 6A 5C dD 1a 2c 3b hh

67
 Proof: Consider a triangle ABC, and construct a perpendicular from A
to
meet BC at D. From the …gure,
sin B = hc ; ) h = c sin B; and similarly, sin C = hb ; ) h = b sin C:
) h = c sin B = b sin C; ) sinb B = sinc C :
similarly, sina A = sinc C :
a b c
) = = :
sin A sin B sin C
The formula also holds for obtuse angled triangles.
Cosine Rules: the cosine rules state that in any triangle ABC,
a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C:
Proof: from the triangle above,
c2 = (a x)2 + h2 = a2 2ax + x2 + h2 ; by Pythagoras’rule.
) c2 = a2 2ax + b2 ; since b2 = h2 + x2 :
But x = b cos C; ) c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C:
In the same vein, a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos A; and b2 = a2 + c2 2ac cos B:

) a2 = b2 +c2 2bc cos A; b2 = a2 +c2 2ac; c2 = a2 +b2 2ab cos C:

Example
In triangle ABC; a = 4; b = 5; c = 6. Find the angles A; B, and C:
Using cosine rule, 42 = 52 + 62 2 5 6 cos A
) cos A = 0:75:
) A = cos 1 0:75 ' 41:4
Also, 5 = 4 + 62 2 4 6 cos B:
2 2

) cos B = 0:5625 ) B = cos 1 0:5625 ' 55:8 :

) C = 82:8 :
Exercise 6.5b
1. Solve each of the following triangles, given that
(i) a = 12; b = 10; c = 8 (ii) A = 123 ; B = 62 ; c = 0:34
(iii) a = 26:35; A = 37 23p ; B = 43 31p :
2. Show that a2 + bc = b2 + c2 ;if A = 60 :
3. Prove that a2 + b2 + c2 = 2bc cos A + 2ac cos B + 2ab cos C:

68
6.1.1
6.6 The Area of a Triangle
h
Consider the triangle ABC, with height, h; sin C = b
) h = b sin C:

4B 6A 5C dD 1a 2c 3b hh

) Area, A = 12 ab sin C = 12 ab:2 sin C2 cos C2 = ab sin C2 cos C2 :

q q
= ab (s a)(sab
b) s(s c)
ab
:
p
) A= s(s a)(s b)(s c):
The formula above is usually referred to as Hero0 s f ormula.
Example
Express tan 3A interms of tan A:
2 tan A
+tan A 3 tan A tan3 A
tan 2A+tan A 1 tan2 A
Solution: tan A = tan(2A+A) = 1 tan 2A tan A
= 1 2 tan A
tan A
= 1 3 tan2 A
:
1 tan2 A
Example
Show that cos 3 = 4 cos3 3 cos :
cos3 = cos(2 + ) = cos 2 cos sin 2 sin
= (2 cos2 1) cos 2 sin cos sin
= 2 cos3 cos 2 cos sin2 = 2 cos3 cos 2 cos (1 cos2 )
= 4 cos3 3 cos :
Exercise 6.6
1. Express (i) sin 4 in terms of sin
(ii) tan 4 in terms of ptan
2. Show that sin 12 cos 512 = 2 4 3 :
p
3. Given that sin 10 = 14 ( 5 1); …nd the exact value of cos 5 :
4. Find without using tables the values of (i) cos 22 12 (ii) tan 22 12
1+sin cos
5. Prove that 1+sin +cos
= tan 2 :
6. Without using tables, determine the value of tan 7 12 :
7. Using the formulae sin 3 = 3 sin 4 sin3 ; and cos 3 = 4 cos3
3 cos ; q
1
p
express cos 5 in terms of cos : Hence, prove that cos 18 = 4 (10 + 2 5);
and evaluate cos 54 ; leaving your result in surd form.
8. Find the area of the triangle with the following dimensions:
(i) a = 623cm; b = 913cm; A = 34 (ii) A = 57:9; b = 126:3; c = 137:2:
9. The sides of atriangle are 13k; 20k; and 21k units; and the area of the
triangle
is 14 square units. Find the numerical value of k:
6.7 Factor Formulae

69
 Recall sin( + ) = sin cos + cos sin ;
and sin( ) = sin cos cos sin :
Adding corresponding members of these equations, we obtain
sin( + ) + sin( ) = 2 sin cos
1
) sin cos = [sin( + ) + sin( )] :
2
Similarly, cos( + ) + cos( ) = 2 cos cos
1
) cos cos = [cos( + ) + cos( )] :
2
By subtracting the expressions, we obtain
sin( + ) sin( ) = 2 cos sin
1
) cos sin = [sin( + ) sin( )] :
2
and cos( + ) cos( ) = 2 sin sin :
1
) sin sin = [cos( ) cos( + )] :
2
If in these identities, we put + = A and = B; then
1 1
= 2 (A + B) ; and = 2 (A B) ; we obtain

1 1 1 1
sin A+sin B = 2 sin (A + B) cos (A B) ; cos A+cos B = 2 cos (A + B) cos (A B) :
2 2 2 2
and
1 1 1 1
sin A sin B = 2 cos (A + B) sin (A B) ; cos A cos B = 2 sin (A + B) sin (A B) :
2 2 2 2
Examples
1. Express these quantities as products: (i) cos 50 +cos 12 (ii) sin 40 +
sin 20
(iii) sin 152 sin 30 (iv) cos 2 + cos 4
2. Prove that cos A + 2 cos 3A + cos 5A = 4 cos2 A cos 3A:
3. If A; B and C are the angles of triangle ABC; show that
cos A + cos B + cos C = 1 + 4 sin A2 sin B2 sin C2 :
sin 4! sin 2!
4. Prove that cos 4!+cos 2!
= tan !:
Solutions
1.(i) cos 50 + cos 12 = 2 cos 12 (50 + 12 ) cos 12 (50 12 )
= 2 cos 31 cos 19 :

70
 (ii) sin 40 + sin 20 = 2 sin 12 (40 + 20 ) cos 12 (40 20 )
= 2 sin 30 cos 10 :
(iii) sin 152 sin 30 = 2 cos 12 (152 + 30 ) sin 12 (152 30 )
= 2 cos 91 sin 61 :
(iv) cos 2 + cos 4 = 2 cos 12 (2 + 4 ) cos 12 (2 4 )
= 2 cos 3 cos :
2. LHS = (cos A + 2 cos 3A) + (cos 3A + cos 5A)
= 2 cos 12 (A + 3A) cos 12 (A 3A) + 2 cos 12 (3A + 5A) cos 12 (3A 5A)
= 2 cos 2A cos ( A) + 2 cos 4A cos ( A)
= 2 cos 2A cos A + 2 cos 4A cos A = 2 cos A(cos 2A + cos 4A)
= 2 cos A 2 cos 12 (2A + 4A) cos 12 (2A 4A) = 2 cos A(2 cos 3A cos( A))
= 4 cos2 A cos 3A:
= RHS:
3. cos A + cos B + cos C = cos A + 2 cos 12 (B + C) cos 12 (B C)
= 1 2 sin2 A2 + 2 sin A2 cos 12 (B C) = 1 + 2 sin A2 cos 12 (B C) sin A2
= 1 + 2 sin A2 cos 12 (B C) cos 12 (B + C) = 1 + 2 sin A2 2 sin B2 sin C2
= 1 + 4 sin A2 sin B2 sin C2 :
sin 4! sin 2! 2 cos 1 (4!+2!) sin 1 (4! 2!)
4. cos 4!+cos 2!
cos 3! sin !
= 2 cos 12 (4!+2!) cos 21 (4! 2!) = 22 cos 3! cos !
sin !
= cos !
= tan !:
2 2
Exercise 6.7
1. Express as a product: (i) sin 40 + sin 20 (ii) cos 50 + cos 30
(iii) cos 8 cos 2
2. Express as sums or di¤erences: (i) sin 30 cos 50 (ii) cos 3x cos 4x
(iii) sin 4x cos 2x
3. Prove that (i) sin 6x sin 4x
cos 5x
sin
= 2 sin x (ii) cos sin 2 +sin 3
cos 2 +cos 3
= tan 2 :
4. If A; B and C are angles of a triangle, show that
sin A + sin B + sin C = 4 cos A2 cos B2 cos C2 :
5. Prove that cos sin
+cos
sin
= cot 2 :
6.8 Trigonometric Equations
To solve any equation involving trigonometric functions, appropriate trigono-
metric identities may be employed to simplify such equations before solutions
are obtained. We illustrate this by using the following examples:
Examples
Solve the following equations for values of between 0 and 360 :
(i) sin = cos 55 (ii) 2 sin2 + 2 cos 2 = 1
Solutions: (i) sin = cos(90 ) = cos 55
) 90 = 55 ) = 90 55 = 35 or = 180 35 = 145 :
) = 35 ; 145 :
(ii) 2 sin2 + 2 cos 2 = 1 ) 2 sin2 + 2(1 2 sin2 ) = 1
) 2 2 sin2 = 1;

71
 ) sin2 = 12 ;
Hence sin = p12 :
) sin = p12 ) = 45 ; 135 :
and sin = p12 ) = 225 ; 315 :
) the solution is = 45 ; 135 ; 225 ; 315 :
6.8.1 The General Solution of sin = c
If sin = c; with c a constant such that 1 c 1; we see that there is
always a solution of the equation between 2 and 2 : Such a solution is
usually
referred to as the principal solution: Suppose the principal solution is ;
then
the general expression for the solution of the equation is given by
= k + ( 1)k ; where k 2 Z; is called the general solution of the
equation sin = c:
Example
Find the general solution of the equation cos 2x + 3 sin x + 1 = 0:
Solution: cos 2x + 3 sin x + 1 = 0 ) (1 2 sin2 x) + 3 sin x + 1 = 0:
) 2 + 3 sin x 2 sin2 x = 0
) 2 + 4 sin x sin x 2 sin x = 0
) (2 sin x)(1 + 2 sin x) = 0
) 2 sin x = 0 or 1 + 2 sin x; i.e sin x = 2 or sin x = 21 :
But sin x = 2 is impossible (why?).
) sin x = 21 ) x = 6 is the principal solution.
) the general solution is x = k + ( 1)k+1 ( 6 ):
Similarly, the general solution of cos = c; 1 c 1; is given by
= 2n ; n 2 Z and 0 < < is the principal solution.
For the equation tan = c; the principal solution lies between 2 and
2
and the general solution is given by = n + ; n 2 Z
Example
Find the general solution of the equation 2 cos2 3 cos 2 = 0:
2 2
Solution 2 cos 3 cos 2 = 0 ) 2 cos 4 cos + cos 2=0
) (cos 2)(2 cos + 1) = 0
) cos = 21 or cos = 2(which is impossible!)
) the principal solution is = 23 :
2
Thus the general solution is = 2n 3
:
Example
Find the general solution of the equation 3 tan2 x 1 = 0:
Solution 3 tan2 x 1 = 0 ) tan2 x = 13 :
) tan x = p13 ) tan x = p13 or p1 :
3

72
 If tan x = p13 ; the principal solution is x = 6 and if tan x = p13 ; the
principal
solution is x = 6 : Hence the general solution is x = n 6
:
The Function y = a sin x + b cos x
The expression a sin x+b cos x; where a and b are constants can be written
as
R sin(x + ) R sin x cos + R cos x sin ;
provided that R cos = a
and R sin = b
) (R cos p )2
+ (R sin )2 = a2 + b2 ) R2 = a2 + b2 :
) R = a2 + b 2 :
) y = a sin x + b cos x R sin(x + );
has a maximum value R, when x + = 2 ; and a minimum value R;
when x + = 32 :
6.8.2 The Equation a sin x + b cos x = c
To solve the equation a sin x + b cos x = c;
where a, b and c are constants, we express a sin x + b cos x R sin(x )
or a sin x + b cos x R cos(x );
where R > 0 and 0 2 ; R and are to be determined.
For example, a sin x + b cos x R sin(x ) = R sin x cos R cos x sin
where R cos = a
and R sin =pb
such that R = a2 + b2 ; and tan = ab :
Hence the original equation becomes R sin(x ) = c:
The signs of a and b determine the quadrant in which lies. For instance,
if a < 0
and b > 0; lies in the second quadrant .
Example
Solve the equation 4 cos x + 3 sin x = 2; for values of x between 0 and
360 :
Solution 4 cos x + 3 sin x R cos(x ) = R cos x cos + R sin x sin :
) R cos = 4
R sin p = 3 p p
) R = 42 + 32 = 16 + 9 = 25 = 5
and tan = 34 : ) = tan 1 34 ' 36:9 :
) the equation becomes 5 cos(x 36:9 ) = 2 ) cos(x 36:9 ) = 0:4:
) x 36:9 = 66:4 ; 293:6 ) x = 103:3 ; 330:5 :
Example
Express the following functions in the form A sin(x+ ); and hence …nd the
maximum and minimum values of each: (a) sin x + cos x (b) 4 sin x 3 cos x:

73
 Solution: (a) sin x + cos x A sin(x + ) = A sin x cosp + cos x sin
) A sin = 1; and A cos = 1; ) A2 = 2; hence, A = 2;
and tan = 1; ) = tan 1 1 = 4 :
p p
) sin x + cos x 2 sin(x + 4 ): Hence the maximum value= 2;
and it is attained when x + 4 = 2 ; i.e x = 4 ; while a minimum value
p
of 2 is attained when x + 4 = 32 ; i:e x = 54 :
(b) 4 sin x 3 cos x A sin(x ) = A sin x cos A cos x sin :
) A sin = 4; and A cos = 3;
) A = 5; and tan = 0:75; ) = tan 1 0:75 ' 143:1 :
) 4 sin x 3 cos x 5 sin(x 143:1 ):
) maximum value = 5; and minimum value= 5:
Example
Solve the equation 4 sin x 3 cos x = 2 by means of the substitution
t = tan x2 :
Solution
1 t2
Note that if t = tan x2 ; then; sin x = 1+t 2t
2 ; and cos x = 1+t2 :

Substituting for sinx and cosx in the equation, we obtain

2t 2
4( 1+t 2) 3( 11+tt2 ) = 2
) 8t 3(1 t2 ) = 2(1 + t2 ); ) 8t 3 + 3t2 = 2 + 2t2 :
) t2 + 8t p 5 = 0: p
) t = 8 264+20 = 8 2 84 = 8 29:165 :
) t = 0:5825 or t = 8:5825:
Thus, tan x2 = 8:5825; ) x2 = tan 1 8:5825 = 96:65 ; 276:65 ;
) x = 193:3 ; 553:3 :
or tan x2 = 0:5825; ) x2 = tan 1 0:5825 = 30:22 ; 210:22 ;
) x = 60:44 ; 420:44 :
) t = 60:44 ; 193:3 ; 420:44 ; 553:3 :
6.8.3 Equations Involving Factor Formulae
Solve the equation sin 3x + sin 5x = sin 4x; 0 x 2 :
sin 3x + sin 5x = 2 sin 21 (3x + 5x) cos 12 (3x 5x) = sin 4x
) 2 sin 4x cos x = sin 4x; ) 2 sin 4x cos x sin 4x = 0:
) sin 4x(2 cos x 1) = 0; ) sin 4x = 0 or 2 cos x 1 = 0;
) 4x = ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; ) x = 4 ; 2 ; 34 ; ; 54 ; 32 ; 74 ; 2
or cos x = 0:5; ) x = cos 1 0:5 = 3 ; 53 :
Hence the complete solution is x = 4 ; 3 ; 2 ; 34 ; ; 54 ; 53 ; 32 ; 74 ; 2 :
Exercise 6.8
1. Solve the following equations p for values of between 0 and 360 :
1 2 2
(i) cos = 2 (ii) sin = 2 (iii) sin sin 2=0
2
(iv) 4 sin tan tan = 0 (v) cos + cos 3 + cos 4
(vi) 3 tan2 5 sec + 1 = 0:

74
 2. Find the general
p solution of each of the following equations:
(i) sin x = 23 (ii) 3 tan2 x = 1 (iii) 2 sin2 x + 3 cos x = 0
(iv) sin 5 + sin 3 + cos = 0 (v) cos sin 2 = cos 5 :
3. Express each of the following in the form R sin(x + ); hence …nd its
maximum and minimum values:
(i) sin x + cos x (ii) 2 sin x + 3 sin x (iii) 4 sin x 3 cos x (iv) 2 cos x +
3 sin x:
4. Find the values of x between 0 and 2 for which
(i) sin x + cos
px = 1 (ii) cos x = 3 sin x = 2 (iii) 2 cos x + 3 sin x = 3
(iv) sin x 3 cos x = 1:
5. Find all the angles between 0 and 360 inclusive for which
sin2 + 2 cos 2 = 2 cos :
6. Prove that p
sin x + sin 2x + cos x + cos 2x = 2 2 cos 12 x sin( 3x
2
+ 4 ):
Hence, or otherwise, determine all values of x between 0 and 2 for
which
sin x + sin 2x + cos x + cos 2x = 0:p
7. Solve the equation 1tantan 2 +tan
2 tan
= 3; for 0 2 :
x
8. Solve by means of the substitution t = tan 2 ; the equation
2 sin x + 3 cos x = 1; f or 0 x 2 :
6.9 Parametric Functions in Trigonometry
A function of the form X = x(t); Y = y(t) is said to be a parametric f unction
with t as a parameter:
Consider the diagram below:
From the diagram,
y x
sin = ; ) y = r sin ; and cos = ; ) x = r cos
r r
Note that x + y = r sin + r cos = r (sin2 + cos2 ) = r2 :
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

) x2 + y 2 = r2 ; which is the equation of a circle of radius r with centre

at the origin.Observe that a cartessian equation can be obtained from a
parametric equation by eliminating the parameter.
Examples
(a) Eliminate t from the equations x = 2 + 3 cos t; y = 1 + 3 sin t:
(b) Eliminate from the equations x = cos + sin ; y = 1 cos :
(c) If x = tan sin ; y = tan + sin ; prove that (x2 y 2 )2 = 16xy:
Solution: (a) 3 cos t = x 2 and 3 sin t = y 1:
) (3 cos t)2 + (3 sin t)2 = (x 2)2 + (y 1)2
) 9 sin2 t + 9 cos2 t = 9(sin2 t + cos2 t) = (x 2)2 + (y 1)2 ;
) (x 2)2 + (y 1)2 = 9:
(b) x + y = cos + sin + 1 cos = sin + 1:

75
 ) sin = x + y 1; and cos = 1 y;
) sin2 + cos2 = (x + y 1)2 + (1 y)2 = 1:
(c) x2 y 2 = (tan sin )2 + (tan + sin )2
= (tan sin +tan +sin )(tan sin tan sin ) = (2 tan )( 2 sin ):
) x2 y 2 = 4 tan sin
) (x2 y 2 )2 = ( 4 tan sin )2 = 16 tan2 sin2 = 16 [tan2 (1 cos2 )]
= 16(tan2 sin2 ) = 16(tan + sin )(tan sin ) = 16xy:
) (x 2 2 2
y ) = 16xy:
Exercise 6.9
1. Eliminate from each of the following equations:
(i) x = sin ; y = cos
(ii) x = cos + sin ; y = 1 cos
(iii) x = sin ; y = tan 2
(iv) x = cos 2 ; y = cos :
2. If x = 2 cos cos 2 and y = 2 sin sin 2 ; show that
2 2 2 2 2
(x + y ) 6(x + y ) + 8x 3 = 0:
3. Express as a cartessian equation the pair of parametric equations
x = a cos3 t; y = b sin3 t:
4. If u = x cos + y sin ; and v = x sin y cos ;
show that u2 + v 2 = x2 + y 2 :

76
Chapter 7

Complex Numbers

Complex nnumbers originated from the inability to …nd real roots or solutions
to quadratic equations of the form ax2 +bx+c = 0 for which the discriminant
b2 4ac < 0:.
De…nition 7.1 (Complex Numbers)
Let x and y be two real numbers,then the ordered pair (x; y) of real
numbers is called a complex number.If z denotes a complex number (x; y),
then we can write z = (x; y);where the real numbers x and y are called the
real and imaginary parts respectively of z; i:e: <z = x and =z = y:
For example, the real and imaginary parts of the complex number z =(3; 4)
are 3 and 4 respectively.
If the real part of a complex number is zero, i.e. z = (0; y) then the
complex number z is said to be pure imaginary. For instance, (0; 5) is pure
imaginary.
Remark:
Suppose the imaginary part of a complex number z is zero, then we can
write z = (x; 0) as x; i:e:z = (x; 0) = x:
Two complex numbers z1 = (x1 ; y1 ) and z2 = (x2 ; y2 ) then z1 = z2 if and
only their component parts are equal, i.e i¤ x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 :
7.2 Sum and Multiplication of complex numbers.
Let z1 = (x1 ; y1 ) and z2 = (x2 ; y2 ) be two complex numbers.
thier sum is de…ned by z1 +z2 = (x1 +x2 ; y1 +y2 ):::: (7.1+) and
the product as z1 z2 = (x1 x2 y1 y2 ; x1 y2 +x2 y1 ) ::::::: (7.1x) : For
instance, if z1 = (3; 4) and z2 = ( 5; 2) then z1 + z2 = (3 + ( 5); 4 + 2) =
( 2; 6) and z1 z2 = (3 ( 5) + 4 2; 3 2 + ( 5) 4) = ( 7; 14)
Remark:
Let i denotes the pure imaginary number (0; 1) and x = (x; 0) then using
the de…nition of sum and product above, we therefore write a complex number
z = (x; y) in Cartesian form as z = x + iy or z = x + yi where i is such that

77
i2 = ( 1; 0) = 1:This representation does not invalidate x and y as the
real and imaginary parts of z:With i so de…ned, we can also write the sum
and product of two complex numbers as z1 + z2 = x1 + x2 + i(y1 + y2 ) and
z1 z2 = x1 x2 y1 y2 + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 ) respectively:
Remark: The introduction of i with the de…nition of addition and mul-
tiplication as represented by equations (7.1+) and (7.1x), we can say that
the complex number system is thus a natural extention of the real number
system.
Other properties of addition and multiplication of complex numbers are
the same as for real numbers. We list here some of these algebraic properties
and verify a few of them while students handle the rest.
The commutative laws, z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 ; z1 z2 = z2 z1 ;and the asso-
ciative laws, (z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 ); (z1 z2 )z3 = z1 (z2 z3 ) follow
easily from addition and multiplication of real numbers will obey these laws
and the fact that i2 = 1.For instance if z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy
then z1 + z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) = x1 + x2 + i(y1 + y2 )
= x2 + x1 + i(y2 + y1 ) =
(x2 + iy2 ) + (x1 + iy1 ) = z2 + z1 :
Similarly, z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 ) = x1 x2 y1 y2 + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
= x2 x1 y2 y1 + i(x2 y1 + x1 y2 ) = (x2 + iy2 )(x1 + iy1 ) =
z2 z1 : ative
The distributive law z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 are left as exercises to
students. The numbers 0 = 0 + i0 and 1 = 1 + i0 are
respectively called the additive and multiplicative identities of the complex
numbers.That is for any complex number z; then z + 0 = z and z1 = z:Note
that 0 and 1 are the only numbers with such properties.
Subtraction:Given any complex number z = x+iy; we de…ne z = x
iy as its additive inverse which satis…es the equation z + ( z) = 0: Moreover,
for a given complex number z, there is only one additive inverse namely
z.Additive inverses are used to de…ne subtraction: z1 z2 = z1 + ( z2 ). So
if z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy) then z1 z2 = x1 x2 + i(y1 y2 ).
De…nition 7.3 (Complex Conjugate)
Given a complex number z = x + iy then the complex number z = x iy
is called the complex cojugate of z:For example, if z = 3+4i then its complex
conjugate is z = 3 4i. This number z represented by the point (x; y); is
the re‡ection of the point (x; y) representing z along the real axis.Students
can easily verify that for any complex number z; z = z:
For any nonzero complex number z = x + iy,there is a number z 1 such
that zz 1 = 1:This number z 1 is called the multiplicative inverse of z:To
…nd the inverse w = u + iv of z = x + iy;we need to solve the equation
x
(x + iy)(u + iv) = 1 for u and v in terms of x and y:This gives u = x2 +y 2 and

78
 y x iy
v = x2 +y 2 : Therefore the multiplicative inverse of z is w = u + iv = x2 +y 2

Division:Given two complex numbers z1 and z2 6= 0 then the quotient

z1
z2
is a complex number de…ned by zz12 = z1 z2 1 = x1 x2 +y1 y2x+i(y 1 x2 y 2 x1 )
2 +y 2 =
2 2
x1 x2 +y1 y2
x22 +y22
+ i y1 xx22 +yy22x1 ...(7.4) where z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy); z2 6= 0
2 2
This quotient is not de…ned when z2 = 0: Note that z2 = 0 means that
x22 + y22 = 0 and this is not permitted in expression (7.4) :
Example
(a) Evaluate the following sums:(i)(3 + i) + (1 + 2i) (ii) ( 5 + 3i) + (1 i)
(b)Perform the following di¤erence(i)(2 3i) (1 + 2i)
(ii)( 5 + 3i) (3 + i)
(c)Find the following products (i)(2 3i) (4 + 5i) (ii)(3 4i) (3 + 4i)
hence evaluate (iii)(p + iq)(p iq)
3i 2
(d)Simplify the following quotients (i) 1+2i (ii)( 2 13i )( 1+i
1 cos +i sin
) (iii) cos i sin
Solution
(a)i (3 + i) + (1 + 2i) = 3 + 1 + i(1 + 2) = 4 + 3i

(ii) ( 5 + 3i) + (1 i) = 5 + 1 + 3i i = 4 + 2i
(b)i (2 3i) (1 + 2i) = 2 1 3i 2i = 1 5i
(ii) ( 5 + 3i) (3 + i) = 5 3 + 3i i = 8 + 2i
(c)i (2 3i) (4 + 5i) = 2:4 + 2:5i 3i:4 3i:5i

= 8 + 10i 12i 15i2 = 8 + 15 2i = 23 2i

(ii) (3 4i) (3 + 4i) = 3:3 + 3:4i 4i:3 4i:4i

= 9 + 12i 12i 16i2 = 9 + 16 = 25

(iii)From the second example we can conclude that
(p + iq)(p iq) = p2 + q 2

3i 2 3i:1+3i( 2i) 2:1 2( 2i) 3i 6i2 2+4i

(c)i 1+2i = 3i 2 1
:
1+2i 1
2i
2i
= 1:1+1( 2i)+2i:1+2i( 2i)
= 1 2i+2i 4i2
= 3i+6 2+4i
1+4
=
4+7i 4 7i
5
=5+ 5
(ii) ( 2 13i )( 1+i
1
)= 1:1
2:1+2:i 3i:1 3i:i
= 1
2+2i 3i 3i2
= 1
2 i+3
= 1
5 i

1:5+i 5+i 5+i 5+i 5 i

= 5 i(5+i)
= 5:5+5:i i:5 i:i
= 25+5i 5i+1
= 26
= 26
+ 26

cos cos +i cos sin +i sin cos +i2 sin sin

cos
(iii) cos +i sin
i sin
= cos +i sin
cos i sin
: cos
cos
+i sin
+i sin
= cos cos +i cos sin i sin cos i2 sin sin

cos cos +i(cos sin +sin cos ) sin sin cos cos sin sin +i(cos sin +sin cos )
= cos cos +i cos sin i sin cos +sin sin
= cos2 +sin2
=
cos( )+i sin( )
1

79
 = cos ( ) + i sin ( ) :This follows from the fact that
cos ( )=cos cos +sin sin and sin ( ) = sin cos cos sin
It is natural to associate the complex number z = x + iy with a point
in the plane whose cartesian coordinates are x and y.Each complex number
corresponds to just one point, and conversely.The number 1+i;for instance,
is represented by the point ( 1; 1) in the …gure below.
The number z can also be thought of as a directed line segment, or vector,
from the origin to the point (x; y): In fact, we often refer to a complex number
z as the point z or the vector z.When used for the purpose of displaying the
numbers z = x + iy geometrically,the xy-plane is called the complex plane or
the z-plane.The x-axis is called the real axis, and the y-axis is known as the
imaginary axis.
Given any two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 the sum
z1 +z2 corresponds to the point (x1 +x2 ; y1 +y2 ): It also corresponds to a vector
with those coordinates as its components.Hence z1 + z2 may be obtained
vectorially as shown in the …gure below. The di¤erence z1 z2 = z1 + ( z2 )
corresponds to the sum of the vectors for z1 and z2 :(See the …gure) Note
that the number z1 z2 can be interpreted as the directed line segment from
the point (x2 ; y2 ) to the point (x1 ; y1 ):
Although the product of two complex numbers z1 and z2 is itself a complex
number represented by a vector, that vector lies in the same plane as the
vectors for z1 and z2 : Evidently,then, this product is neither the scalar nor
the vector product used in ordinary vector analysis.We shall discuss the
geometrical interpretation of the product of z1 and z2 later.
De…nition 7.5 (Absolute Value)
Given a complex number z = x+iy, its modulus or magnitude or absolute
value jzj pis de…ned as the nonnegative real number
1
jzj = x2 + y 2 = (x2 +y 2 ) 2 Geometrically, the number jzj is the distance
between the point (x; y) and the origin (0; 0) or the length of the vector
representing z: It reduces to the usual absolute value in the real number
system when y = 0: It should be noted that there is no ordering in the
complex number system i.e. it is meaningless to say z2 < z1 unless both
z1 and z2 are real.But the statement z2 j < jz1 j means that the point z2 is
closer to the origin than the point z1 is.
Example p
(a) Find the modulus of (i) 3 4i (ii) 1 + i (iii) 1 i 3
(b) Which of these points 3 + i2 and 1 + i4 is closer to the origin?
Solution
1 1 1 1
a(i) jzj = jx + iyj = (x2 + y 2 ) 2 = (32 + ( 4)2 ) 2 = (9 + 16) 2 = (25) 2 = 5

80
 1
1 p p
(ii) jzj = jx + iyj = (x2 + y 2 ) 2 = ( 1)2 + 12 2 = 1 + 1 = 2
h p i1 p p
1 2 2
(iii)jzj = jx + iyj = (x2 + y 2 ) 2 = 12 + 3 = 1+3= 4=2
q p p
1
(b) jz1 j = jx + iyj = (x21 + y12 ) 2 = ( 3)2 + 22 = 9 + 4 = 13 and
1 p p p
jz2 j = jx2 + iy2 j = (x22 + y22 ) 2 = 11 + 42 = 1 + 16 = 17
Therefore z1 is closer to the origin than z2 is.
The distance between two points represented by the q complex numbers
z1 = x1 +iy1 and z2 = x2 +iy2 is given by z1 z2 j = (x1 x2 )2 + (y1 y2 )2 =
q
(x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 = jz2 z1 j The complex numbers z corre-
sponding to the points lying on the circle with centre z0 and radius r thus
satisfy the equation
q jz z0 j = r;or
z z0 j = (x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 = r and conversely.This set of points
is simply referred to as a circle.
Example
Show that the equation jz 1 + 3ij = 2 represents a circle.
Solution. Let z = x + q iy;then jz 1 + 3ij = 2 =) jx + iy 1 + 3ij
= (x 1) + (y + 3) i = (x 1)2 + (y + 3)2 = 2
=) (x 1)2 + (y + 3)2 = 22 =) (x 1)2 + (y + 3)2 = 4: This last
expression is the equation of a circle centred at (1; 3) with radius of 2
units.
Recall that if z = x + iy then x = <z and y = =z and we can from the
de…nition of absolute value write jzj2 = x2 + y 2 = (<z)2 + (=z)2 and also

state that <z j<zj jzj and =z j=zj jzj :

;and jzj = jzj
Theorem 7.1
Given two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 we can show
that (i) z1 + z 2 = z 1 + z 2 ;conjugate of sums is equal to sum of conjugates.
(ii) z1 z 2 = z 1 z 2 ;conjugate of di¤erence is equal to di¤erence of
conjugates.(iii) z1 z 2 = z 1 z 2 ;conjugate of products is equal to product of
conjugates.(iv) zz12 = zz12 ; z2 6= 0;conjugate of quotients is equal to quotient
of conjugates.
Proof
(i) z1 + z 2 = (x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) = x1 + x2 + i(y1 + y2 )
= x1 + x2 i(y1 + y2 ) = x1 + x2 iy1 iy2
= x1 iy1 + x2 iy2 = z 1 + z 2
(ii)- (iv) are left as exercises for students to verify.

81
 The sum z + zof a complex number z and its conjugate z is the real
number
2x = 2<z; and the di¤erence z z is the pure imaginary number
2yi = 2i=z:Hence we have the two identities: <z = z+z 2
and =z = z2iz :
An important identity relating the conjugate of a complex number z =
x + iy to its modulus is zz = jzj2 = x2 + y 2 : This provides another way of
simplifying the quotient zz12 : The procedure is to rationalise the denominator
by multiplying both numerator and denominator by the conjugate z 2 of the
denominator z2 so that the denominator becomes the real number jz2 j2 =
x22 + y22 :

Example
Simplify the quotient 21+3i i
:
( 1+3i) (2+i)
Solution: 2 i = (2 i) (2+i) = j25+5i
1+3i
ij2
= 5+5i5
= 1+i
We shall now state and prove some of the following results:(i) jz1 z2 j =
jz1 jjz2 j i.e.absolute value of products is equal to product of absolute values.
(ii) j zz21 j = jz 1j
; z 6= 0 i.e.absolute value of quotients is equal to quotient
jz2 j 2
of absolute values. (iii) z1 + z2 j jz1 j + jz2 j: This is called the triangular
inequality.

Proof: (i) jz1 z2 j2 = (z1 z2 )(z1 z2 ) (* jzj2 = zz)

= (z1 z2 )(z 1 z 2 ) = z1 z2 z 1 z 2 (* z1 z2 = zz)

= z1 z 1 z2 z 2 = jz1 j2 jz2 j2 (* jzj2 = zz)

i.e. jz1 z2 j2 = jz1 j2 jz2 j2

and taking square roots of both sides yields the results,
jz1 z2 j = jz1 jjz2 j
(ii) Students should follow the steps used in (i) above to verify the
second result.

(iii).jz1 + z2 j2 = (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 ) (* jzj2 = zz)

= (z1 + z2 )(z 1 + z 2 ) (* z1 + z2 = z + z)
= z1 z 1 + z1 z 2 + z2 z 1 + z2 z 2
= jz1 j2 + 2<(z1 z 2 ) + jz2 j2 (* z1 z 2 + z2 z 1 = 2<(z1 z 2 )
jz1 j2 + 2j<(z1 z 2 )j + jz2 j2 (* <z1 j<z1 j)
jz1 j2 + 2jz1 z 2 j + jz2 j2 (* j<z1 j jz1 j)
jz1 j2 + 2jz1 jjz 2 j + jz2 j2 (* jz1 z2 j = jz1 jjz2 j)
2
jz1 j + 2jz1 jjz2 j + jz2 j (* jzj = jzj)
2 2
i.e. jz1 + z2 j (jz1 j + jz2 j) and taking the square roots of both sides and
knowing that since moduli are nonnegative we therefore have the result,

82
 jz1 + z2 j jz1 jj + jz2 j
We can generalise the triangular inequality to any …nite number of terms.
P
n P
n
That is one can write jz1 +z2 +:::+zn j = jz1 j+jz2 j+:::+jzn j or zi = jzi j,
i=1 i=1
which can be veri…ed by means of mathematical induction, for n = 2; 3; ::::
7.6 Polar or trigonometry form of complex numbers
Let (r; ) be the polar coordinates of a point (x; y) corresponding to the
complex number z = x + iy. Since x = r cos and y =pr sin then z can be
written as z = r(cos + i sin ); for instance,1 + i = 2(cos 4 + i sin 4 ) =
p
2(cos 47 + i sin 47 ): The number or angle is called the argument or
amplitude of the complex number z = x + iy and given by the formula
= arctan xy = tan 1 xy :
Geomerically, argz is the angle(measured in radians) that z makes with
the positive real axis when z is interpreted as a directed line segment from
the origin.The argument is not unique since if is argz so is + 2 n; n =
0; 1; 2; ::::Thus for any nonzero complex number z;the value of arg z that
lies in the range < is called the the principal value denoted by Arg
z.This principal value is usually unique.
If z = 0; is not de…ned and so, we shall always assume that the complex
number z is nonzero when using polar form.
If z 6= z0 ;the representation z z0 = (cos + i sin ) of z zo in polar
form can be interpreted geometrically as below.

= jz z0 j is the distance between the points z and z0 while arg(z z0 ) =

is the angle of inclination of the vector representing z z0 :
7.2.1 Identities involving Arguments
Theorem 7.2
Given two complex numbers z1 and z2 ;then (i) arg(z1 z2 ) = argz1 + arg z2
and (ii) arg( zz21 ) = argz1 argz2 provided z2 6= 0
Proof
(i) Let z1 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 ) then arg z1 =
1 ;and arg z2 = 2 so z1 z2 = r1 r2 [cos ( 1 + 2 ) + i sin ( 1 + 2 )] which implies
that arg (z1 z2 ) = 1 + 2 = arg z1 + arg z2 :Hence the result. Note that these
statements about the argument is not true for the principal value. For exam-
ple, if z1 = 1 and z2 = i then Argz1 = ; and Argz2 = 2 but Argz1 z2 = 2
and not 32
(ii) Let z1 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 ) then zz21 =
r1 z1
r2
[cos ( 1 + 2) + i sin ( 1 + 2 )] which shows that arg z2
= 1 2

83
 = arg z1 arg z2 concluding the proof. (Details to be …lled in by the
student)
7.7 Exponential Form of Complex Numbers
It is sometimes more convenient to express ei as cos + i sin : This is
known as Euler’s Formula, i.e.ei = cos + i sin :
If z1 = ei 1 and z2 = ei 2 then using Euler’s formula we can show
i
that z1 z2 = ei 1 ei 2 = ei( 1 + 2 ) : Similarly we also show that zz12 = eei 12 =
ei( 1 2 ) This is equivalent to the case of ex for real x:Thus,if z1 = r1 ei 1
and z2 = r2 ei 2 then z1 z2 = r1 r2 ei 1 ei 2 = r1 r2 ei( 1 + 2 ) :
7.8 Powers and roots of unity of Complex Numbers
The intergral powers of a nonzero complex number z = rei is given
by z n = rn ein (7.9) which is valid for all n = 0; 1; 2; :::: For r =
i n in n
1; e = e ; n = 0; 1; 2; ::: or (cos + i sin ) = cos n + i sin n :This
is known as De Moivre’s theorem. Equation(7.9) is useful in the computation
of the roots of nonzero complex numbers.
Example
Solve the equation z n = 1:
Solution
n
For nonzero z = rei ;we look for r and such that rei = 1 or rn ein =
1ei(0+2 k) : Hence rn = 1 and n = 0 + 2 k; k = 0; 1; 2; :::Consequently,
2 k
r = 1; and = 2nk and so we have n distinct solutions given by ck = ei( n ) =
cos 2nk + i sin 2nk ; k = 0; 1; :::; n 1:This fact demostrate the Fundamental
Theorem of Algebra which states that an equation of n degree has exactly n
2 k
(roots)solutions.The complex numbers, ck = ei( n ) = cos 2nk +i sin 2nk ; k =
0; 1; :::; n 1 are the nth distinct roots of unity.The other roots are just a
repitition of these ones.
Geometrically, the n roots of unity represent the vertices of a regular
polygon with n sides inscribed in a unit circle centred at the origin and one
of the roots is c0 = 1:
Note that if c 6= 1 is one of the root of unity, the it is easy to show that
1 + c + c2 + c3 + ::: + cn 1 = 0
Examlpe
Solve the equation z 3 = 1 and sketch the roots of the equation.
Solution.2 k
ck = ei( 3 ) = cos 2 3k + i sin 2 3k are the p solutions of the given equation
2
i.e.c0 = 1; c2 = cos 3 + p i sin 3 = 2 + i 23 ; c3 = cos 2 3 2 + i sin 2 3 2 =
2 1

cos 43 + i sin 43 = 12 i 23 :The sketch of the graph shows that the roots
represent the vertices of an equilateral triangle inscribed in a unit circle
centred at the origin.Using either c2 or c3 from the above given example, we
can easily verify that 1 + c2 + c22 = 1 + c3 + c23 = 0:

84
 Exercise 7.1
Students to demostrate the above example with z 4 = 1.
7.10 Roots of Nonzero complex Numbers
The concept of roots of unity can be used to …nd the roots of the nonzero
complex number z0 = r0 exp i 0 : The roots are obtained by solving the equa-
tion z n = z0 for z; and these roots are given the numbers
p
ck = n r0 exp i n0 + 2kn (7:4) ; k = 0; 1; 2; ::::; n 1; where the
p
number r0 is the length of each radius vector representing the n roots.An
n

argument of the …rst root, c0 is n0 and the other roots are obtained by
adding integral multiples of 2n :Consequently, as the case with the nth root
of unity,the roots when n = 2;always lie at the opposite ends of a diameter of
a circle, one root being the negative of the other; and when n 3;they lie at
the vertices of a regular polygon of n sides.If c is any particular nth root of
z0 ;the set of all other nth roots can be written as c; cwn ; cwn2 ; cwn3 ; ::::; cwnn 1
where wn = exp i( 2n ):This is true because multiplication of any nonzero com-
plex number by wn corresponds to increasing the argument of that number
by 2n : We shall denote the set of nth roots of a nonzero complex number
1
z0 by z0n : If in particular z0 is a positive real number r0 ; then the symbol
1 p
r0n denotes a set of roots while n r0 is reserved for the one positive root.When
the value of 0 that is used in the expression (7:4) is the principal value of the
argz0 ( < ); then the number c0 is often referred to as the principal
nth root of z0 : Thus, when z0 is a positve real number r0 ; its principal root
p
is n r0 : If z0 = 0; then z n = z0 has only one solution z = 0:Hence the only
nth root of zero is zero.
It is sometimes more convenient to write z0 in its general exponential
1
form z0 = r0 exp [i ( 0 + 2k )] ; k = 0; 1; 2; ::and then we write z0n =
p 0 +2k
n r exp i
0 n
where k = 0; 1; 2; :::n 1:This formula is valid where
n = 1; 2; 3; ::::
Example Find
1
all the values (roots) of ( 8i) q or the cube
3 roots of 8i
2
p
Solution. r0 = j 8ij = ( 8) = 64 = 8; 0 = arctan xy = arctan 08 =
2
: Therefore 8i = 8 exp i 2 + 2k where k = 0; 1; 2; ::: so
2 k
that the desired distinct roots are ck = 2 exp i 6 + 3 where k = 0; 1; 2:
In cartesian coordinates, the roots are p
c0 = 2 exp i 6 = 2 cos 6 + i sin 6 = 3 i;
c1 = 2 exp i 6 + 23 = 2 exp i 36 = 2 cos 2 + i sin 2 = 2i;
and
c2 = 2 exp i 6 + 2 3 2
p
= 2 exp i 116 = 2 cos 116 + i sin 116 = 3 i: These roots lie at the

85
vertices of an equilateral triangle inscribed
p in a circle of radius 2 units centred
at the origin. The principal root is c0 = 3 i:

86
Chapter 8

Matrices

8.1 Matrices and their Applications to Solu-

tion of Simultaneous Equations
Rectangular arrays such as 0 1
a1 b 1 c 1
a1 b 1
A= ; B = @ a2 b 2 c 2 A
a2 b 2
a2 b 3 c 3
are called matrices.
A matrix is therefore any rectangular (or square) array of elements arranged
in a de…nite number of rows and columns.A vector is a special case of a matrix
which has only one row or one column.
The dimension of a matrix is determined by its number of rows and
columns. Thus a matrix with m rows and n columns is called an (m n) matrix.
The matrices A and B above are of dimensions 2 2 and 3 3 respectively.
Equality: Two matrices are equal if and only if they have the same dimen-
sions and corresponding elements are equal. For example,
a b x y
=
c d z w
if and only if a = x; b = y; c = z, and d = w.
Matrix Addition(Subtraction): Two matrices of the same dimensions can be
added (or subtracted), and it is done by adding (subtracting) the correspond-
ing elements. For example,
a b x y a x b y
=
c d z w c z d w
Zero Matrices: A matrix (of any pair of dimensions) each of whose ele-
ments is zero is called the zero matrix (for that pair of dimensions). Examples
of zero matrices are:

87
 0 1 0 1
0 0 0
0 0
0 0 ; @ 0 A; @ 0 0 A; :
0 0
0 0 0
Product: The product of a scalar k times a matrix is a matrix whose
elements are k times the corresponding elements of the given matrix. For
example,
a b ka kb
k =
c d kc kd
3. PRODUCT OF MATRICES
Two matrices can be multiplied if and only if the number of columns of
the …rst matrix is equal to the number of rows of the second matrix. That is
Am n and Br s are compartible for multiplication if m = s and the product
C is a matrix of n r dimension i.e.Cn r :The product of the two matrices
below
a b p q
and
c d r s
p q a b ap + cq bp + dq
is given as =
r s c d ar + cs br + ds
From this we observe that:
1.The element ap + cq in the …rst row and …rst column of the product is
equal to the product of the …rst row (p; q) of the …rst matrix with the …rst
a
column of the second matrix.
c
2. The element bp + dq in the …rst row and second column of the product
is equal to the product of the …rst row (p q) of the …rst matrix with the
b
second column of the second matrix.
d
a b
3. Similarly, ar + cs = (r s) and br + ds = (r s) .
c d
Let us consider again how we can combine (by multiplication) the ma-
trices
a b x
and
c d y
to obtain the column vector (or 2 1 matrix)
ax + by
cx + dy
We shall write the product of these two as

a b x ax + by
=
c d y cx + dy

88
 x x
Notice that ax + by = (a b) and cx + dy = (c d)
y y
Let us take some more examples.
Example 1. 0 1
2
1 2 3 @ A 1 2+ 2 1+3 5 15
a) 1 = =
1 1 4 1 2+1 1+4 5 23
5
2 3 3 2 3+ 3 2 12
b) = =
0 1 4 10 2 1 01 3 1 +4 2 5
4 1 2 1 5
c) @ 3 2 5 A @ 3 A = @ 14 A
1 2 1 1 6
Product of Matrices. Let A be a p q dimensional matrix and
B a q r-dimensional matrix. Their product AB = C is a p r-dimensional
matrix whose elements are as follows: The element in the ith row and the
jth column of C is the product of the ith row of A with the jth column of B.
Example 3. 0 1
4 2
2 1 4 @ 17 5
a) 1 3 A=
1 3 5 11 16
2 7
2 1 2
b) 3 2 = 6 9 14
6 3 4
5 1 2 4 9 21
c) =
2 3 1 1 7 5
Remarks.
1. The product AB is in this order. A …rst, B second, we multiply
rows of A by columns of B.
2. The product AB is de…ned only when the number of columns in A
is equal to the number of rows in B.
3. When A and B are square of the same dimension, both AB and
BA are de…ned. However, in general, AB does not equal BA, that is, multi-
plication of square matrices is not commutative.
Example 4.
2 1 1 3 7 5
=
3 4 5 1 17 13
But
1 3 2 1 7 13
=
5 1 3 4 13 1

4. DETERMINANTS

89
 a1 b1
Let A be the 2 x 2 matrix
a2 b2
Then we de…ne the expression a1 b2 a2 b1 to be the determinant of A and
write
a1 b 1
det A = = a1 b 2 a2 b 1
a2 b 2
Remarks:
1. We use parentheses for matrices, and parallel lines for the corre-
sponding determinant.
2. A determinant is a single number associated with a square matrix.
The determinant is not the array; the array is the matrix. For 3 x 3 matrices
we de…ne the determinant
0 in the 1 following way:
a1 b 1 c 1
Let @ a2 b2 c2 A be a given 3 x 3 matrix. If we strike out the
a3 b 3 c 3
row and column containing any element, we are left with a 2 x 2 matrix whose
determinant has already been de…ned. This determinant is called
the minor of the corresponding element. We list a few examples of these:
Element Minor
a1 b2 c 3 b3 c 2
b1 a2 c 3 a3 c 2
c1 a2 b 3 a3 b 2
We now attach an algebraic sign to each minor in the following way:
Consider the corresponding element, and move it by a series of horizontal
and/or vertical steps to the upper left-hand corner. The sign is + if the
number of steps required is even, and the sign is if the cofactor of the
corresponding element. The cofactor of any element will be denoted by
the corresponding capital letter, for instance, the cofactor of a1 is A1
We list few examples:
Element Minor
a1 A1 = b 2 c 3 b 3 c 2
b1 B1 = (a2 c3 a3 c2 )
c2 C2 = (a1 b3 a3 b1 )
c3 C3 = a1 b2 a2 b1
To de…ne the determinant, we now consider the …rst row and de…ne
det A = a1 A1 + b1 B1 + c1 C1
= a1 (b2 c3 b3 c2 ) b1 (a2 c3 a3 c2 ) + c1 (a2 b2 a3 b2 )
= a1 b 2 c 3 + a2 b 3 c 1 + a3 b 1 c 2 a1 b 3 c 2 a2 b 1 c 3 a3 b 2 c 1
We might equally well have done this for any row or column, and at
…rst sight you would expect the results to be six di¤erent numbers. They are
in fact, all equal.

90
 Example05. Find 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
@
det 4 1 1 A = 4 1 1
1 2 1 1 2 1
Choosing the …rst row we …nd that the cofactors are
1 1 4 1 4 1
= 3; = 5; = 7;
2 1 1 1 1 2
So the answer is (1)(3) + ( 2)( 5) + (3)(7) = 34.
As an alternative solution, choose the …rst column. The cofactors
are respectively
1 1 2 3 2 3
= 3; = 8; = 1;
2 1 2 1 1 1
So the answer is (1)(3) + (4)(8) + (1)( 1) = 34:

De…nitions
1. The transpose of a matrix A (within an AT ) is the matrix obtained
T
by writing the rows
0 of the matrix
1 A in order0as columns of1A .
3 2 6 3 1 5
If A = @ A
1 4 2 ; then A = T @ 2 4 1 A
5 1 2 6 2 2
We observe that if A is an m x n matrix, then AT is an n x m matrix.
Note that: (A + B)T = AT + B T
(AT )T = A
(A + B)T = B T + AT
(AB)T = B T AT
2.The adjoint of a matrix A written as adj A is the transpose of the
cofactors of the matrix.
Exercises.
0 (1) Find the1 cofactors and adjoint of the square matrix
1 3 0
(i) A = @ 2 0 1 A
4 1 3
Solution: Cofactors are:
0 1 2 1 2 0
A1 = ; B1 = ; C1 =
1 3 4 3 4 1
3 0 1 0 1 3
A2 = ; B2 = ; C2 =
1 3 4 3 4 1
3 0 1 0 1 3
A3 = ; B3 = ; C3 =
0 1 2 1 2 0
A1 = 0 3 1 = 1; B1 = (2 3 4) = 2; C1 = 2 1 0 = 2
A2 = ( 9 0) = 9; B2 = 1 3 4 0 = 3; C2 = (1 + 12) = 13
A3 = ( 3 0) = 3; B3 = (1 0) = 1; C3 = (1 0 + 2 3) = 6

91
 3. The cofactor of A written as cof A, is the matrix obtained by
replacing elements 0of A by their 1corresponding
0 cofactors.
1
A1 B1 C1 1 2 2
Cof A = @ A2 B2 C2 A = @ 9 3 13 A
A3 B3 C3 3 1 6
T
Adj A = (Cof
0 A) 1
1 9 3
=@ 2 3 1 A
2 13 6
5. INVERSE OF A SQUARE MATRIX
The multiplication of square matrices has many, not all, of the properties
of ordinary multiplication of real numbers. For instance, we have seen
that it is associative, but not commutative, matrices have identity elements
for multiplication. Some have inverses but not all of them have inverses.
Consider the identity for multiplication of 3 x 3 square matrices, namely the
matrix.
0 1
1 0 0
@ 0 1 0 A
0 0 1 0 1
a1 b 1 c 1
Its multiplication by a matrix A = @ a2 b2 c2 A gives
0 10 1 0 a3 b 3 1c3
1 0 0 a1 b 1 c 1 a1 b 1 c 1
@ 0 1 0 A @ a2 b 2 c 2 A = @ a2 b 2 c 2 A
0 0 1 a3 b 3 c 3 a3 b 3 c 3
0 and moreover,
10 1 0 1
a1 b 1 c 1 1 0 0 a1 b 1 c 1
@ a2 b 2 c 2 A @ 0 1 0 A = @ a2 b 2 c 2 A
a3 b 3 c 3 0 0 1 a3 b 3 c 3
Remarks
1 0
1. For 2 x 2 matrices, the identity is
0 1
2. We denote identity matrices by the common symbol I. Finally, we
ask whether there is a multiplicative inverse for square matrices.

Inverse of a Matrix.
1
If A is a square matrix, its inverse if it exists is a square matrix A (read
“A inverse”) which satis…es the conditions
AA 1 = I, and A 1 A = I.

Remarks.

92
 1. In the notation A 1 the 1 is not an exponent, it is merely a
symbol indicating the inverse. Do not write A 1 = A1 . We shall not de…ne
the quotient of two matrices.
2. Some square matrices do not have inverses. In the 2 x 2 case we are
given a matrix A and are looking for an A 1 which satis…es the de…nition.
First let us require that AA 1 = I
a b w x
If A is and A 1 = we are asked to solve the matrix
c d y z
equation:

a b w x 1 0
=
c d y z 0 1
We take the product of the left to obtain
aw + by ax + bz 1 0
=
cw + dy cx + dz 0 1
>From the de…nition of the equality of two matrices, this gives us the
two simultaneous systems
1. aw + by = 1 2. ax + bz = 0
cw + dy = 0 cx + dz = 1
Writing = ad bc, and supposing this not to be zero, we …nd that the
solution is
w = d ; y = c; x = b; z = a
Therefore,
d b
A 1= 1
c a
We …nd that
1 d b a b 1 0
A 1A = = =I
c a c d 0 1
In the following remarks,
a b
A=
c d
Remarks:

1. If ad bc 6= 0, the matrix A has an inverse A 1 such that

AA 1 = A 1 A = I:
2. If ad bc = 0, the inverse of A does not exist. To …nd the inverse
of a particular matrix, you may either use the formula just given or you may
solve equations (1) and (2).
Example 4.
4 5
2 5 1 4 5
(a) If A = , A 1 = 13 = 13
1
13
2
1 4 1 2 13 13
.

93
 2 5
(b) To …nd the inverse of from …rst principles we write
1 4
2 5 w x 1 0
=
1 4 y z 0 1
Thus we derive
2w + 5y = 1 2x + 5z = 0
w +4y = 0 x + 4z = 1
These are equivalent to
2w + 5y = 1 2x + 5z = 0
2w + 8y = 0 2x + 8z = 2

1 4 2 5
Hence 13y = 1 ) y = 13
; w= 13
; 13z = 2 ) 13
; x= 13
Therefore
4 5
1 13 13
A = 1 2
13 13
2 3
(b) If A = ; A 1 does not exist.
4 6
A 2 x 2 matrix for which ad bc 6= 0 is called nonsingular; if ad bc = 0,
it is singular. Hence a matrix has an inverse if and only if it is nonsingular.

Inverse Formula
If A is a square matrix and its inverse A 1 exists, then
A 1 = adj A
det A
Remark. 0
Find the inverse
1 of the matrix
1 3 0
A=@ 2 0 1 A
4 1 3
Solution.
0 1 0 1
1 2 2 1 9 3
Cof A = @ 9 3 13 A and Adj A = @ 2 3 1 A
3 1 6 2 13 6
det A = (0 1) + 3(60 4) + 0(2 0) =15 0 1
1 9 3
1 9 3 5 5 5
1 @
adjA
A 1 = det A
= 5
2 3 1 A= @
5
2 3
5 5
1 A
2 13 6
2 13 6 5 5 5
Exercise. 0 1 0 1
1 3 4 3 1 2
Given A = @ 2 1 2 A and B = @ 0 1 4 A
5 0 1 6 2 5
Find A B and show that (AB) = B 1 A
1; 1 1 1
.
2. Gauss-Jordan Method

94
 This method of …nding the inverse of matrix uses row operations.
Consider a 2x2 square matrix
a1 b 1
A=
a2 b 2
Suppose we place the identity matrix of the same dimensions 2 x 2
by the right of matrix A above to get the augmented matrix
a1 b 1 : 1 0
A:I= : : : :(2)
a2 b 2 : 0 1
To get the inverse of A above, we shall perform elementary row operations
to the augmented matrix (2) until the left side of the matrix becomes an
identity matrix of dimension 2 x 2 as in (3).
1 0 : c1 d1
. . . (3)
0 1 : c2 d2
The right side of (3) become the inverse and this implies that
c1 d1
A 1=
c2 d2
This method of …nding the inverse is called the Gauss-Jordan method.
Exercise.
2 5
If , …nd the inverse of A using the Gauss-Jordan method
1 4

Solution: Let R1 and R2 denote rows of the augmented matrix.

The elementary row operations are shown on the right

The augmented
2 5 : 1 0 !R1 R2 +R1 !R2
A:I= 1911
1 4 : 0 1 !R2 1 4 0 1

1 9 : 1 1 !R1 R1 +R2 !R1

= 1911
1 4 : 0 1 !R2 0 13 1 2
R2
!R1 !R2
1 9 : 1 1 13
= 1 9 1 11
0 13 : 1 2 !R2 0 1 13
2
13
!R1 R1 9R2 !R1
1 9 : 1 1 4 5
= 1 2 10
0 1 : 13 13 13 113 2
!R2 0 1 12 13
4 5
1 9 : 13 13
= 1 2
0 1 : 13 13

Thus

95
 4 5
1 13 13
A = 1 2
13 13

Exercise: Find the inverse of the matrix A using the Gauss-

Jordan method. 0 1
1 3 0
A=@ 2 0 1 A
4 1 3
Remark: 0 1
1 9 3
5 5 5
A 1
= @ 2
5
3
5
1
5
A
2 13 6
5 5 5
3. Gaussian Elimination:
Consider the system of linear equations
2x + 5y 3z = 5
x 4y + z = 5
4x + 3y z = 10
This system
0 can be put 1 in 0
a matrix
1 form
0 as: 1
2 5 3 x 5
@ 1 4 1 A @ y A = @ 15 A
4 3 1 z 10
Next we perform elementary row operations on the system to elimi-
nate one or two of the unknowns x, y and z. The operations are shown on
the right:
0 10 1 0 1 !R 0 R1! R2 10
R2 !R11
2 5 3 x 5 1 2 5 3 x
@ 1 4 1 A @ y A = @ 15 A ! R2 @ 1 4 1 A@ y A =
4 3 1 z 10 ! R3
4 3 1 z
0 1
5
@ 15 A
10

0 10 1 0 1 !R 0 R2 2R2 !R2 1 0 R1 1
4R1 !R2
1 4 1 x 5 1 1 4 1 x
@ 0 13 5 A @ y A = @ 15 A ! R2 @ 2 5 3 A @ y A =
0 19 5 z 30 ! R
4 3 1 z
3
0 1
5
@ 15 A
10

96
 0 10 1 0 1 0 R1 R2 !R3 10 1
1 4 1 x 5 ! R1 1 4 1 x
@ 0 13 5 A @ y A = @ 15 A ! R2 @ 0 13 5 A@ y A =
0 19 5 z 30 ! R3
0 6 0 z
0 1
5
@ 15 A
10
This last system is equivalent to the system of equations.
x 4y + z = 5 . . . (i)
13y 5z = 15 . . . (ii)
6y = 15 . . . (iii)
>From (iii) 6y = 15 ) y = 52
So from, (ii) 13: 25 5z = 15 ) z = 3 13 2
) z = 72
Finally, (i) x 4( 52 ) + 72 = 5 ) x = 13 2
5 = 32 :
Thus the solutions to the linear system of equations are
Exercises. Use Gaussian elimination method to solve the system of
linear equations:
1. 2x + y + 3z = 11 2. x + 2y + 4z = 2
6. APPLICATIONS OF MATRICES TO SIMULTANEOUS
EQUATIONS
We have seen above that the simultaneous system
a1 x + b1 y + d1 = 0
a2 x + b2 y + d2 = 0
can be written in the compact form Ax + D = 0,
a1 b 1 x d1 0
where A = ; X= ;D= ; 0=
a2 b 2 y d2 0
Similarly a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z + d3 = 0
can be0 written in the1 form AX 0 +1D = 0, where 0 1 0 1
a1 b 1 c 1 x d1 0
A= @ a2 b 2 c 2 A ;X= @ y A ; D= @ d2 A ; 0= @ 0 A;
a3 b 3 c 3 z d3 0
1. Cramer’s Rule:
This suggests that the problem of solving the simultaneous equations
is really that of solving the matrix equation AX + D = 0.
But this is now an easy problem for us. For AX +D = 0 is equivalent
to
AX = D:
Multiplying both sides, on the left, by A 1 , we have

97
 A 1 AX = A 1 D
or IX = A 1 D, since A 1 A = I
X = A 1 Dis the solution.
A possible method of solution, therefore, is to compute A 1 by the
methods of sections 4 and 5 and then to …nd A 1 D: The above formula is
known as “Cramer’s Rule”.
Example 6. Solve 2x + 5y 6 = 0
x 2y + 5 = 0
Solution:
2 5
A= ; detA = 9
1 2
2 5 6
A 1 = 91 ; D=
1 2 5

( 1) 2 5 6 1 13
X = A 1D = 9
= 9
=
1 2 5 16
13
9
16
9
So
x = 13 9
; y = 16
9
:
Cramer’s rule is sometimes written in a di¤erent form. To illustrate this,
let us consider the system
a1 x + b1 y + d1 = 0
a2 x + b2 y + d2 = 0
Then
b2 b1 d1
A 1D = 1
a2 a1 d2

1 b2 d1 b1 d2
=
a2 d1 + a1 d2
Therefore
d1 b1 a1 d1
(b2 d1 b1 d2 ) d2 b2 (a1 d2 a2 d1 ) a2 d2
x= = and y = =
a1 b1 a1 b1
a2 b2 a2 b2
Remarks
1. The numerator for x is obtained from the denominator by replacing
the column of a’s (coe¢ cient of x) by the column of d’s.
2. To obtain the numerator of y we replace the column of b’s in the
denominator by the column of d’s.

98
 Example 7. Applying this method to the system in Example 6, we obtain
6 5 2 6
5 2 1 6
x = = ( 913) = 913 and y = =
2 5 2 5
1 2 1 2
16 16
9
= 9
Finally let us consider the following “homogeneous” system of two
equations in three unknowns:

a1 x + b 2 y + c 1 z = 0
a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 z = 0
Geometrically these equations represent two planes through the ori-
gin, and so we expect to …nd a line of solutions. By the use of determinants we
can express the solution in a mere elegant form. For instance, solutions
of

a1 x + b 2 y + c 1 z = 0
a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 z = 0
are
b c a c a b
x=k 1 1 ; y= k 1 1 ; z=k 1 1
b2 c 2 a2 c 2 a2 b 2
where k is an arbitrary scalar (provided that at least one of these is
di¤erent from zero).
Example 8. Solve
3x 2y + z = 0
x + 4y + 2z = 0
Solution:
2 1 3 1 3 2
x=k ; y= k ; z=k
4 2 1 2 1 4
or x = 8k; y = 5k and z = 14k.
EXERCISES
1. Show that for 2 x 2 matrices, det A = 0 if the two columns (or
rows) are proportional or equal.
2. By direct calculation show that
Det A = b1 B1 + b2 B2 + b3 B3 .
3. Show that if two rows (columns) of a matrix are proportional (or
equal), its determinant
0 is zero. 1 0 1
1 2 3 3 2 1
4. Let A = @ 4 1 1 A; B = @ 1 4 1 A
1 2 1 1 2 1

99
What is the relationship between det(AB) and (det A)(det B)?
5. Given the system
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z + d3 = 0
Use Cramer’s rule to show that:
x = d1 A1 +d2 A2 +d3 A3
y = d1 B1 +d2 B2 +d3 B3
z = d1 C1 +d2 C2 +d3 C3
Hence write formulae for x; y; and z as quotients of determinants.

100