Chapter 1.1-EE042-3-2-IES-DC Generator

EE042-3-2-IES Introduction to Electrical Systems (VE2)
Topic 1 : DC Generators
EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 1

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Describe construction of dc machines
2. Define armature and field windings
3. Calculate emf generated by dc machines
4. Define classification of dc machines
5. Describe characteristic of dc generator

Contents & Structure
• Construction of dc machines
• Armature and field windings
• EMF equations
• Classification of DC machines
• Characteristic of DC generator

Recap From Last Lesson
• Nil

DC Machines
• Converters that are used to continuously translate electrical input to mechanical

output or vice versa are called electric machines. The process of translation is
known as electromechanical energy conversion.
• An electric machine is therefore a link between an electrical system and a
mechanical system, as shown;
Electrical Mechanical
System System
Electrical
e, i Machine T, n
Motor
Energy flow
Generator

Coupling
DC Machines
Electrical Magnetic Mechanical
System field System
T, n
e, i
• In electrical machine, conversion of energy from electrical to mechanical form or

vice versa, results from the following two electromagnetic phenomena:
✓ When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, voltage is induced in the conductor.

✓ When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor
experiences a mechanical force.
• These two effects occur simultaneously whenever energy conversion takes place.

DC Machines

DC Generator
When a conductor cuts a magnetic flux, an

electromagnetic force is induced in it.
• Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction:
• First Law: Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an emf is
always induced in it. (OR, Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an emf is induced
in that conductor.)
• Second Law: The magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the rate of change of
flux-linkages

Basic Construction of DC Generator
Therefore, the basic essential parts of

an electrical generator are:
a) a magnetic field
b) conductor(s) which can move to
cut the flux

DC Generator
Basic Construction Components:

• Armature: a single-turn rectangular copper coil rotating about its own axis
• Field magnets: may be permanent magnets or electromagnets; provide a magnetic
field.
• Slip-rings: connected to two ends of coils; they are insulated from each other and
from the main shaft.
• Brushes: made of carbon/copper; press against each slip ring; collect induced
current in the coil and convey it to external load.

Working Principle

Working Principle
• In the first half revolution of the

coil, the current through the load
flows from M to L.
• In the second half revolution of the
coil, the current through the coil
reverses in direction i.e., from L to
M.
• Thus, in a simple generator, since
the current is periodically
reversing, it is producing
alternating current (AC).

Working Principle
Position 1
• Flux linked with the coil is
maximum.
• Coil sides AB & CD are moving
parallel to the flux lines i.e., they
do not cut the flux lines; hence
there is no emf induced in it.

Working Principle
Position 2
• As the coil rotates in the magnetic
field, an emf is induced in it
proportional to the rate of change
of the flux linkage.
• The rate of change of flux linkages
is maximum; hence the emf
induced is maximum.

Working Principle
Position 3
• Flux linked with the coil is
maximum.
• Coil sides AB & CD are moving
parallel to the flux lines i.e. they do
not cut the flux lines; hence there
is no emf induced in it.

Working Principle
At 90° rotation: At 270 ° rotation:

Commutator
• For making the flow of current

unidirectional in the external
circuit, the slip-rings are replaced
by split-rings.
• The split-rings are made from a
conducting cylinder which is cut
into two halves or segments
insulated from each other by a thin
sheet of mica or some other
insulating material.

Commutation Working Principle
• The coil ends are joined to the two

segments on which rest the carbon
or copper brushes.
• In the first half revolution current
flows along (ABMLCD) i.e., the
brush No. 1 in contact with
segment ‘a’ acts as the positive end
of the supply and ‘b’ as the
negative end.

• In the next half revolution, the

direction of the induced current in
the coil has reversed.
• But at the same time, the positions
of segments ‘a’ and ‘b’ have also
reversed with the result that brush
No. 1 comes in touch with the
segment which is positive i.e.,
segment ‘b’ in this case.

• Hence, current in the load resistance again flows from M to L.

• This current is unidirectional but not continuous like pure direct current.

Construction of DC Generator
• Yoke
• Pole cores & pole shoes
• Field coils
• Armature core
• Armature winding
• Commutator
• Brushes & bearings



Yoke
• The outer frame or yoke serves
double purposes:
– Provides mechanical support for
the poles and acts as a
protecting cover for the whole
machine.
– Carries the magnetic flux
produced by the pole.

Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

• The field magnets consist of pole
cores and pole shoes. The pole
shoes serve two purposes:
– Spread out the flux in the air
gap, reduce the reluctance of
the magnetic path
– Support the existing coils

Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

• The pole core itself may be a solid
piece of steel and the pole shoe is
laminated and fastened to the pole.
• The pole shoes serve two purposes:
– Spread out the flux in the air
gap, reduce the reluctance of
the magnetic path
– Support the existing coils

Field coils
• A former-wound copper wire coil.
• When current is passed through these coils, they electro magnetize the poles to
produce necessary flux to be cut by revolving armature conductors.

Armature Core
• Houses the armature conductor or coils and causes them to rotate and cuts the
flux.

Armature Winding
• The armature winding is the
main current-carrying winding
in which the electromotive
force or counter-emf of rotation
is induced.
• The current in the armature
winding is known as the
armature current.

Commutator Brush
• The function of the commutator is • The brushes are made of carbon.
to facilitate collection of current These are rectangular block
from the armature conductors. shaped. The only function of these
• Rectified the alternating current carbon brushes of DC generator is
into direct current. to collect current from commutator
segments.
• The brushes are housed in the
rectangular box shaped brush
holder.

Types of DC Generator
Generators are classified according to the way their fields are excited.
• Separately excited
• Self-excited.
– Shunt Wound
– Series Wound
– Compound Wound


Separately Excited
• The field magnets are energized from an independent external DC source.

Self Excited
• Field magnets are energized by currents produced in the generator itself.
• Due to residual magnetism, there is always present some flux in the poles. When
the armature is rotating, emf generated and hence some induced current is
produced which is partly or fully passed through the field coils thereby
strengthening the residual pole flux.
• Three types of self-excited:
– Shunt Wound
– Series Wound
– Compound Wound

Self-Excited DC Generator
Shunt Wound
• Field windings are connected in
parallel with the armature
conductors, will experience full
generator voltage.

Shunt Wound
𝑉𝑡 − 𝐸𝑔 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 0
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑠ℎ + 𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑠ℎ =
𝑅𝑠ℎ
In practice, 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ is neglected
Series Wound
• Field windings are connected in
series with the armature conductor,
will carry full load current.
• As they carry full load current, they
consist of relatively few turns of
thick wire or strips.

Series Wound
𝑉𝑡 − 𝐸𝑔 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑠𝑒 = 0
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑠𝑒
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝐿

Compound Wound
• Has a combination of series and parallel connection of field windings.
Short shunt Long shunt

Long shunt compound wound

+
𝑉𝑡 − 𝐸𝑔 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑠𝑒 = 0
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑠𝑒
𝑹𝒂
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 )
𝑬𝒈 𝑽𝒕
− 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑠ℎ + 𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑠ℎ =
𝑅𝑠ℎ

Short shunt compound wound

𝑉𝑡 − 𝐸𝑔 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑠𝑒 = 0
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑠𝑒
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑠𝑒
𝐼𝑠ℎ =
𝑅𝑠ℎ

Series & Shunt Winding

Compound Winding

Example 1.1
A shunt generator delivers 450 A at 230 V and the resistance of the shunt field and
armature are 50 Ω and 0.03 Ω respectively. Calculate the generated e.m.f.
[243.6 V]

Example 1.2
A long shunt compound generator delivers a load current of 50 A at 500 V and has
armature, series field and shunt field resistances of 0.05 Ω, 0.03 Ω and 250 Ω
respectively. Calculate the generated voltage and the armature current. Allow 1 V
per brush for contact drop.
[506.16 V, 52 A]

Example 1.3
A short-shunt compound generator delivers a load current of 30 A at 220 V, and has

armature, series-field and shunt-field resistances of 0.05 Ω, 0.30 Ω and 200 Ω
respectively. Calculate the armature current and the induced e.m.f. Allow 1.0 V per
brush for contact drop.
[31.145 A, 232.56 V]

Characteristics of DC Generator
Three most important characteristics or curves of a DC generator:

• No-load Saturation Characteristic: 𝐸0 /𝐼𝑓
• Internal or Total Characteristic: 𝐸/𝐼𝑎
• External Characteristic: 𝑉/𝐼

No-load Saturation Characteristic
• Also known as magnetic characteristic or open-circuit characteristic (OCC).

• Relationship between no-load generated emf in armature, 𝐸0 and the field or
exciting current, 𝐼𝑓 at a fixed speed.
• The shape is practically the same for all generators whether separately-excited or
self-excited.

Open-Circuit Characteristic Test
• Disconnect field winding from machine.

• Connect field winding to external (variable) dc source.
• Adjust the excitation current until maximum admissible (read from ammeter).
• Rotate armature at constant speed (prime mover).
• Read no-load generated voltage across armature terminals.

Open-Circuit Characteristic Curve
The curve starts at 𝑬𝒐 > 𝟎

• This emf is induced in spite of 𝐼𝑓 =0
due to residual magnetism.
• The length 𝑂𝐴 represents emf due
to residual magnetism only.
Then, 𝑬𝟎 increases linearly with 𝑰𝒇
• Increasing field flux, increases
induced EMF (OCC follows straight
line)

Open-Circuit Characteristic Curve
Beyond a certain point, the curve

bends over
• As the flux density increases, the
poles get saturated, and the flux
becomes constant.
• Even the flux density increases
further, flux remains constant,
hence Eg also remains constant
(OCC curve looks like B-H
characteristics)

OCC for Different Speed
N1 > N2
• The OCC of a generator for a
particular speed, N2 can be
deduced from the curve at another
speed N1 by using, E ∝ N
N2
∴ E2 = E1 ×
N1

Critical Resistance
Critical Resistance for a Series or Shunt Generator

• Critical resistance at a particular speed is the maximum possible load resistance
with which the generator would just excite.
• It is given by the slope of the tangent to the initial portion of the OCC curve.
• Hence, a generator will build up the voltage only when the total circuit resistance
(i.e. load resistance + field winding resistance) is less than the critical resistance.

Critical Resistance
Lower
resistance,
higher emf
Max emf induced by

given field resistance

Critical Resistance
The following will be seen with varying the load resistance:

• At lower load resistance, the generator will build up to a higher voltage
• At higher load resistance, the generator will build up to a lower voltage
• If the load resistance is increased too much, the machine will fail to build up ANY
voltage – because the electrical power induced in the armature is not sufficient to
increase the pole flux after supplying the I2R losses.

Critical Speed
• Critical speed of a shunt generator is

that speed for which the given shunt
field resistance represents critical
resistance.
• Curve 2 corresponds to the critical
speed because Rsh line is tangential
to it. Here, since E ∝ N.
𝐵𝐶 𝑁𝐶
=
𝐴𝐶 𝑁
𝐵𝐶
𝑁𝐶 = ×𝑁
𝐴𝐶

Example 1.4
The magnetization curve of a DC shunt generator at 1500 rpm is:
𝐼𝑓 (𝐴) 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.0

𝐸0 (𝑉) 6 60 120 172.5 202.5 221 231 237 240
For this generator, find:

a) No-load emf for field resistance of 100Ω
b) The critical field resistance at 1500 rpm
c) The magnetization curve at 1200 rpm and from there the open-circuit voltage
for a field resistance of 100Ω
[227.5 V, 250 Ω]
Example 1.4 - Answer
Rcritical
Rsh = 100 Ω
V build-up = 227.5 V
1A
Example 1.4 - Answer
Curve 2:
For 1200 r.p.m., the induced voltages for different field currents would be (1200/1500) =
0.8 of those for 1500 r.p.m. The values of these voltages are tabulated below:
The 100 Ω line cuts the curve at point C which corresponds to an induced voltage of 166
V.

Applications of DC Generators
Shunt Generators
• They are used for ordinary lighting and power supply purposes.
• They are also used for charging batteries because their terminal voltages are
almost constant or can be kept constant.
Series Generators (rarely used)
• They are not used for power supply because of their rising characteristics.
• However, their rising characteristic makes them suitable for being used as
boosters in certain types of distribution systems particularly in railway service

Applications of DC Generators
Compound Generators
• The most widely used d.c. generator because its external characteristic can be
adjusted for compensating the voltage drop in the line resistance.
• Hence, such generators are used for motor driving which require d.c. supply at
constant voltage, for lamp loads and for heavy power service such as electric
railways.

Review Questions
• Describe the working principles of dc generator.

• Describe the working principles of commutator.
• List the components of dc machine.
• Distinguish between armature and field winding.
• Distinguish between separately-excited and self-excited of dc generator.
• Describe different types of self-excited dc generator.
• Distinguish between shunt and series of dc generator.
• Distinguish between long-shunt and short-shunt of dc generator.

Review Questions
• Describe open-circuit characteristic with a diagram.

• List the methodology to conduct open-circuit characteristic test.
• Describe open-circuit characteristic curve.
• Describe open-circuit characteristic curve for different speed.
• Describe critical resistance in dc generator.
• Describe critical speed in dc generator.
• Describe the applications of shunt, series and compound dc generator.

Summary / Recap of Main Points
• What was covered:-

– Construction of dc machines
– Armature and field windings
– EMF equations
– Classification of DC machines
– Characteristic of DC generator

What To Expect Next Week
In Class Preparation for Class

DC generator
• EMF Equation
• Losses OneNote
• Power Stages
• Efficiency
Calculator

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EE042-3-2-IES Introduction to Electrical Systems (VE2)

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 1

At the end of this topic, you should be able to:

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 2

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 3

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 4

• Converters that are used to continuously translate electrical input to mechanical

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 5

• In electrical machine, conversion of energy from electrical to mechanical form or

✓ When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, voltage is induced in the conductor.

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 6

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 7

When a conductor cuts a magnetic flux, an

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 8

Therefore, the basic essential parts of

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 9

Basic Construction Components:

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 10

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 11

• In the first half revolution of the

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 12

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 13

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 14

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 15

At 90° rotation: At 270 ° rotation:

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 16

• For making the flow of current

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 17

• The coil ends are joined to the two

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 18

• In the next half revolution, the

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 19

• Hence, current in the load resistance again flows from M to L.

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 20

EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 21

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EE042-3-2-Introduction to Electrical Systems Chapter 1 – DC Generators SLIDE 24

Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

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Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

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Short shunt Long shunt

Long shunt compound wound

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Short shunt compound wound

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