1.

Cerebrum Gyri - bulges or folds 6 layered cortex: The Lobe of Brain Special Region
Largest portion of brain(~60% brain mass) Suicide - shallow fissures 1. Molecular Broca's area
Fissures - deep grooves, 2. External Granular Located in the frontal lobe
Symmetrical pairs in left and right hemispheres
divide large regions 3. External Pyramidal Helps in producing coherent speech.
Two hemispheres joined by tract = corpus Wernicke's area
callosum Longitudinal Fissures 4. Internal Granular
Comprehension of language and the production of
Responsible for the perception and conscious Transverse Fissure 5. Internal Pyramidal meaningful speech
understanding of all sensations and the Sylvian/Lateral Fissure 6. Polymorphic Aphasia
integration of different sensory modalities Is an impairment of language, usually caused by
Hypothalamus Thalamus left damage either to Broca's (impaired speaking)
Responsible for features such as emotion, Links the nervous system to be Is the gateway to or to Wernicke's area (impaired understanding)
personality and intellectual endocrine system via pituitary gland cerebral cortex.
Plays a key ride in
Functions mediating The Difference between Broca and Wernicke
Our brain increased in size (occur in Control of atomic nervous sensation, motor
cerebrum) system activities, cortical
Control of emotional response arousal and, Non-fluent Aphasia:Broca's aphasia Fluent Aphasia:Wernicke's aphasia
After birth, our brain grows rapid, Brain impairment & developmental
Regulation body learning an Comprehension Problems in comprehending speech-input
produce billion of neurons, dendrites, problem due to chemical distortions temperature,hunger and thirsty memory
Reading comprehension relatively spared. or reception of language.
axons and synapses reach its peak Fetal alcohol syndrome is a Fluent meaningless speech.
condition that children are born Expression Paraphasis-errors in producing specific
when infant's 1st birthday.
with if the mother drinks heavily Slow and effortful production. words.
1st 2 years, brain increase size from Semantic paraphasis-substituting words
Limited word output
25% to 75% of its adult weight during pregnancy (children's
dendrites are short with few
Division of Brain Four words or less per utterance. similar in meaning ("barn"-"house").
Phonemic paraphasis-substituting words
After that, synapse gradually disappear
branches) Frequent perseverations. similar in sound("house"-"mouse").
a phenomenon known as synaptic Neologisms-non words("galump").
Mother who use cocaine during Agrammatic.
pruning Deficit in categorization of sounds (e.g.,"I"
pregnancy the children will Writing usually parallels oral expression. vs "r").
Pruning : brain will more efficient by
decrease language skills, decrease Repetition Poor repetition.
eliminate underused connections Impairment in writing.
Transient exuberance: rapid in IQ scores impaired hearing Brain Poor
proliferation of neural connections in Mother who smoked during
infancy. For example, increase in the pregnancy their children Development 2. Cerebellum
number of dendrites in cortex from increased risk for low birth weight, Helps to coordinate voluntary muscles but does not send impulses directly to
birth to age 2 years approximately sudden death, ADHD, long term muscle.
15,000 new connections may be
established per neuron
intellectual deficits and
impairment of immune system
Chapter 2 - Acts with cerebrum to coordinate different groups of muscles.
Controls skeletal muscles to maintain balance.
Other names: 'neuroplasticity' is ability to re- Central Nervous Learning and storing motor skills.
Diseases of cerebellum produce Ataxia.
wiring of brain pathways based on new
experience.
System Eg:tremor,speech problems, difficulty with equilibrium.
NOT paralysis.
Ability brain to reorganise neural pathways
Type I - Experiences or memories change a
brain's physical structure Brain Plasticity Division of Brain 3. Brain Stem
Has 3 parts: midbrain, pons and medula oblongata.
Type II - Brain function move from damaged
area to undamaged area Brains' ability to adapt 1. Pons 3. Medula Oblongata
Connects Regulates vital functions
cerebellum to
Possible causes of brain damage Reticular Formation brain stem and (cardiac, respiratory and
After brain damage or injury can Cannabinoids > potential
include Descending Reticular relay sensory vasomotor).
cause brain to: minimization cell lossafter Reticular Activating Ascending Reticular Activating System input to
Release from inhibition allows Tumors brain stroke, close head System (RAS) Activating System (ARAS) (DRAS) cerebellum and Along with pons, forms the
neurons to reorganize. Infections injury Control all cycling Receive fibers from the Functionally thalamus. ventral wall of fourth
Exposure to toxic substances functions I.e. respiration, sensory pathway via long divided into two ventricle.
Undamaged neurons make new The benefits: cannabinoids circadian rhythm.
Degenerative disease ascending spinal tract. subdivision namely. 2. Midbrain Contains a choroid plexus on
connections and take over antioxidant / anti- Maintain consciousness Alertness, maintenance of Descending Process visual and
functionality or Closed head injuries inflammatory actions and alertness. attention and inhibitory reticular auditory sensory. the ventral of fourth ventricle.
Functions in sleep and wakefulness. projection Coordinating Snipers trained to aim for
establish new functions Stroke or cerebrovascular Collateral sprouts > new arousal from sleep. Emotional reactions, Descending muscle motor medulla. Damage to this area
Requires stimulation (phantom accident is temporary loss of blood branches formed by other Filters out repetitive and important in learning movement.
weak stimuli. facilitatory reticular
limb sensations), flow to the brain non-damaged axons that process. projection Maintain causes target to collapse
Modulates sensation of Tumor or lesion-sleeping consciousness. immediately.
Stimulation standard technique To minimise brain damage caused attach to vacant receptors pain. sickness or coma.
for stroke victim rehabilitation by strokes is cool the brain
 3 Types of Hemorrhage
Spinal Cord
Gray matter White matter Connecting mechanism between body(skin, joints,
contain of the brain’s neuron consists of myelinated axons muscles)& the brain.
cell bodies inner layers of brain About 45 cm in length.
outer layer of brain outer layer of spinal cord Enclosed in vertebral column.
inner layer of spinal cord Communication with the body.
31 pairs of spinal nerves.
Volume of gray matter correlate with various abilities, skills and -Dorsal root.
creativity. -Ventral root.
The density of cells is determined by genes and environmental Fluid-filled cavity Meningitis
factors. -Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Inflammation of the meninges.
Grey matter density in the brain increases during adolescence. Disease of infancy and childhood.
Female brains are smaller than males, but have larger gray matter Bacterial and virus invasion of the
volume.
The Brain CNS by way of the nose and throat.
Signs include high fever, stiff neck,
The Meninges
The membranous
Layers of meninges The Brain drowsiness and intense headache
and may progress to coma.
coverings of the brain Diagnose by examining the CSF.
and spinal cord.
Function:
Cover and protect Brain ventricles
CNS The Cerebrospinal Fluid A
Protect blood vessels Fluid surrounding the brain communicating
Enclose venous and the spinal cord. network of
sinuses Secretes by the choroid cavities filled
Contains
cerebrospinal fluid
Chapter 2 - plexuses. with
cerebrospinal

Transport mechanism: a filter mechanism

Central Nervous Functions
fluid (CSF).

prevents many substances

crossing between blood & brain
System Supports and cushions the
brain
Flow of Cerebrospinal Fluid

protects the brain from Protects the brain from Cerebrospinal fluid flows from the lateral
pathogens blows and trauma ventricles, to the third ventricle, and then to
endows a relative immune
privilege BBB BBB Helps nourish the brain
Transport chemical signals
the fourth ventricle before leaving the brain
and entering the central canal of the spinal
only very small molecules can cord or into the subarachnoid space
get between cells
some substances cross with help Hydrocephalus
of receptors Failure to reabsorb CSF, fluid expands cranium and crushes brain.
Most common in infants and adults age 60 and older
Drug penetration: Non-invasive techniques Alternative routes for CNS drug Primary role:
Diseases of the CNS chemical structure delivery separates components of the Blood Brain Barrier
Approaches for Brain Drug

constitute 38% of transformation of drugs Trans-nasal drug delivery to the circulating blood from neurons A semipermeable barrier formed by
the global to improve their brain via the nasal cavity, but maintains the chemical cells lining the blood capillaries that
economic health composition of the neuronal supply the brain and other parts of
unsatisfactory only works for certain small
burden. microenvironment
the central nervous system
Delivery

physicochemical molecules and limited quantities.

Intact BBB is a properties BBB disruption
major obstacle. Invasive techniques solutes (mannitol) are used to Stable microenvironment is required for:
Approximately 98% Trans-cranial drug shrink the brain’s endothelial Proper functioning of neuronal circuits.
of small molecule delivery involves the cells, allows various molecules Synaptic transmission.
drugs and all large medication being to pass into the cerebral tissue. Synaptic remodelling.
nanotherapeutics injected or inserted into However, have revealed serious Angiogenesis -the formation of new blood vessels.
excluded from the the brain itself. side effects associated with this Neurogenesis -the formation of new neurons from neural stem and progenitor cells.
brain. Intracerebral implants. treatment.
Histological procedures
Patterns of neuronal electrical activity Brain waves are rhythmic
selectively stain thin slices of the brain Each person’s brain waves are fluctuation of electric
soft brain tissue is destroyed by autolyticenzymes and unique. potential between parts of
preserved with a fixative eg: formalin Abnormal electrical activity can the brain as seen on an
then, embedded within a paraffin block, sliced thinly signal epilepsy/mental illness. electroencephalogram
using microtome and mounted on slides Wave frequency is expressed in Hertz (EEG).
(Hz). To measure brain waves
cell bodies, nerve fibres and membranes can be
The amplitude of the EEG pattern is electrodes are placed onto
selectively viewed strength of the pattern in terms of the scalp using the EEG.
microvolts of electrical energy
Tracing connections
Anterograde (forward) tracing - Certain proteins taken
up by cell bodies are transported through axons until
reach the terminal buttons
Neuroanatomical Beta (14-25 Hz) Theta (4-7 Hz)
individuals who are adults sleeping, in
Retrograde (backward) tracing - Dyes eg: flurogold are
injected into the terminal buttons and are carried back
techniques Brain wave awake, alert, with children.
eyes open, may be increased learning
through the axons to the cell bodies. performing mental and memory,
tasks. creativity, deep
alertness, meditation.
Histochemical techniques concentration and Allow access to the
Tell the location of specific neurons producing and learning. unconscious.
secreting particular neurotransmitters. Higher levels - Delta (1-3 Hz/less)
anxiety, fear and Deep sleeps in adults
Antibodies for specific neurotransmitter are injected
into a region and the slides are viewed under Chapter 2 - stress.
Alpha (8-13 Hz)
Normal in awake
infants
ultraviolet light.
Central Nervous relaxed wakefulness
Disappear during
During anesthesia
abnormal
System sleep.
Increased seratonin
appearance in awake
adults - indicative of
Recording Brain Activity production. a brain tumor.
enable neural structure and function to be viewed in the living Neuroimaging
brain.

Non-invasive, measure blood flow (spatial resolution)

techniques Change with age, sensory stimuli, brain disease, and the chemical state of the
body
✢ PET ✢ fMRI ✢ Optical imaging
Non-invasive, meassure electrical activity ( temporal EEGs - diagnose brain lesions, tumors
resolution) Awake state - Uncoordinate firing of cortical neurons due to ascending signals in reticular
✢ EEG ✢ ERP ✢ MEG formation results in low-amplitude high-frequency waves.
Invasive, measure electrical activity (+ temporal and spatial Sleep - Brain actively produces moderate decrease in brain activity and
resolution) Importance - Slow-wave sleep (stages 3 & 4) = decreased response to stimuli
✢ Single unit recording ✢ Cortical recording restorative stage ✢ Brain glycogen levels increase
✢ Memories strengthened by reinforced or Stage 1 - drifting sensation
Stages of sleep
eliminated synaptic connections. Stage 2 - easily aroused.
Advantages Disadvantages Sleep disorders - Narcolepsy (frequent and Stage 3 - vital signs change
Non-invasive (CAT, MRI) unexpected periods of sleepiness), Insomnia Stage 4 - deep sleep
Provide detailed Mildly invasive (PET) (inadequate sleep), Sleep apnea (inability to Functions - Energy conservation, restoration of brain and body, memory consolidation
knowledge about Only provide horizontal breathe while sleeping for a prolonged period of
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep periods become longer and more frequent in the
structure (CAT, MRI) and pictures (CAT) time)
second half of the night
function (PET, fMRI)