1

Pollution in Orbit: Setback or Crisis?

By (approximate word count)

Steven Bertic (1000)

William Coelho (1050)

Camron Jimenez (900)

Zachary Overfield (1050)

COM 221-01DB

Professor McClure

7 November 2020

Word count from Introduction to Conclusion: 4017

Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 2

Abstract

This report aims to present a number of solutions backed by research and scientific analysis that

can potentially solve the problem with orbital debris that hinders our space industry. Orbital

debris, otherwise known as space junk, is a growing issue that continues to cost national space

stations with the damage they cause, setting missions behind millions of taxpayer dollars. The

purpose of this report is to propose multiple measures that our government and space programs

can take in order to remedy this ongoing and growing setback. The following sections discuss

ways to prevent the increase, and reduce the current mass of junk that orbits our planet and moon

through the integration of retrieval satellites and orbital air fees that improve financial strain.

This topic is important because the future of the global space industry depends on it. The

ongoing damage and interference caused by space junk goes beyond routine maintenance, it

jeopardizes every mission in greater threats with every payload that leaves our atmosphere.
Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 3

Table of Contents

Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………… 3

List of Figures….………………………………………………………………………………… 4

Introduction..…...………………………………………………………………………………… 5

Methodology…...………………………………………………………………………………… 6

Results of Study..………………………………………………………………………………… 7

Lack of Measures: How does Space junk affect space travel…………………………..... 7

Preventative Measures: How to mitigate for the future?.........……………..…………..... 8

Reduction Measures: Ways to “clean up” space…………………....…………………..... 9

Discussion of Results..………………………………………………………………………….. 10

Lack of Measures: How does Space junk affect space travel…………………………....11

Preventative Measures: How to mitigate for the future?.........……………..…………....12

Reduction Measures: Ways to “clean up” space…………………....……………………13

Conclusion..…..………………………………………………………………………………… 14

References……...……………………………………………………………………………….. 15

Glossary………..………………………………………………………………………………...16
Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 4

List of Figures

Figure 1: Debris evolution by object type. (NASA Space Debris Office, 2020)............................ 8

Figure 2: Earth surrounded by space debris. (Crowther, 2002)...................................................... 9

Figure 3: Design for the Plasma beam satellite. (Gough, 2018)................................................... 13

Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 5

Introduction

Space debris are defined as any piece man-made object that no longer has purpose and is

found currently orbiting Earth. The problem has become apparent since its appearance in the late

“Space Race” era, in which many of the prototypes and objects launched have since died off, as

their useful time in space has long become expired. To put this into perspective, more than 60%

of all satellites launched are no longer functional (O’Callaghan, n.d). This is a problem which

has merited a lot of dialogue, but has not been properly addressed as of now. For the sake of the

space industry’s future success, it is in the global interest to perceive and apply solutions that

could help reduce and eliminate the threat that is space junk. The majority of these pieces of junk

are deadly projectiles flying at roughly six miles a second, or nearly twenty two thousand miles

per hour. Moreover, tearing functional equipment and facilities such as the International Space

Station windows to shreds (Aerospace, 2018). Even small particles, like flecks of paint, can

create enough force upon impact to have an explosively dangerous repercussion. The junk

historically comes from a multitude of sources; decommissioned satellites, rocket parts lost in

launch, components lost during satellite deployments, and broken technology that was left to

orbit freely and many times too small to effectively track. Without any action objects, such as the

well-known Soviet satellite known as Sputnik, will keep lingering in orbit as it has since 1957

and continue its more than 63 year old journey endangering other spacecraft despite being made

obsolete. Considering that Sputnik has not yet been brought back to the planet in one way or

another, the satellite is now considered space junk. This paper sets out to prove that the solutions

discovered can be accomplished through proper allocation of funds and consideration. Through

the Methodology, the Results of Study and the Discussion of Results this paper will also
Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 6

embolden some solutions that deserve our attention now, so that they may bear fruit later and

make future space travel safer for all who are involved.
Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 7

Methodology

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University’s Hunt Library’s online database was used in

addition to reputable online resources while inquiring about key portions of this report. The

initial search through Hunt Library’s online database consisted in the set of words “space junk”

with the scholarly and peer-reviewed journal filters enabled in the menu. Additionally, all data

acquired from the search was examined in order to verify the specific criteria aforementioned.

From online resources, official reports of prior space debris studies were gathered and cross

referenced with other data. Moreover, the search was narrowed down and keywords were

utilized with the goal of achieving a better scope of the whole issue. Examples of keywords

include “space junk AND growth”, “space debris AND removing”, and “solutions to the space

junk problem”. The research was followed by continuing ideas uncovered by the texts

discovered. Examples of such ideas include using Orbital-use Fees as a proactive solution to

combating space junk, as well as high tech reductive measures such as collection satellites and

plasma rays that push the debris to Earth.

Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 8

Results of Study

How does Space junk affect space travel?

The amount of space debris orbiting Earth poses a threat to future space travel because of

an increasing probability of a collision of objects in space, which would create more debris. This

debris would be smaller than the initial pieces of debris and thus would make this new debris

harder to track due to its small size. The European Space Agency (ESA) states that 42,000

objects have been tracked in orbit from roughly 5250 launches over the course of the past 60

years. Of those 42,000 objects, it

is estimated that about 23,000

objects, just over half of the

original number, still remain in

space today (ESA, n.d). Figure 1

visualizes the increase in the

amount of space debris over the Figure 1. Space debris evolution over time. This figure
features the steady and sharp increase of the various types
last 60 years and from whence

the debris came from. From the figure above, it is shown that most of the recent debris, from

2010 to present, has been created from the payload and the fragmentation of the payload. This

debris is travelling at around 21,600 mph in low Earth orbit. The National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) has had to replace the windows of the space shuttle because of the

damage sustained by small pieces of debris travelling at this velocity. To put the danger in

perspective, a ten centimeter long piece of debris can have the same impact as twenty five sticks

of dynamite (Aerospace, 2018)

Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 9

As global space programs go further into the unknown reaches of space, it is important to

acknowledge the heightened responsibility that comes with the resources we use. A hurdle that

permeates pollution in the atmosphere is space

derbis’s untraceable nature. However, with modern

technology, it is possible to at least ascertain the

extent of the volume that needs cleaning. In 2015, an

object code named WT1990F showcased one of the

first deep-earth orbits tracked in space that has come

back to Earth (Watson, T, 2015). WT1990F has

Figure 2. Model created by the ISS
depicting space junk surrounding Earth. been tracked to orbit halfway to the Moon in an
This image helps visualize how spread
elliptical orbit. This piece of debris is also one of

the few pieces of debris to have its impact to be accurately predicted. WT1990F crashed into the

Indian Ocean on November 13, 2015. The sighting raised many questions regarding an as yet

unfamiliar trend of space debris that ventures from our atmosphere as far out as the moon, over

two hundred thousand miles away. Moreover, the expansion of space travel not only endangers

the current low-earth orbit but may pose a risk to future missions sent in space. Organizations,

such as the International Space Station (ISS), have created a model, Figure 2, to depict the

spread of space junk around the Earth (Crowther, 2002).

Preventative Measures: How to Mitigate Space Debris

Mitigation is the first step towards a safer future for space travel. Some mitigation

practices include; orbital fees, set standards, and the tracking of debris. Considered to be

statistically the most promising means of eliminating the presence of space debris is to prevent
Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 10

the problem entirely via something called an orbital-use fee. This fee would be an international

agreement that would demand an annual cost from anyone looking to keep a satellite in Earth’s

orbit. According to Assistant Professor Matthew Burgess and his associates at CIRES, a reduced

risk of debris collision paired with annual orbital-use fees would “quadruple the value of the

satellite industry by 2040,” (Burgess, 2020). However, as promising and profitable as this new

space economy, it is withheld from complete efficacy when attempting to cross extend across the

globe.

A new level of complexity is added to the implementation of Orbital-use Fees when the

agreement reaches an international basis. Then, the challenge will be in reaching a mutual

agreement between all the countries that will be invested in the space industry from then on.

There are multiple organizations originating from several European and Asia countries including

China and Russia -both of which would be major proponents of the industry at large should they

agree to the fees. To get these organizations to participate in this agreement, there would have to

be a sizable investment in not only public, but also foreign relations.

The final frontier is on the horizon and drawing closer with each advancement made or

dollar saved, which is why it is so paramount that this method is approached with tact and

constructivity. The primary inhibiting factor to the exploration of space aside from the current

limits of technology is funding -a large portion of which is inevitably expended on routine

maintenance of satellites. Orbital-use fees help to remedy both the cost of maintenance, as well

as limited sustainability. This would create an economic network that would benefit all who

participate in the agreement.

In 1999, the United Nations (UN) was asked to take steps in order to increase the

awareness of the potential impact of space activities. This includes exploring the aspects of space
Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 11

debris and protecting regions of the Earth from radio emissions (Eva, 1999). A few years later, in

2007, a US interagency group published a document detailing the mitigation standard practices

of space debris. There are three major objectives when trying to mitigate space debris: control of

the debris, minimizing debris generated, and the selection of a safe flight profile. A large portion

of this is to minimize the debris generated by accidental explosions during or after the

completion of the mission of the orbital object. This can be achieved by designing a failure mode

that would least likely end in an explosion and safely depleting or storing the energy of an on

board source when the mission is complete. Depleting the propellant reduces the risk of a

collision and the severity of said collision, if it does occur (NASA, 2007).

A consistent approach to tracking debris is key in order to be able to take action by

avoiding or removing the objects. In this case, the field named Space-Traffic management

attempts to accomplish this specific task. However, due to the nature of space travel created by

the “Space Race” each organization in charge of specific inoperative satellites track the targets in

much different manners, many times causing a discrepancy of the exact location of debris

(Witze, 2018). This along with the vast amounts of resources that are necessary in any space

operation complicates the mission for safe space travel. In addition, the further the objects are

from low earth orbit and venturing into a deeper orbit, the more difficult it is to have a better idea

of the problem that is space junk. Over time additional impactful calls for action were made such

by the astronomers in charge following WT1990F (Watson). The attention benefits this study in

that the acknowledgement has highlighted the existence of unnoticed and unrecorded debris.

Ways to Reduce: Ways to “clean up” space

Many solutions that have been presented have the common problem of taking into

account the time and resources needed to pull these solutions together. If given a decades time
Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 12

and funding, these solutions could be implemented and already be in use. It would also take time

to plan out how to put the solutions into space. Should the solutions get used, it does not account

for the biggest pieces of the junk. A separate solution would have to be implemented. While it is

predicted that all space debris orbiting Earth will fall to the surface within several years’ time,

NASA’s NanoRacks-Remove Debris satellite seeks to do the job sooner. The satellite utilizes 3D

cameras to spot, map, and intercept debris using a deployable net, which serves to reduce the

threat of station damage. This could be a means of retrieving and reducing the orbital debris, as

well reduce the sheer number of onset damages to space stations in low Earth orbit (Smith,

2018). Other technologies have also been under innovation by peer companies that look to aid

the situation. Many of these organizations’ proposed solutions hold similar promise; such as the

idea of using rays of plasma to target low Earth orbit debris. General Electric, for one, has been

developing another anti-debris project that could work alongside NASA’s satellites. The mission,

RemoveDebris, has been funded by the EU to make headway into a resolution (Forshaw, 2017).

These missions are the first to directly address and dismantle the current mass of debris, and

gives a good look at how the problem can be fixed in the coming years.

While these two missions show good ideas of solutions that can and more importantly

need to be implemented, there is still room for other solutions to make their case. Another

solution, using CubeSats (a miniaturized satellite used for space research purposes), was put into

place by the International Space Station back in 2012, before the Japanese lab released their

solutions. The CubeSats have been sitting in orbit collecting data on precisely how these objects

move about our atmosphere so that they may be targeted for removal. One particular model of

the CubeSats proposes the use of the Sun to destroy the junk. The model portrays solar panels on

the satellites, absorbing energy for later use. When that time comes, the junk is captured and
Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 13

vaporized by the solar power gained from the panels. On the other hand, the more immediate

option would involve using a large net to bring the junk back down to Earth (Swatling 2019), as

mentioned with the NanoRacks-Remove Debris program. NASA has also created another

program to try and combat the Space junk problem. However, the project lacks the significant

funding necessary to push it towards completion. The Orbital Debris Program, started by NASA

back in 1979, has been held up in their progress stating that their program cannot be completed

without the corporations of the other nations with investment in the industry, asserting that

cleaning our atmosphere is going to be a true global effort (Dunbar, et al, 2017).
Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 14

The above mentioned solutions are considered contact methods for cleaning space debris

from low Earth orbit, which means they would come into contact with the debris in some

method. Another possible solution to the space debris problem is a contactless method that

involves outfitting spacecraft with ion beams. These beams would push the debris towards Earth

to allow it to burn up (Gough, 2018). Currently,

scientists are working with objects in the one to

two ton range and it would take eighty to a

hundred and fifty days for objects of this mass to

be deorbited. However, there are two problems

with this method, the counter force of the beam

Figure 3. Design concept for plasma
beam satellite to push debris back to would push the satellite out of position and it

would take a lot of power in order to harmlessly

direct the debris toward Earth. A Japanese-Australian team is designing a solution to the

problems using a bi-directional plasma beam. One beam would keep the satellite in position

while the other would direct debris towards Earth. This would allow the satellite to position itself

well behind the debris in order to push it using the least amount of power.
Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 15

Discussion of Results

Lack of Measures: How does Space junk affect space travel?

To truly understand the task at hand, it is key to understanding the growth of space junk

in both the low-earth and high-earth orbits. Moreover, as time passes one can conclude that, with

the current exponential growth of the debris, the task will be widening with no particular solution

being put into place. The number of yearly launches has been growing at an exponential pace

potentially setting the environment up for a crisis the likes of which has never been seen. This is

because the current rate of space junk creation reflects for the most part older growth as most of

the junk is from older satellites launched in an era in which the accessibility to space was more

limited. Moreover, the issue lies as the space junk creation slowly catches up to and increases

more rapidly as since we have launched more satellites in this decade than before, those same

satellites will eventually become unusable and thus, it will grow exponentially with it. The threat

of space junk is not only imminent and current but a danger to the future that could result in loss

of property, damage and potentially human life as the human race continues its path of

exploration across space.

One collision in space leads to another as the debris tends to scatter and split to form

smaller and equally lethal shards. The shards are able to travel anywhere in the immense earth

orbital field due to the force given to the object. In relation to the past the objects could go as far

as high earth orbit and towards the moon undetected. In continuation, although the majority of

the concentration of the debris lingers around low Earth orbit as more spacecraft become “out of

service”, space junk will have a larger likelihood of colliding with other debris that may not be

trackable. Thus, this leads to an accumulation of vast untrackable junk that spreads far out of
Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 16

orbit which may become too dense to handle, overcome, and maneuver around for future space

missions. This calls for action in order to more effectively and efficiently track the problem.

Only then, with an effective system, will the problem truly become understandable and show its

significant magnitude.

Preventative Measures: How to Mitigate Space Debris

The first step to cleaning Earth’s atmosphere of debris is mitigating the chance of a

collision occurring in low Earth orbit. Orbital-use fees help remedy the issue by putting a price

on keeping objects in space. These fees can also help cut down on the lifespan of satellites and

change the need for sustainability of orbital vehicles. Best of all, this change will increase the

ongoing value of the space industry by generating annual revenue which can then be circulated

back into the next mission. Laying the groundwork for a global space economy now would pave

the way for greater advancements to occur down the line.

If an agreement can be reached with the other space industry investors, a new economy

can be created on the basis of Orbital-use Fees. This business model is projected to increase the

current value of the industry four fold within ten years. The wealth generated by these fees

would be circulated across the globe and allow for breathtaking new innovation in tech to occur

internationally, thus pushing modern science to new heights. Orbital-use Fees will therefore not

only lessen the financial impact of routine maintenance, but also encourage foreign trade. Once

the current volume of space debris is eliminated, these fees will continue on to promote growth

within the industry. This does however necessitate that removal programs are funded and put in

place in order to begin reducing that volume.

The mitigation standards and practices set in place by NASA has been a step in the

correct direction towards fixing the issue of space debris. With these standards set in place,
Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 17

companies can start to manufacture satellites and orbital vehicles to help mitigate the creation of

debris. The failure mode on orbital vehicles is used if the vehicle sustains any damage that

hinders the usage of the vehicle. Some vehicles can explode due to their failure modes. However,

by using failure modes that decrease the chances of accidental explosions will help decrease the

chance of new orbital debris being created.

A method of reduction that is fiscally reasonable would be to track the debris and

satellites that are currently in orbit. By tracking these objects and predicting their flight paths,

newly launched vehicle flight paths can be planned to avoid these objects to reduce the collision

risk. This is important because by reducing the chance of collisions, the amount of debris created

by collisions will be reduced. Thus, reducing the total amount of debris in orbit around the Earth.

This would also reduce the creation of small, untrackable debris in orbit around Earth.

Ways to Reduce: Ways to “clean up” space

These methods to resolve the problem are concepts that try to combat the issue in an

efficient and attainable way. On an economic level, the primary opposing factor is the severe

lack of funding -which prevents these ideas and concepts from becoming an essential part of

solution development. Consequently, if proper funding were fiscally allocated (with the

assistance of Orbital-use Fees), the space junk problem could start being remedied much sooner.

As a result, nations would finally be able to put a cap on debris and make sure that no more

could be put into space. The NanoRacks-Remove Debris satellite would likely be the most

effective solution if having to choose which solution to implement. Using its innovative nets to

accomplish the cleaning process ensures a more streamlined, simpler and economically friendly

manner to this delicate and complex process. Alongside this General Electric’s technology shows
Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 18

great promise as a new manner to counter the task at hand and shows an effective and alternate

approach that may have potential inside of NASA. Through the use of its innovative and

revolutionary plasma rays it is able to achieve a rather non-contact approach that helps in

reducing the chance of an error or accidental collision. Moreover, this is important because the

system has less of a likelihood of creating smaller and harder to track debris. The technology is

also effective at tackling the economic challenges that this problem brings. By being able to

mount on an already-created spacecraft it can be another part of an already scheduled mission

rather than its own independent one. Thus, it could mean that spacecraft can actively tackle space

junk in a more proactive approach rather than tackling individual objects.

This research shows that the means to eliminate pollution from the atmosphere is within

reach, but that it has not been given the necessary attention to responsibly address a problem of

its magnitude. It also shows that both the industry and the community are well aware of the

issue. Few, though, have acknowledged how easily the situation can get worse. This research

proves that space junk is a pressing hindrance to the space industry, one that people recognize, as

well as one that can be solved. The reduction is still a global effort, but with a common cause of

space expansion and reliability it ensures the commitment of all the people involved. Under a

unified force, this problem could be put to rest and the future of spaceflight can be secured.
Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 19

Conclusion

Space junk, if left unattended, will continue to impact the space industry both financially

and literally. This is an issue that needs to be addressed now to ensure the safest possible future

for space travel. Space debris endangers astronauts, impedes the global network of satellites, and

puts space explorations millions of dollars behind in progress. With better tracking, companies

can make sure that the issue is understood to its full extent, rather than having rogue debris

making their way into valuable space assets scattered around the Earth’s orbit. This research also

demonstrates that through multiple solutions such as the NanoRacks-Remove Debris satellite,

plasma beam satellites, and greater mitigation standards, space junk has multiple viable options

to be tackled and cleaned. However, without awareness and financial support from governments

as well as a push for a change, the issue will remain unsolved. The financial constraints of

cleaning the atmosphere is costly, but much as with any important project, it can be achieved

with careful research and organized action.

The space industry has proven itself to be a key component to humanity's future as a

species, but it is partial to major setbacks that come in a variety of dangerous and unpredictable

forms, like space debris. There are solutions to these setbacks such as orbital-use fees and plasma

beams to reduce the amount of debris in space. In order to commit and improve the space

industry with the plans proposed, it is important that this issue is seen as not just a mission to

clean up our atmosphere, but as a big step forward in the campaign to rid our planet of pollution

and the next step in exploring the mysteries of the great beyond. This is not an optional task on

the human race’s departure to the stars, this is a hurdle that must be surpassed if we are to

continue. Without making an investment in today’s waste, the future of space exploration will be
Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 20

hanging by a thread and will continue to become more dangerous for generations to come. Space

debris is a pressing problem, but it is one that can be solved if involved organizations put the

effort in to help rid Earth’s atmosphere of space debris. The authors appreciate your time and

consideration in reading this report. For any inquiries or concerns feel free to reach out to one of

the authors via email; [email protected], [email protected],

[email protected], and [email protected].

Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 21

References

About space debris. (n.d.). The European Space Agency. Retrieved October, 2020, from

https://www.esa.int/Safety_Security/Space_Debris/About_space_debris

Burgess, M (2020, May 25). Solving the space junk Problem. Cires.

https://cires.colorado.edu/news/solving-space-junk-problem

Cooney, J. S. (2018, October 28). International Space StationOrbital Debris Collision

Avoidance Process [Slideshow]. Stinger Ghaffarian Technologies Technology Day,

Greenbelt, MD. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20160012726

Danger: orbital debris. (2018, May 04). Aerospace. Retrieved October 14, 2020, from

https://aerospace.org/article/danger-orbital-debris

Forshaw, J. (2017, May 15). How can we fix the space junk problem? A net and harpoon,

say aerospace engineers. General Electric. https://www.ge.com/news/reports/can-fix-

space-junk-problem-net-harpoon-say-aerospace-engineers

Gough, E. (2018, October 2). A new solution to the space junk problem. spacecraft with

plasma beams to force space junk to burn up. Universe Today.

https://www.universetoday.com/140120/a-new-solution-to-the-space-junk-problem-

spacecraft-with-plasma-beams-to-force-space-junk-to-burn-up/

O’Callaghan, J. (n.d.). What is space junk and why is it a problem?. Natural History

Museum. https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/what-is-space-junk-and-why-is-it-a-

problem.html

Schaper, E. (1999). UN call for action to clear up space junk. Nature 400, 499.

https://www-nature-com.ezproxy.libproxy.db.erau.edu/articles/22833#citeas
Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 22

Smith, Y. (2018, September 20). Small satellite demonstrates a possible solution for

“space junk”. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/researching-how-best-to-

remove-space-junk

Swatling, T. (2018). What is space junk?[eBook edition]. Gareth Stevens Publishing

LLLP. https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.libproxy.db.erau.edu/lib/erau/

reader.action?docID=5539988

U.S. government orbital mitigation standard practices. (2007, February). NASA.

Retrieved October, 2020, from

https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/library/usg_od_standard_practices.pdf

Watson, T. (2015). Falling junk has scientific value. Nature, 526(7575), 621-622.

http://ezproxy.libproxy.db.erau.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-

com.ezproxy.libproxy.db.erau.edu/docview/1728876715?accountid=27203

Witze, A. (2018). The quest to conquer Earth’s space junk problem. Gale Academic

Onefile. https://go-gale-com.ezproxy.libproxy.db.erau.edu/ps/i.do?

p=AONE&u=embry&id=GALE|A572889987&v=2.1&it=r&sid=AONE&asid=185a8bfd
Pollution in Orbit: SETBACK OR CRISIS? 23

Glossary

European Space Agency (ESA): Intergovernmental organization consisting of 22 member

states. The organization is tasked and focused on the exploration of space and spaceflight. It is

based in Paris, France.

High Earth Orbit: Orbit centered around Earth that is located beyond the altitude of 35,786 km.

Generally associated with orbits that last longer than 24 hours due to the distance required to

complete a cycle.

Low Earth Orbit: Orbit centered around Earth that is located between the 160 km and 1,000 km

altitude above the planet’s surface. This orbit is generally associated with the general operating

altitude of satellites.

Space-Traffic management: Area of the field consisting in the safe access in space operations.

This field specializes in providing routes for spacecraft free of radio-frequency interference as

well as physical collision avoidance between objects in space.