New Trends and Advanced Methods in Interdisciplinary Mathematical Sciences

STEAM-H: Science, Technology, Engineering, Agriculture,
Mathematics & Health
Bourama Toni Editor
New Trends and

Advanced Methods
in Interdisciplinary
Mathematical
Sciences
STEAM-H: Science, Technology, Engineering,
Agriculture, Mathematics & Health
STEAM-H: Science, Technology, Engineering,
Agriculture, Mathematics & Health
Series Editor
Bourama Toni
Department of Mathematics & Economics
Virginia State University
Petersburg, VA, USA
The goal of this interdisciplinary series is to highlight the wealth of recent advances
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Bourama Toni
Editor
New Trends and Advanced

Methods in Interdisciplinary
Mathematical Sciences
123
Editor
Bourama Toni
Department of Mathematics & Economics
Virginia State University
Petersburg, VA, USA
ISSN 2520-193X ISSN 2520-1948 (electronic)

STEAM-H: Science, Technology, Engineering, Agriculture, Mathematics & Health
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Preface
The multidisciplinary STEAM-H series (Science, Technology, Engineering, Agri-

culture, Mathematics, and Health) brings together leading researchers to present
their own work in the perspective to advance their specific fields and in a way to gen-
erate a genuine interdisciplinary interaction transcending disciplinary boundaries.
All chapters therein were carefully edited and peer-reviewed; they are reasonably
self-contained and pedagogically exposed for a multidisciplinary readership.
Contributions are invited only and reflect the most recent advances delivered in
a high-standard, self-contained way. The goals of the series are as follows:
1. To enhance multidisciplinary understanding between the disciplines by showing
how some new advances in a particular discipline can be of interest to the other
discipline or how different disciplines contribute to a better understanding of a
relevant issue at the interface of mathematics and the sciences
2. To promote the spirit of inquiry so characteristic of mathematics for the advances
of the natural, physical, and behavioral sciences by featuring leading experts and
outstanding presenters
3. To encourage diversity in the readers’ background and expertise while struc-
turally fostering genuine interdisciplinary interactions and networking
Current disciplinary boundaries do not encourage effective interactions between
scientists; researchers from different fields usually occupy different buildings on
university campuses, publish in journals specific to their field, and attend different
scientific meetings. Existing scientific meetings usually fall into either small
gatherings specializing on specific questions, targeting specific and small group of
scientists already aware of each other’s work and potentially collaborating, or large
meetings covering a wide field and targeting a diverse group of scientists but usually
not allowing specific interactions to develop due to their large size and a crowded
program. Traditional departmental seminars are becoming so technical as to be
largely inaccessible to anyone who did not coauthor the research being presented.
Here contributors focus on how to make their work intelligible and accessible to
a diverse audience, which in the process enforces mastery of their own field of
expertise.
v
vi Preface
This volume, as the previous ones, strongly advocates multidisciplinarity with the
goal to generate new interdisciplinary approaches, instruments, and models includ-
ing new knowledge, transcending scientific boundaries to adopt a more holistic
approach. For instance, it should be acknowledged, following Nobel laureate and
president of the UK’s Royal Society of Chemistry, Professor Harry Kroto, “that the
traditional chemistry, physics, biology departmentalised university infrastructures—
which are now clearly out-of-date and a serious hindrance to progress—must be
replaced by new ones which actively foster the synergy inherent in multidisci-
plinarity.” The National Institutes of Health and the Howard Hughes Medical
Institute have strongly recommended that undergraduate biology education should
incorporate mathematics, physics, chemistry, computer science, and engineering
until “interdisciplinary thinking and work become second nature.” Young physicists
and chemists are encouraged to think about the opportunities waiting for them at
the interface with the life sciences. Mathematics is playing an ever more important
role in the physical and life sciences, engineering, and technology, blurring the
boundaries between scientific disciplines.
The series is to be a reference of choice for established interdisciplinary scientists
and mathematicians and a source of inspiration for a broad spectrum of researchers
and research students, graduates, and postdoctoral fellows; the shared emphasis of
these carefully selected and refereed contributed chapters is on important methods,
research directions, and applications of analysis including within and beyond
mathematics. As such the volume promotes mathematical sciences, physical and
life sciences, engineering, and technology education, as well as interdisciplinary,
industrial, and academic genuine cooperation.
Toward such goals the following chapters are featured in the current volume.
Chapters 1, 2, 3, and 4 by Raymond Fletcher extensively study perfect polygons,
geometric triple systems, and geometric ramifications in the ternary hypercom-
mutative variety.
Chapter 5 by Larry Keen investigates the psychoneuroimmunological influences of
cannabinoids, offering an opportunity for mathematical modeling techniques in
this area of neuropsychology.
In Chapter 6 by Andrei Khrennikov et al., the authors propose a methodology for
image segmentation with the aid of p-adic metrics.
Chapter 7 by Klaudia Oleschko et al. shows that primes are everywhere but nowhere.
In Chapter 8 by Martha Ortiz-Posadas, the author presents a logical combinatorial
approach for pattern recognition in medicine.
Chapter 9 by Rana Parshad and Brian Ewald is on the uniqueness of invariant
measures for the stochastic infinite Darcy-Prandtl number model.
Chapter 10 by K.C. Patidar et al. is concerned with pricing barrier options using
integral transform.
In Chapter 11 Matti Pitkänen discusses at length the philosophy of adelic physics.
Chapter 12 by Bourama Toni proposes a game-theoretical analysis of cultural
integration and assimilation in America as a way of understanding the evolution
of American social dynamics.
Preface vii
The book as a whole certainly enhances the overall objective of the series, that
is, to foster the readership interest and enthusiasm in the STEAM-H disciplines
(science, technology, engineering, agriculture, mathematics, and health), stimulate
graduate and undergraduate research, and generate collaboration among researchers
on a genuine interdisciplinary basis.
The STEAM-H series is hosted at Virginia State University, Petersburg, Virginia,
USA, an area that is socially, economically, intellectually very dynamic and
home to some of the most important research centers in the USA, including
NASA Langley Research Center, manufacturing companies (Rolls-Royce, Canon,
Chromalloy, Sandvik, Siemens, Sulzer Metco, NN Shipbuilding, Aerojet), and
their academic consortium (CCAM), the University of Virginia, Virginia Tech, the
Virginia Logistics Research Center (CCAL), Virginia Nanotechnology Center, The
Aerospace Corporation, C3I Research and Development Center, Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency, Naval Surface Warfare Center, National Accelerator
Facility, and the Homeland Security Institute.
The STEAM-H series, by now well established with a high impact through its
intensive seminars and books published by Springer, a world-renowned publisher,
is expected to become a national and international reference in interdisciplinary
education and research.
Petersburg, VA, USA Bourama Toni

Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere appreciation to all the contributors and to
all the anonymous referees for their professionalism. They all made this volume a
reality for the greater benefit of the community of science, technology, engineering,
agriculture, mathematics, and health.
ix
Contents
Perfect Polygons and Geometric Triple Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Raymond R. Fletcher III
Geometric Triple Systems with Base Z and Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Geometric Ramifications of Invariant Expressions in the Binary
Hypercommutative Variety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Geometric Ramifications of Invariant Expressions in the Ternary
Hypercommutative Variety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
The Psychoneuroimmunological Influences of Recreational Marijuana. . . 123
Larry Keen II, Arlener D. Turner, Deidre Pereira, Clive Callender,
and Alfonso Campbell
Image Segmentation with the Aid
of the p-Adic Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Andrei Khrennikov and Nikolay Kotovich
The Primes are Everywhere, but Nowhere : : : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Klaudia Oleschko, Andrei Khrennikov, Beatriz F. Oleshko,
and Jean-Francois Parrot
The Logical Combinatorial Approach Applied to Pattern
Recognition in Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Martha R. Ortiz-Posadas
On the Uniqueness of Invariant Measures for the Stochastic Infinite
Darcy–Prandtl Number Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Rana D. Parshad and Brian Ewald
xi
xii Contents
Pricing Barrier Options Using Integral Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Edgard Ngounda, Kailash C. Patidar, and Edson Pindza
Philosophy of Adelic Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Matti Pitkänen
Nash Limit Cycles: A Game-Theoretical Analysis of Cultural
Integration in America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Bourama Toni
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Contributors
Clive Callender College of Medicine, Howard University Hospital, Washington,

DC, USA
Alfonso Campbell Department of Psychology, Howard University, Washington,
DC, USA
Brian Ewald Department of Mathematics, Florida State University, Tallahassee,
FL, USA
Raymond R. Fletcher III Department of Mathematics and Economics, Virginia
State University, Petersburg, VA, USA
Larry Keen II Department of Psychology, Virginia State University, Petersburg,
VA, USA
Andrei Khrennikov International Center for Mathematical Modelling, Physics,
Engineering, Economics, and Cognitive Science, Linnaeus University, Växjö,
Sweden
Nikolay Kotovich Institute of System Analysis of Russian Academy of Science,
Moscow, Russia
Edgard Ngounda Department of Mathematics and Applied Mathematics, Univer-
sity of the Western Cape, Bellville, South Africa
Klaudia Oleschko Centro de Geociencias, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de
Mexico (UNAM), Queretaro, Mexico
Beatriz F. Oleshko Universidad Autonoma de México (UNAM), Centro de
Ciencias de la Complejidad (C3), Cd. Mx., México
Martha R. Ortiz-Posadas Electrical Engineering Department, Universidad
Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Ciudad de México, Mexico
Jean-Francois Parrot Instituto de Geografía, Universidad Autonoma de México
(UNAM), Cd. Universitaria, Delegación Coyoacán, Ciudad de México, México
xiii
xiv Contributors
Rana D. Parshad Department of Mathematics, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY,

USA
Kailash C. Patidar Department of Mathematics and Applied Mathematics,
University of the Western Cape, Bellville, South Africa
Deidre Pereira Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, University of
Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
Edson Pindza Department of Mathematics and Applied Mathematics, University
of the Western Cape, Bellville, South Africa
Matti Pitkänen Karkinkatu 3 I 3, Karkkila, Finland
Bourama Toni Department of Mathematics & Economics, Virginia State Univer-
sity, Petersburg, VA, USA
Arlener D. Turner Department of Behavioral Sciences, Rush University Medical
Center, Chicago, IL, USA
Perfect Polygons and Geometric Triple Systems
Abstract A perfect n-gon is an abstraction of a regular n-gon when regarded in the

real projective plane. The vertices of a regular n-gon P lie on n parallel classes of
lines. The lines in any parallel class meet at a point at infinity. We call these points
the perspective points of P. The vertices of P lie on a circle and the perspective points
of P lie on the line at infinity in the projective plane, so we can say that the combined
set of vertices and perspective points lie on a (reducible) cubic curve consisting of
a line and a circle. In our Main Theorem we show that the combined set of vertices
and perspective points of any perfect polygon lie on a cubic curve which may be
irreducible. In case the cubic is irreducible, a well-known algebra which we call a
geometric triple system can be defined on its points. We show that perfect polygons
can be obtained as translates of these algebras.
Keywords Polygon • Cubic curve • Conic • Triple system • Flex
1 Introduction
Let P be a set of n 5 points in the real projective plane, no three of which are
collinear, labeled with the integers mod n (Zn ). For each k 2 Zn let Wk denote the set
of lines f[x,y] : x ¤ y, xCy D k(mod n)g. If for each k the lines in Wk are concurrent,
then we call P a perfect n-gon. We denote by Xk the point of concurrence of the lines
in Wk . We insist that n5 so that each set Wk contains at least two lines and thus
each perspective point is defined. The n labeled points are the vertices of P and the
set fXk : k 2 Zn g are the perspective points of P. We also require that no point is
simultaneously a vertex and a perspective point. A regular polygon with its vertices
labeled consecutively with elements from Zn is an example of a perfect n-gon. In
this case the vertices of P are equally spaced around a circle and the perspective
points all lie on the line at infinity in the projective plane. If the vertices of P lie
R.R. Fletcher III ()

Department of Mathematics and Economics, Virginia State University, Petersburg,
VA 23806, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1

B. Toni (ed.), New Trends and Advanced Methods in Interdisciplinary
Mathematical Sciences, STEAM-H: Science, Technology, Engineering, Agriculture,
Mathematics & Health, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-55612-3_1
2 R.R. Fletcher III
on a circle or any conic and the perspective points lie on a line, we call P a cyclic
perfect polygon. We will demonstrate, as our Main Theorem, that the vertices and
perspective points of any perfect polygon P lie on a cubic curve ˛ which we call the
cubic envelope of P. If ’ is reducible, then P may have all its vertices and perspective
points on three lines, or P is cyclic and all perspective points must be collinear.
The vertices of a perfect polygon will be referred to by their labels (from Zn ),
and the notation [A,B], where A,B 2 Zn will be used to represent the line containing
points A,B. The notation [A1 , A2 , : : : , An ] will be used to indicate a line containing
points A1 , A2 , : : : , An , or as an abbreviation for the phrase: “the points A1 , A2 ,
: : : , An are collinear.” We will make reference to the following two theorems from
Euclidean geometry. These can be found in many places, e.g., [1, 2].
E1: (Pascal’s Theorem) Let (A,B,C,D,E) be a hexagon inscribed on a conic. Then
the points [A,B]\ [D,E], [B,C]\[E,F], [C,D]\[F,A] are collinear.
E2: (Converse of Pascal’s Theorem) If A,B,C,D,E are six points in the projective
plane such that the points [A,B]\ [D,E], [B,C]\[E,F], [C,D]\[F,A] are collinear,
then the six points lie on the same conic.
Some preliminary results regarding cubic curves are also needed. A cubic curve
has the general form:
(1) f(x,y) D ax3 C bx2 y C cxy2 C dy3 C ex2 C fxy C gy2 C hx C jy C k D 0.
The cubic f(x,y) is reducible if it factors as the product of two nonconstant
real polynomials, and we call it irreducible if no such factorization exists. When
a cubic is reducible it consists either of three lines or a line and a conic. A curve
is nonsingular if it has tangents at all of its points. The following property of
nonsingular irreducible cubics can be found in [3].
P1: Let j be a line which intersects a nonsingular irreducible cubic curve ˛ at
least twice counting multiplicities. Then j intersects ˛ exactly three times counting
multiplicities.
Property P1 allows us to define a binary operation * on the nonsingular points of
an irreducible cubic curve ’ by setting x*y equal to the unique third point on [x,y]
and on ’. The expression x*x denotes the point besides x which lies on ’ and on the
tangent to ’ at x. If a tangent to ’ intersects ’ at a point x with multiplicity three,
then x is called a flex of ’. In this case x *x D x, i.e., x is idempotent in the algebra
(’,*). Three identities are satisfied by *:
A1: x*y D y*x
A2: x*(x*y) D y
A3: (x*y)*(z*w) D (x*z)*(y*w).
The first two identities are clear, but A3 is a remarkable, (and well known),
property of nonsingular irreducible cubic curves. An algebra satisfying A1, A2,
A3 is called a thirdpoint groupoid in [4] and a binary hypercommutative algebra
(BHA) in [5]. We call A3 the hypercommutative axiom and illustrate it on a typical
irreducible cubic curve in Fig. 1. The cancellation property:
A4: x*y D x*z ! y D z
Perfect Polygons and Geometric Triple Systems 3
c*d
b
c
a*b
a x
b*d
a*c
Fig. 1 The hypercommutative axiom: (a*b)*(c*d)D(a*c)*(b*d)Dx
is a consequence of A2. The following properties, also found in [3], are

concerned with the determination of conics and cubics.
P2: Five points, no four collinear, lie on a unique curve of degree 2.
P3: Let P1 , P2 , : : : , P8 be eight points, no four of which are collinear, and no
seven of which lie on a conic. Then there exists a cubic curve which contains the
eight points.
seven of which lie on a conic. Then all pairs of cubics containing P1 , P2 , : : : , P8
intersect in the same nine points, listed by multiplicity, i.e., there is a point P9 such
that any two cubics containing P1 , P2 , : : : , P8 also contain P9 .
seven of which lie on a conic, and let P9 be the point stipulated in P4. If Q is any
point other than P1 , P2 , : : : , P8 , P9 , then the nine points P1 , P2 , : : : , P8 , Q lie on
a unique cubic.
2 The Special Perfect Hexagon
We shall consider first a special type of perfect polygon which contains two
perspective points and a vertex on the same line. Suppose [Xs , Xt , k] where s ¤t.
Then we must have [Xs , Xt , k, t-k, s-k]. We are not allowed three collinear vertices,
so we must have either t-k D k or s-k D k. Without loss of generality, assume s-k
D k, so we have [X2k , Xt , k, t-k], or replacing t-k by m, we have [X2k , XmCk ,
k, m] with m ¤ k. The point 2k – m must also lie on this line, in which case we
must have 2k D 2m (mod n). If n is odd, then 2k D 2m (mod n) implies m D k.
We conclude that no perfect polygon with an odd number of vertices can have two
perspective points and a vertex on the same line. There does exist a perfect hexagon
with such a line, as we show in our first theorem.
4 R.R. Fletcher III
X0
0 4
X4
X1 X2
3 5
X5
X3 1 2
Fig. 2 The special perfect hexagon
Theorem 1 A perfect hexagon P D (0,1,2,3,4,5) with [X0 , X3 , 0, 3] can be

constructed as follows: (1) Put X0 on a line with vertex 0 and X3 ; (2) place the
points 1,2,3,4,5 in the plane so that [1, 2]\[4, 5] D X3 and [1, 5]\[2, 4] D X0 as
in Fig. 2; (3) Let X1 D [2, 5]\[0,1] and let vertex 3 D [X1 ,4]\[X3 ,0]. We also have
[X1 , X4 , 2, 5] and [X2 , X5 , 1, 4].
Proof Via a transformation we can assume that the points X3 , 0, 4, 1 form a square
with coordinates X3 D (0,0); 0 D (0,1); 4 D (1,1), and 1 D (1,0). We can then set
X0 D (0,t) where t is a real number different from -1,0,1,2,3. Thus the points X3 , 0,
X0 lie on the line x D 0. By intersecting lines [X0 , 4], [X3 , 1] we find vertex 2 D
(t/(t-1), 0). Intersecting lines [X3 , 4], [X0 ,1] gives vertex 5 D (t/(tC1), t/(tC1)), and
then intersecting lines [2, 5], [0,1] we obtain X1 D ((2-t)/(3-t), (1/(3-t)). Intersecting
[4,X1 ] [0,X3 ] gives vertex 3 D (0,t-1). Finally we obtain X2 D [0,2]\ [3, 5] D (1,(t-
1)/t); X4 D [0,4]\[1, 3] D ((t-2)/(t-1), 1) and X5 D [0,5]\[2, 3] D (1, (t-1)/t). With
these coordinates we immediately see that X2 , X5 lie on the line x D 1 along with
vertices 1, 4. This is all that is needed to show that P is a perfect hexagon.
Line [2, 5] has equation 2y D (1-t)x C t. The coordinates of X4 satisfy this
equation so we also have [X1, X4 , 2,5]. Note: if t D -1, then vertex 5 is the point
at infinity on lines with slope -1, and if t D 3, then X1 is the point at infinity on
lines with slope -1. In either of these cases the construction given in the Theorem
is easily proved. Also t D 2 is not possible since then the vertices 2,5,0 would be
collinear.
We call the perfect hexagon constructed in Theorem 1, the special perfect
hexagon. There is no other perfect polygon like it as we show next.
Theorem 2 The special perfect hexagon is the only perfect polygon which contains
two perspective points and a vertex on the same line.
Proof Suppose P is a perfect n-gon with two perspective points and a vertex on the
same line. As per the discussion preceding Theorem 1, we can assume that n is even.
If n D 6 we obtain the special perfect hexagon, so suppose n 8. Also from the
discussion preceding Theorem we can suppose that the line with two perspective
X2s(0, j)
Xq+t ((k-1)/k,1) s+t-q(1,1)

s(0,1)
2q-s Xs+q
2s-q
t(0,k)
Xs+t (0,0) s+t-q (j/(j-1),0)

q(1,0)
Fig. 3 Coordinatization used to show uniqueness of special perfect hexagon
points and a vertex contains the points s, t, XsCt ,X2s where s ¤ t but 2s D 2t.
This actually requires that t D s C (n/2). Since n 8 we can find vertex q of P
such that the points fs,t,q,sCt-q,s-tCq,2s-q,2q-sg are distinct. For example, if we
set q D sC1, then this set becomes fs, sC(n/2), sC1, s-1C(n/2), sC1C(n/2), s1,
sC2g which is easily seen to be a set of seven distinct points (provided n is even and
n 8 ). We transform, similar to Theorem 1, so that the points XsCt , s, s-t, s-tCq,
q become the vertices of a unit square, i.e., XsCt D (0,0); s D (0,1); s-tCq D (1,1),
and q D (1,0). We let X2s D (0,j) and t D (0,k) so that the required line [s,t, XsCt ,
X2s ] is the y-axis (see Fig. 3). We then obtain the following coordinates for points
of interest:
sCt-q D[XsCt , q]\[X2s , s-tCq] D (j/(j-1),0),
2s-q D [XsCt, , s-tCq]\[X2s , q] D (j/(jC1), j/(jC1)),
XsCq D [s,q]\[t, s-tCq] D ((k-1)/(k-2), -1/(k-2)),
XqCt D [s, s-tCq]\[q,t],
2q-s D [XqCt , sCt-q]\[XsCq , 2s-q] D (0, jk/(jCk-1)).
The x-coordinate of the vertex 2q-s indicates that it lies on the y-axis along with
vertices s,t. Since we chose q so that the vertices s,t, 2q-s are distinct, we find that
P contains three collinear vertices. Since this is not allowed, we conclude that no
perfect n-gon with n >6 exists which has two perspective points and a vertex on the
same line.
3 Some Constructions
In Fig. 4 we have constructed a perfect hexagon using the following procedure: (1)
put vertices 0,1,2 in the plane so that they are noncollinear; (2) put X1 on [0,1], X2 on
[0,2], and X3 on [1, 2]; (3) put vertex 3 on [X3 , 0]; (4) let vertex 5 D [X1 ,2]\[X2 ,3];
(5) let X5 D [0,5]\[2, 3]; (6) let vertex 4 D [X1 ,3]\[X5 ,1]; (7) let X4 D [0,4]\[1, 3]
and X0 D [1, 5]\[2, 4]. Let P denote the resulting configuration of six vertices
and six perspective points. To show P is a perfect hexagon it remains only to show
6 R.R. Fletcher III
X0
X5
2
X4 1
3
X3 0
X2 5
4
X1
Fig. 4 Perfect hexagon
[4,5,X3 ]. This is easily accomplished by applying the Theorem of Pappus to the

points 1,0, X1 on one line, and 3,2, X5 on a second line. In Fig. 5 we construct a
perfect 7-gon as follows: Steps (1),(2),(3) are the same as in the above construction;
(4) let vertex 6 D [X1 ,2]\[X2 ,3]; (5) put vertex 4 on [X3 ,6]; (6) let vertex 5 D
[X2 ,4]\[X1 ,3]; (7) shift vertex 4 on [X3 ,6] until the lines [2, 3], [1, 4], and [0,5] are
concurrent, and let X5 denote the point of concurrence; (8) Let X4 D [0,4]\[1, 3];
X0 D [1, 6]\[2, 5] and let X6 D [2, 4]\[1, 5]. Let P denote the resulting configuration
of vertices and perspective points and let us suppose that no four perspective points
of P are collinear. To show P is a perfect 7-gon it remains to show [5,6,X4 ], [3,4,X0 ],
and [0,6,X6 ]. It seems quite difficult to do this using classical methods, i.e., the
Theorems of Pappus and Desargues, so we shall instead show that the vertices of P
all lie on an irreducible cubic curve and then use the axioms, particularly A3, which
define a BHA.
Theorem 3 The configuration P, as constructed above, is a perfect 7-gon.
Proof Consider the eight points f6,0,1,2,3, X1 , X2 , X3 g. No four of these points
are collinear, and if any one point is removed from this set, the remaining seven
points contain three collinear points and thus cannot belong to the same conic. In
accordance with properties P4 and P5, there exists a cubic curve ’ which contains
the nine points S D f6,0,1,2,3, X1 , X2 , X3 , X5 g. We have stipulated that no four
perspective points are collinear, and so ’ must be irreducible. Also, a line through
a singular point of ’ cannot contain two more points of ’, but each point of S lies
on a line with two other points of S, so each point in S is nonsingular. We can thus
define a BHA on the nonsingular points of ’ which includes all the points in S.
We will show that the remaining vertices and perspective points of P lie on ’, and
that ’ is uniquely determined. We have X3 * 6 D (3*0)*(2*X1 ) D (3*2)*(0*X1 ) D
X5 *1, and thus X3 * 6 D X5 *1 D q is a point on ’. But then q D [X3 ,6]\[X5 ,1]
X6
3
2
X5
1
X4
0
4
6
X3 5
X2
X1
X0
Fig. 5 Perfect 7-gon
D 4 lies on ’. One of the two points X5 , 4 must be different from the point P9
stipulated in property P4, so by property P5 we can conclude that ’ is unique. To
show that vertex 5 of P lies on ’, consider: 4 * X2 D (X5 *1)*(2*0) D (X5 *2)*(1*0)
D 3*X1 and thus 4 * X2 D 3*X1 D [4,X2 ]\[3,X1 ] D 5 which must then lie on ’.
We have shown that every vertex of P lies on ’. Consider: 1*6 D (X5 *4)*(3*X2 )
D (X5 *3)*(4*X2 ) D 2*5 and thus 1*6 D 2*5 D [1, 6]\[2, 5] D X0 lies on ’.
Consider: 2*4 D (X3 *1)*(2*X6 ) D (X3 *2)*(1*X6 ) D 1*5 and thus 2*4 D 1*5 D
X6 lies on ’. Consider: 3*4 D (X3 *0)*(1*X5 ) D (X3 *1)*(0*X5 ) D 2*5 D X0 . This
proves [3,4,X0 ]. Consider: 0*6 D (X2 *2)*(4*X3 ) D (X2 *4)*(2*X3 ) D 5*1 D X6 .
This proves [0,6,X6 ]. We have now shown that all the perspective points of P lie
on ’ and we have shown two of the required collinearities. It remains only to show
[5,6,X4 ]. Consider: 5*6 D (X1 *3)*(1*X0 ) D (X1 *1)*(3*X0 ) D 0*4 D X4 , and thus
[5,6,X4 ].
We call the construction of Theorem 3 a one-point slide construction since, once
vertex 4, in step (7), is shifted to the right spot on line [X3 ,6], the positions of the
remaining vertices and perspective points are all forced and the result is the desired
perfect polygon. We claim that for every positive integer n > 6 a perfect n-gon can
be constructed, as in Theorem 3, by a one-point slide. Instead of attempting to prove
8 R.R. Fletcher III
this, we shall, in the next section, show that the vertices and perspective points of
every perfect polygon must lie on a cubic curve. We will then construct perfect
polygons on a given cubic curve.
4 The Cubic Envelope
We begin this section straightaway with our Main Theorem.

Theorem 4 The vertices and perspective points of a perfect polygon P lie on a
unique cubic curve ˛. If ˛ is reducible, then either P is a special perfect hexagon
with all vertices and perspective points on three lines, or the vertices of P lie on a
conic and the perspective points of P lie on a line.
Proof Let P be a perfect polygon with vertex set Zn and perspective set
fXk : k 2 Zn g, and let S D f-1,0,1,2,3, X0 , X1 , X2 , X3 g. The nine points in S lie
on a cubic curve ’ since they yield a system of nine homogeneous equations in the
nine coefficients of the cubic. We will show that ’ contains all the vertices as well
as all the perspective points of P.
Case 1 Suppose ’ is a reducible cubic. A reducible cubic consists either of three
lines or a line and a conic. We have shown that the special perfect hexagon is the only
perfect polygon all of whose vertices and perspective points lie on three lines, so we
may suppose that ’ consists of a line j and a conic “. Suppose j contains one of the
vertices in S. Then j can contain at most one more vertex and one more perspective
point. Removing any such line from S leaves a figure which contains at least one set
of three collinear points, i.e., the remaining points in S cannot possibly lie together
on the conic “. We conclude that all four perspective points fX0 , X1 , X2 , X3 g must
lie on j, and the five vertices in S lie on “. Note that by property P2, the conic “ is
uniquely determined. We now present an algorithm which will terminate when it is
shown that all the perspective points of P lie on j and all the vertices of P lie on “.
Let V denote the set of vertices of P so far proved to lie on “, and let L denote the
set of perspective points of P so far shown to lie on j. The variable s is a counter.
These variables are initialized in step (1).
(1) V f-1,0,1,2,3g; L fX0 , X1 , X2 , X3 g; s 1.
(2) If n D 2sC3 go to step (7), else we have n 2sC4; V D f-s, : : : ,sC2g; L D
fX-sC1 , : : : , XsC2 g.
Since n 2sC4, the consecutive elements f-s-1, : : : ,sC2g are distinct and thus
H D (0,1,-1,sC2,-s-1,sC1) is a hexagon with six distinct points. The opposite sides
of H meet in the collinear points fX1 ,X0 ,XsC1 g and so by E2, the vertices of H lie
on a conic ¡. But five points of H, namely f0,1,-1,sC1,sC2g lie in V and so have
been shown to lie on the conic “. Since five points determine a conic by P2, we must
have ¡D“, and thus the vertex -s-1 lies on “. So we can augment V:
V V [ f-s-1g.
(3) The hexagon F D (0,-s,sC1,1,-s-1,sC2) consists of six distinct points all of

which lie in V and hence on the conic “. The opposite sides of F meet in the
three points fX-s ,X1 ,XsC2 g. By Pascal’s Theorem (E1), these three points are
collinear. Since X1 and XsC2 lie in L and hence on the line j, we conclude that
the perspective point X-s must also lie on j. So we can augment L:
L L [ fX-s g
(4) If n D 2sC4 go to step (7), else we have n 2sC5; V D f-s-1, : : : , sC2g; L
D fX-s , : : : , XsC2 g.
Since n 2sC5, the points f-s-1, : : : , sC3g are distinct, and so the hexagon G
D (sC3,-1,-2,0,sC2,-s-1) has six distinct points. The opposite sides of G meet in
the collinear points fXsC2 ,X1 ,X2 g, so the vertices of G lie on a conic which must be
“ since G contains the five points f-1,2,0,sC2,-s-1g which lie in V hence on “. We
conclude that the vertex sC3 lies on “, so we can augment V:
V V[ fsC3g.
(5) The hexagon K D (sC3,0,-1,sC2,1,-2) consists of six distinct points, all in V.
By Pascal’s Theorem we must have [XsC3 , X-1 , XsC1 ]. Since X-1 , XsC1 lie in L
hence on j, we deduce that XsC3 also lies on j and thus:
L L[fXsC3 g
(6) s sC1; go to step (2).
(7) At this point in the algorithm n D 2sC3 or 2sC4; V contains all the vertices of
P and L D fX-s-1 , : : : . , XsC2 g contains every perspective point of P except for
X-s . If s D 1, (nD5 or nD6), go to step (8). If s>1, then the possibly degenerate
hexagon M D (-s,0,2,-sC1,-1,3) whose vertices all lie on “ implies by Pascal’s
Theorem, that [R, X2 , X-sC3 ], where R D [-s,0]\[-sC1,-1]. If s>2 this implies
that R D X-s lies on j. If sD2, then n D 7 or n D 8 and the set of points f-3,-
2,-1,0,1,2,3g are distinct and all in V. So (-3,1,2,-2,0,3) is a hexagon on “ which
implies [X-2 , X3 , X0 ] and thus X-s D X-2 lies on j. We may thus increment L:
L L [ fX-s g, and halt.
(8) At this point we have n D 5 or n D 6. First suppose n D 6. It remains only
to show that X-2 lies in L. The hexagon (-2,0,-1,1,-3,2) contains the six distinct
vertices of P all of which have been shown, at this point, to lie on “. The opposite
sides of this hexagon meet at the collinear points fX-2 , X-1 , X0 ]. Since X-1 , X0
have been shown to lie on j, we conclude that X-2 lies on j as well:
L L [ fX-2 g.
If n D 5 we have only to show that X-1 lies on j. The vertices of the
degenerate hexagon (3,-1,2,1,1,0) which contains all five vertices of P lie on
the conic “. Applying Pascal’s Theorem, we obtain [Q, X1 , X3 ] where Q D
[1]\[3,-1]. (Here, [1] denotes the tangent to “ at vertex 1.) Since X1 , X3 lie
10 R.R. Fletcher III
on j, we have that Q lies on j also. Then Q D j \ [3,-1] D X2 , and thus [1,1,X2 ].

The degenerate hexagon (0,-1,1,1,-2,2) on “ implies [X-1 , X0 , X2 ] and thus X-1
lies on j.
L L [ fX-1 g. The algorithm now halts and Case 1 is proved.
Case 2 ’ is an irreducible cubic curve. Let k 3 and assume inductively that the
vertices f-1,0,1,2, : : : , kg and the perspective points fX0 , X1 , : : : , Xk g lie on ’.
This is so when k D 3. The binary operation * introduced in Section 1 can be
defined on the nonsingular points of ’ yielding a BHA. We will employ the axioms
A1,A2,A3,A4 of a BHA to obtain the desired result. We complete the induction by
showing that vertex kC1 and perspective point XkC1 lie on ’.
Consider: (0*0)*(X1 *X2 ) D (0*X1 )*(0*X2 ) D 1*2 D X3 , and also X0 *( X1 *X2 )
D (1* -1)*( X1 *X2 ) D (1*X1 )*(-1*X2 ) D 0*3 D X3 . Now by cancellation (A4)
we can deduce that 0*0 D X0 . The geometric interpretation of this result is that the
tangent to ’ at vertex 0 contains the perspective point X0 . Another useful prelimi-
nary result is 1*1 D X2 which can be shown as follows. Consider: (1*1)*(X0 *X3 )
D (1*X0 )*(1*X3 ) D -1*2 D X1 , and (0*2)*( X0 *X3 ) D (0*X0 )*(2*X3 ) D 0*1 D
X1 . We can then deduce by cancellation that 1*1 D 0*2 D X2 .
Consider: (X0 *2)*1 D (X0 *2)*(X1 *0) D (X0 *X1 )*(0*2) D (X0 *X1 )*X2 D
(X0 *X1 )*(3*-1) D (X0 *-1)*(X1 *3) D (X1 *3)*1, so we can conclude by cancel-
lation that X0 *2 D X1 *3. If we let A D X0 *2 D X1 *3, then A lies on ’ and also A
D [X0 ,2]\[X1 ,3] D -2. Thus vertex -2 lies on ’.
Consider: (1*k)*(Xk-1 *Xk ) D (1* Xk-1 )*(k* Xk ) D (k-2)*0 D Xk-2 . Note that
when k D 3 we have used the preliminary result 1*1 D X2 , or 1*X2 D 1. Also
((k-1)*2)*( Xk-1 *Xk ) D ((k-1)* Xk-1 )*(2*Xk ) D 0*(k-2) D Xk-2 . Consequently
1*k D (k-1)*2. Consider: (Xk *-1)*(0*X0 ) D (Xk *0)*(-1*X0 ) D k*1 D (k-1)*2 D
(Xk-1 *0)*(-2*X0 ) D (Xk-1 *-2)*(0*X0 ), so by cancellation Xk *-1 D Xk-1 *-2. Then
the point B D Xk *-1 D Xk-1 *-2 lies on ’, but also B D [Xk ,-1]\[Xk-1 ,-2] D kC1,
so vertex kC1 lies on ’.
Finally consider: (k*1)*(Xk *X1 ) D (k*Xk )*(1*X1 ) D 0*0 D X0 , and
((kC1)*0)*( Xk *X1 ) D ((kC1)*Xk )*(0*X1 ) D -1*1 D X0 , so we can conclude
that k*1 D (kC1)*0 is a point C on ’. But C D [k,1]\[kC1,0] D XkC1 . So XkC1
lies on ’ completing the induction. We observe, in this case, that once a tenth point
of P has been shown to lie on ’, then ’ is uniquely determined by property P5.
If s 2Zn is a vertex of a perfect n-gon with cubic envelope ’, we have defined
the line [s,s] to be the tangent to ’ at s. In the course of the proof of Theorem 4
we showed that X0 lies on [0,0] and X2 lies on [1]. We will now show that the
perspective point X2s lies on the tangent [s,s] for every s 2Zn .
Theorem 5 Let P be a perfect n-gon with vertex set Zn , perspective set fXk : k 2Zn g,
and cubic envelope ˛. If s 2Zn , then the tangent line to ˛ at vertex s contains the
perspective point X2s .
Proof First suppose ’ is irreducible and let (’,*) denote the corresponding BHA.
We have shown in Case 2 of Theorem 4, that 0*0 D X0 . We observe that any integer
s can be added to the vertices of P and 2s to the subscripts of the perspective points
of P and that with this relabeling P remains a perfect n-gon. It then follows that s*s
D X2s for any s in Zn .
Now suppose ’ is reducible so the vertices of P lie on a conic “ and the
perspective points lie on a line j. Let k D [0,0] denote the tangent to “ at vertex
0. In this case it suffices to show that k contains the perspective point X0 . Consider
the degenerate hexagon (0,0,-2,-1,1,-3) which is inscribed in “. By Pascal’s Theorem
(E1) the points k \[-1,1], X-2 D [0,-2]\[1,-3], and X-3 D [-2,-1]\[0,-3] are collinear.
This means that k \[-1,1] lies on line j, but j\[-1,1] D X0 and it follows that k
contains X0 .
5 Cyclic Perfect Polygons
As a consequence of Theorem 4, perfect polygons can be put into three Classes: (i)
those whose cubic envelope consists of three lines; (ii) those whose cubic envelope
consists of a line which contains all the perspective points and a conic which
contains all the vertices, and (iii) those whose cubic envelope is irreducible. In
Section 2 we have discussed perfect polygons, (the special perfect hexagons), which
constitute Class (i). In this section we consider perfect polygons in Class (ii). Let
P be such a perfect polygon with cubic envelope consisting of line j containing the
perspective points of P, (we call j the perspective axis of P), and conic “ containing
the vertices of P. In accordance with [3], there exists an invertible transformation
T which sends j to another line k and “ to a circle, so to prove the existence of P,
it suffices to show that P can be constructed with vertices on a given circle and
perspective points on a given line. We call such a perfect polygon circular. To
analyze perfect circular polygons the following basic geometric results are needed,
all of which can be found in [1] or [2].
E3: (Theorem of Desargues) Two triangles are in perspective from a line iff they
are in perspective from a point.
The power of a point P with respect to a circle ! is given by d2 – r2 where d is
the length of the line segment joining P to the center of ¨, and r is the radius of ¨.
E4: If P lies outside of a circle ! with center O and l is a line through P which
meets ! in two points A, B, then (PA)(PB) D d2 – r2 where r is the radius of ! and
d is the length of segment PO. If T is the point of contact of a tangent to ! from P,
then (PT)2 D d2 – r2 . If P lies in the interior of ! and l is a line through P which
meets ! at A, B, then (PA)(PB) D r2 – d2 .
E5: (Radical axis of two circles) Let !, be two nonconcentric circles. Then the
locus of points with equal powers with respect to !, is a lone perpendicular to the
line of centers of !,. This line is called the radical axis of !,. In case !, meet in
two points then the radical axis is the line containing these points.
E6: (Radical center) Let ,,! be three circles whose centers form a triangle.
Then the radical axes of these three circles taken in pairs concur at a point called
the radical center of ,,!.
Some basic properties from inversive geometry will also be useful. Let ¨ be a
circle with center O and radius r and let P ¤ O be a point in the plane of ¨. The
inverse of P with respect to ¨ is the point P0 lying on [O,P] such that [O,P][O,P0 ]
D r2 . If P lies in the exterior of ¨, then the inverse of P with respect to ¨ can be
constructed as follows. Let A,B be the contact points on ¨ of the tangents from
P, then P0 D [A,B]\[O,P]. If P lies in the interior of ¨, then let [A,B] be the chord
through P and perpendicular to [O,P], then P0 is the intersection point of the tangents
to ¨ at A,B. If P lies on ¨, then P0 D P and if P D O, then P0 is not defined. Note
that inversion through ¨ is an involutory transformation of the inversive plane.
E7: If a line k meets a circle ! in two points A, B, then the inverse of k wrt ! is
the circle through A, B and the center O of !.
E8: All circles orthogonal to two given circles ˛,ˇ cross the line of centers of
˛,ˇ in the same two points.
E9: The inverse of a circle which does not contain the center of the circle of
inversion is a circle.
E10: Inversion preserves angles.
In what follows we assume that Zn is the vertex set of a perfect cyclic polygon
P and fXk : k 2 Zn g is the perspective set of P. Any line [x,y] where x,y 2 Zn is
a diagonal of P. If n is even, then the lines f[x, xC(n/2)]: x 2 Zn g are the long
diagonals of P.
Theorem 6 Let P be an even cyclic perfect n-gon. Then the long diagonals of P
concur at a point Z which we call the center of P.
Proof Let t 2 Zn and consider the triangles (t, tC1, tC2), (tC(n/2),
tC1C(n/2), tC2C(n/2)). Since [t,tC1]\[tC(n/2),tC1C(n/2)] D X2tC1 ; [tC1,
tC2]\[tC1C(n/2), tC2C(n/2)] D X2tC3 ; [t, tC2)]\[tC(n/2), tC2C(n/2)] D X2tC2 ,
and X2tC1 , X2tC2 , X2tC3 lie on the perspective axis j of P, these triangles are in
perspective from j (see Fig. 6). By Desargue’s Theorem (E3), these triangles are in
perspective from a point, i.e., the lines [t, tC(n/2)], [tC1, tC1C(n/2)], and [tC2,
X2t+3
X2t+1 X2t+2 X2t+2 X2t+4
X2t
j
t+2 t+(n/2)
t+1+(n/2)
Z
t+1
t t+2+(n/2)
Fig. 6 The center of a cyclic perfect polygon

X2q
U
X2p
p+(n/2)
q
Z α
β O q+(n/2)
p
w
Fig. 7 Points U, Z are inverses wrt w
tC2C(n/2)] are concurrent. Since t 2 Zn is arbitrary, we have shown that any three
consecutive long diagonals of P are concurrent. It follows that there is a point Z
which lies on each of the long diagonals of P.
Theorem 7 Let P be an even perfect circular polygon with center Z and perspective
axis j. Let ! denote the circle which contains the vertices of P; let O denote the
center of ! and let Q denote the foot of the perpendicular from O to j. Then Z is the
inverse of Q wrt !. (Thus OZ is perpendicular to j.)
Proof Let X2p , X2q be any two distinct even perspective points of P (see Fig. 7). By
Theorem 5, the tangent lines to ¨ from X2p touch ¨ at the points p, pC(n/2), and
similarly the tangent lines from X2q touch ¨ at q, qC(n/2). Let ’ denote the circle
(X2q , q, qC(n/2)) and let “ denote the circle (X2p , p, pC(n/2)). The long diagonal
(p, pC(n/2)) is the radical axis of the circle pair f¨, “g, and the long diagonal (q,
qC(n/2)) is the radical axis of the circle pair f¨, ’g and thus Z D [p, pC(n/2)] \[q,
qC(n/2)] is the radical center of the circles ’,“,¨ by (E6). Both circles ’, “ pass
through the center O of ¨. Let U denote the second point of intersection of ’, “.
The line OU is the radical axis of f’,“g by (E4) and thus Z lies on the line OU.
By (E7) the inverse of line (p, pC(n/2)) wrt ¨ is the circle “ and the inverse of (q,
qC(n/2)) wrt ¨ is the circle ’. As a consequence, the inverse of Z wrt ¨ is the point
U. Since U lies on “ and segment [O, X2p ] is a diameter of “, it must be that ∠OUX2p
D 90ı . Similarly, ∠OUX2q D 90ı , and so U lies on j and OU is perpendicular to j.
Then U D Q and the theorem is proved.
In order to achieve our final description of perfect circular n-gons, we need to
show how a given perfect circular n-gon can be doubled to obtain a perfect circular
2n-gon. For this the following three Lemmas are required.
Lemma 8 Let A,B,C,D be four points on a circle ! and let P D [A,D]\[B,C]; Q
D [A,B]\[C,D]; R D [B,D]\[A,C] and E,F the contact points of the tangent lines
to ! from P. Then [E,R,F,Q].
Proof Let J D [A,E]\[B,F]; K D [A,F]\[B,E]; L D [E,C]\[F,D], and M
D [E,D]\[F,C], then the inscribed hexagons (E,A,F,F,B,E), (A,D,F,B,C,E),
Fig. 8 Collinearity of P
E,F,R,Q
D M
E
L
C
A
R
K
(A,D,E,B,C,F), (A,C,E,B,D,F) imply [J,K,P], [P,L,J], [P,M,K], and [R,L,K],

respectively, by Pascal’s Theorem (E1) (see Fig. 8). Combining these results
we obtain [J,K,P,L,M,R] which we call line j. Triangles (F,B,C), (E,A,D) are in
perspective from line j and thus lines [E,F], [A,B], [C,D] are concurrent and we
have [E,F,Q]. The inscribed hexagon (E,F,D,A,C,E) yields [[E,F]\[A,C], L,P], and
thus [E,F]\[A,C] lies on j. But [A,C]\j D R, so we may conclude [E,F,R] and thus
[E,F,R,Q].
Lemma 9 Let A,B,C,D be four points on a circle ! and let P D [A,D]\[B,C]. Let
[E,F] be a chord of ! whose extension contains P; let Q D [E,E]\[A,B] and R D
[F,F]\[C,D]. Then [P,Q,R].
Proof Let k denote the line which contains the contact points of the tangents
from P and let S D [A,B]\[C,D]; T D [E,B]\[C,F]; R D [F,B]\[C,E], and V D
[F,F]\[E,E] (see Fig. 9). Applying Lemma 8 to the points fA,B,C,Dg we obtain that
S lies on k, and applying the same Lemma to fE,B,C,Fg we obtain that T, R lie on k.
The inscribed degenerate hexagon (E,E,B,F,F,C) yields [V,T,R] and thus V also lies
on line k. Corresponding sides of triangles (E,B,Q), (F,C,R) meet at points T, S, V
which all lie on k, so these triangles are in perspective from k and consequently the
lines [E,F], [B,C], [Q,R] are concurrent. Since [B,C]\[E,F] D P, we conclude that
[P,Q,R].
Lemma 10 Let A,B,C,D be four points in clockwise order on circle ! and let P D
[A,D]\[B,C]. Let k be a line through P which lies entirely in the exterior of ! and
let R D k\[D,C] and Q D k\[A,B]. Let E be the contact point between A,B of the
tangent from Q and let F denote the contact point between C, D of the tangent from
R. Then [E,F,P].
P
T
Q
R V
D F
S C
A
R
E
k
Fig. 9 Collinearity of P,Q,R
E B
A R
F
D
Fig. 10 Collinearity of P, E, F
Proof Let E0 D [F,P]\¨. By Lemma 9 we have [R,P,Q0 ] where Q0 D [E0 , E0 ]\[A,B]

(see Fig. 10). Since R,P,Q all lie on k, we have [R,P,Q] and thus [R,P,Q, Q0 ]. But
then Q0 D [A,B]\k D Q, and so E, E0 are both contact points of tangents from Q.
Since F lies between C,D and E0 D [F,P]\¨, it must be that E0 lies between A,B and
thus E0 D E. But then [P, E0 ,F] implies [P,E,F].
Now we are ready to present our doubling theorem.
Theorem 11 Let P be a perfect circular n-gon with circle !, vertex set Zn , and
perspective axis j. We construct a perfect 2n-gon P0 on ! by first doubling the labels
on the vertices and doubling the subscripts on the perspective points fXk : k 2 Zn g.
These constitute the even vertices and perspective points of P0 . If n is odd, then the
tangents from the perspective points of P will meet ! each at one nonvertex of P.
Include these points as vertices of P0 and label them with the odd values in Z2n so
that all members of Z2n occur consecutively on !. If n is even, then draw the two
tangents from each odd perspective point of P, include the contact points as vertices
of P0 , and label these with the odd values in Z2n so that, again, all the vertices of P0
are labeled consecutively around !. Then P0 is a perfect circular 2n-gon on ! with
perspective axis j.
Proof The perspective point Xk of P becomes the even perspective point X2k of P0 .
We start by demonstrating the required concurrences at the even perspective points
of P0 . If a,b 2 Zn are both even and aCb D 2k, then [a,b, X2k ] by virtue of our
construction. Suppose a, b are odd and aCb D 2k. Consider the set of vertices fa-1,
a, aC1, b-1, b, bC1g. The lines [a-1, bC1], [aC1, b-1] since they are pairs of even
vertices which sum to 2k contain the point X2k . The lines [a,a] and [b,b] pass through
the points X2a , X2b , respectively, by virtue of our construction. The line [aC1, a-1]
joins two even vertices, so we know it contains X2a , and similarly the line [bC1,
b-1] contains X2b . Since X2a , X2b , and X2k lie on j, we may apply Lemma 10 to
conclude [a,b, X2k ]. If n is even, then it may be that X2a D X2b . In this case [a,b,
X2k ] follows directly from Lemma 8.
It remains to show for each odd m 2 Z2n that the lines f[a,b]: aCb D m g concur
at a point Xm . Let p, q, r be three distinct odd members of Z2n and let W D [m-p,
p]\ [m-q,q]. By Pascal’s Theorem, (E1), the inscribed hexagon (m-q, q, -q, p, m-p,
p-m) implies that the points W, X0 D [q, -q] \ [m-p, p-m] and Xp-q D [p-m, m-q] \
[p, -q)] are collinear. (Note that, by the first paragraph, we have shown the required
concurrences at the even perspective points X0 , Xp-q .) The point W thus lies on the
perspective axis j. Now let W0 D [m-p, p]\[m-r, r], then similarly the points W0 ,
X0 , Xp-r are collinear and so W0 also lies on j. But W D j \ [m-p, p] D W0 and so
the diagonals [p, m-p], [q, m-q], and [r, m-r] concur at the same point (W D W0 ) on
j. Since p, q, r were chosen freely from among the odd values in Z2n , this implies
that all the diagonals f[k, m-k]: k is oddg meet at the same point on j (which we
designate by Xm ).
With Theorem 11 in hand, we can now define the center of an odd perfect circular
n-gon P by first doubling P to obtain an even perfect circular 2n-gon P0 and then
taking the center of P0 to be the center of P. The following is our intended description
of perfect circular n-gons.
Theorem 12 Every perfect circular n-gon is the inverse of a regular n-gon.
Proof Let P be a perfect cyclic n-gon with circular envelope ¨, vertex set Zn ,
perspective set X D fXk : k 2 Zn g, and perspective axis j (see Fig. 11). For each
k 2 Zn let ¨k denote the circle with center Xk which is orthogonal to ¨. We regard
j as a circle with in finite radius and the line of centers for circles ¨, j is the line k
through the center O of ¨ and perpendicular to j. The circles ¨k are orthogonal to
X0
0' 1'
7'
2'
X7 6' U
X6 3'
5' 4'
X5 X4
X3
5 X2
6 4
Z 3
7
M'
O
2
0
1
Fig. 11 Perfect octagon is inverse of regular octagon
both j and ¨, and so by (E8) cross k in the same two points M, M0 . We suppose that
M lies in the exterior and M0 in the interior of ¨. For each k 2 Zn let ¥k denote the
mapping which inverts the plane through ¨k .
Claim 1 For each k 2 Zn we have ¥k (¨k-1 ) D ¨kC1 .
Proof of Claim 1 Suppose k is odd, then [Xk , (k-1)/2, (kC1)/2] where vertex (k-1)/2
lies on ¨k-1 and vertex (kC1)/2 lies on ¨kC1 . Since ¨k is orthogonal to ¨ we must
have ¥k ((k-1)/2) D (kC1)/2. Also we have ¥k (M) D M and ¥k (M0 )D M0 since
M, M0 lie on ¨k , thus the three points M, M0 , (k-1)/2 of ¨k-1 are inverted to the
three points M, M0 , (kC1)/2 of ¨kC1 . By (E9) we must have ¥k (¨k-1 ) D ¨kC1 .
Now suppose k is even and mark on ¨ the contact points of the two tangents from
each odd perspective point. If such a point lies between vertices k, kC1 mark it as
vertex kC(1/2). In accordance with Theorem 11, these points along with the original
vertices of P form a perfect 2n-gon on ¨, and for each k the lines f[x,y] : xCy D kg
concur at Xk . We have [Xk , (k-1)/2, (kC1)/2] where (k-1)/2 lies on ¨k-1 and (kC1)/2
lies on ¨kC1 , and it follows again that ¥k (¨k-1 ) D ¨kC1 . This completes the proof
of Claim 1.
Claim 2 The n circles ¨k meet at 2n equal angles at M and M0 .
Proof of Claim 2 Let ™k denote the angle at M (and M0 ) between ¨k-1 and ¨k .
By Claim 1, ¨k is a midcircle for ¨k-1 , ¨kC1 and so the angle at M, M0 between
¨k-1 and ¨kC1 is bisected by ¨k . Thus the angle at M, M0 between ¨k and ¨kC1 is
also ™k . Let ™kC1 denote the angle at M, M0 between ¨kC1 and ¨kC2 . By Claim 1,
¨kC1 is a midcircle for ¨k and ¨kC2 and it follows similarly that the angle at M,
M0 between ¨k and ¨kC1 equals the angle between ¨kC1 and ¨kC2 , i.e., ™k D ™kC1 .
Since k 2 Zn is arbitrary, Claim 2 follows. As a consequence of Claim 2, we call
M, M0 the equiangular points of P. If ™ is the common angle at M, M0 between
consecutive circles ¨k , then we observe also that ™ D ∠Xk MXkC1 for each k 2 Zn .
Now let ’ be a circle centered at M and let ¥’ denote the mapping of the plane
which inverts through ’. Since the circles ¨k all contain the center M of ’, they
invert to lines Jk , i.e., ¥’ (¨k ) D Jk . Since M0 lies on each circle ¨k , the point
U D ¥’ (M0 ) is a concurrence point of all the lines Jk , and since the circles ¨k meet
at equal angles ™ at M0 , the lines lk meet at equal angles ™ at U (by (E10). Let ¨0
D ¥’ (¨), let k0 D ¥’ (k), and let P0 denote the n-gon with vertices fk0 :k 2 Zn g. If
n is even, then the lines fJk : k is eveng join points (k/2)0 , ((kCn)/2)0 and thus form
the long diagonals of P0 . Since these lines meet at equal angles at U, we must have
that P0 is a regular n-gon. If n is odd, then we construct the double Q D f0, 0.5, 1,
1.5, 2, 2.5, : : : , n-1, n-0.5g of P where the point kC0.5 is defined to be the contact
point on ¨ of the tangent from X2kC1 which lies between k and kC1. Each circle ¨k
meets ¨ at the points k/2, (kCn)/2 and the inverses Jk meet ¨0 at the points (k/2)0 ,
((kCn)/2)0 . Each Jk is thus a long diagonal of Q0 D ft0 : t 2 Qg. Since the circles
¨k meet at equal angles ™ D 360ı /2n at M0 , the lines Jk meet at equal angles at U.
Thus Q0 is a regular 2n-gon and P0 D f k0 : k 2 Zn g is a regular n-gon which inverts
onto P.
Corollary 13 Let be any conic; let m be a line which does not meet , and let Q
be a point on . Then there exists a unique perfect n-gon on with perspective axis
m and vertex Q.
Proof There exists an invertible transformation T which takes ” to a circle ¨; m
to another line j, and point Q to a point 0. Construct a circle “ with center on j
and which is orthogonal to ¨. Let k denote the line through the center of ¨ which
is perpendicular to j. The circle “ meets k at the equiangular points M, M0 . Let
00 D [M,0]\¨ and construct the unique regular n-gon inscribed in ¨ which contains
the vertex 00 . Let P0 denote this regular n-gon and label its vertices 00 , 10 , : : : , (n-1)0
consecutively around ¨. Let ’ denote the circle with center M which is orthogonal
to ¨, and let ¥’ denote the inversion through ’. For each k 2 Zn let vertex k be given
by k D ¥’ (k0 ). Since ’ is orthogonal to ¨, the points k form an n-gon P on ¨. By
Theorem 12, P is a perfect n-gon with perspective axis j. Also P contains the vertex
0 since 0 D ¥’ (00 ). Now apply the inverse transformation T-1 to obtain the desired
perfect n-gon on the conic ”.
6 Perfect Polygons with Irreducible Cubic Envelope
In this section we include some basic properties of perfect polygons with an

irreducible cubic envelope.
Theorem 14 Let P be a perfect n-gon with vertex set Zn , perspective set fXk
: k 2 Zn g and nonsingular irreducible cubic envelope . Let ( ,*) denote the
corresponding BHA. If s,t,p,q 2Zn and sCt D pCq, then Xs *Xt D Xp *Xq . If no
three perspective points of P are collinear, then the perspective points form a perfect
n-gon on .
Proof Consider: Xs *Xt D (p*(s-p))*(0*t) D (p*0)*((s-p)*t) D Xp *Xq . Thus all

lines of the form f[ Xs ,Xt ] : sCt D kg meet at the same point Uk on ”. We then
obtain, with the further provision that no three perspective points of P are collinear,
that the perspective points of P form a perfect n-gon on ”.
In case P has three collinear perspective points we obtain the following result.
Theorem 15 Let P be a perfect n-gon with vertex set Zn , perspective set X D
fXk : k 2Zn ,and nonsingular irreducible cubic envelope . Let ( ,*) denote the
corresponding BHA. If P contains three collinear perspective points, then (P,*) is a
subalgebra of ( ,*) and (X,*) is a subalgebra of (P,*). Moreover, if [Xp , Xq , Xr ] and
pCqCr D m, then [Xs , Xt , Xu ] iff sCtCu D m.
Proof The product of two vertices of P lies in X and the product of a vertex and a
perspective point is a vertex, so to show (P,*) is a subalgebra of (”,*) it suffices to
show that X is closed under multiplication. Suppose [Xp , Xq , Xr ] and thus Xp * Xq
D Xr . By Theorem 14, Xa * Xb D Xr for any a,b 2 Zn such that aCb D pCq. Then
for any k 2 Zn we have Xk D XpCq-k *( XpCq-k *Xk ) D XpCq-k *Xr . This implies, by
Theorem 14 again, that Xi * Xj D Xk whenever iCj D pCqCr-k. Consequently both
X and P are closed under *. Moreover, Xi * Xj D Xk whenever iCjCk D pCqCr,
proving the last statement of the theorem.
If, as in Theorem 15, the perspective points of P form a subalgebra of (”,*), we
call P a closed perfect polygon. If P has n points and the subscripts of three collinear
perspective points sum to m, then we say that P has perspective sum m. The set of
perspective points of a closed perfect polygon with perspective sum m provide an
example of a (ZQ n ,m) geometric triple system. Let G be an abelian group and g 2 G, Q
and let ¥: G ! be an injective mapping from G into the real projective plane
such that no four points in ¥(G) are collinear. If for each three element subset fa,b,cg
of G, the corresponding points f¥(a), ¥(b), ¥(c)g are collinear, then ¥(G) is a (G,g)
triple system. The group G is the base of the triple system, and the element g is the
sum. Properties of geometric triple systems with base Z or with base Zn are given
in [5]. If S is any subset of (”,*) and q is any point on ”, then q*S D fq*s : s 2 Sg
is called a translate of S. The simple relationship between a perfect n-gon and a
certain geometric triple system is given in our next theorem.
Theorem 16 Every perfect n-gon with nonsingular irreducible cubic envelope is
a translate of a (Zn ,0) geometric triple system.
Proof Let P be a perfect n-gon on ” and let f be a flex point of ”. Note that f cannot
be a vertex of ”, since we would have f D f*f D X2f , i.e., a vertex of P would
coincide with a perspective point of P, which is not allowed. Let q D 0*f so that q*0
D f. We will show that the translate q*P is a (Zn , 0) triple system. If a 2 Zn , (i.e., a is
a vertex of P), let a’ denote the point q*a. Now suppose a C bC c D 0, and consider:
a’ * b’ D (q*a)*(q*b) D (q*q)*(a*b) D ((0*f)*(0*f))*XaCb D ((0*0)*(f*f))*XaCb
D (X0 *f)*(0*(aCb)) D (X0 *f)*(0* -c) D (0*f)*(X0 * -c) D q*c D c’. Thus a’,
b’, c’ are collinear whenever aCbCc D 0, showing that q*P is a (Zn , 0) triple
system.
In Fig. 12 we illustrate a perfect hexagon along with a translate which is a (Z6, 0)

triple system. Now we would like to ask the following question. Suppose T is a
geometric triple system with base Zn and irreducible cubic envelope ”. For which
points q is q*T another triple system, and for which points q is q*T a perfect n-gon?
To answer this question we will use the following results proved in [5]. We will
classify irreducible cubic curves according to the classification given in [3]: Type
I cubics are those which can be transformed into a cubic with equation y2 D x3 ;
Type II cubics are those which can be transformed into a cubic with equation y2
D x2 (xC1); Type III cubics are those which can be transformed into a cubic with
equation y2 D x2 (x-1); Type IV cubics are those which can be transformed into a
cubic of the form y2 D x(x-1)(x-w) where w>1; Type V cubics are those which
can be transformed into a cubic of the form x(x2 C kx C 1) where -2<k<2. Types
I,II,III are singular, each curve with exactly one singular point. In [5] it is shown
that no triple systems with base Zn exist on a Type I or Type II cubic, but we must
consider whether it is possible for a perfect polygon to exist on such cubics. Types
IV and V are nonsingular, Type V cubics consist of a single connected component
To X4
4
3'
X2
2
3 4'
5' X3
2' X1
X0
0 5 1
X5
0' q
1'
Fig. 12 Perfect hexagon obtained as translate of (Z6 ,0) triple system

when regarded in the projective plane, and Type IV cubics consist of two connected
components which we call the bell and the oval. If ” is a Type IV cubic, then the bell
of ” is a subalgebra of the BHA (”,*), and the oval is anticlosed, i.e., if a,b 2 oval,
then a*b lies in the bell. The unique singularity of a Type III cubic is an isolated
point; otherwise Type III cubics are like Type V. Type III, IV, V cubics each contain
three collinear flex points; Type I, II each have only one flex point. We shall say
that two triple systems on a cubic ” are equivalent in case they consist of precisely
the same set of points on ”, but may have different labels. For example, adding 1 to
each vertex of a (Zn ,0) triple system creates an equivalent (Zn ,3) triple system. Here
are the useful results from [5]:
(R1) If gcd(n,3) D 1, then every triple system with base Zn is equivalent to a (Zn ,0)
geometric triple system. If 3jn, then every triple system with base Zn is equivalent to
either a (Zn ,0) or a (Zn ,1) triple system. Moreover, if 3jn the (Zn ,0) triple system is
not equivalent, or even isomorphic, to the (Zn ,1) triple system.
(R2) Let T be a triple system with base Zn . If n 10, then the vertices of T lie on
an irreducible cubic curve of Type III,IV, or V.
(R3) For each positive integer n, a triple system with base Zn and any sum can
be constructed on any Type III, IV, or V cubic curve.
(R4) Let be a Type III, Type V, or bell of a Type IV cubic curve and let f be a
flex point of . Then for each positive integer n there exists a unique (Zn ,0) triple
system on with f as vertex 0.
(R5) Let be a Type III, Type V, or bell of a Type IV cubic curve. If 3jn then, up to
equivalence, there exists a unique (Zn ,0) triple system on which contains all three
flex points of , and there exist exactly two nonequivalent (Zn ,1) triple systems on
which are translates of each other. If gcd(n,3) D 1, then there exist exactly three
mutually nonequivalent (Zn ,0) triple systems on , each containing a different flex
point of .
(R6) If gcd(m,3) D 1, then every triple system with base Z2 Z2m is equivalent to
a (Z2 Z2m , (0,0)) triple system. If 3jm, then every triple system with base Z2 Z2m
is equivalent to either a (Z2 Z2m , (0,0)) or a (Z2 Z2m , (0,1)) triple system.
In the presence of an irreducible cubic curve ”, we can define perfect polygons
with fewer than five points. If we choose any nonflex point of ” for vertex 0, and let
X0 D 0*0, we have a perfect 1-gon. If ” is Type III or V, then for each nonsingular
point y on ” there exist exactly two points on p ” which satisfy the equation x*x D y.
We denote the solutions to this equation by y. So if 0 is any nonflex point of ”, then
there exist two points which we label 0,1 such that 0*0 D 1*1 D X0 . We thus obtain
a perfect polygon with base Z2 . A (Z3 ,0) triple system T consists of the three flex
points of ”. It is unique by (R5). If q is any nonflex point of ” then, in accordance
with Theorem 16, q*T is a perfect polygon, (i.e., a perfect triangle), with base Z3 .
First we consider triple systems with a Type III or Type V cubic envelope.
Theorem 17 Let T be a (Zn ,0) triple system whose vertices lie on a Type V, Type
III, or bell of a Type IV cubic curve . Let S be the unique (Z3n ,0) triple system on
, and let q 2 . Then q*T is a geometric triple system with base Zn iff q 2 S. If q is
not in S, then q*T is a perfect n-gon.
Proof By (R5) the vertices of S are uniquely determined. Vertices 0,n,2n correspond
to the three collinear flex points of ”. The vertices of S can be partitioned into three
subsets: U D f0,3,6, : : : , 3n-3g, W D f1,4,7, : : : , 3n-2g, and V D f2,5,8, : : : ,3n-
1g each of which form a subalgebra of (S,*). Also V*W D fv*w : v 2 V, w 2 Wg
D U; V*U D W, and V*W D U. The relabeling of U given by 3k ! k turns U into
a (Zn ,0) triple system; the relabeling of W given by 3k-2 ! k turns V into a (Zn ,2)
triple system, and the relabeling of V given by 3k-1 ! k turns V into a (Zn ,1) triple
system. By (R5), U,V,W constitute the full set of distinct triple systems on ” with
base Zn . In case gcd(3,n) D 1, each of U,V,W is equivalent to a (Zn ,0) triple system,
and if 3jn, then U is a (Zn ,0) triple system and V,W are (Zn , 1) triple systems. In
Figs. 13 and 14 we illustrate these cases with n D 6 and n D 5. In either case we
can identify T with U, and so we have V*T D W and W*T D V. If q 2 ”, and q*T
is a geometric triple system with base Zn , then we must have either q*T D T; q*T
D V or q*T D W. If q 2 T, then q*T T since T is a subalgebra of (”,*). Since the
mapping ¥: T ! q*T defined by ¥(t) D q*t is a bijection, we must have jq*Tj D
jTj and thus q*T D T. We have shown that q*T D T iff q 2 T. If q 2 W, then q*T
V, since W*T D V, and since q*T and V each has n elements, we can conclude that
q*T D V. On the other hand, if q*T D V, then q*t D v for some t 2 T and some v 2
V. But then q D t*v and so belongs to W. We have shown that q*T D V iff q 2 W.
Fig. 13 (Z18 ,0) triple system 16
15
14 13 12 11
10
3 4 5
2 6
7 9
8
1
17
12 11 10
9
3 4
2 8
5
6
7
1
To vertex 14
Similarly q*T D W iff q 2 V. Consequently q*T is a triple system on ” with base

Zn iff q 2 U [ V [ W, i.e., iff q 2 S. Then by Theorem 16, if q 62 S, then q*T is a
perfect n-gon.
In Fig. 13 we illustrate a (Z18 ,0) triple system with vertices on a Type V cubic,
and in Fig. 14 we illustrate (Z15 ,0) triple system on the same curve. In both figures
the key subalgebras U,V,W are emphasized.
Next we will consider split perfect polygons, i.e., perfect polygons whose vertices
and perspective points lie on both components of a Type IV cubic curve ”. By
Theorem 16 every such perfect polygon P on ” is a translate of a geometric triple
system T on ”, i.e., P D q*T for some q 2 ”. Since the oval is anticlosed, the even
perspective points of P must lie on the bell of ”. There are several possibilities for
the disposition of the vertices and the remaining perspective points of P: (i) all the
vertices of P may lie on the oval when all perspective points of P must lie on the
bell; (ii) all even vertices of P lie on the oval; all odd vertices of P lie on the bell
and all odd perspective points lie on the oval; (iii) all the odd vertices of P lie on the
oval; all the even vertices of P lie on the bell, and all odd perspective points lie on
the oval. Let us first consider perfect polygons of Type(i). In Fig. 15 such a perfect
n-gon P is illustrated on a typical Type IV cubic. By Theorem 16, P D q*T where
T is a (Zn ,0) triple system. Since all the vertices of P lie on the oval, it must be that
q lies on the oval and T lies entirely on the bell of the Type IV cubic envelope ”.
For every point q on the oval, q*T must be a perfect n-gon on the oval, and cannot
be a geometric triple system. A Type (ii) perfect polygon is illustrated in Fig. 16.
X4
X1
X6
X3
0
X0 5 3
2
X5 7
6
X2 4
1
X7
Fig. 15 Perfect octagon on Type IV cubic
We observe that a Type (iii) perfect polygon can be obtained from a Type (ii) perfect
polygon by adding 1 to each vertex and 2 to the subscript of each perspective point,
so it is unnecessary to consider both Types. Also, we observe that a perfect polygon
of either of these types must be realized, in accordance with Theorem 16, as the
translate of a split geometric triple system.
Theorem 18 Let T be a split (Zn ,0) triple system with Type IV cubic envelope .
and suppose that n D 2m with m even. Let q 2 . If gcd(n,3) D 1, let S be the unique
split (Z3n ,0) triple system on , then q*T is a (split) triple system on iff q 2 S. If q
62 S, then q*T is a Type (iii) split perfect polygon. If 3jn, then there is only one split
(Zn ,0) triple system T on , and q*T is a triple system iff q 2 T.
Proof Suppose first that gcd(n,3) D 1. The vertices of S can be partitioned into
three subalgebras U,V,W of (”,*) given by: U D f0,3,6, : : : , 3n-3g; V D f2,5,8,
: : : , 3n-1g, and W D f1,4,7, : : : , 3n-2g. By (R5) each of these is equivalent to a
(Zn ,0) triple system, and U,V,W constitute the full set of split (Zn ,0) triple systems
on ”. As in the proof of Theorem 17, we may identify T with U, and we then have
T*V D W; T*W D V, and V*W D T. It follows similarly that q*T D T iff q 2 T;
q*T D V iff q2 W, and q*T D W iff q 2 V. In short, q*T is a triple system on ”
iff q2 S, and if q62S then, in accordance with Theorem 16, q*T is a Type (iii) split
perfect polygon. If 3jn, then by (R5) T is unique and q*T must equal T in order to
be a triple system. But q*T D T iff q 2 T.
Fig. 16 Perfect octagon:

variant X4
1
X6
7
0
X5 X7
X0
2
5 X3
6
4
X2
X1
In Fig. 17 we illustrate Theorem 18 using the unique split (Z24 ,0) triple system,
(for S), on a typical Type IV cubic curve. In the next section we consider the case in
which n is twice an odd number. In case T is a (Zn ,1) triple system, then by (R1) T
is equivalent to a (Zn ,0) triple system if gcd(n,3) D 1. But also by (R1) if 3jn, then
T is not equivalent to a (Zn ,0) triple system. Suppose 3jn and the cubic envelope ”
of T is Type III or Type V. Then by (R5) there are exactly two distinct (Zn ,1) triple
systems V, W on the cubic envelope ”. These occur as subalgebras of the unique
(Z3n ,0) triple system S on ”. In fact we can define U,V,W as in Theorem 16, where
U is a (Zn ,0) triple system, and we can conclude as in Theorem 16 that q*T is a
triple system iff q 2 S. In case T is split a similar result holds. Similar to (R5) there
are exactly two split (Zn ,1) triple systems V,W on a Type IV cubic ” and these occur
as subalgebras of the unique split (Z3n ,0) triple system S on ” along with the unique
split (Zn ,0) triple system U. Again we find that q*T is a triple system iff q 2 S.
7 Twins
When the number n of vertices of a geometric triple system on a Type IV cubic is

twice an odd number we will find the
p following Lemmas useful. If p is a point on
the bell of a Type IV cubic ”, then p contains exactly four points, two on the bell
16
14
12
10
6 8
11 9
4 13 7
15
2 5
17
0 19
21
22 23 3
1
20
To Vertex 18
Fig. 17 Three split (Z8 ,0) triple systems occur as subalgebras of the split (Z24 ,0) triple system
p 0
and two onp the oval. If a2 p and a lies
p on the oval, let a denote the0 remaining
element of p on the p oval, and if b 2 p and b lies on the bell, let b denote the
remaining element of p on the bell. In either case we refer to the points x, x0 as
twin points.
Lemma 19 Let a,b be points on any irreducible nonsingular cubic curve . Then
a*b D a0 *b0 and a*b0 D a0 *b D (a*b)0
Proof Let p D a*ap D a0 *a0 , and let q D b*b D b0 *b0 . Then 0 0
p the points a*b , a *b,
0 0
a*b, a *b all lie in (p q). If ” is a Type V cubic, then (p q) contains only two

points so two pairs among these four points must be equal. The point a*b0 cannot be
equal to a*b or a0 *b0 since cancellation would then require b D b0 or a D a0 which
is impossible since no point on ” is equal to its twin. We must then have a*b0 D
a0 *b and a*b D a0 *b0 . The same argument can be used in case a,b lie on the bell of
a Type IV cubic. Now suppose ” is Type IV and a,b lie on the oval. Then the four
points a*b0 , a0 *b, a*b, a0 *b0 all lie on the bell and we can employ the same argument.
p on the bell and b lies on the oval of ”, then the four points all lie on
Finally, if a lies
the oval. But (p q) also contains only two points on the oval with the same result.
4
2 5 9' 3
1'
7 7'
0 3'
9
5' 1
Fig. 18 Twin split (Z10 ,0) triple systems
p
Since ((a*b)0 )* ((a*b)0 ) D (a*b)*(a*b) D p*q, the point (a*b)0 also lies in (p q).
No point of ” is equal to its own twin, so we cannot have (a*b)0 D a*b; so we must
have (a*b)0 D a*b0 D a0 *b.
Now let T be a split (Zn ,0) triple system on a Type IV cubic curve ” with n D
2m. If S is any subset of ”, we let S0 D fx0 : x 2 Sg. Let Q denote the set of even
vertices of T which must lie on the bell, and let W denote the set of odd vertices of
T which must all lie on the oval. Let W’ D fx0 : x 2 Wg and let Tˆ D Q[ W0 . It is
shown in [6] that Tˆ is a split (Zn ,0) triple system. If m is even, then x, x0 both lie in
T for each point x in the oval and thus T D Tˆ . But if m is odd, then T, Tˆ constitute
two distinct extensions of Q, (which we call twin extensions), and the extending sets
W, W0 are disjoint. In Fig. 18 we illustrate a split (Z10 ,0) triple system T along with
its twin Tˆ . Also in [6] the following theorem is proved.
Theorem 20 Let T be a split (Zn ,0) triple system with n D 2m, m odd. Then the
points in T*Tˆ form a (Z2 Zn , (0,0)) triple system.
In Fig. 19 we illustrate a (Z2 Z10 , (0,0)) triple system on a typical Type IV
cubic. The twin subalgebras T, Tˆ of Fig. 18 are emphasized. Now suppose T is a
split (Zn ,0) triple system with n D 2m, m odd as in Theorem 20, and suppose also
To (0,3)
(0,4)
(0,6) (0,5)
(0,7)
(0,8) (1,0) (1,1) (1,2)
(1,9)
(0,9) (1,3)
(1,8)
(0,0) (1,7)
(0,1) (1,6)
(1,5) (1,4)
(0,2)
Fig. 19 (Z2 Z10 , (0,0)) triple system
that gcd(n,3) D 1. Then T is an extension of a (Zm ,0) triple system on the bell of
a Type IV cubic ” and, in accordance (R5), there are exactly three distinct (Zm ,0)
triple systems on ”. Each of these, in turn, has two twin extensions yielding a total
of six distinct split (Zn ,0) triple systems on ”. If q 2 ” and q*T is a triple system,
then q*T must be one of these six split (Zn ,0) triple systems. In our next theorem
we determine for which point q this is the case.
Theorem 21 Let T be a split (Zn ,0) triple system on a Type IV cubic with n D 2m,
m odd and gcd(n,3) D 1. Let e,f,g denote the three flex points of and suppose vertex
0 of T coincides with e. If q2 , then q*T is a triple system iff q 2 T[(f*T)[(g*T).
Moreover, f *Tˆ D (f *T)ˆ and g * Tˆ D (g * T)ˆ .
Proof Let Q denote the set of even vertices of T which all lie on the bell of ”, and
let W denote the set of odd points of T which all lie on the oval. Let b 2 f * Tˆ , then
b 2 f * t0 for some t 2T. By Lemma 19, b D (f *t)0 and thus b 2 (f *T)ˆ . It follows
that f *Tˆ D (f *T)ˆ and similarly g * Tˆ D (g * T)ˆ . Now let S denote the unique
(Z2 Z3n, (0,0)) triple system on ”. We shall see that S contains all six of the split
(Zn ,0) triple systems as subalgebras. It will then follow that if q*T is a triple system,
then q must lie in S. Without loss of generality we let e D (0,0); f D (0,n), and g
D (0,2n). These are the three flex points of ” which all lie in S. Then T D Q[W
where Q D f(0,6t) : t D 1,2, : : : ,mg and W D f(1,6t) : t D 1,2, : : : , mg, and Tˆ D
Q[W0 where W0 D f(1,6tC3m) : t D 1,2, : : : ,mg. Consider: f * T D (f * Q)[(f *
W) where f * Q D f(0, 2n – 6t) : t D 1,2, : : : ,mg and f * W D f(1, 2n – 6t) : t D
1,2, : : : ,mg; f * T0 D (f * Q)[(f * W0 ) where f * W0 D f(1, m – 6t) : t D 1,2, : : : ,mg
; g * T D ( g * Q)[(g * W) where g * Q D f(0,n – 6t) : t D 1,2, : : : ,mg and g * W
D f(1, n -6t) : t D 1,2, : : : ,mg; g * T0 D (g * Q)[(g * W0 ) where g * W0 D f(1, 5m –
6t) : t D 1,2, : : : ,mg. The mutually disjoint sets Q, W, W0 , f * Q, f * W, f * W0 , g *
Q, g * W, g * W0 account for all the elements of S except for those in the set M D
f(0,t) : t 2 Z3n is oddg. The sets T, T0 , f * T, f * T0 , g * T, g * T0 are subalgebras of
(S,*) equivalent to each of the six split (Zn ,0) triple systems on ”. We have already
remarked that q*T can be a triple system iff q 2 S, i.e., q lies in one of the sets Q,
W, W0 , f * Q, f * W, f * W0 , g * Q, g * W, g * W0 , M. Note that Q *W D W and
Q*W0 D W0 . If q 2 T D Q[W, then q * T D T is of course a triple system. Suppose
q 2 W0 , then q * T D q *( Q[W) contains points in q * W. These points have the
form (1, 6tC3m)*(1, 6s) D (0, -6s – 6t -3m) which lies in M since m is odd and not
a multiple of 3. None of the six split (Zn ,0) triple systems contain any of the points
of M, so q*T cannot be a triple system. If q2 M, then q * T contains points in q *
Q which have the form (0,k)*(0,6t) D (0,-k – 6t) D (0,3n – k – 6t). But this element
lies in M since k is odd and 3n is even. Again we can deduce that q * T is not a triple
system. Now suppose q 2 f * Q, then q D f *q0 for some q0 2 Q and q * T D (f *
q0 )* (Q[W) D f(f * q0 )* Qg[f(f * q0 )*Wg where f(f * q0 )*(e*Q)g D (e*f)*(q0 *Q)
D g * Q, and (f * q0 )*W D (f * q0 )*(e*W) D (f*e)*(q0 *W) D g*W. Thus q*T D
g*T is a triple system. Similarly, if q 2 g*Q, then q*T D f*T is a triple system. Now
suppose q 2f*W, then q D f *w0 and q*T D (f *w0 )*(Q[W) D f(f *w0 )*Qg[f(f
*w0 )*Wg D f(f *w0 )*(e*Q )g[f(f *w0 )*(e*W)g D fg * Wg[fg*Qg D g*T. So q*T
is a triple system. Similarly, if q2 g*W, then q*T D f*T is a triple system. We have
shown that if q 2 T[(f*T)[(g*T), then q*T is a triple system. If q 2 f * W0 , then q
D (1, m – 6t) for some t 2 f1,2, : : : ,mg, and points in q*W have the form (1, m –
6t)*(1,6s) D (0, 5m C 6t – 6s) and so lie in M. We can conclude that q * T is not a
triple system. Finally, if q 2 g*W0 , then q D (1, 5m-6t) for some t 2 f1,2, : : : ,mg,
and points in q*W have the form (1,5m-6t)*(1,6s) D (0, m C 6t – 6s) which also lie
in M, so again, q*T is not a triple system. This completes the proof.
Theorem 22 Let T be a split (Zn , 0) triple system on a Type IV cubic curve with
n D 2m, and m an odd multiple of 3. If q 2 , then q*T is a triple system iff q 2 T.
Proof If m D 3p, then the points 0, 2p, 4p are idempotent and all occur as vertices
of T. The triple systems T, Tˆ are the only split (Zn , 0) triple systems on ”. If q*T is
a triple system, then it must be that either q*T D T or q*T D Tˆ . So we must have
either q2 T or q2 T*Tˆ . Since T is contained in T*Tˆ , we can say just q2 T*Tˆ . By
Theorem 20, T*Tˆ is equivalent to the unique (Z2 Zn , (0,0)) triple system S on ”.
Let Q, M, W, W0 denote the partition of S given by Q D f(0,t): t is eveng; M D f(0,t):
t is oddg; W D f(1,s): s is eveng and W0 D f(1,s): s is oddg. We can take T equivalent
to Q[W and Tˆ equivalent to Q[W0 . If q*T is to be a triple system, then it must be
that q lies in one of the four sets Q, M, W, W0 . Of course, if q 2T D Q[W, then

q*T D T is a triple system. But if q lies in M or W0 , then we obtain q *T D M[W0
which is not a triple system.
8 Closed Perfect Polygons
We have previously defined a closed perfect polygon P as a perfect polygon whose

perspective points form a subalgebra of (”,*) where ” is the cubic envelope of
P. From Theorem 15 we see that this subalgebra is a geometric triple system T
and P is thus a subalgebra of (”,*) which extends T. In this section we will argue
that P itself is a geometric triple system, but first we provide a couple of perfect
constructions of closed perfect polygons. By perfect we mean constructions which
are possible with only a straight-edge and compass. In Section 5 we can deduce
from Theorem 12 that circular perfect polygons have perfect constructions precisely
when regular polygons have such a construction. The constructions given for the
Special perfect hexagon (see Theorem 1) and the general perfect hexagon (see Fig.
4 of Section 3) are also perfect. Perfect constructions of perfect polygons with
irreducible cubic envelope are relatively rare. We can provide only a few examples.
A perfect construction of a closed perfect hexagon can be obtained by following
the prescription given in the first paragraph of Section 3, except that we select X2
to lie at the intersection of [0,2] and [X1 , X3 ]. In Fig. 20 we illustrate the two
nonisomorphic closed perfect hexagons, one has a perspective sum of 0 and the
other has a perspective sum of 1. Only the one, call it P, with perspective sum 0
has a perfect construction. Interestingly the diagonals [0, 3], [1, 4] and [2, 5] of P
concur at a point Z. This can be proved as follows. The triangles ((0,1),(1,0),(0,5)),
((1,4),(0,3),(1,2)) are in perspective from the line [(1,5),(1,1),(0,0)], and so by
To X0
X5
1 2 3
3
X4 X5
0 Z 1
4
5
X4
X1 0
X2 4
X3
5
X2
X0 X3 X1
Fig. 20 Perfect closed hexagons

To vertex 1
(0,5)
(1,2)
(1,1) (1,3) 4 6
(0,4) 3
(1,0) Z 2
(1,4)
(1,5)
5
0
(0,1)
(0,3) (0,2) 8
10
9
(0,0) 7 11
Fig. 21 Perfect closed hexagons relabeled
Desargue’s Theorem (E3) the lines [(0,1),(1,4)], [(1,0),(0,3)], and [(0,5),(1,2)] are
concurrent (compare with Theorem 6). This little result we might say belongs to
the external geometry of P along with any concurrence of lines joining vertices
of P or any collinearity of points formed by such lines. In Fig. 21 the vertices
and perspective points of the two closed perfect hexagons of Fig. 20 have been
relabeled to illustrate the equivalence of these perfect polygons with (Z2 Z6 , (0,0))
and (Z12 , 1) triple systems, respectively. In the following perfect construction the
external geometry comes into play in a much more complicated way.
Theorem 23 There exists a perfect construction of a closed perfect octagon which
is equivalent to a (Z2 Z8 , (0,0)) triple system.
Proof The construction of a closed perfect octagon P is achieved as follows:
(i) Let vertices 0,1,2 be any three collinear points in the real projective plane and
put perspective point X1 on [0,1] and X2 on [0,2].
(ii) Let X3 D [X1 , X2 ]\[1, 2] and put vertex 3 on [X3 ,0].
(iii) Let vertex 7 D [X1 ,2]\[X2 ,3].
(iv) Let A D [2, 7]\[0,3]; B D [X2 ,3]\[1,A]; D D [1, 7]\[0,2].
(v) Let X5 D [B,D]\[2, 3] and let X7 D [X2 ,X5 ]\[0,7].
(vi) Let vertex 5 D [X7 ,2]\[X5 ,0] and let X6 D [X3 ,X5 ]\[1, 5].
(vii) Let vertex 6 D [X1 ,3]\[X7 ,1] and let vertex 4 D [X6 ,2]\[X1 ,5] shows that P.
(viii) Let X4 D [0,4]\[1, 3] and let X0 D [1, 7]\[2, 6].
This construction is illustrated in Fig. 22 where the dashed lines must all be
proved. We found the proof of these collinearities too difficult to accomplish by
repeated use of the theorems of Desargues or Pappus, and even too difficult to
accomplish using cubic curve theory. We could find a proof by analytic means;
first transforming vertices 0,1,2,3 to points with coordinates (0,0), (0,1), (1,1), and
(1,0) respectively, and then determining coordinates for the remaining vertices, the
perspective points, and the points A, B, D given in the construction. The resulting
X7
X6
X4 X5
X3
5 6
4
X2
3
B
7
A
2
X1
D
1
To X0
0
Fig. 22 Perfect construction of perfect closed octagon
demonstration is not particularly informative so we shall omit the details. The fact
that points B,D, and X5 are collinear is a problem involving the external geometry
of P. Finally, the relabeling of P given by k (1, kC3); Xk (0, -kC2) for k2 Z8
shows that P is equivalent to a (Z2 Z8 , (0,0)) triple system.
In the last result of this section we show that every closed perfect polygon P is
equivalent to a geometric triple system.
Theorem 24 Let P be a closed perfect n-gon and let T denote the set of perspective
points of P which form a (Zn , m) triple system. If m is odd, then the relabeling of P
given by Xk 2k (mod 2n) and k m – 2k (mod 2n) turns P into a (Z2n , 2m) triple
system. If m D 2g is even, then the relabeling of P given by Xk (0,k) and k (1,
g-k) turns P into a (Z2 Zn , (0,m)) triple system.
Proof Let P0 denote the figure resulting from the relabelings. Note that the
stipulation that m is odd means that the perspective points of P are relabeled by
even vertices of P0 and the vertices of P become the odd vertices of P0 . The line [s,t,
XsCt ] in P corresponds to the line [m-2s, m-2t, 2(sCt)] in P0 whose components sum
to 2m (mod 2n), and the line [Xs , Xt , Xq ] in P corresponds to the line [2s,2t,2q] in P0
whose components also sum to 2m. These are the only two types of lines in P, so we
can conclude that P0 is a (Z2n , 2m) triple system. Now suppose m is even and make
the stipulated relabelings. Then the line [s,t, XsCt ] in P corresponds to the triple
[(1,g-s), (1, g-t), (0, sCt)] in P0 , whose components sum to (0,m), and the line [Xs ,
Xt , Xq ] in P corresponds to the triple [(0,s), (0,t), (0,q)] in P0 , whose components
also sum to (0,m).
X4
2 3
X5
4
5 X6
X7
1 6
X8
7
8
0
9
X2
X9
X1 To X0
X3
Fig. 23 Closed perfect decagon with perspective sum 3
14
13 15
12
17
19 10
8
11 1
6
3
5
9
7
18
0
16 To vertex 2
Fig. 24 Closed perfect decagon with perspective sum 3 relabeled to create a (Z20 ,0) triple system
In Figs. 23 and 24 Theorem 24 is illustrated for the case n D 10 and m D 3.

In light of (R1) and (R6) Theorem 24 implies that every perfect closed n-gon is
equivalent to a (Zn ,0), (Zn ,1), (Z2 Zn ,(0,0)) or (Z2 Zn ,(0,1)) triple system.
9 The Group Connection
Let ” be a nonsingular irreducible cubic curve and (”,*) the associated BHA. If
e is one of the three idempotent elements of (”,*), i.e., one of the flex points of
”, we define a binary operation (C) on ” by aCb D e*(a*b). It is well known
that the resulting algebra (”,C) is an abelian group with e as identity and a*e the
inverse of a. The associative law for groups is easily demonstrated: if a,b,c 2 ”,
then aC(bCc) D e*fa*(e*(b*c))g, and (aCb)Cc D e*f(e*(a*b))*cg, so it suffices to
show that a*(e*(b*c)) D (e*(a*b))*c. Consider: a*(e*(b*c)) D fb*(b*a)g*fe*(b*c)g
D fb*(b*c)g*fe*(a*b)g D (e*(a*b))*c. If instead we are given an abelian group
(G,C), we obtain a BHA on the elements of G by setting a*b D -a – b. These two
operations are inverses in the sense that if (G,*) is a BHA with associated group
(G,C), then the operation a*b D -a –b recovers (G,*) from (G,C). In what follows
we shall use the fact that (”,C) is isomorphic to the group U of complex numbers
with modulus 1 in case ” is Type V, and is isomorphic to Z2 U in case ” is Type
IV (see [7]). Also the following result regarding the extension of an idempotent free
subalgebra of (”,*) to one containing an idempotent will prove useful.
Theorem 28 Let be an irreducible nonsingular cubic curve, let e be a flex point
of , and let T be an idempotent free subalgebra of ( ,*). Then T, e*T, and T*(e*T)
are mutually disjoint subalgebras of ( ,*), and S D T [ (e*T) [ (T*(e*T)) is a
subalgebra of ( ,*) which contains the idempotent element e. Moreover, T and e*T
are isomorphic idempotent free translates of T*(e*T).
Proof If q 2 T \(e*T), then q D t D e*t0 for some t,t0 2T. But then e D t*t0 2 T
contradicting the stipulated idempotent free character of T. If q 2 T \(T*(e*T)),
then q D t D t0 * (e*t1 ) for some t,t0 ,t1 2 T. But then e D t1 * (t0 * t) with the same
contradiction. Finally suppose q 2 (e*T) \(T*(e*T)), then q D e*t D t0 * (e*t1 ) for
some t,t0 ,t1 2 T. Consider: e*t D t0 * (e*t1 ) implies (e*t1 )*(e*t) D t0 , (e*e)*(t1 *t)
D t0 , e D t0 *(t1 *t) 2 T, again contradicting the idempotent free character of T.
That e*T and T*(e*T) are subalgebras follows immediately from the fact that the
product of any two subalgebra of (”,*) is again a subalgebra of (”,*). Let Q D
T*(e*T) and let t be any element of T. We show next that Q D t *(e*T). It is clear
that t*(e*T)Q; to show the reverse containment, let t0 * (e*t1 ) denote a typical
element of Q. Consider: t * f t0 * (e*t1 )g D ft1 *(t * t1 )g * f t0 * (e*t1 )g D ft1 * (e*t1 )g
* f t0 *(t1 *t)g D e * f t0 *(t1 *t)g 2 e * T, and thus t0 * (e*t1 )g 2 t * (e*T). From the
just established equation it follows immediately that t*Q D e*T and thus e*T is a
translate of Q. To show that T is a translate of Q, again let t be any element of T. We
will show that (e*t)*Q D T. If t0 2 T, then t0 D (e*t)*ft0 * (e* t)g lies in (e*t)*Q. For
the reverse containment, suppose (e*t)* ft0 * (e* t1 )g is a typical element of (e*t)*Q.
Then we see immediately that (e*t)* ft0 * (e* t1 )g D (t0 * t) * fe * (e* t1 )g D (t0 *
t) * t1 is an element of T. The mapping ¥: T ! e*T given by ¥(t) D e*t is easily
seen to be an isomorphism. Suppose e*T contains an idempotent element e*t, then
(e*t)*(e*t) D e*t, (e*e)*(t*t) D e*t, and t*t D t by cancellation. But then t is an
idempotent element of T which we have not allowed. Note that any translate a*W
of a subalgebra W of (”,*) certainly has the same cardinality as W, but is usually
not isomorphic to W, for example, T cannot be isomorphic to Q since Q contains
the idempotent element e, and T is idempotent free.
It remains only to show that S D T [ (e*T) [ (T*(e*T)) is a subalgebra of
(”,*). Since each of the three mutually disjoint components of S are themselves
subalgebras, it suffices to verify the equations T*fT*(e*T)g D e*T and (e*T)*
fT*(e*T)g D T. We will leave this straightforward verification to the reader.
A more general result than Theorem 28 is given in [4] where it is shown that
an arbitrary idempotent free algebra in the variety of binary hypercommutative
algebras can be embedded in a member of the same variety which does contain
an idempotent.
Let T be a subalgebra of (”,*) with finite order n, which contains an idempotent
element e of (”,*). We will argue that T is a triple system. The corresponding abelian
group (T,C) is a finite subgroup of (”,C). If ” is Type V, then it is known that (”,C)
is isomorphic to the group U of complex numbers with modulus 1, and since every
finite subgroup of U is cyclic, we can conclude that (T,C) is a cyclic group hence
isomorphic to Zn . Now using the above given formula for converting (Zn ,C) back
into a BHA, we obtain a*b D -a – b which clearly realizes T as a (Zn ,0) triple
system. In case ” is Type IV we have that (”,C) is isomorphic to Z2 U and thus
(T,C) is isomorphic to either Zn or Z2 Zn/2 with the consequence that T is either
a (Zn ,0) triple system or a (Z2 Zn ,(0,0)) triple system. Next suppose T is a finite
idempotent free subalgebra of (”,*) with order n. By Theorem 28, T occurs as a
subalgebra of S D T [ (e*T) [ (T*(e*T)) which contains the idempotent element
e of (”,*). If Q D T*(e*T) , then Q is a subalgebra of S which contains e, and
consequently both (S,C) and (Q,C) are abelian groups. If t is any element of T, then
we have seen that T D (e*t)*Q. The corresponding group expression is T D (-e – t) *
Q D eCt – Q D eCt CQ, so we see that T is a coset of Q. If ” is Type V, then (S,C)
is cyclic with order 3n, and thus isomorphic to Z3n . We can then represent Q by Q D
f0,3,6, : : : , 3n-3g and the cosets of Q by f1,4,7, : : : , 3n-2g and f2,5,8, : : : , 3n-1g.
T must be one of these cosets each of which correspond to a (Zn ,1) triple system.
If ” is Type IV, then (S,C) is isomorphic to either Z3n or Z2 Z3m where n must be
even and m D n/2. In the first cast T is again a (Zn ,1) triple system, and in the second
case (Q,C) is a subgroup of Z2 Z3m with order 2m D n. We must have Q D Z2
f0,3,6, : : : , 3m-3g and (T,C) must be one of the cosets of Q, namely (0,1)CQ or
(0,2)CQ. If T D (0,1)CQ, then the mapping ¥:T !Z2 Zm given by ¥(0,3k-2) D
k and ¥(1, 3k-2) D (1,k) turns (T,*) into a (Z2 Zm , (0,2)) triple system, and if T D
(0,2)CQ, the mapping §: T !Z2 Zm defined by §(0,3k-1) D (0,k) and §(1,3k-1)
D (1,k) turns (T,*) into a (Z2 Zm , (0,1)) triple system. If T is (Z2 Zm , (0,2)), then
by relabeling each vertex of T with its inverse we obtain a (Z2 Zm , (0,-2)) triple
system. If to this triple system we add (0,1) to each vertex, we obtain a (Z2 Zm ,
(0,1)) triple system equivalent to T. We have proved:
Theorem 29 Let be an irreducible nonsingular cubic curve and ( ,*) the

corresponding binary hypercommutative algebra. If is Type V, then every finite
subalgebra of ( ,*) of order n is either a (Zn ,0) or a (Zn ,1) geometric triple system.
If is Type IV every finite subalgebra of ( ,*) of order n is either a (Zn ,0), (Zn ,1),
(Z2 Zm , (0,0)) or (Z2 Zm , (0,1)) geometric triple system where m D n/2.
10 Conclusion
The notion of perfect polygon Qcan be generalized by allowing the base to be any
abelian group G. Let ¥ :G ! be an injective mapping from G into the projective
plane such that no three points in ¥(G) are collinear. For each g 2 G let Wg denote
the set of lines f[a,b] : aCb D gg. If for each g 2 G the lines in Wg are concurrent,
then we call the set of points ¥(G) a perfect G-gon. Let Xg denote the point of
concurrence of the lines in Wg . The set of points fXg : g 2 Gg is the perspective
set of the perfect G-gon. We have seen that (Z2 Zn , (0,0)) triple systems exist with
cubic envelope ”. A translate of such a system can produce a perfect Z2 Zn - gon
on ”. If Z denotes the group of integers, then there exists a perfect construction of a
perfect Z-gon which we illustrate in Fig. 25. The relabeling of this diagram by Xk
(0,k) and k (1,-k) yields a (Z2 Z, (0,0)) triple system.
The vertices and perspective points of a perfect Z-gon must lie on a cubic curve,
and it seems likely that every perfect G-gon lies on a cubic curve, thus yielding a
generalization of Theorem 4.
It is an interesting open question as to which perfect polygons and geometric
triple systems have perfect constructions. Note that our definition of perfect
construction must be slightly extended to claim that our perfect Z-gon has a perfect
construction: the construction is perfect if we can perfectly construct, in principle,
any finite number of the vertices and perspective points.
Another further direction for research involves the above-mentioned external
geometry associated with a perfect polygon. It sometimes happens that lines joining
the vertices of a perfect polygon P (or tangents to the cubic envelope at a vertex)
concur at points different from perspective points. We call these diagonal points
and classify theorems involving the existence of these points, or collinearities among
them, as belonging to the external geometry of P. A basic result in this direction is
the following.
Theorem 30 Let P be a perfect closed n-gon with Type IV cubic envelope and
perspective sum m. Suppose n is even and there exists a 2 Zn such that 3a D m (mod
n). If a is even, i.e., a D 2b, then all points of the form [Xs , Xt ]\[ Xm-a-s , Xm-a-t ] or
[s,t]\[a-s, a-t] lie on the line [b, bC(n/2)].
Proof If ” is Type IV, then there exists a transformation which takes ” to a curve
of the form y2 D x(x-1)(x-w) with w>1. The envelope ” is transformed to a curve
” 0 which is symmetric with respect to the x-axis, and P is transformed to a perfect
polygon P0 with ” 0 as its cubic envelope. Since 3a D m, the perspective point Xa
X4
X-4
-6
2
X3 1
X-5 0
-5
X2 -1 3
X-6 6
-2
5 -4
X1 -3 4
X-7 X0
X7 X-1
X6
X-2
Fig. 25 Perfect Z-gon
of P is an idempotent element of the BHA (”,*) , and thus its image Xa 0 under the
transformation is an idempotent element of (” 0 ,*). If 3jn, then P contains all three
flex points of ” and hence P0 contains all three flex points of ” 0 . These will have
labels Xa 0 , XaC(n/3) 0 , XaC(2n/3) 0 one of which is the point at infinity on vertical lines,
and the other two are reflections of each other across the x-axis. Without loss of
generality, we can suppose that Xa 0 is the point at infinity on vertical lines. Besides
Xa 0 itself, the only three points of ” 0 which square to Xa 0 are b0 , (bC(n/2))0 and
X(aC(n/2))0 all of which lie on the x-axis, so the line [b0 , (bC(n/2))0 ] is the x-axis. If s0 ,
t0 are any two vertices of P0 , then vertices (a-s)0 , (a-t)0 are their reflections across the
x-axis, and it follows immediately that the point [s0 ,t0 ]\[(a-s)0 , (a-t)0 ] must lie on [b0 ,
(bC(n/2))0 ]. Since our original transformation is a collineation, it follows that the
corresponding diagonals of P, namely [s,t]. [a-s, a-t] and [b, bC(n/2)] are concurrent.
Similarly the points Xa 0 , Xs 0 and Xm-a-s 0 are collinear since their subscripts sum to
m, and they lie on a vertical line since Xa 0 is the point on ” 0 at infinity on vertical
lines. Since ” 0 is symmetric with respect to the x-axis, the pairs of points Xs 0 , Xm-a-s 0 ,
and Xt 0 , Xm-a-t 0 are reflections of each other across the x-axis. As a consequence we
also have that the lines [Xs , Xt ],[Xm-a-s , Xm-a-t ] and [b, bC(n/2)] are concurrent as
stipulated.
Let e,f,g denote the three flex points of ” 0 . In [8] it is shown that there exist
three collineations of the projective plane, ê , ˆf , ˆf whose restrictions to ” agree,
respectively, with the mappings ¥e , ¥f , ¥g defined by ¥e (x) D e*x, ¥f (x) D f*x,
¥g (x) D g*x. These last three mappings are easily seen to be automorphisms of
(” 0 ,*) and automorphisms of (P0 ,*) by a further restriction. Say the idempotent
e is the point at infinity on ” 0 , and thus has label Xa 0 , and suppose f has label
XaC(n/3) 0 and g has label XaC(2n/3) 0 . Then the collineation ˆg maps XaC(n/3) 0 to Xa 0 .
Now ˆg (P0 ) is a perfect polygon equivalent to P0 , but with XaC(n/3) 0 as the point
at infinity on vertical lines. Since ˆg is a collineation, the images under ˆg of
the concurrent diagonals [s0 ,t0 ], [(a-s)0 , (a-t)0 ], and [b0 , (bC(n/2))0 ] of P0 are again
concurrent lines in ˆg (P0 ) D P0 . Similarly the images of these diagonals under the
collineation ˆf produce corresponding concurrent diagonals in P0 . We call the lines
[b0 , (bC(n/2))0 ], ˆg ([b0 , (bC(n/2))0 ]), and ˆf ([b0 , (bC(n/2))0 ]) the meridians of P0 ,
and the corresponding lines of P, the meridians of P. In [8] it is shown that these
meridians are actually intrinsic to any nonsingular irreducible curve ”. For our Type
IV p cubic ”, the meridians can be defined as follows. Let e1 , e2 denote p the two points
in e which lie on the bell; p f 1 , f 2 the two points on the bell in f, and g1 , g2 the
two points on the bell in g. Then the lines [e1 , e2 ], [f1 , f2 ], and [g1 , g2 ] are the
meridians of ”. Also, in [8] it is shown that the three meridians concur at a point Z
called the center of ”. In Fig. 26 we illustrate a closed perfect 12-gon with diagonal
points on three concurrent meridians.
In case n is not a multiple of 3, then 3a D m (mod n) has at most one solution
and thus P contains at most one flex point of ”. In Fig. 27 we have a perfect closed
octagon P with perspective sum m D 6. The perspective point X2 is the only flex
To X11 To X11
X10
X9
X8
4
3
X7 2
5
1
X6
0 Z
X5 11
X4 10 6
X3 9
8
X2 7
X1 To X0
Fig. 26 Perfect closed 12-gon with diagonal points and meridians

X6
To X7
X5
X4
X3 5 6
4
X2
3
7
X1 2
L 0
X0
Fig. 27 Perfect closed octagon with meridian and diagonal points
point on P and the line [1, 5] is the only meridian of ” which contains the full
complement of diagonal points stipulated by the theorem.
There are several interesting analogs of geometric triple systems which involve
circles, conics, and planes. If G Q
is an abelian group, then a G-circle system can be
defined as follows. Let ¥:G ! be an injective map from G into the projective
plane such that no 5 points in ¥(G) are collinear, and let g be a fixed element of
G. If for every four element subset fa,b,c,dg of G such that aCbCcCd D g, the
corresponding points f¥(a), ˆ(b), ¥(c), ˆ(d)g are cocyclic or possibly collinear, we
call the points in ¥(G) and the associated circles or four point lines a (G,g) circle
system. These circle systems have already been studied in [9, 10]. In [10] the (Z,0)
circle system is used to gain general structural information for an irreducible self-
inversive cubic curve.
Suppose §: G!ƒ is an injective map from the abelian group G into
3-dimensional projective space such that no four points in §(G) are coplanar,
and let g be a fixed element of G. If for every four element subset fa,b,c,dg of G
such that aCbCcCd D g, the corresponding points f§(a), §(b), §(c), §(d)g are
coplanar or possibly collinear, we call the points in §(G) and the associated planes
a (G,g) plane system. Does a (Z,0) plane system exist? If so does there exist a space
curve which contains its points?
00
03
11
13
02
10
05 12
01
14 15 04
Fig. 28 (Z2 Z6 , 02) conic system
Q
Finally, let Let ¥:G ! be an injective map from G into the projective plane
such that no four points in ¥(G) are collinear, and let g be a fixed element of G. If
for every six element subset fa,b,c,d,e,fg of G such that aCbCcCdCeCf D g, the
corresponding points f¥(a), ˆ(b), ¥(c), ˆ(d), ¥(e), ˆ(f)g lie together on the same
conic, or form a pair of collinear triples, then we call the points in ¥(G) a (G,g)
conic system. One interesting result which relates to geometric triple systems is the
following.
Theorem 31 Every geometric triple system is a conic system.
In Fig. 28 we depict a (Z2 Z6 , (0,1)) triple system which is equivalent to a
(Z2 Z6 , (0,2)) conic system. All 6-tuples which sum to (0,2) lie either on a conic or
form two sets of collinear triples. We reserve the proof of Theorem 31 for a future
work.
References
1. Coxeter, H.S.M., Greitzer, S.L.: Geometry Revisited. MAA, Washington, D.C. (1967)
2. Eves, H.: Fundamentals of Modern Geometry. Jones and Bartlett, Boston (1992)
3. Bix, R.: Conics and Cubics, a Concrete Introduction to Algebraic Curves, 2nd edn. Springer
Sci. and Business Media, LLC, New York (2006)
4. Harris, M.: Thirdpoint Groupoids. Master’s Thesis, Virginia State University (2008)
5. Fletcher, R.: Geometric Triple Systems with Base Z and Zn , submitted for publication in
Springer Proceedings in Mathematics and Statistics (2015)
6. Fletcher, R.: Geometric Triple Systems with Base Z2 Zn , unpublished
7. Walker, W.: Algebraic Curves. Springer Verlag, New York (1949)
8. Fletcher, R.: Perfect Hexagons, Elementary Triangles and the Center of a Cubic Curve. In:
Springer Proceeding in Mathematics and Statistics, vol. 24. Bridging Mathematics, Statistics,
Engineering and Technology, Springer Science C Business Media, New York (2012)
9. Robinson, D.: Group Circle Systems. Master’s Thesis, Virginia State University (2015)
10. Fletcher, R.: Self-inversive Cubic Curves, Accepted for publication in Springer Proceedings in
Mathematics and Statistics (2016)
Geometric Triple Systems with Base Z and Zn
Abstract In this paper we discuss triple systems whose elements come from an
abelian group G. Every triple of elements with the same sum in G will correspond
to three collinear points in the projective plane. We will show that the set of all points
in such a triple system must lie on a cubic curve ” which we call the envelope of
the system. We will determine the number and location of equivalent triple systems
which have the same cubic envelope. These results will be used to determine exactly
which finite abelian groups can be used to construct a geometric triple system.
Keywords Triple system • Cubic curve • Abelian group • Hypercommutative

groupoid • Equilateral triangle
1 Introduction
Let G be an abelian group and g 2 G. Let ¥ W G ! … be an injective map from

G into the projective plane … such that no four points of ¥ .G/ are collinear. If for
each three element subset fa; b; cg of G with a C b C c D g, the corresponding
points f¥ .a/; ¥ .b/; ¥ .c/g are collinear, then we call the set of points ¥ .G/ and the
associated collinear triples f¥ .a/; ¥ .b/; ¥ .c/g, a geometric triple system with base
G and sum g, or more shortly, a (G,g) triple system. In Figs. 1 and 2 we illustrate a
(Z9 , 0) and a (Z9 ,1) triple system. The size of a triple system is the number of triples
and the order of a triple system is the number of vertices (or points). Thus the triple
systems in Figs. 1 and 2 both have order 9 but the (Z9 , 0) system has size 10 and
the (Z9 ,1) system has size 9. A (G,g) triple system is equivalent to a (H,h) triple
system if there exists a bijection § W G ! H such that whenever a; b; c 2 G and
a C b C c D g, then § .a/ C § .b/ C § .c/ D h. In case H D G we refer to § as

VA 23806, USA

Fig. 1 (Z9 ,0) triple system C
5 B
1
7
2
A
0 3 6
7 2 1
0 6
4
a relabeling of the points of G. Two equivalent triple systems must have the same
order and the same size, so we see that the triple systems in Figs. 1 and 2 are not
equivalent. We will show in the next section, that up to equivalence, the illustrated
triple systems are the only ones with base Z9 . It is convenient to represent the points
of a triple system by the labels assigned to them from the base group. If a, b are two
elements from the base group then [a,b] denotes either the line through a, b or the
segment with endpoints a,b. We use the notation [a,b,c] for a triple. The (Z9 , 0) triple
system was constructed starting with the triangle (0,4,6), then putting 5, 8, 3 on the
appropriate sides. Then vertex 1 is put at the intersection of segments [3,5] and [0,8]
and vertex 7 is put at the intersection of [5,6] and [3,8]. Finally vertex 2 is put at
the intersection of [3,4] and [0,7]. When this is done the remaining triple [1,2,6],
indicated by the dashed line, is automatically obtained. The dashed line is proved
Geometric Triple Systems with Base Z and Zn 45
as follows. Let A D Œ1; 5 \ Œ2; 7; B D Œ1; 8 \ Œ2; 4 and C D Œ0; 5 \ Œ3; 7. The
triangles (0,A,3), (8,C,4) are in perspective from line [5,7,6] and so, by Desargues
Theorem, are in perspective from a point. Since Œ0; 8 \ Œ3; 4 D B, it must be that
B is the point, and it then follows that points A,B,C are collinear. Then triangles
(3,2,7), (0,1,5) are in perspective from line [A,B,C] and so, by Desargues Theorem
again, these triangles are in perspective from a point. Since Œ5; 7 \ Œ0; 3 D 6, we
can conclude that points 1, 2, 6 are collinear. We thus have what we call a perfect
construction of a (Z9 ,0) triple system, i.e., a construction that can be accomplished,
in principle, by straightedge and compass alone. The independent points 0,4,6 can
be put anywhere in the plane, so long as they are not collinear, then vertices 3,5,8 can
be put anywhere on the sides of triangle (0,4,6), and the positions of the remaining
vertices are forced. Interestingly no such perfect construction is available for the
(Z9 ,1) system in Fig. 2. The triangle (0,3,6) is chosen freely and the points 7,1,4 can
be placed anywhere on the sides, but vertex 2 must be slid along segment [1,7] until
the line [6,5,8] is achieved. It can easily be proved that this is possible, but it is not
a perfect construction.
Perfect constructions also exist for (Z10 ,0) and (Z12 ,0) triple systems which we
illustrate in Figs. 3 and 4. In each case only the dashed lines need to be proved.
The reader may try to prove these using the Theorem of Desargues repeatedly. The
remaining single line in the (Z10 ,0) construction is not difficult to prove, but the
four dashed lines in the (Z12 ,0) triple system are quite difficult to prove in this
manner, and the difficulty increases in unmanageable proportions as the order of
the triple system increases. It is clear then, that the general existence of geometric
triple systems cannot be proved in this ad hoc manner, even if we insist that the
base group be Zn . A clue to a general procedure is afforded by the (not perfect)
construction of a (Z18 ,0) triple system illustrated in Fig. 5. (Vertex 14 is constructed
as the intersection of the red segment with line [5,17]. The red segment is a lever
which allows us to move vertex 14 by very small increments until it obtains the
position required.) It begins to be clear that the vertices all lie on a curve which has
6 5 9
1 8
2
0 7
3
8 5 11
7 6
10
1
2
0 3 9
Fig. 4 (Z12 ,0) triple system
7 17
12
8
11 10 9 16
15
1 2 3 14
0 13
5
Fig. 5 (Z18 ,0) triple system
the general shape of a certain species of cubic. In our construction in Fig. 5 we even
observe that the vertices occur along the supposed cubic curve in consecutive order
as the curve is traversed in one direction: starting at vertex 0 we travel consecutively
to vertex 5 then follow the cubic to infinity and then back from infinity to vertex 6,
then we follow to vertex 12 and go off to infinity again and coming back to vertex
13. Then we continue along the conjectured cubic to vertex 17 and off to infinity
once again and back from infinity to the starting point at vertex 0. We will show that
all geometric triple systems with base Z or Zn lie on irreducible cubic curves.
2 Equivalence
The simplest of all groups is the cyclic group and every cyclic group of order n is
isomorphic to Zn , so it is natural to begin our investigation by considering geometric
triple systems with base Zn . Our first Theorem allows us to focus our research on Zn
triple systems with sum 0 or 1.
Theorem 1 If gcd(n,3) D 1, then every Zn triple system is equivalent to a (Zn ,0)
geometric triple system. If 3jn then a Zn triple system is equivalent to a (Zn ,0) or
(Zn ,1) triple system. Moreover, if 3jn then the (Zn ,0) system is not equivalent to the
(Zn ,1) triple system.
Proof The bijection ¥ W Zn ! Zn defined by ¥ .x/ D x C k is an equivalence
between a (Zn ,m) and a (Zn ; m C 3k) triple system, and the bijection § W Zn !
Zn defined by § .x/ D x is an equivalence between a (Zn ,m) and a .Zn ; m/
triple system. Thus a (Zn ,3k) triple system is equivalent to a (Zn ,0) system, and a
.Zn ; 3k C 1/ triple system is equivalent to a (Zn ,1) system. Finally, a (Zn ; 3k 1)
is equivalent to a (Zn ; 1) system, which is equivalent, in turn, to a (Zn ,1) system
by means of the equivalence §. Suppose 3jn and Ÿ W Zn ! Zn is an equivalence
between a (Zn ,0) triple system T and a (Zn ,1) triple system S, then 0 C 0 C 0 D 0 in
T would imply Ÿ.0/ C Ÿ.0/ C Ÿ.0/ D 1 in S which is not possible.
If 3jn we can also prove nonequivalence of a (Zn ,0) triple system T, and a (Zn ,1)
triple system S by determining the sizes of these triple systems. Let p denote the
size of T and let q denote the size of S. There are n/3 multiples of 3 in Zn and
so pn/3 is the count of three element subsets of Zn which sum to a multiple of 3.
There are 2n/3 nonmultiples of 3 in Zn , so 2qn/3 counts the number of three element
subsets of Zn which sum to a nonmultiple of 3. The total number of 3 element
subsets of Zn is given by .n .n 1/ .n 2// =6, so we have .pn=3/ C .2qn=3/ D
.n .n 1/ .n 2// =6 which simplifies to pC2q D .n 1/ .n 2/ =2. Now if p D q
this would imply that 3 j .n 1/ .n 2/ which is impossible since n is a multiple
of 3. We conclude that p ¤ q, and thus that S is not equivalent to T.
In the next section we prove the existence of geometric triple systems with base
the full set of integers Z. These are equivalent to a (Z,0) or a (Z,1) triple system. We
omit the proof which is similar to the proof used in Theorem 1.
Theorem 2 Let Z denote the group of integers under addition. Then every triple
system on Z is equivalent to a (Z,0) or a (Z,1) triple system and these two triple
systems are nonequivalent.
If G is a finite abelian group, x 2 G, and T is a (G,g) triple system, let •(x) denote
the number of triples of T which contain x. Then:
P
size .T/ D .1=3/ x2G ı.x/ (1)
Now for x 2 G, let ¡ .x/ denote the number of two element subsets of G which
sum to x, and let Ÿ .x/ denote the cardinality of the set fg 2 G W g C g D xg. Then:
¡ .x/ D .1=2/ .jGj Ÿ .x// : (2)
The explanation of (2) is as follows. In the Cayley table for G, the element x
occurs exactly once in each row and column. The expression Ÿ .x/ counts the number
of times that x occurs on the main diagonal of the table. So x occupies j G j Ÿ .x/
nondiagonal locations. Each pair of unequal elements a,b which sum to x yield two
x entries, one in row a and column b, and one in row b and column a. Thus there
are .1=2/ .jGj Ÿ .x// two element subsets of G which sum to x. Let © .x/ D 0 if
3x D g and © .x/ D 1 otherwise, then:
• .x/ D ¡ .g x/ © .x/ : (3)
The explanation of (3) is as follows. A triple containing x consists of x and a

pair of points which sum to g x. The expression ¡ .g x/ counts these pairs. But
from this count we must remove the unique pair fx; g 2xg since the element x
would be repeated. If it happens that g D 3x, the fx; g 2xg is not a pair and no
removal is required. In the first case © .x/ D 1 and in the second case © .x/ D 0.
Now combining (1), (2) and (3) we obtain:
P P P
size .T/ D .1=3/ Œ .g x/ ".x/ D .1=3/ x2G .x/ .1=3/ x2G ".x/
x2G
P P
D .1=3/ x2G 12 .jGj .x// 13 x2G ".x/
P P P
D .1=6/ x2G j G j .1=6/ x2G .x/ 13 x2G ".x/;
and finally:
P 1 P
Size .T/ D .1=6/ jGj2 .1=6/ x2G .x/ 3 x2G ".x/: (4)
We saw in Figs. 1 and 2 that a (Z9 ,0) triple system and a (Z9 ,1) triple system have
different size. In our next result we determine precisely the size of triple systems
with base Zn .
Theorem 3 The size of a (Zn , 0) triple system is .n 1/ .n 2/ =6 if gcd .n; 3/ D 1.
If 3jn then the size of a (Zn , 0)triple system is n2 3n C 6 =6 and the size of a
(Zn , 1) triple system is n2 3n =6.
Proof Suppose gcd .n; 3/ D 1 and let p denote the size of a (Zn , 0) triple system.
By Theorem 1, every triple system in S D f.Zn ; k/ W k 2 Zn g has size p, and so there
are np distinct three element subsets which constitute the triples belonging to the
systems in S. Since every three element subset
of Zn is represented among the triples
in the systems in S, it must be that np D n3 . This yields p D .n 1/ .n 2/ =6.
P system. The equation 3x D 0 has
Now suppose 3jn and let T be a (Zn , 0) triple
exactly three solutions: f0; n=3;
P 2n=3g, so x2G ".x/ D n 3. If n is odd, then
Ÿ .x/ D 1 for all x 2 G, so x2G .x/ Dj G jD n. Then (4) yields: size .T/ D
.1=6/ n2 .1=6/ n .1=3/ .n 3/ D n2 P 3n C 6 =6. If n is even then Ÿ .x/ D 0
if x is odd, and Ÿ .x/ D 2 if x is even, so x2G .x/ D 2 .n=2/ D n, so we obtain
the same value for size(T). If q denotes the size of a (Zn ,1) triple system, then we
have:
p C 2q D .n 1/ .n 2/ =2 (5)
2
from the discussion following Theorem
2 Substituting p D n 3n C 6 =6 into
1.
(5) and solving for q yields q D n 3n =6 as stipulated.
3 Triple Systems with Base Z
In this section we provide perfect constructions of triple systems with base Z and
show that the vertices of such systems must all lie on a cubic curve. We find that
certain properties of irreducible cubic curves greatly facilitate the proof of existence
for these triple systems. If ” is an irreducible cubic curve, then a binary operation *
can be defined on the nonsingular points of ” by setting a*b equal to the third point
on the line [a,b] and on ”. Here we use the fact that every line which meets ” in two
points, also meets ” in a third point, counting multiplicities. The product a*a refers
to the point besides a on ” and on the tangent to ” at a. If a a D a, then a is called a
flex point of ”. The tangent to ” at a flex point a, intersects ” with multiplicity 3 at
a. If ” is nonsingular then it is known that ” has exactly three collinear flex points
in the projective plane [1]. The following identities are satisfied by *:
(i) a*b D b*a
(ii) a*(a*b) D b
(iii) (a*b)*(c*d) D (a*c)*(b*d)
Identities (i), (ii) are clear from our definition of *. Identity (iii), which we
call the hypercommutative identity is a remarkable property of irreducible cubic
curves which we illustrate in Fig. 6. An algebra which satisfies identities (i), (ii),
(iii) we call a hypercommutative groupoid; thus the nonsingular points on any
irreducible cubic curve ” form a hypercommutative groupoid which we denote by
(”,*). If a*b D a*c then b D a*(a*b) D a*(a*c) D c, so cancellation holds in
any hypercommutative groupoid. If T is a (G,t) triple system then a t-square for
T is 3 3 matrix of elements from G arranged so that each row and each column
represents a triple belonging to T.
c*d
b
c
a*b
a
x
a*c b*d
Fig. 6 (a*b)*(c*d) D (a*c)*(b*d) D x
Lemma 4 Let T be a (G,t) triple system. If eight of the entries of a t-square for T
lie on an irreducible cubic curve , then so does the ninth.
2 3
abc
Proof Let 4 d e f 5 be a t-square for T. Since the rows and columns of a t-square
ghk
can be permuted independently without affecting the row or column sums, we can
assume that vertex a is the only element of G not known to lie on ”. Then the second
two rows and columns represent collinear triples each point of which lies on ”. Thus
the product of any two members of these triples is the third member of the triple.
Then we have:

b c D e h f k D e f h k D d g
Consequently b*c D d*g is a point q on ” which must lie on both lines [b,c],
[d,g]. But then q D Œb; c \ Œd; g D a lies on ”.
Theorem 5 There exists a perfect construction of a (Z,0) triple system. The vertices
of such a system must lie on an irreducible cubic curve.
Proof The starting configuration S for our construction involves the nine points
f0; ˙1; ˙2; ˙3; 4; 5g and is illustrated by the bold lines in Fig. 7. Any nine points
in the projective plane lie on some cubic curve, so let ” denote a cubic which
contains these nine points. No three lines cover all the points in S so ” cannot
consist of three lines. The removal of any line from S, except for Œ3; 0; 3 leaves a
configuration which still contains three collinear points. This configuration cannot
be covered by any conic since no line can meet a conic in more than two points.
There is a unique conic which contains the five points f˙1; ˙2; 5g. If we select
2 9
-5
-6
10 1
3 8
-4
-7
7 0
-8 -3 4
-10
-1
6
5
-2
-9
Fig. 7 (Z,0) triple system
vertex 4 on line Œ1; 3 so that it does not lie on this conic, then also in case we
cover f3; 0; 3g with a line, the remaining six points of S cannot be covered by
a conic. So we can suppose that ” is irreducible, and since every point in S lies
on a line with two other points of S, we can also suppose that each of the nine
points in S is a nonsingular point of ”. (A line through a singular point of a cubic
cannot meet the cubic in two additional points.) Define 4 D Œ1; 3 [ 0; 4 and
5 D Œ0; 5 [ Œ2; 3. The 0-squares:
2 3 2 3
4 1 3 5 2 3
4 4 3 1 5 ; 4 5 3 2 5
0 2 2 0 1 1
imply by Lemma 4 that 4 and 5 lie on ”. Now suppose k 5 and assume

inductively that points f0; ˙1; ˙2; ˙3; : : : ; ˙kg have been defined and shown to
lie on ”. Define vertices ˙ .k C 1/ by: k 1 D Œ1; k [ Œ2; k 1 and k C 1 D
Œ1; k [ Œ2; k C 1. Then the 0-squares:
2 3 2 3
k 1 1 k k C 1 1 k
4 2 0 2 5 ; 4 2 0 2 5
k 1 1 k C 2 kC1 1 k2
imply, by Lemma 4, that the points ˙ .k C 1/ lie on ”. It now follows by induction

that every integer has been assigned to a point in the plane which lies on ”. It remains
to show that the resulting configuration is a (Z,0) triple system. Suppose k 5,
0 < p < q < k and p C q D k. Assume inductively that if jaj, jbj, ja C bj < k, then we
have a b D a b. We have k D Œ1; k C 1 [ Œ2; k C 2 by definition and

also .0 p/ D p by the inductive hypothesis. Consequently:
k p D .1 k C 1/ .0 p/ D .0 k C 1/ .p 1/

D .k 1/ .p C 1/ D p k D q:
Note that j kC1 j, j p1 j, j pk j and j kp j are all less than k so this equation
is hypothesis. So we have k D p q. For negative values of k we can proceed as
follows. Consider: 0 0 D .1 1/ .2 2/ D .1 2/ .1 2/ D .3 3/ D 0.
We will use this result to show that k D 0 k for every positive integer k. Assume
inductively that this holds for all positive integers less than k. Consider: k D
.1 .k 1// D .0 1/ .0 k C 1/ D .0 0/ .1 .k C 1/ D 0 k. Again
suppose 0 < p < q < k and p C q D k. Now we want to show that k D p q.
Consider: k D 0 k D .0 0/ .p q/ D .0 p/ .0 q/ D p q. We can
now conclude that a b D a b for all a, b 2 Z with a; b; a b distinct, and thus
our construction results in a (Z,0) triple system.
Theorem 6 There exists a perfect construction of a (Z,1) triple system. The vertices
of such a system must lie on an irreducible cubic curve.
Proof The starting configuration S for our construction involves the nine points
f0; ˙1; ˙2; ˙3; ˙4g and is illustrated by the bold lines in Fig. 8. Let ” denote a
-4
7
9
-10
1 2
-2
-5 -9
6 8
4
0
-3
-7
-6
10 5
-1
Fig. 8 (Z,1) triple system

cubic curve containing the points in S. As in Theorem 5, ” must be irreducible

and each point in S must be nonsingular. We can then define the binary operation
* on the points of ” which satisfies identities (1), (2), (3). Define vertex 5 by 5 D
Œ1; 3 [ Œ0; 4 and vertex 5 by 5 D Œ1; 5 [ Œ2; 4. The 1-squares:
2 3 2 3
5 1 3 5 5 1
6 7 6 7
4 0 2 3 5 4 2 1 05
4 4 1 4 3 0
Along with: 0 0 D .2 1/ .3 2/ D .2 3/ .1 2/ D 4 4 D 1 imply
that the points 5 and 5 lie on ”. For k 6 we define the points recursively by:
k D Œ1; k C 2 [ Œ2; k C 3 and k D Œ1; k [ Œ2; k 1. Assume inductively
that the points f0; ˙1; ˙2; : : : ; ˙ .k 1/g as defined have been shown to lie on ”.
Suppose k 6, then the 1-squares:
2 3 2 3
k 1 k C 2 k 1 k
6 7 6 7
4 2 2 1 5 4 2 0 1 5
kC3 0 k2 k 1 0 k C 2
imply by Lemma 4 that k and k lie on ”. We have now shown by induction

that the entire set of integers correspond to points which lie on the cubic curve ”.
Let T denote this collection of points. It remains to show that T is a (Z,1) triple
system. Suppose k 6, k < p < q 0 and k C p C q D 1. We must
show that k,p,q
arecollinear. Consider: k p D .1 .k C 2// .1 p/ D

.k C 2/ 1 .1 p/ D .k 2/ .p C 2/ D k p C 1 D q. Here we can
assume p ¤ 1 since we know from the definition of k that k 1 D k C 2. Since
k p D q it must be that k.p.q are collinear as desired. Now suppose k 6; 0
p < q < k and k C p C q D 1. Consider: k p D .1 k/ .0 .p C 1// D
.0 1/ .k .p C 1// D 0 .p C k/ D p k C 1 D q and so we have again
that k,p,q are collinear.
In Figs 7 and 8, (Z,0) and (Z,1) triple systems are (partially) illustrated. In
the (Z,0) triple system constructed in Theorem 5 we showed that 0 0 D 0.
Since the construction is perfect, this property holds in every (Z,0) triple system.
If a ¤ 0, then a a D .0 a/ .1 .a 1// D .0 1/ .a .a 1// D
1 .2a C 1/ D 2a, so we can say that in a (Z,0) triple system a b D a b
for all a; b 2 Z. In the (Z,1) triple system we showed that 0 0 D 1. If a ¤ 0 then
a a D .0 .a C 1// .1 a/ D .0 1/ .a C 1/ a D 0 2a D 2a C 1, so
we can say that in a (Z,1) triple system a b D 1 a b for all a; b 2 Z. Recall
that a*a denotes the point besides a which lies on the cubic ” and on the tangent
to ” at a. The cubic curve ” containing the points of a geometric triple system T
is called the cubic envelope of T. A nonempty subset of ” which is closed under *
is called a subalgebra or a subgroupoid of the hypercommutative groupoid (”,*).

It is clear from the above that the vertices of a (Z,0) or (Z,1) triple system form
a subalgebra of (”,*). Let T be any (G,0) triple system and H a subgroup of G. If
a; b 2 H, then a b D a b also lies in H and so H is a subgroupoid of T and (H,0)
is a triple system in its own right. We call H a subsystem of T. It is not true that every
subalgebra of T is a subsystem as we see in our next result.
Theorem 7 Let T be a (Z,0) triple system with irreducible cubic envelope and
associated hypercommutative groupoid ( ,*). Then (T,*) contains a subalgebra
equivalent to a (Z,1) triple system.
Proof Let S D f3k 1 W k 2 Zg. If 3s 1; 3t 1 2 S then .3s 1/ .3t 1/ D
3s 3t C 2 D 3 .s t C 1/ 1 2 S, and so S is a subalgebra of T. We cannot
say that S and the associated triples form a subsystem of T since S is not an abelian
group. It is rather a coset of the subsystem of T formed by the multiples of 3. Now
apply the relabeling ¥ .3k 1/ D k to the points in S. If 3s 1; 3t 1; 3q 1 are
points in T which sum to 0 then it must be that the relabeled points sum to 1. Thus
the coset subsystem S of T is equivalent to a (Z,1) triple system.
We now know that the points of a triple system on Z must lie on an irreducible
cubic curve. It is possible to construct such a triple system on any given irreducible
cubic, as we show next. We use the fact [1] that every irreducible cubic curve
contains at least one flex point.
Theorem 8 Let be an irreducible cubic and let e be a flex point of . The
following construction yields a (Z,0) triple system on . Assign vertex 0 to e, and
let vertex 1 be any nonsingular point on which is not a flex point and such
that 1 1 ¤ 0. Let 1 D 0 1; 2 D 1 1; 2 D 0 2; 3 D 1 2 and
3 D 0 3. If points f0; ˙1; ˙2; : : : ; ˙ .k 1/g ; k 3, have been defined, let (i)
k D 1 .k C 1/, and (ii) k D 0 k. We assume that vertex 1, (the generating
vertex), is chosen on so that no point on is assigned more than one integer
label.
Proof Note that vertex 0 must be a flex point since we must have 0*0 D 0 in a
(Z,0) triple system. Observe that (ii) holds for every integer k. We will show first
that (i) also holds for every integer k. It holds for k D 2; 1; 0 and all positive
integers. Now suppose k < 0. Then k > 0 and so by (i) k D 1 .k C 1/
which yields k C 1 D 1 k. Replacing k by k 1 in this last equation yields
(i), and so (i) holds for every integer k. Let T denote the set of points defined in
the Theorem and let a, b be two such points. We must show that a*b is the point
.a C b/ of T. Now using (i), (ii) we obtain: a b D .1 .a C 1// .0 b/ D
.0 .a C 1// .1 b/ D .a 1/ .b C 1/. This yields a b D .a k/ .b C k/
for any integer k. If we take k D a we obtain a b D 0 .a C b/ D .a C b/ as
desired.
The construction of a (Z,1) triple system on a given irreducible cubic curve is

accomplished similarly:
Theorem 9 Let be an irreducible cubic curve. The following construction yields
a (Z,1) triple system with cubic envelope . Let vertex 0 be a nonsingular nonflex
point of and let vertex 1 be the point 0*0. Let 1 D 1 1; let 2 D 0 1 and
2 D 1 2. If k 3 and vertices f0; ˙1; ˙2; : : : ; ˙ .k 1/g have been assigned to
points on , let (i) k D 0 .k C 1/, and (ii) k D 1 k. We assume that vertex 0,
(the generating vertex), is chosen so that no point on is assigned more than one
integer label.
Proof First we show that (i) holds for every integer. It clearly holds for k D 0,1,2
and thus for every nonnegative integer. Now suppose k < 0. Then k > 0 and so by
(i) we have: k D 0 .k C 1/ and thus k C 1 D 0 k. Replacing k by k 1 in
this last equation yields (i). Let T denote the set of integer labeled points as defined
in the Theorem statement and let a,b be two points of T. We must show that a b D
1 a b. Consider: a b D .1 a/ .0 b C 1/ D .0 a/ .1 .b C 1// D
.a C 1/ .b 1/. From this we again obtain that a b D .a C k/ .b k/ for every
integer k. Letting k D b we obtain a b D .a C b/ 0 D a b C 1 as desired.
In Fig. 9 we illustrate the construction of a (Z,0) triple system given in
Theorem 8. For the cubic envelope ” we have selected the curve: xy2 C x3 C
x2 y C 2y D 0 which is symmetric with respect to the origin and has an easily
located flex point at the origin.
In Section 5 we show that triple systems with base Zn can and must be
constructed on an irreducible cubic curve. The perfect constructions given in
Theorems 5, 6 provide the basis for nicer constructions of such triple systems, which
we will outline without proof. Let Q denote the points f0, ˙1, ˙2, ˙3, 4g used in
the starting configuration for our perfect construction of a (Z,0) triple system given
-3
2
7
-4
1 0 5
6 -6
-5 -1
4
-7
-2
Fig. 9 (Z,0) triple system on Type V cubic

2
-5
6 13 -12
-1 20 -19
-8
-15
-22
18
17 -14 -21 11
4
0 -7
10 3 -3
-10
-4 7
-11 14 -17
22
12 19
5 -20 15
-13
-2 -6 1 8
-9

Fig. 10 Z4C7k ; 0 triple system generator
in Theorem 5. Of these we will hold the points f0, ˙1, ˙2, ˙3g as fixed and allow
vertex 4 to move along line Œ1; 3. In accordance with Theorem 5, any position of
vertex 4 on this line which does not result in the same point being assigned more than
one integer label, will yield a (Z,0) triple system T. An example of a possible starting
configuration is given in Fig. 10. In the construction of T we note that as vertex 4
is shifted towards vertex 3, all points which are congruent to k mod 7 converge
towards vertex k, i.e., to one of the eight points in Q. When vertex 4 is made to
coincide with vertex 3, we obtain a (Z7 ,0) triple system. If k 2 Q we call the set
of points of T which are congruent to k mod 7, a k – sequence. Each k-sequence
has an increment ˜ D 7 as the cubic envelope ” of T is traversed in one direction
which we shall call the positive direction. By shifting vertex 4 along line Œ1; 3
away from 3 and towards vertex 1 we may cause points in the adjacent 0- sequence
and 3 – sequence to coincide, i.e., any of the points f7; 14; 21; 28; : : : g can
be made to coincide with any of the points in f: : : ; 25; 18; 11; 4g resulting in triple
systems of the form f.Z4C7k ; 0/ W k D 1; 2; 3; : : : g. In Fig. 11 a (Z39 ,0) triple system
is illustrated which was created by shifting vertex 4 along line Œ1; 3 until the
points 18 and 21 coincide. By further varying the position of vertex 4 on line
Œ1; 3 or by varying the starting configuration many more such triple systems
with base Zn can be obtained. It may be that all triple systems with base Zn , .n 7/,
can be constructed in this fashion, but this we leave as an open question.
34
38 6 13 27
20
31
24
17
18 11
25 4
32
10 0 36
3 29
35 7
28 14
22
15
5 12 19
26
37 33 8
1
30
Fig. 11 .Z39 ; 0/ triple system
4 Types of Cubic Curves
According to Bix [1] there are three types of singular irreducible cubic curves: those
which can be transformed into:
(I) y2 D x3 ,
(II) y2 D x2 (x C 1), or
(III) y2 D x2 .x 1/.
These are illustrated in Figs. 12, 13 and 14 Each has one singular point at the
origin and one flex point at infinity on vertical lines. Again, in accordance with
Bix, there are two types of nonsingular irreducible cubic curves; those which can be
transformed into:
(IV) y2 D x .x
1/ .x w/;
w > 1, or
(V) y2 D x x2 C kx C 1 ; 2 < k < 2.
These are illustrated in Figs. 15 and 16. Each of these has three collinear flex
points, one of which is the point at infinity on vertical lines. Type V cubics consist
of one connected component when regarded in the projective plane, and Type IV
cubics have two connected components which we call the bell and the oval. If ” is a
Fig. 12 Type I cubic y2 D x3
Fig. 13 Type II cubic y2 D x3 (x C 1)
Type IV cubic then the bell of ” is a subalgebra of (”,*). A subset S of an irreducible

cubic curve with the property that if a; b 2 S then a*b lies in the complement of S is
called anticlosed. A maximal anticlosed set is an anticlosed set which is not a proper
subset of any other anticlosed subset of ”. In a Type I cubic the unique singularity
separates two maximal anticlosed sets. In a Type II cubic the unique singularity at
the self-crossing point separates the curve into three maximal anticlosed sets one
of which is the loop section of the curve. In Type III and Type V cubics the three
flex points separate the curve into three maximal anticlosed sets and in Type IV
cubics the three flex points separate the bell into three maximal anticlosed sets, and
additionally, the oval is a maximal anticlosed subset of the cubic. Any of the five
Types of irreducible cubic curves can serve as the envelope for a (Z,0) or (Z,1) triple
system. In Fig. 17 a (Z,0) triple system T is (partially) represented on a Type II cubic
Fig. 14 Type III cubic y2 D x2 .x 1/
Fig. 15 Type IV cubic y2 D x .x 1/ .x 2/
”; note that the singularity at the self-crossing point is an accumulation point for the
vertex set of the triple system. The loop portion of the curve is anticlosed and the
remainder of the curve is a subalgebra. For this reason, if x is any nonsingular point
of ”, then x*x must lie in the subalgebra and thus all even vertices 2m D m m
must lie in the subalgebra and only odd vertices can lie on the loop. Similarly, if
T is a (Z,0) triple system with a Type IV cubic envelope ”, then it may be that all
the vertices of T lie on the bell of ”, or it may be that all the odd vertices lie on the
oval and all the even vertices lie on the bell of ” as in Fig. 18. In either case, since
0 0 D 0 vertex 0 must be a flex point of ”. If S is a (Z,1) triple system with Type
IV cubic envelope then all the vertices of S may lie on the bell of or it may be
that all the even vertices of S lie on the oval and all the odd vertices on the bell of
as in Fig. 19. No flex point of is a vertex of S.

Fig. 16 Type V cubic y2 D x x2 1:98x C 1
1 3
-4
5
7 -6
-7
6
-5
-1 -3 4
Fig. 17 (Z,0) triple system on Type 2 cubic
5 Triple Systems with Base Zn
The constructions given in Theorems 8, 9 provide the basis for our general
construction of triple systems on Zn . First we assume the existence of such triple
systems and show that they must lie on an irreducible cubic curve of Type III, IV
or V.
Theorem 10 Let T be a triple system with base Zn . If n 10 then the vertices of T
lie on an irreducible cubic curve of Type III, IV or V.
-8
-6
10 1 3
-4 -1
5
12
-3
-2 -5 -9
9 -7 7
0
2
-12
Fig. 18 (Z,0) triple system on Type IV cubic
2 -12
10
-11
-6 -4
11
-3 0
5 14 4
-9 6 -2 -10
12
-1
-15
7
-7 15
Fig. 19 (Z,1) triple system with odd vertices on bell and even vertices on oval
Proof First suppose T is a (Zn ,0) triple system and let S D f0; 1; 1; 2; 2; 3; 3;
4; 5g. Any set of nine points lies on some cubic so let ’ denote a cubic curve which
contains these nine vertices of T. No three triples of T contain all nine vertices of S
so ’ cannot consist of three lines. If any triple of T in S is removed there remains at
least one triple of T among the remaining vertices of S. No conic can contain three
collinear points so ’ cannot consist of a line and a conic.
Consequently ’ must be irreducible and the vertices of T must all correspond to

nonsingular points on ’. We can thus apply Lemma 4 to the 0-square:
2 3
4 1 3
4 1 3 2 5
3 1 2
To conclude that vertex 4 must also lie on ’. If n D 10 then we have all ten
vertices of T on ’. If n 11 then the 0-square:
2 3
5 5 0
4 1 4 3 5
4 1 3
Implies by Lemma 4 that vertex 5 lies on ’. If n D 11 we are done. Otherwise

suppose n 12, and consider the 0-squares:
2 3 2 3
6 4 2 6 4 2
4 5 3 2 5 4 5 3 2 5
1 1 0 1 1 0
The first 0-square shows that vertex 6 lies on ’, and if n D 12 we are done. If
n 13, then the second 0-square shows that 6 lies on ’. Now assume inductively
that the points fk; : : : ; 0; : : : ; kg have been shown to lie on ’ with k 6 and n
2k C 2, and consider the 0-square:
2 3
k C 1 3 k C 2
4 1 1 0 5
k 2 k2
Since n 2k C 2 and k 6, the entries in this square are all distinct and all are
known to lie on ’ by the inductive hypothesis except for vertex k C 1. But then, by
Lemma 4, k C 1 also lies on ’. If n D 2k C 2 then we are done, else n 2k C 3 and
we consider the 0-square formed by the inverses of the entries in the above square:
2 3
k 1 3 k 2
4 1 1 0 5
k 2 k C 2
The entries in this square are all distinct and all except for k 1 lie on ’ by
the inductive hypothesis. By Lemma 4 vertex k 1 must also lie on ’ and so the
induction is complete.
Now suppose T is a (Zn ,1) triple system. We have n 10 by hypothesis, and if 3

does not divide n, then T is equivalent to a (Zn ,0) triple system and we are done by
the first part of the proof. So we can assume that n 12. Let “ denote the irreducible
cubic curve which contains the nine points f0; ˙1; ˙2; ˙3; ˙4g of T. Consider the
1-squares:
2 3 2 3
5 4 0 5 5 1
4 1 4 2 5 4 4 0 3 5
3 1 3 2 4 3
The first of these shows that vertex 5 lies on “, and then the second shows that
vertex 5 lies on “. The 1-square:
2 3
6 5 0
4 1 4 2 5
4 2 3
Shows that vertex 6 lies on “. If n D 12 we are done, otherwise, (since we need

only consider multiples of 3), we can assume that n 15. Consider the 1-squares:
2 3 2 3 2 3
6 6 1 7 2 4 7 7 1
4 4 1 2 5 4 1 2 0 5 4 2 6 5 5
3 4 2 5 1 5 6 0 5
These show successively that vertices 6; 7; 7 lie on “. If n D 15 we are done.

Now assume inductively that the points fk; : : : ; 0; : : : ; kg of T have been shown to
lie on “, that k 7 and n 2k C 2. Then the entries in the 1-square:
2 3
k C 1 k 0
4 1 k 1 k C 3 5
kC1 2 k2
are all distinct and all lie on “ by the inductive hypothesis, except for vertex k which
by Lemma 4 must also lie on “. If n D 2k C 2 we are done, otherwise n 2k C 3
and the entries in the 1-square:
2 3
k C 1 k 1 1
4 1 k 1 k C 3 5
kC1 3 k3
are all distinct and show that k 1 also lies on “. This completes the induction and
so we have shown that a geometric triple system with base Zn has all its vertices on
an irreducible cubic curve.
It remains to show that Type I and Type II cubics cannot contain triple systems
with base Zn . Consider the generic Type II cubic ” illustrated in Figs. 13 and 17
and suppose A is a nonsingular, nonflex point on this curve. The curve has three
sections: the loop in the second and third quadrants; the section in the first quadrant
and the section in the fourth quadrant. If A lies on the loop then A*A lies either in
the first or the fourth quadrant section, since the loop is anticlosed. The combined
first and fourth quadrant sections form a subalgebra of (”,*). The first as well as the
fourth quadrant sections are anticlosed: if A lies in the first quadrant then A*A lies
in the fourth, and if A lies in the fourth then A*A lies in the first. More significantly,
if A lies in either the first or fourth section, and A is not the point 1 at infinity on

origin. If we let ¥ .x/ D x x, then
”, then A*A ˚lies closer to the singularity at the
2 3
the sequence A; ¥ .A/ ; ¥ .A/ ; ¥ .A/ ; : : : : is infinite. We conclude that f1g and
f1; .1; 0/g are the only finite subalgebras of .”; /. If n > 2 then a triple system
with base Zn on ” would be a finite nontrivial subalgebra of .”; / which as we
see is not possible. If ” is a Type I cubic, a similar analysis shows that f1g is the
unique finite subalgebra of .”; /, and thus no nontrivial finite triple systems can be
constructed on ”.
Having shown that triple systems with base Zn must lie on irreducible cubic
curves, we now start with an irreducible cubic and construct the triple system on it.
A triple system as defined does not have much meaning when n D 1 or 2 since three
points are required to make even a single triple. But in the context of an irreducible
cubic curve ”, the three collinear flex points count as, (trivial), Z1 triple systems,
and a two element set fa,eg where e is a flex point of ” and a a D e, is a Z2 triple
system. The three flex points of ” form a Z3 triple system. Ultimately it will be
important for us to describe exactly how many distinct but equivalent triple systems
with base Zn can be accommodated on a given Type IV or Type V cubic curve, but
first we give the constructions:
Theorem 11 For each positive integer n, a triple system with base Zn can be
constructed on an irreducible cubic curve.
Proof First suppose n is odd and let ” denote the Type V cubic with equation:
xy2 C x3 C x2 y C 2y D 0 illustrated in Fig. 9. We will construct a (Z2n , 0) triple
system on ” by following the procedure given in Theorem 8 and then shifting the
generating vertex, (vertex 1), so that the points f.n 1/ =2; .n C 1/ =2g lie on a
vertical line. Let 1 denote the point at infinity on vertical lines and let 0 denote
the flex point of ” at the origin. Let A, B denote the two points on ” which satisfy
A A D B B D 1. (We call A,B the square-roots of 1.) Choose vertex 1 in section
(0,A) of ” and near vertex 0. Following the construction given in Theorem 8, we
find that the points f1; 2; 3; : : : g occur sequentially on ” as we traverse ” from 0 in
a positive direction. The reflections f1; 2; 3; : : : g occur sequentially on ” as ”
is traversed from 0 in a negative direction. By choosing vertex 1 sufficiently close
to vertex 0 we can arrange for the section (0,A) of ” to contain precisely the points
f1; 2; 3; : : : ; .n 1/ =2g. Then the first point of section (A,1) will be (n C 1)/2. By
further shifting of vertex 1 we can arrange for the points f.n 1/ =2; .n C 1/ =2g to
lie on a vertical line. In case n is even we follow the same procedure, but shift vertex
n1
1 until point n/2 coincides with A. If n is odd then 1 D nC1 2 2
D n and if n
is even then n D n2 n2 D A A D 1, so in either case 0 D 1 1 D n n.
But also n n D 0, so we have n D n D 1. The coincidence of the points
n; n forces any two points of the (Z,0) triple system which are congruent mod 2n
to coincide: if a 2 Z then a n D a n D a C n implies a D a C 2n. Thus the (Z,0)
triple system constructed in accordance with Theorem 8 collapses to a (Z2n ,0) triple
system T on ”. Now let S D f0; 2; 4; : : : ; 2n 2g denote the set of even vertices of
T and relabel them by the mapping ¥ W S ! Zn defined by ¥ .2k/ D k. Then the
points ¥ .S/ form a (Zn , 0) triple system on ”.
To construct a (Zn , 1) triple system on ” we first construct a (Z3n , 0) triple system
T on ” using the method in the first paragraph. Let S D f3k 1 W k D 1; 2; : : : ; ng,
then S is easily seen to be a subalgebra of (T,*) and, in fact, a coset subsystem. The
relabeling ¥ W S ! Zn given by: ¥ .3k 1/ D k (mod n) turns S into a (Zn , 1) triple
system.
Note that a geometric triple system is a pure incidence structure and so is
preserved by transformations of the projective plane. Our construction of Zn triple
systems on a particular Type V cubic therefore means that such triple systems can
be constructed on any Type V cubic. Similar procedures can be used to construct Zn
triple systems on a Type IV cubic curve ”. If the generating vertex lies on the bell
then the entire triple system will lie on the bell. If the generating vertex (vertex 1) is
chosen on the oval then we have the following possibilities. If n is even and T is a
(Z,0) triple system on ” then every even vertex 2k of T is equivalent to k k and
must lie on the bell since the oval is anticlosed and so cannot contain the square of
any of its vertices, and the bell is a subalgebra which consequently contains the
square of any of its vertices. The oval must then be populated with all the odd
vertices of T. In Fig. 31, (see Appendix) we illustrate
a (Z18 ,0) triple system on
the Type IV cubic with equation: xy2 D .x 1/ 16 x2 . This curve is symmetric
with respect to the x-axis and has a flex point at the point at infinity on vertical
lines. We let vertex 0 be this point at infinity, then as a consequence vertices k; k
are reflections of each other across the x-axis for each integer k. Let A,B denote
the two points on the oval and on the x-axis as in Fig. 31, and select the generating
vertex, (vertex 1) on the oval near point A. As the construction proceeds, the odd
vertices form consecutively on the oval with increment 2 and the even vertices fall
consecutively on the bell also with increment 2. By shifting vertex 1 on the oval
we can arrange for vertex n/2 to coincide with point B, resulting in a (Zn ,0) triple
system on ”. If a is a vertex of T on the oval, (and vertex 1 lies on the oval), then
the mapping ¥ .a/ D 1 a is a bijection between the points of T on the oval and the
points of T on the bell. And so T must have an even number of vertices. From this
we have:
Theorem 12 For any positive integer n, a (Zn ,0) triple system T can be constructed
on the bell of a Type IV cubic curve. If n is odd then every vertex of T must lie on the
bell. If n is even then T can be constructed with its odd vertices on the oval and its
even vertices on the bell.
The situation is reversed for a (Zn ,1) triple system T with vertices on the oval of a
type IV cubic curve ”. T must again have an even number n of vertices but this time
every odd vertex is a square and so must lie on the bell. The even vertices must all
lie on the oval along with the generating vertex (vertex 0). That such a triple system
exists can be argued by first constructing a (Z3n ,0) triple system T0 according to the
above prescription and then taking points of the form 3k-1 from T0 and relabeling
by the mapping ¥ .3k 1/ D k. A (Z18 ,1) triple system of this type with increment
2 is illustrated in Fig. 32, (see Appendix). We thus have:
Theorem 13 For any positive integer n, a (Zn ,1) triple system T can be constructed
on a Type IV cubic curve. If n is odd then every vertex of T must lie on the bell. If
n is even then T can be constructed with its even vertices on the oval and its odd
vertices on the bell.
We shall refer to a triple system which has half of its vertices on the bell and the
other half on the oval of a Type IV cubic as a split triple system.
6 Construction of Zn Triple Systems Using Equilateral

Triangles
If T is a triple system with base Zn and 3jn then we have found a beautiful
construction of T using concentric equilateral triangles. The construction will be
accomplished by putting the vertices of T on an irreducible cubic curve which has a
rotational symmetry of order 3. We first determine the formula for such a curve.
Theorem 14 After a suitable rotation an irreducible cubic curve which rotates onto
itself clockwise about the origin through an angle of 120ı has an equation of the
form:

.e 3ax/ y2 C ax3 C ex2 C j D 0: (6)
Proof The general equation of a cubic is given by:
ax3 C bx2 y C cxy2 C dy3 C ex2 C fxy C gy2 C hx C ky C j D 0; (7)
and the equations:

p ! p !
0 1 3 0 3 1
x D x y y D x y (8)
2 2 2 2
effect a clockwise rotation of 120ı of the point (x,y) to the point (x0 , y0 ). Now
substituting x0 for x and y0 for y in (7), we obtain:
( p ! )3 ( p ! )2 ( p ! )
1 3 1 3 3 1
a x y Cb x y x y
2 2 2 2 2 2
( p ! )( p ! )2
1 3 3 1
Cc x y x y
2 2 2 2
( p ! ) 3 ( p ! )2
3 1 1 3
Cd x y Ce x y
2 2 2 2
( p ! )( p ! ) ( p ! )2
1 3 3 1 3 1
Cf x y x y Cg x y
2 2 2 2 2 2
( p ! ) ( p ! )
1 3 3 1
Ch x y Ck x y C j D 0:
2 2 2 2 (9)
Since (7), (9) must represent the same cubic curve ”, we can equate correspond-
ing coefficients. By equating the coefficients of x we obtain:
p
3h D k 3; (10)
And by equating the coefficients of y we obtain:

p
3k D h 3: (11)
Solving (10), (11) yields h D k D 0. Equating the coefficients of x2 yields:

p
3e D 3g f 3; (12)
And equating the coefficients of xy we obtain:

p
f 3 D e g: (13)
The Eqs. (12) and (13) yield e D g, and then from (12) we obtain f D 0. With
these results the Eq. (7) of ” reduces to:

ax3 C bx2 y C cxy2 C dy3 C e x2 C y2 C j D 0: (14)
By equating coefficients of y3 in (9), (14) we obtain:

p p
9d D 3 3 a 3b 3 c; (15)
and by equating the coefficients of xy2 in (9), (14) we obtain:

p p
3c D 9a C 3 b C 3 3 d: (16)
Solving (15), (16) together yields b D 3d, and substituting this for b in (15)
yields c D 3a. Equating the coefficients of x3 or of x2 y yields only redundant
equations. Equation (14) can then be rewritten:

ax3 3dx2 y 3axy2 C dy3 C e x2 C y2 C j D 0: (17)
To further simplify the equation of ”, we can rotate ” about the origin until it
contains the point (0,1,0) at infinity on vertical lines. The homogenization of (17)
is:

ax3 3dx2 y 3axy2 C dy3 C ez x2 C y2 C jz3 D 0: (18)
Putting x D 0, y D 1 and z D 0 in (18) yields d D 0, and so (17) reduces to:

ax3 3axy2 C e x2 C y2 C j D 0: (19)
Since y can be replaced by y without changing Eq. (19), ” is symmetric wrt the
x-axis. In (19) clearly a cannot be 0, so we can divide by a and rename coefficients
to obtain:

x3 3xy2 C e x2 C y2 C k D 0: (20)

In the next result we develop important algebraic properties pertaining to a cubic
curve with a 120ı rotational symmetry.
Lemma 15 Let be an irreducible cubic curve with rotational symmetry of order
three about the origin. Then (i) is an automorphism of .; / of order 3, and (ii)
b .c/ D .b/ c D 2 .b/ 2 .c/ for any points b, c on ”.
Proof We may assume that the equation of ” is given by (20) and so consists of
three petals each of which have an axial symmetry as in Fig. 20. Let 1v ; 1u ; 1w
denote the three points at infinity on ”. These also are the three flex points of ”
and form a subalgebra I of (”,*). Let b be a point of the Euclidean plane on ”,
and let˚’ denote the circle
with center at the origin and which contains the points
b D b; Ÿ .b/ ; Ÿ2 .b/ . (In Fig. 20 we use the notation b0 D Ÿ .b/, and b00 D Ÿ2 .b/).
This circle meets ” in three more points, counting multiplicities, which are given by
fb 1u ; b 1v ; b 1w g due to the aforementioned symmetry of the petals of ”. We
also see that the following equations hold:
b 1u D Ÿ.b/ 1v D Ÿ2 .b/ 1w ; (21)

c
b*∞u
a" b a c'
b"
b*∞w
b*∞v
b'
a'
c"
Fig. 20 Cubic curve with 120ı rotational symmetry
b 1v D Ÿ.b/ 1w D Ÿ2 .b/ 1u ; (22)
b 1w D Ÿ.b/ 1u D Ÿ2 .b/ 1v : (23)
If we let q D b*1v then we see that q I D b , i.e., every equilateral triangle

with its vertices on ” is a translate of I. If c is a second point on ”, then c D p I
for some p 2 ”, and b c D .q I/ .p I/ D .q p/ .I I/ D .q p/ I D b c .
We may call b a coset of the subalgebra I, then, as in the theory of groups,
the product of two cosets of I is a coset of I. General properties of cosets of
a subalgebra of a hypercommutative algebra are given in [2]. If s,t are any two
points on ”, then of course the points fs,t,s*tg are collinear. Since Ÿ preserves
lines it must be that the points fŸ .s/ ; Ÿ .t/ ; Ÿ .s t/g are collinear, when it follows
immediately that Ÿ.s/ Ÿ .t/ D Ÿ .s t/g, ˚ and thus Ÿ is an automorphism
of (”,*).
The points of b c must be given by b c; b Ÿ .c/ ; b Ÿ2 .c/ . If we set a D b c,
2 2 2
then we˚ have Ÿ .a/ D Ÿ.b/ Ÿ .c/, and Ÿ .a/ D Ÿ .b/ Ÿ .c/. Then we must have
2
Ÿ .a/ 2 b Ÿ .c/ ; b Ÿ .c/ . We cannot have Ÿ .a/ D b Ÿ .c/ since this would imply
Ÿ.b/ Ÿ .c/ D b Ÿ .c/ which yields b D Ÿ .b/ by cancellation. So we must have
Ÿ.b/ Ÿ .c/ D Ÿ .a/ D b Ÿ2 .c/, and Ÿ2 .b/ Ÿ2 .c/ D Ÿ2 .a/ D b Ÿ .c/. In the equation
Ÿ.b/ Ÿ .c/ D b Ÿ2 .c/, if we replace c by Ÿ2 .c/, we obtain Ÿ.b/ c D b Ÿ .c/ as
desired.
Now we are prepared to give our intended construction of a Zn triple system
using equilateral triangles.
Theorem 16 Let be an irreducible cubic curve of Type V with rotational

symmetry of order three about the origin. If 3jn, say n D 3m, then a (Zn ,0) triple
system with its vertices on has the property that the three points of every coset of
I D f0,m,2mg, different from I, form an equilateral triangle.
Proof By Theorem 11, a (Zn , 0) triple system T can be constructed on ”. Since n
is a multiple of 3, T is unique up to equivalence, (look ahead to Corollary 24 !).
Let Ÿ denote the rotational symmetry of order 3 of ”. We have shown that Ÿ is an
automorphism of (”,*), and since T is unique, it must be that the restriction of Ÿ to
the subalgebra T, is an automorphism of T. We apply the equation b Ÿ .c/ D Ÿ.b/ c
from Lemma 15 with b D 0 to obtain 0 Ÿ .c/ D Ÿ.0/ c which yields Ÿ .c/ D
m c or Ÿ .c/ D c C m. Note that the vertices f0,m,2mg of T must be flex points
of ” and thus they represent the three points at infinity. So Ÿ.0/ must be m or 2m,
and we can suppose without loss of generality that Ÿ.0/ D m. Since Ÿ is a rotational
symmetry of order 3, and Ÿ .c/ D c C m, it follows that for each nonzero element c
of Zn , the points fc; c m; c C 2mg D c C I form an equilateral triangle.
In Fig. 21 we illustrate a (Z18 , 0) triple system constructed in accordance with
Theorem 16. The result of Theorem 16 also applies to the case in which ” is a Type
IV cubic and T is a split (Zn ,0) triple system. In Fig. 22 we illustrate a split (Z18 ,0)
triple system with its vertices on a cubic curve with 120ı rotational symmetry. If
3jn then, in accordance with Theorem 1, a (Zn ,1) triple system is not equivalent to
a (Zn ,0) triple system, but such a triple system also has a construction involving
equilateral triangles. A (Z18 ,1) triple system is illustrated in Fig. 23 in which each
three element subset of Z18 of the form fq; q C m; q C 2mg ; .m D n=3/ corresponds
to an equilateral triangle. With the help of Lemma 15 we can prove the following
interesting result concerning nested equilateral triangles.
11
2
10 3
5
4
14 13
8 15
γ
16
7
17
Fig. 21 Equilateral triangle construction of (Z18 , 0) triple system

14
10
1
5 15
11 16
9
7 2
13 3 γ
17
Fig. 22 (Z18 , 0) triple system on Type 2 cubic: equilateral construction with vertices 0,6,12 at
infinity
13 5
4 1
14
3
2
15
16 10 11
17 9
8
12
0 7
Fig. 23 Equilateral construction of (Z18 ,1) triple system
Theorem 17 Let
B D .B; B0 ; B00 / be an equilateral triangle with one vertex on
each side of an equilateral triangle
A D .A; A0 ; A00 /, and let
C D .C; C0 ; C00 /
be an equilateral triangle with one vertex on each side of
B as in Fig. 24. Let
D D ŒA; C0 \ Œ A0 ; C I D0 D ŒA0 ; C00 \ Œ A00 ; C0 ; D00 D ŒA00 ; C \ ŒA; C00 ; E D
ŒB; D00 \ Œ B00 ; D I E0 D ŒB; D0 \ Œ B0 ; D I E00 D ŒB0 ; D00 \ Œ B00 ; D0 ; F D ŒE; A0 \
ŒA; E0 I F 0 D ŒE0 ; A00 \ Œ E00 ; A0 I F 00 D ŒE00 ; A \ ŒE; A00 . Then F lies on ŒC; C0 ; F 0
lies on ŒC0 ; C00 , and F 00 lies on ŒC00 ; C.
A'
B C'
B'
D
F E' F' D'
E E"
C F" C"
D"
A A"
B"
Fig. 24 Nested equilateral triangle Theorem
Proof Note that (17) is the general equation of an irreducible cubic curve ”
with a 120ı rotational symmetry about the origin. In this equation interchanging
the coefficients a,d leaves the equation unchanged, and a,d cannot both be zero
otherwise we no longer have a cubic. So we can suppose without loss of generality
that a ¤ 0, and then divide (17) by a to obtain an equation for ” with only the
three free coefficients d,e,j. Consequently just the three points A,B,C determine ”,
and thus ” contains the nine distinct points belonging to the equilateral triangles
A ; B ; C . Since A,B, A0 are collinear we have A A0 D B; A0 A00 D B0 , etc. By
Lemma 15, all the points D; D0 ; D00 ; E; E0 ; E00 ; F; F0 ; F00 also lie on ”. Then:
˚ ˚ 0 0 00
C C0 D .B B00 / .B B00 / D .A A0 / .A A00 / .A A / .A A /
˚ 0 0 00 ˚ 0 00
D .A A / .A A / . A A/ .A A /

D ŒA .A A/ Œf A .A A0 / .A0 A00 / .A0 A00 / g

D A fA .B B0 /g fA0 A00 g D A Œ .A C0 / .A0 A00 /

D A .D B0 / D A E0 D F:
Thus F lies on [C, C0 ], and by 120ı rotations we obtain F0 on [C0 , C00 ], and F00 on
[C ,C].
00
7 Increments
We have observed in all our constructions of triple systems on Zn that there is a

constant increment between consecutive vertices as the cubic envelope is traversed
in one direction. This property is proved in our next result.
Theorem 18 Let T be a triple system with base Zn and irreducible cubic envelope .
If s is any point of T, let (s) denote its successor on as is traversed in one
direction. Then there exists an integer k such that .s/ D s C k for all s in T.
Proof Let ¡(s) denote the predecessor of vertex s on ”. Since ¢(s) is the successor of
s, it must be that ss D .s/ .s/. Suppose .s/ D sCk for some integer k. If T is
a (Zn ,0) triple system then .s/ .s/ D .s/ .s/ D 2s implies .s/ D s k.
If T is a (Zn ,1) triple system then 1 .s/ .s/ D .s/ .s/ D s s D 1 2s
implies similarly that ¡ .s/ D s k. thus for any triple system with base Zn on ” and
for any three consecutive vertices of such a triple system, the increment (k) between
the first and second vertex is the same as the increment between the second and
third. This implies .s/ D s C k for every vertex s of T.
We call the value k stipulated by Theorem 18 the increment of T. The construc-
tion given in Theorem 11 shows that triple systems on Zn can have an increment
of 1. Suppose T is a (Zn ,0) triple system on a Type V cubic curve with increment
1, and suppose t is an integer relatively prime to n. Then the relabeling of T given
by ¥ .s/ D ts produces a triple system on Zn with sum 0 which is equivalent to
T and which has increment t. On the other hand, If t is not relatively prime to n,
then the multiples of t form a proper subgroup of Zn and so the full triple system T
cannot be formed. If we start with a (Zn ,0) triple system with increment t and relabel
according to the inverse of ¥, we obtain an equivalent triple system with increment 1.
In accordance with Theorem 1, a (Zn ,1) triple system is equivalent to a (Zn ,0) triple
system in case gcd .n; 3/ D 1. The relabelings used, namely adding a fixed integer
k to each vertex or replacing a vertex by its inverse, preserve the set of possible
increments. Finally if T is a (Zn ,1) triple system with Type V cubic envelope ” and
with n a multiple of 3, let t be an integer relatively prime to n. The relabeling of T
given by § .s/ D ts transforms T into a (Zn ,t) triple system S equivalent to T but
with increment t. In accordance with Theorem 1, S is in turn, equivalent to a (Zn ,1)
triple system via relabelings which either preserve the increment or negate it. So we
have:
Theorem 19 Let T be a triple system with base Zn on a Type V cubic curve. Then T
can have increment t for any t 2 f1; 2; : : : ; n 1g which is relatively prime to n. In
any case T is equivalent to a triple system on with increment 1.
In Theorem 19 we can replace “Type V” with “Type III” or “bell of a Type IV”,
but for triple systems on a Type IV cubic which have vertices both on the bell and
the oval the increment between consecutive vertices must be a multiple of 2 since
either the odd (even) vertices lie together on the bell and the even (odd) vertices lie
together on the oval. Such triple systems must have an even number of vertices. We
have seen, as in the discussion following Theorem 11, that a (Zn ,0) triple system
can be constructed with clockwise (around the oval) increment 2, (See Appendix
Fig. 31).
Theorem 20 Let T be a (Zn ,0) triple system on a Type IV cubic curve with even
vertices on the bell and odd oval of . Then
˚ vertices on the T can have clockwise
increment 2t for any t 2 1; 2; : : : ; n2 1 with gcd t; n2 D 1. In any case T is
equivalent to a (Zn ,0) triple system on with increment 2.
Proof Let T be a (Zn ,0) triple system as described in the Theorem statement which
has increment 2. Such a triple system exists as per our discussion following Theorem
11 where it is also made clear that T must have an even number of vertices which we
classify as odd and even. The even vertices must lie on the bell and the odd ones on
the oval. This
explains why only even increments are possible. It is also not possible
for gcd t; n2 > 1, since such increments would yield only the points belonging to a
subgroup of Zn . Now suppose first that n/2 is odd and define the following mapping
¥ W Zn ! Zn
n
If t is even let ¥ .x/ D ftx if x is even I C t x if x is oddg
2
If t is odd let¥ .x/ D tx for each x 2 Zn
Note that whether t is even or odd, ¥ is a bijection. Suppose t is odd and a; b; c 2

T with a C b C c D 0 (mod n). Then ¥ .a/ C ¥ .b/ C ¥ .c/ D ta C tb C tc D
t .a C b C c/ D 0 (mod n). Thus ¥ .T/ is a (Zn ,0) triple system equivalent to T which
clearly has increment 2t. Now suppose t is even and a; b; c 2 T with a C b C c D 0
(mod n). There are essentially two cases to consider: (I) a,b,c are all even and ¥ .T/
is a .Zn ; 0/ triple system equivalent to T with increment 2t
as inthe previous
line. (II)
a,b are odd and c is even. Then ¥ .a/ C ¥ .b/ C ¥ .c/ D n2 C t a C n2 C t b C tc D
t .a C b C c/ C n2 .a C b/ D 0. Note that n2 .a C b/ D 0 (mod n) since a C b is
even and so n2 .a C b/ is a multiple of n.

Next suppose n/2 is even. Then gcd t; n2 D 1 implies that t is odd. Let § W
Zn ! Zn be defined by ¥ .x/ D tx . mod n/. This relabeling of T yields a (Zn ,0)
triple system equivalent to T with increment 2t. In Fig. 25 we illustrate a (Z16 ,0)
triple system with increment 2. The construction technique is essentially the same
as the one used, for example in Fig. 31, for a sum 0 triple system on Zn where n/2 is
odd, except that we shift the generating vertex, (vertex 1), on the oval until vertices
n
2
1; n2 C 1 lie on a vertical line. Now we consider the case for split (Zn ,1) triple
systems on a Type IV cubic curve.
Theorem 21 A split (Zn ,1) triple system can have clockwise increment 2t for any
t 2 f1; 2; : : : ; n 1g with gcd .t; n/ D 1. All such triple systems are equivalent to a
split (Zn ,1) triple system with clockwise increment 2.
6
3 5
7
1
8
15 9
13 11
10
12
14
Fig. 25 (Z16 ,0) triple system on Type IV cubic
Proof Let T be a split (Z3n ,0) triple system, (n even), with clockwise increment
2 and let S D f3k 1 W k 2 Zn g denote the coset subsystem of T consisting of
points of the form 3k 1. The relabeling of S given by ¥ .3k 1/ D k turns ¥(S)
into a split (Zn ,1) triple system Q on ” with clockwise increment 2. Note that the
relabeling replaces odd vertices with even ones and even vertices with odd ones. Let
t 2 f1; 2; 3; : : : ; n 1g with gcd .t; n/ D 1 and define § W Q ! Zn by § .x/ D tx.
This relabeling turns Q into a (Zn ,t) triple system R on ” with clockwise increment
2t (mod n). Suppose n is not a multiple of 3. Then gcd .t; 3/ D 1, and R is equivalent
by Theorem 1 to a (Zn ,1) triple system by means of relabelings which preserve the
increment. So in this case we obtain a (Zn ,1) triple system with clockwise increment
2t (mod n) which is equivalent to Q. If 3jn and t has the form 3k C 1 then, again
by Theorem 1, R is equivalent to a (Zn ,1) triple system with clockwise increment
2t (mod n). If 3jn and t has the form 3k 1 then R is again equivalent to a (Zn ,1)
triple system but a relabeling is required which replaces each vertex by its inverse
resulting in a counterclockwise increment of 2t. However, gcd .t; n/ D 1 implies
gcd .n t; n/ D 1, and if t has the form 3k 1 and n D 3m, then n t has the form
3 .m k/ C 1 and so we obtain anyway a (Zn ,1) triple system equivalent to Q with
a clockwise increment of 2t.
8 Vertex Location and Uniqueness
Our objective in this section is to show that for each integer n, up to equivalence,
there is a unique (Zn ,0) triple system on a Type V, Type III or bell of a Type IV cubic,
which has a given flex point identified with vertex 0. To facilitate this objective we
first determine precise locations for the vertices of such a triple system. In Fig. 33,
(see appendix), we illustrate a typical Type V cubic curve ” with collinear flex points
e,f,g. We shall consider a positive traversal of ” to be the traversal which encounters
e,f,g consecutively in this order. We use the notation (e,f) to denote the section of ”
covered in a positive traversal of ” from e to f. Similarly sections (f,g) and (g,e) are
defined. In Fig. 33 (g,e) contains the point at infinity.
Theorem 22 Let be a Type V, Type III or bell of a Type IV cubic curve with
collinear flex points e,f,g as in Fig. 33, and let T be a (Zn ,0) triple system with cubic
envelope with vertex 0 identified with the flex point f. Then T is equivalent to a
(Zn ,0) triple system with its vertices located on as follows: (i) if n D 3k then all
three flex points are vertices of T with e D 2k; f D 0 and g D k. Moreover vertices
f2k C 1; : : : ; 3k 1g lie in (e,f); vertices f1; : : : ; k 1g lie in (f,g) and vertices
fk C 1; : : : ; 2k 1g lie in (g,e). (ii) If n D 3k C 1 then f D 0 is the only flex point
of T, and vertices f2k C 1; : : : ; 3kg lie in (e,f); vertices f1, : : : ,kg lie in (f,g) and
vertices fk C 1; : : : ; 2kg lie in (g,e). (iii) If n D 3k C 2 then f D 0 is the only flex
point of T, and vertices f2k C 2; : : : ; 3k C 1g lie in (e,f); vertices f1, : : : ,kg lie in
(f,g) and vertices fk C 1; : : : ; 2k C 1g lie in (g,e).
Proof Let (”,*) be the usual thirdpoint groupoid defined on the points of ”. Then
(T,*) is a subalgebra of (”,*) which satisfies a b D .a C b/. The flex points e,f,g
of ” are precisely the idempotent elements of (”,*). If n D 3k then points f0,k,2kg
satisfy x D x x D 2x and so all three flex points of ” must belong to T. If n is not
a multiple of 3 then vertex 0 is the unique flex point of T. By Theorem 19 we may
regard T as having increment 1 in the positive direction. If n D 3k then we must
have e D 2k, f D 0 and g D k. This immediately forces the vertices of T to align
themselves as indicated in (i) of the Theorem statement. Now suppose n D 3k C 1
and define § W .f; g/ ! .e; f/ by § .x/ D f x D 0 x. This mapping is a bijection
which induces a one to one correspondence between the points of T in (f,g) and the
points of T in (e,f). Note that k k D k C 1 and k is the only point of T which squares
to its successor in the positive direction along T. As a consequence the vertices k,
k C 1 cannot lie together in any of the intervals (e,f), (f,g), (g,e), since these are
anticlosed subsets of ”. Also f D 0 is the only flex point belonging to T so neither
k nor k C 1 can be a boundary point for these intervals. It must then be that k is
the last point of T in one of these intervals, and k C 1 is the first point of T in the
succeeding interval. The points 3k and 1 directly precede and follow f and neither
can k, k C 1 precede and follow the flex point e: If k C 1 follows e on ” then the
2k points fk C 1, : : : . ,3kg must all lie in (e,f). But then due to the bijection §,
the interval (f,g) must contain another 2k points of T, which is impossible since 4k
exceeds the number of vertices in T. So we must have that k immediately precedes
g and vertex k C 1 immediately follows g. As a consequence the vertices f1, : : : ,
kg lie in (f,g) and the images f3k; : : : ; 2k C 1g of these under § must constitute the
points of T which lie in (e,f). The remaining points fk C 1; : : : ; 2kg must then all lie
in (g,e) in accordance with the stipulation of the Theorem. In Fig. 33 we illustrate
a triple system of this type with n D 3.4/ C 1. Finally suppose n D 3k C 2. The
only point of T which satisfies x x D x C 1 is x D 2k C 1. Thus the points 2k C 1,
2k C 2 cannot lie in the same anticlosed set. Since they are adjacent points of T,
2k C 1 must be the last point of T in (g,e) and 2k C 2 must be the first point of T in
(e,f). As a consequence the points f2k C 2, : : : , 3k C 1g must lie in (e,f) and due
to the bijection §, the points f1, : : : , kg must lie in (f,g). The remaining points of T,
(different from f D 0), namely fk C 1, : : : , 2k C 1g must then lie in (g,e).
In Fig. 34, (see appendix), we illustrate a (Zn , 0) triple system with n D 3(4) C 2.
Now, still focusing on (Zn ,0) triple systems we will consider the question of
uniqueness. Let ” be a Type V, Type III or bell of a Type IV cubic curve. We may
consider any one of the three flex points of ” to be a (Z1 ,0) triple system with the
unique element 0 identified with the flex point. For any point a on ” the equation
x*x D a has exactly two solutions for x, we may call these the square-roots of a.
Each flex point has itself and one other point as a square root. These two points form
a subalgebra of (”,*) which we may consider to be a (Z2 ,0) triple system. Thus there
are exactly three (Z1 ,0) triple systems and exactly three (Z2 ,0) triple systems on ”.
The three flex points fe,f,gg constitute the unique (Z3 ,0) triple system on ”. A (Z4 ,0)
triple system T must contain a flex point of ” for vertex 0, the remaining square-root
of this flex point for vertex 2, and since 1*1 D 3*3 D 2, the remaining two points of
T must be the square-roots of 2. The three flex points of ” yield three distinct (Z4 ,0)
triple systems. Thus we see that for n D 1,2,3,4 there is a unique (Zn ,0) triple system
on ” which contains a given flex point. To consider the general case it is useful to
establish some motion principles for points on ”:
M1: Let a be a fixed point of and x a moving point of . If x moves along in
one direction then a*x moves in the opposite direction.
M2: If a, b move in the same direction along , then a*b moves in the opposite
direction.
Let T be a (Zn ,0) triple system with n > 4 and suppose first n D 3k C 1. We can
assume that T has increment 1 in the positive direction along its cubic envelope ”
and that the vertices of T lie in the intervals specified by Theorem 22. As vertex
1 is shifted along ” from f D 0 in the positive direction towards g the vertices
2, : : : , k C 1 move ahead of it. This is a consequence of M1. By Theorem 22
vertex k is confined to the interval (f,g) and by M2, as k moves from f to g in the
positive direction, point k*k moves from f to g in the negative direction. Vertex
k C 1 is the first point of T in (g,e) and it moves in a positive direction ahead
of vertex k in this interval. Since points k C 1, k*k move in opposite directions,
there is a unique position for vertex 1 at which these points coincide. They must
coincide in a triple system with sum 3k C 1, so we conclude that T is uniquely
determined. If n D 3k C 2 we argue similarly: as vertex 1 moves in the positive
direction from f to g, vertex k C 1 also moves in a positive direction from f. By M2
point (k C 1)*(k C 1) moves in the negative direction from f to g. Since points k
and (k C 1)*(k C 1) move in opposite directions there is a unique position on ”
for which these points coincide, and once again T is uniquely determined. The final
case is when n D 3k. In this case we must have f D 0; g D k and e D 2k since 0, k,
2k are idempotent in (T,*). As vertex 1 is shifted in the positive direction starting at
f, vertex k also moves in the positive direction starting at f. By M2 point k*k moves
in the negative direction along ”, starting at f. Again, since the points k and k*k
move in opposite directions, there is a unique position for vertex 1 in (f,g) for which
points k and k*k coincide and thus T is uniquely determined. In this case we must
have k D k*k D g. We have proved:
Theorem 23 Let be Type V, Type III or bell of a Type IV cubic curve and let f be
a flex point of . Then for each positive integer n there exists, up to equivalence, a
unique (Zn ,0) triple system on with f D 0.
This result will ultimately be very useful in the determination of exactly which
finite abelian groups can serve as bases for triple systems. If n is a multiple of 3
then a (Zn ,0) triple system must contain all three flex points of its cubic envelope ”.
Since there is a unique such triple system containing any one of the flex points, we
conclude that, up to equivalence only one such triple system exists on ”. If n is not
a multiple of 3 then a (Zn ,0) triple system contains only one of the flex points of ”.
Since ” contains three flex points, we conclude that there exist exactly three distinct
but equivalent triple systems of this type on ”. Thus we have:
Corollary 24 Let be a Type V, Type III or bell of a Type IV cubic curve. If n is a
multiple of 3 then, up to equivalence, there exists a unique (Zn ,0) triple system on .
If n is not a multiple of 3 then there exist exactly three distinct (Zn ,0) triple systems
on .
Next we would like to obtain a similar determination for (Zn ,1) triple systems. In
accordance with Theorem 1, we may assume that n is a multiple of 3. In the proof
of Theorem 11 we saw that a (Z3n ,0) triple system T contains a coset subsystem
equivalent to a (Zn ,1) triple system. The equivalence was obtained by first taking
vertices U D f3k 1 W k D 1; 2; : : : ; ng and then relabeling by ¥ .3k 1/ D k. The
subset W D f3k C 1 W k D 0; 1; : : : ; n 1g of T yields a second coset subsystem
of T equivalent to a (Zn ,1) triple system under the relabeling § .3k C 1/ D k
(mod n). In Fig. 26 we depict two distinct (Z12 ,1) triple systems, one with bold and
the other with dashed lines, as subalgebras of a (Z36 ,0) triple system. It should be
observed that W D 0 U D f0 u W u 2 Ug,i.e., W,U are translates of each other.
By Corollary 24, there is a unique (Z3n ,0) triple system with a given cubic envelope
11'
6
3
9'
12
5
10' 9 4 8'
7' 2 15
18 0' 6
0
6'
7 2' 21
10 27 4' 8
5'
24
9
3'
30
11
Fig. 26 Two split (Z12 ,1) triple system as subalgebras of a split (Z36 ,0) triple system
” of Type V, Type III or bell of Type IV. So it would appear that for each n there
are exactly two distinct (Zn ,1) triple systems on ”. It must, however, be shown that
every (Zn ,1) triple system on ” arises in this way, i.e., as a subsystem of a (Z3n ,0)
triple system. For this purpose the next Theorem will suffice:
Theorem 25 Let be a nonsingular irreducible cubic curve, and let T be a (Zn ,1)
triple system on . Then T can be extended to a (Z3n ,0) triple system on .
Proof If gcd .n; 3/ D 1 then T is equivalent to a (Zn ,0) triple system by Theorem
1. So we may as well regard T as a (Zn ,0) triple system. The vertex 0 must label
one of the flex points, say f, of ”. By Theorem 23, T is uniquely determined.
Now let Q be a (Z3n ,0) triple system on ” with vertex 0 identified with f. Let
R D f0; 3; 6; : : : :; 3n 3g denote the subgroup of Z3n consisting of the multiples
of 3. The points of Q with labels in R form a subsystem of Q equivalent to a
(Zn ,0) triple system. By Theorem 23, the triple system R is uniquely determined
and must therefore be equivalent to T. Thus Q is the required extension of T.
Now suppose 3jn. Then T is not equivalent to a (Zn ,0) triple system, and in fact,
contains none of the three flex points of ”. We will build a (Z3n ,0) triple system
W which contains the points of T. Relabel each point of T by ¥ W T ! Z3n
defined by ¥ .k/ D 3k 1 (mod 3n) and select a flex point, say f for vertex 0.
Let W1 D ¥ .T/. Let W1 D fs 0 W s 2 W1 g, and for each s 2 W1 let s*0 have
label s. Since 1 2 W1 , we now have a point with label 1 in W1 . Finally let
W0 D f s 1 W s 2 W1 g, and for each s 2 W1 label the point s*1 with s 1. Let
W D W1 [W1 [W0 . For i D 0; 1; 1 the points in Wi are congruent to i mod 3 and
the elements of Z3n constitute precisely the set of labels assigned to points in W. We
will show that the points of W, as labeled, form a (Z3n ,0) triple system. Let a; b 2 W
and consider the following cases. In each case we must show that a b D a b.
Case (i): a; b 2 W1 . We have a D 3s 1 and b D 3t 1 for some s; t 2 Zn .
The points s; t; s t C 1 are collinear in T and so the points ¥ .s/ D a; ¥ .t/ D b
and ¥ .s t C 1/ D 3 .s t C 1/ 1 D 3s 3t C 2 D a b are collinear in
W and consequently a b D a b. Note that W1 is a relabeling of the points of T
and thus is a subalgebra of .”; /.
Case (ii): a; b 2 W1 . In this Case we have a D s 0 D s and b D q 0 D q for
some s; q 2 W1 . So a b D .s 0/ .q 0/ D .s q/ .0 0/ D .s q/ 0 D s C q D
ab. Since s 1 mod 3 and q 1 mod 3, we have a b D sCq 2 1
mod 3:So a b 2 W1 and thus W1 is also a subalgebra of .”; /.
Case (iii): a 2 W1 ; b 2 W0 . Here we have a D 0 s D s for some s 2 W1 ,
and b D 1 t D 1 t for some t 2 W1 . Then a b D .0 s/ .1 t/ D .0 1/ .s t/.
Now since 0 .1/ D 1, we have 0 1 D 1, and by Case (i) we have s t D s t,
and thus a b D 1 .s t/ D 1 C s C t. The last equality follows also from Case
(i). Since 1 C s C t D a b we have the desired result.
Case (iv): a 2 W1 , b 2 W0 . In this case b D 1 s D 1 s for some s 2 W1 ,
so: a b D .0 .a// .1 s/ D .a 1/ .0 s/. Since a D 0 a we have a 2 W1 .
Also 1 D 0 .1/ 2 W1 , so by Case(ii) a 1 D a 1. So a b D .a 1/ .s/ D
a C 1 C s. The last equality holds again by Case(ii) since both a 1 and s lie in
W1 . Then since a C 1 C s D a b we have the desired result.
Case (v): a 2 W1 , b 2 W1 . Here we have a D 0 s D s and b D 1 t D 1 t

for some s; t 2 W1 . Then a b D .0 s/ .1 t/ D .0 1/ .s t/ D 1 .s t/ D
1 C s C t. The last equality follows from Case(i) since both 1 and s t both lie
in W1 . Since 1 C s C t D a b we have achieved once again the desired result.
Case (vi): a; b 2 W0 . In this case a D 1 s D 1 s and b D 1 t D 1 t
for some s; t 2 W1 . So a b D .1 s/ .1 t/ D .1 1/ .s t/ D .2/ .s t/. This
last equality follows from Cases (i), (ii). Now since 2 2 W1 and .s t/ 2 W1 ,
we have by Case(iv) that .2/ .s t/ D 2 C s C t D a b as desired.
Theorem 25 along with the preceeding discussion yields the following result:
Theorem 26 Let be a Type III, Type V or bell of a Type IV cubic curve. If
gcd(3,n) D 1 then a (Zn ,1) triple system on is equivalent to a (Zn ,0) triple system
and contains exactly one of the three flex points of . So in this case there are exactly
three distinct (Zn ,1) triple systems on , each one determined by the particular flex
point it contains. If 3jn then there are exactly two distinct (Zn ,1) triple systems on
which are translates of each other and which contain none of the flex points of .
Next we describe the different possibilities for split triple systems. We have
already remarked that a split triple system must have an even number of vertices
with half of its vertices on the oval and the other half on the bell of a Type IV
cubic curve. Let T be a split (Zn ,0) triple system with n D 2m. The odd vertices
of T lie on the oval and the even vertices on the bell of a Type IV cubic ”. The
even vertices of T form a subsystem equivalent to a (Zm ,0) triple system which lies
entirely on the bell and is uniquely determined by Theorem 23 once a flex point of
” is selected for vertex 0. Let Q denote this subsystem and suppose the flex point f
has been selected for vertex 0. Now we distinguish two cases depending on whether
m is even or odd. Suppose first that m is even. The position of vertex 1 certainly
determines T, and we must have 1 1 D 2. There are exactly two points a,b on
the oval which serve as square-roots of 2 and both of these belong to T. One of
these must be labeled 1 and the other m C 1. Suppose a D 1 and b D m C 1 and
consider the relabeling of T given by ¥(x) D x if x is even, and ¥(x) D x C m if x
is odd. This relabeling does not affect triples whose vertices lie entirely in the bell.
The remaining triples of T have the form fx,y,zg where x lies in the bell and y,z lie
on the oval. Then ¥ .x/ C ¥ .y/ C ¥ .z/ D x C .y C m/ C .z C m/ D x C y C z D 0.
So the relabeling produces a triple system equivalent to T but now the vertices 1,
m C 1 have exchanged positions, i.e., now a D m C 1 and b D 1. We conclude,
(in the case m even), that Q has a unique, (up to equivalence), extension to a split
(Zn ,0) triple system on ”. If gcd(n,3) D 1, then, in accordance with Corollary 24,
there are exactly three distinct ways to situate the subsystem Q on the bell and thus
exactly three distinct split (Zn ,0) triple systems on ”. If 3jn, then in accordance with
Corollary 24, Q is uniquely determined and so its extension to a split (Zn ,0) triple
system is uniquely determined. These results are summarized in:
Theorem 27 Let n D 2m with m even and let be Type IV cubic curve. If
gcd(n,3) D 1 then, up to equivalence, there are exactly three distinct split (Zn ,0)
triple systems on . If 3jn then, up to equivalence, there is a unique split (Zn ,0)
triple system on .
Now for the case n D 2m where m is odd we will find the following Lemma
useful. If p is a point on a Type IV cubic ” then p has exactly four square-roots on
”, two on the bell and two on the oval. If a is a square- root of p on the oval, let
a0 denote the remaining square –root of p on the oval, and if b is a square-root of p
on the bell, let b0 denote the remaining square-root of p on the bell. In any case we
refer to the points x, x0 as twin points.
Lemma 28 Let a, b be points on the oval of a Type IV cubic curve . Then a *
b D a0 * b0 and a * b0 D a0 * b.0
Proof Let p D a * a D a0 * a0 , and q D b * b D b0 * b0 . Then the points a * b0 ,
a0 * b, a * b, a0 * b0 all lie on the bell and all square to p * q. There are only two
square-roots of p * q on the bell, so two pairs from among these four points must be
equal. The point a * b0 cannot be equal to a * b or a0 * b0 since cancellation would
then require b D b0 or a D a0 which is impossible since no point on ” is equal to its
twin. We must then have a * b0 D a0 * b and similarly a * b D a0 * b0 .
The result of Lemma 28 is illustrated in Fig. 27.
Theorem 29 Let n D 2m with m odd and let be Type IV cubic curve. If
gcd(n,3) D 1 then there are exactly six distinct split (Zn ,0) triple systems on which
occur in three twin pairs. If 3jn then there are exactly two distinct split (Zn ,0) triple
systems on and these are twins.
Proof Let T be a split (Zn ,0) triple system on a Type IV cubic curve ” with n D 2m.
Let Q denote the set of even vertices of T which must lie on the bell, and let W
denote the set of odd vertices of T which must lie on the oval. Let W0 D fx0 W x 2 Wg
0
and let T0 D Q \ W0 . We claim that T is a split (Zn ,0) triple system. There are
essentially only two kinds of triples to check: those which contain two points in the
bell, and those which contain two points in the oval. If a; b 2 Q, then a b D a b
as in T. If a; b 2 W0 , then a0 ; b0 2 W and thus a0 ; b0 2 T and a0 b0 D a b as in T.
p*q
a*b= a' * b'

a
b
b'
a'
a*b' = a' * b
Fig. 27 a * b D a0 * b
0
Then by Lemma 28, a b D a0 b0 D a b as desired. We call T the twin of T. If
0
m is even then x, x both lie in T for each point x in the oval. In this case we can say
that T is self-twin and we obtain the result of Theorem 27. But if m is odd as in our
0
current Theorem, then T, T constitute two distinct extensions of the set Q of even
0
points. In fact, the extending sets W, W are disjoint. (If 2s is any point of Q, then
the points, s, s C m are the only two square-roots of 2s in T or T0 . Since m is
odd, exactly one of these square-roots is odd and lies on the oval. If b is the unique
odd point of W such that b*b D 2s, then b0 cannot lie in W since b0 * b0 is also equal
to 2s. It follows that W \ W0 is empty.) If gcd .n; 3/ D 1 then the subsystem Q
can occur in three different locations on the bell, each containing a different one of
the three flex points on the bell. Each of these has two distinct extensions and thus
there are a total of six distinct split (Zn ,0) triple systems on ”. In case 3jn, then, in
accordance with Corollary 24, the set Q of points is uniquely determined. Its two
twin extensions then account for all possible split (Zn ,0) triple systems on ”.
Similar results hold for split (Zn ,1) triple systems:
Theorem 30 Let n D 2m with m even and let be a Type IV cubic curve. If
gcd(3,n) D 1 then there are exactly three distinct split (Zn ,1) triple systems on .
If 3jn then there are exactly two distinct split (Zn ,1) triple systems on .
Proof Let T be a split (Zn ,1) triple system with n D 2m and m even and let ” denote
the Type IV cubic envelope of T. Let Q denote the set of odd vertices of T which all
lie on the bell, and let W denote the set of even vertices of T which all lie on the oval
of ”. If gcd(3,n) D 1 then by Theorem 1, T is equivalent to a (Zn ,0) triple system,
and by Theorem 29 we can deduce that there are exactly three distinct split (Zn ,1)
triple systems on ”. Now suppose 3jn. The relabeling given by Ÿ .2k C 1/ D k
turns Q into a (Zm ,1) triple system. Since 3jn, we also have 3jm, so by Theorem
26 there are exactly two distinct (Zm ,1) triple systems on the bell. Thus there are
0
exactly two ways to arrange the odd vertices of T on the bell. Let W denote the
0
set of twins of points in W. Since m is even we have W D W and thus each of the
two choices for Q has, up to equivalence, a unique extension to a split (Zn ,1) triple
system.
Theorem 31 Let n D 2m with m odd and let be a Type IV cubic curve. If
gcd(3,n) D 1 then there are exactly six distinct split (Zn ,1) triple systems on ,
which occur in three twin pairs. If 3jn then, there are exactly four distinct (Zn ,1)
triple systems on , which occur in two twin pairs.
Proof Let T be a split (Zn ,1) triple system with n D 2m and m odd. Let Q denote the
set of odd points of T which all lie on the bell of the cubic envelope ” of T, and let
W denote the set of even points all of which lie on the oval. If gcd(3,n) D 1, then by
Theorem 1, T is equivalent to a split (Zn ,0) triple system, and so by Theorem 29 there
are exactly six mutually nonequivalent split (Zn ,1) triple systems on ”. Now suppose
3jn and apply the relabeling Ÿ .2k C 1/ D k to the odd points of T to obtain a
(Zm ,1) triple system on the bell. Since 3jn we must have 3jm, and by Theorem 26
there are exactly two nonequivalent (Zm ,1) triple systems on the bell. There are thus
exactly two nonequivalent ways to arrange the odd vertices of T on the bell of ”.
Each of these has two dual extensions: T D Q \ W and T0 D Q \ W0 , where W0
denotes the set of twins of points in W.
Now suppose T is a .Zn Zn ; .0; 0// triple system with n 3. We will assume
that the vertices of T must lie on an irreducible cubic curve . If n is odd, i.e.,
T has an odd number of vertices, then T cannot be split, and so must have all its
vertices on a Type V, Type III, or bell of a Type IV cubic curve ”. The subsets S D
f.0; x/ W x 2 Zn g; R D f.x; 0/ W x 2 Zn g; Q D f.x; x/ W x 2 Zn g are each subalgebras
of (T,*) equivalent to (Zn ,0) triple systems. These distinct (Zn ,0) triple systems all
share the flex point (0,0). But by Theorem 23, only one such triple system exists
on ”. We conclude that no such triple system T can exist. Now suppose n is a
multiple of 4, say n D 4m. Then the points f.0; 0/ ; .0; 2m/ ; .2m; 0/ ; .2m; 2m/g
are all square-roots of (0,0), so ” must be a Type IV cubic curve. But these
four points are also squares: .0; 0/ ..0; 0/ D .0; 0/ I .0; m/ .0; m/ D .0; 2m/;
.m; 0/ .m; 0/ D .2m; 0/ and .m; m/ .m; m/ D .2m; 2m/ so they must all lie on
the bell of ”, since the oval is anticlosed. But the bell can only support two square-
roots of any point, so in this case also we can conclude that T cannot exist. Finally
suppose n D 2m where m is odd. Since n 3, we must also have m 3. In this
case T contains a subsystem equivalent to a .Zm Zm ; .0; 0// triple system which
we have shown not to exist. With the proviso indicated by the second sentence of
this paragraph we have proved:
Theorem 32 If n 3, then no .Zn Zn ; .0; 0// triple system exists.
In [4] the existence of various triple systems with base Z2 Zn is proved. Every
finite abelian group is isomorphic to a direct product of cyclic groups. Any such
group which contains a subgroup isomorphic to Zn Zn for n 3, cannot, by
Theorem 32, serve as the base of a zero-sum triple system. On the other hand, if
n,m have no common nontrivial factors, then Zn Zm is isomorphic to Znm . Also,
evidently no triple system with base Z2 Z2 Z2 and sum (0, 0, 0) exists. With
these considerations, we can deduce that among finite abelian groups, only Zn and
Z2 Zn can serve as the base for a geometric triple system with sum zero.
9 The Connection with Groups
Let ” be an irreducible cubic curve and let ” 0 denote the set of nonsingular
points of ”. Any of the five basic types of cubics, illustrated in Figs. 12, 13, 14,
15, 16 contains at least one flex point, say e, and (” 0 ,*) is a hypercommutative
groupoid. By a well known construction, see for example [1], we can convert
this groupoid into an abelian group (” 0 ,C) by defining a C b D e .a b/.
Then a C e D e .a e/ D a, so e is the identity element of (” 0 ,C), and
a C .a e/ D e .a .a e// D e e D e; so a e is the inverse of a. Finally

the associative
law is proved
as follows: a C .b C c/ D a C .e .b c// D
e Œa . e .b c/ D .e e/ a .e .b c/ D .e a/ Œe
.e .b c// D .e a/ .b
c/,

and .a C b/ C c D Œe .a b/ C c D e .e .a b// c D .e e/ .e .a b// c D
.e c/ Œe .e .a b// D .e c/ .a b/ D .e a/ .b c/. A geometric triple system
T with its vertices on ” 0 is a subalgebra of (” 0 ,*). If T contains the flex point e
of ” 0 , then (T,C) is a subgroup of (” 0 ,C). In fact if S is any subalgebra of (” 0 ,*)
which contains e, then (S,C) is a subgroup of (” 0 ,C). The determination of the
group (” 0 ,C) is therefore important in order to describe its subalgebras and hence
to determine the triple systems on ” 0 which contain a flex point. We can also gain
information about the subalgebras of (” 0 ,*) which do not contain a flex point of ”,
since any such subalgebra can be extended to a subalgebra of (” 0 ,*) which does
contain a flex point as follows.
Lemma 33 Let be an irreducible cubic curve, and let 0 denote the set of nonsin-
gular points of . If S, T are subalgebras of ( 0 ,*), then S T D fs t W s 2 S; t 2 Tg
is also a subalgebra of ( 0 ,*). Moreover S S D S.
Proof Let s1 ; s2 2 S, and t1 ; t2 2 T. Then .s1 t1 / .s2 t2 / D .s1 s2 / .t1 t2 / 2 S T,
so S*T is a subalgebra of (” 0 ,*). It is clearly true that S S S. On the other hand,
if s 2 S, then s D s .s s/, and thus s 2 S S.
Theorem 34 Let be an irreducible cubic curve with flex point e, and let 0 denote
the set of nonsingular points of . If S is a subalgebra of ( 0 ,*) which does not
contain any flex point of , then the subalgebra hS [ ei of ( 0 ,*) generated by S[feg
is given by S [ e S [ S .e S/ where this is a disjoint union. If S is finite then
jhS [ eij D 3jSj.
Proof Certainly S [ e S [ S .e S/ contains S [ feg, since e D s .e s/ S .e S/
for any s 2 S. Since e is a flex point we have e e D e, and so feg is a one point
subalgebra of (” 0 ,*). It then follows from Lemma 33 that each of e S; S .e S/ is a
subalgebra of (” 0 ,*). We claim that the multiplication table for S [ e S [ S .e S/
is given by:
. / S e S S .e S/

S S S .e S/ e S
e S S .e S/ e S S

S .e S/ e S S S .e S/
The diagonal entries follow from Lemma 33, so we need only prove the
following:
(i) S ŒS .e S/ D e S. Proof. Let q 2 S ŒS .e S/, then q D s1 Œs2 .e s3 /

for some s1 ; s2 ; s3 2
S. Then q D
Œs3 .s1 s3 / Œs2 .e s3 / D

Œs3 .e s3 / .s1 s3 / s2 D e .s1 s3 / s2 e S. Conversely, suppose
q 2 e S, then q D e s D s Œs .e s/ S ŒS .e S/, where s is any element
of S.
(ii) .e S/ ŒS .e S/ D S. Proof. Let q 2 .e S/ ŒS .e S/, then q D
.e s1 / Œs2 .e s3 / for some s1 ; s2 ; s3 2 S. Then q D Œe .e s3 / .s1 s2 / D
s3 .s1 s2 / 2 S. Conversely, suppose q 2 S, then q D .e q/ Œq .e q/ 2
.e S/ ŒS .e S/.
From the completion of the table, we obtain that S[e S[S .e S/ is a subalgebra
of (” 0 ,*). Now to show that the subalgebras S; e S; S .e S/ are mutually disjoint,
suppose s 2 S \ e S, then s D e s1 for some s1 2 S. But then e D s s1 2 S, a
contradiction. If s 2 S \ S .e S/, then s D s1 .e s2 / for some s1 ; s2 2 S. But
then e D s2 .s s1 / 2 S, a contradiction. Finally suppose q 2 .e S/ \ ŒS .e S/,
then q D e s1 D s2 .e s3 / for some s1 ; s2 ; s3 2 S. Then s2 D .e s1 / .e s3 / D
.e e/ .s1 s3 / D e .s1 s3 /, and consequently e D s2 .s1 s3 / 2 S, again
contradicting the idempotent free character of S.
(1) The mapping § W S ! e S defined by § .s/ D e s is easily seen to be a
bijection, so jSj D je*Sj. Now define a mapping ¥ W S ! S .e S/ by ¥ .s/ D
s0 .e s/, where s0 is any fixed element of S. Again, it is easily seen that
¥ is injective. To show ¥ is onto, let s1 *(e*s2 ) be a typical element
of
S*(e*S), and let s D (s2 *s
0 )*s1 , then ¥ .s/ D s0

e .s2 s0 / s1 D
Œs2 .s0 s2 / e .s2 s0 / s1 D s1 .e s2 /. So we have j S jDj S .e S/ j
as well. If S is finite then jhS [ eij D jSj C je*Sj C jS*(e*S)j D 3jSj.
In Theorem 34, if we let W D S*(e*S), we saw that W D s0 *(e*S), where s0 is
any element of S. It follows immediately that e*S D s0 *W, and from this it follows
immediately that S D e .s0 W/ D .e e/ .s0 W/ D .e s0 / .e W/ D .e s0 / W.
The last equality follows from the fact that e 2 W. Thus we can say:
Corollary 35 Every idempotent-free subalgebra of ( 0 ,*) is a translate of a
subalgebra of ( 0 ,*) which does contain an idempotent element.
The results of Theorem 34 and Corollary 35 should be compared with Theo-
rem 25 which describes the extension of a (Zn ,1) triple system, possibly with no flex
point, to a (Z3n ,0) triple system.
If (S,*) is any hypercommutative groupoid which contains an idempotent element
e, and we define an addition on the elements of S, as above, we obtain an abelian
group which we denote by ê (S). If (G,C) is an abelian group and we define
a binary operation * on the elements of G by a b D a b, then we obtain
a hypercommutative groupoid with 0 as idempotent element. In case the abelian
group G is presented multiplicatively, then we define a b D a1 b1 . In either
case we denote the resulting hypercommutative groupoid by ‰(G). It is then easily
seen that ‰ê .S/ D S for every hypercommutative groupoid S which contains an
idempotent element e. Conversely, if G is any abelian group with identity e, then
ê .‰ .G/ D G. The mappings ê , ‰ are thus inverses, and provide a one to one
correspondence between members of the variety of abelian groups and members of
the variety of hypercommutative groupoids with idempotent e. This correspondence
easily extends to subalgebras: If W is a subalgebra of a hypercommutative groupoid
(S,*,e), and W contains the idempotent element e, then ê .W/ is a subgroup of
ê .S/, and if H is a subgroup of an abelian group G, then by ‰ .H/ is a subalgebra

of the hypercommutative groupoid ‰ .G/. In this context, Theorem 34 and Corollary
35 have the following generalizations:
Theorem 36 Let (W,*) be a hypercommutative groupoid with idempotent element e,
and let S be an idempotent-free subalgebra of W. Then hS [ eiD S [ e S [ S .e S/
where this is a disjoint union of subalgebras of W. Moreover S, e*S are isomorphic
translates of the subalgebra Q D S*(e*S) which contains e, and they are cosets of
the subgroup ˚ e (Q) of ˚ e (hS [ ei).
Note that Theorem 36 is a purely algebraic result with no reference to cubic
curves. Further general properties of hypercommutative groupoids can be found in
[2]. Now we determine the abelian groups which correspond to the hypercommu-
tative groupoids (” 0 ,*) where ” is an irreducible cubic curve. We consider these in
order according to the Type of ”.
Theorem 37 Let be a Type I cubic, (see Fig. 12), and let W D ( 0 ,*) denote the
hypercommutative groupoid defined on the nonsingular points of . Then ˆ1 .W/
is isomorphic to the group (R,C) of real numbers under addition.
Proof Here, 1 denotes the point at infinity on vertical lines, which is the unique
flex point of ”. The proofs of this Theorem and Theorems 38, 39 are outlined in
exercises in[1]. Here
we will just fill in some of the details. Define g W R ! ”
by g .t/ D t2 ; t3 , and then define f W R ! ”0 by f .p/ D g .1=p/ if p ¤ 0, and
f.0/ D 1. It is easy to show that g, f are bijections. Now regard f as a mapping from
the group (R,C) to the group ˆ1 .W/. We will show that f is an isomorphism.
2 First

3
we show that f .p/ D f .p/. If p ¤ 0, then f .p/ D g .1= p/ D 1=p ; 1=p
,
and f .p/ D 1 f .p/ D 1 g .1=p/ D 1 1=p2 ; 1=p3 D 1=p2 ; 1=p3 due
to the symmetry of ” with respect to the x-axis. If p D 0, f .p/ D f.0/ D 1,
and f .p/ D 1 f .p/ D 1 1 D 1 since infinity is a flex point hence
idempotent. Now suppose p; q 2 R and f .p/ ; f .q/ ; f .p q/ are distinct. We
will show that these three points are collinear. If p D 0, then f(p) D 1, and we
have 1; f .q/ ; f .q/. We have just shown that f .q/ D f .q/ D 1 f .q/, so
the three points are collinear. We may thus suppose that p, and q, are nonzero, and
thus that f .p/ D g .1=p/ ; f .q/ D g .1=q/ and f .p q/ D g .1= .p q//. If L
denotes the line through f(p) and f .p q/, and K denotes the line through f(q)
2 CpqCq2
and f .p q/, then we obtain that both lines have slope p pq.pCq/ , and so the three
points in question are collinear. Next we show that f .2p/ lies on the tangent to ”
at f(p). If p D 0 then f .2p/ D f .p/ D 1, and since 1 1 D 1 we can say
that f .2p/ D 1 lies on the tangent to ” at f(p) D 1. So suppose p ¤ 0, then
f .2p/ D 1=4p2 ; 1=8p3 . By implicit differentiation of y2 D x3 we obtain that
the slope mT of the tangent to ” at f(p) is given by mT D 3/2p. Then the equation
for T is given by:

1 3 1
y D x (24)
p3 2p p2
1/2
9/16
5/8
3/4
7/8
1
9/8
2
-3/2 -1
-9/8
-7/8
-3/4
-5/8
-1/2
Fig. 28 (R,0) triple system on the nonsingular points of the cubic y2 D x3
the coordinates of f(2p) satisfy (24) so our contention is proved. Now we are
prepared to show that f: .R; C/ ! ˆ1 .W/ is an isomorphism. The mapping is a
bijection, so it remains only to show that it is a group homomorphism.
Consider:
f .p C q/ D 1 .1 f .p C q// D 1 f .p q/ D 1 f.p/ f .q/ . The last
equality holds if p ¤ q, since we have shown that f(p), f(q) and f .p q/ are
collinear points of W, and it holds if p D q since we have shown that f .2p/ lies on
the tangent to ” at f(p), and thus f.p/ f .p/ D f .2p/. Finally, 1 f.p/ f .q/ D
f .p/ C f .q/ in accordance with the way addition is defined in ˆ1 (W).
Theorem 37 allows us to construct an (R,0) triple system on a Type I cubic by
identifying the point f(p) with p. This construction is illustrated in Fig. 28. The only
finite subgroup of (R,C) is the trivial subgroup f0g. This corresponds to f1g which
is thus the only finite subalgebra of (” 0 ,*). This agrees with the result mentioned
in Theorem 10 which was arrived at by other considerations. Next we do a similar
analysis for a Type II cubic, (Fig. 13).
Theorem 38 Let be a Type II cubic with equation y2 D x3 C x2 as illustrated in
Fig. 13 and let W D .0 / denote the hypercommutative groupoid defined on the
nonsingular points of . Then ˚1 .W/ is isomorphic to the group (R,•) of nonzero
real numbers under multiplication.
Proof The Type II curve ” has one singularity at the origin and one flex point (1)
at2infinity3 on vertical lines. The mapping g: Rn f˙1g ! ”0 n1 defined by g .t/ D
t 1; t t is easily seen to be bijective. Then the mapping f: Rn f0g ! ”0
defined by:
( )
g pC1
p1
if p ¤ 1
f .p/ D (25)
1 if p D 1
is a bijection. We will show that f is a group isomorphism from (R,•) onto ˆ1 .W/.
Suppose p is a nonzero real number, and let q D pC1 : Then f .1=p/ D g .q/ D
2 p1
q 1; q3 C q D 1 q2 1; q3 q D 1 f .p/ D f .p/. Now we will show
that f(1/p2 ) lies on the tangent to ” at f(p). If p D 1 then f(1/p2 ) D f(p) D f(1) D 1,
and since 1 is a flex we have 1*1 D 1. So the tangent at f(p) D 1
point
contains the point f 1=p2 D 1: If p D 1, then f(1/p2 ) D 1, and f .p/ D g.0/ D
.1; 0/. The point .1; 0/ of ” lies on the
x-axis and has a vertical tangent, so
.1; 0/ .1; 0/ D 1. So, again, f 1=p2 D 1 lies on the tangent to ” at f .p/ D
.1; 0/. If p ¤ ˙ 1, then f(p) D g(q). Using implicit differentiation we obtain that
the slope of the tangent T to ” at f(p) is given by:
3q2 1
mT D : (26)
2q
The equation of T is then:
3q2 1
T W y q q2 1 D x q2 C 1 : (27)
2q
1Cp2
We need to show that f(1/p2 ) satisfies (27). Let w D 1p2
, then f 1=p2 D

g .w/ D w2 1; w3 w , so we must show:
3q2 1 2
w3 w q q2 1 D w q2 : (28)
2q
This can be shown after some considerable algebraic manipulation which we will
spare the reader. Next, let a; b 2 R and suppose f(a), f(b) and f(1/ab) are distinct. We
will show that these three points are collinear. Let q D aC1 I s D bC1 I r D 1Cab , then
2 2 a1 b1 1ab
f .a/ D q 1; q q I f .b/ D s 1; s s , and f .1=ab/ D r2 1; r3 r .
3 3
Let mL denote the slope of the line L through f(a) and f(1/ab), and let mK denote the
slope of the line K through f(b) and f(1/ab). We then obtain:
r2 C q2 C qr 1 r2 C s2 C sr 1
mL D I mK D : (29)
rCq rCs
With a little algebra it is easily shown that mL D mK , and thus the points f(a),
2ˆ
f(b), f(1/ab) are collinear. Now to complete the proof that f W .R; / 1 .W/ is
an isomorphism, suppose a; b 2 Rnf0g. If a D b, then f .ab/ D f a which lies
on the tangent to ” at f(1/a). Thus f a2 D f.1=a/ f .1=a/ D f .1=a/ f .1=a/ D
10
-1/4 -1/5 14
-1/2 -1/7
-1/12
-1/20 20
-1
-40 1/40
-20 1/20
-2 -10
1/14
-20/7 -4 -5 -7
1/10
1/8
1/7
Fig. 29 (R,1) triple system on cubic: y2 D x3 C x2
f .a/ C f .a/. If a ¤ b, then f(ab) D f(1/a)*f(1/b) since the points f(ab), f(1/a) and
f(1/b) are collinear. Then f .ab/ D f .1=a/ f .1=b/ D f .a/ C f .b/.
Theorem 38 allows us to construct an (R,1) triple system on a Type II cubic by
identifying the point f(p) with p. This construction is illustrated in Fig. 29. The only
finite subgroups of (R,1) are f1g and f1; 1g, and thus the only finite subalgebras
of (” 0 ,*) which contain the idempotent element 1 are f1g, and f1; .1; 0/g. By
Theorem 34 a subalgebra S of (” 0 ,*) which does not contain 1 would have an
extension to a subalgebra Q of (” 0 ,*) which does contain 1. If S is finite than
jQj D 3jSj. But there are no such finite subalgebras Q, so we can conclude that f1g
and f1; .1; 0/g are the only finite subalgebras of (” 0 ,*). This is also in agreement
with the result mentioned in Theorem 10.
Theorem 39 Let ” be a Type III cubic with equation y2 D x3 x2 . Let 0
denote the set of nonsingular points of ; let W D ( 0 ,*) denote the corresponding
hypercommutative groupoid and let U denote the group of complex numbers with
modulus 1. Then ˆ1 .W/ is isomorphic to U.

Proof Define g W R ! ”0 n1 by g .t/ D t2 C 1; t3 C t and f W U ! ”0 by:

g cot 2 if z D cos C i sin ¤ 1
f .z/ D : (30)
1 if z D 1
It is easily seen that f is a bijection. Let P D .cos ™; sin ™/ be any point of U

different from (1,0) and let L denote the line through P and (1,0). Let K denote
the line through (0,0) and parallel to L, as in Fig. 30. We will show that f .P/ D
K \ ”.The equation of K is given by
1/PQ P
L
f(Q)
(0,0)
(1,0)
PQ
K
f(1/PQ)
f(P)
Fig. 30 (U,1) triple system on Type III cubic
sin

y D : Solving together the equations of K and ”, we find that the
cos 1
2 2 sin
coordinates of the point K [ ” are given by 1cos ;
.cos 2 . On the other hand:
1/

™ ™ ™
f .P/ D 1 C cot2 ; cot3 cot : (31)
2 2 2
Now using the identity cot 2 D 1Ccos sin

and simplifying, we find indeed that
f .P/ D K \ ”. Next we show that if z 2 U, then f .1=z/ D f .z/ where f .z/
is the inverse of f(z) in the group ˆ1 .W/. If z D 1 then f .z/ D f .1=z/ D 1,
and f .z/ D 1 f .z/ D 1 1 D 1. If z ¤ 1, then f(z) is given by (31) and

f .1=z/ D f z D f .cos .™/ C i sin .™// D g . cot .™=2// D g .cot .™=2// D

1 C cot2 2™ ; cot3 2™ C cot 2™ D 1 f .z/ D f .z/. Now we show that if z 2 U, then

f(1/z2 ) lies on the tangent to ” at f(z). If z D 1 then f 1=z2 D f .z/ D f.1/ D 1, and
2
since 1*1
2 D 1 we can say that f(1/z ) lies on the tangent to ” at f(z). If z D 1
then f 1=z D 1 and f .z/ D f .1/ D f .cos C I sin / D g cot 2 D
g.0/ D .1; 0/. Since .1; 0/ .1; 0/ D 1, we have again that f(1/z2 ) lies on the
tangent to ” at f(z). Now suppose z ¤ ˙1. Differentiating implicitly the equation
dy 3x2 2x 2 2 sin
for ” yields: dx D 2y , and by substituting the coordinates 1cos ; .cos 2
1/
for f(z) we obtain mT D 2Ccos
sin

for the slope of the tangent line T to ” at f(z). The
equation of T is then given by:

2 sin 2 C cos 2
yC D x : (32)
.cos 1/2 sin 1 cos

Now 1=z2 D cos .2™/ C i sin .2™/, so f 1=z2 D g cot 2 D
2 3
1 cos 2
g .cot ™/ D cot ™ C 1; cot ™ C cot ™ D sin2 ; sin3 . We leave it to the reader
to determine that these coordinates do satisfy (32). In the next step we show that
if w; z 2 U and f .w/ ; f .z/ ; f .1=wz/ are distinct, then these three points are
collinear. Suppose first that one of w, z equals 1. Without loss of generality suppose
w D 1. Then f(w) D 1, so we have the points 1, f(z), f(1/z). We have shown
that f .1=z/ D f .z/ D 1 f .z/, so the three points are collinear. If wz D 1 we
obtain the same collinear points f(1/z), f(z), 1, so we can suppose that w, z, wz
are not equal to 1. Let z D cos ’ C i sin ’, and let w D cos “ C i sin “, then
1
wz D cos .’ C “/ C i sin .’ C “/ ; and wz D cos .’ “/ C i sin .’ “/, and:

2 2 sin ˛
f .z/ D ; (33)
1 cos ˛ .cos ˛ 1/2

2 2 sin ˇ
f .w/ D ; and (34)
1 cos ˇ .cos ˇ 1/2

2 2 sin .˛ C ˇ/
f .1=wz/ D ; : (35)
1 cos .˛ C ˇ/ .cos .˛ C ˇ/ 1/2
Let L denote the line through f(z) and f(1/wz), and let K denote the line through
f(w) and f(1/wz). For ease of notation we let a D cos ’; b D sin ’; c D cos “
and d D sin “, then a2 C b2 D 1 D c2 C d2 . Further we let M D 1 cos ’;
N D 1 cos “; Q D 1 cos .’ C “/ and R D sin .’ C “/. Then the slopes of K, L
are then given by:
RM 2 C bQ2 RN 2 C dQ2
mL D 2
m K D (36)
M 2 Q MQ N 2 Q NQ2
We need to show mL D mK . This is equivalent to showing:
M2 Qd MQ2 d MRN2 D N2 Qb NQ2 b NRM2 : (37)
The left hand side of (37) when expanded is given by:
3acd bd2 2ad 2a2 cd C 2abcd2 b2 d3 bc C 2bc2 bc3 adc2 C 2a2 d a3 cd C a2 bd2
2a2 bcd2 C a3 c2 d C ab2 d3 C abc 2abc2 C abc3 ; (38)

And the right hand side of (37) is given by:
3abcb2 d2bcC2ab2 cdb3 dadC2a2 da3 dbca2 2abc2 C2bc2 abc3 Cb2 c2 d
2ab2 c2 d C a2 c3 b C cb3 d2 C acd 2a2 dc C ca3 d: (39)
After making the substitutions d2 D1c2 and b2 D 1a2 , the expressions in (38),
(39) both simplify to:
3abcbcdC3a2 dC3acda3 cdbC3bc2 Cba2 ba2 c2 ada3 d2bca2 2abc2

abc3 C c2 d a2 c2 d 2ac2 d C 2a3 c2 d C 2a2 c3 b bc3 2a2 cd: (40)
Thus mL D mK , and so the points f(z), f(w), f(1/wz) are collinear. Now suppose
w; z 2 U and f(w), f(z), f(1/wz) are distinct.
Then f.wz/ D 1 .1 f .wz// D

1 .f .wz// D 1 f .1=wz/ D 1 f.w/ f .z/ D f .w/ C f .z/. If w D
2 2 2 2
z then
f .wz/ D f z D 1 1 f z D 1 .f z D 1 f 1=z D

1 f.z/
f .z/ D f .z/ C f .z/ :If z D .1=wz/, then w D (1/z2 ) so f .w/ D
f 1=z2 D f.z/ f.z/, and f .wz/ D f .1=z/ D f .z/ D 1 f .z/ D

1 .f.z/ f.z/ f .z/ D 1 f.z/ f .w/ D f .z/ C f .w/. In all cases the mapping
f W U ! ˆ1 .W/ is a homomorphism, and thus an isomorphism.
The finite subgroups of U are all cyclic, so if ” is a Type III cubic, the finite
subalgebras of .”0 / which contain 1 correspond to finite cyclic groups and thus
form (Zn ,0) triple systems with vertex 0 at 1. Suppose S is a finite subalgebra of
.”0 / which does not contain 1. By Theorem 34, S has an extension to a subalgebra
Q of (” 0 ,*) which does contain 1. Q contains a subalgebra M which contains 1
and ˆ1 .M/ is a subgroup of the cyclic group ˆ1 .Q/ with index 3. The points in
S form a coset of ˆ1 .M/ and thus (S,*) is a (Zn ,1) triple system where 3n D jQj.
We summarize these observations in:
Theorem 40 If is a Type III cubic curve, then every subalgebra of .0 / is a
(Zn ,0) or a (Zn ,1) triple system.
Note that the existence of (Zn ,0) and (Zn ,1) triple systems proved in Theorems
11,12,13 is also proved by Theorem 38. It is evidently known, see [3], that if ” is
a Type V cubic, and W D .”; / then ˆ1 .W/ is isomorphic to U, although in this
case we have no explicit formula for the isomorphism. Theorem 40 then applies
also if ” is Type V. In case ” is Type IV, then ˆ1 .W/ is isomorphic to Z2 U, and
besides the (Zn ,0) and (Zn ,1) triple systems, triple systems with base Z2 Zn can
be constructed on ”. The discussion of this last kind of triple system can be found
in [4].
Figure Appendix
5
3 7
8
1
A B= 9
17
10
15 11
13
12
14
Fig. 31 (Z18 ,0) triple system on Type IV cubic curve with incrementD2
13
17
3
8
4
12
0
14 16
7
10
2
6
11
15
To vertex 5
Fig. 32 (Z18 ,1) triple system on Type IV cubic curve with increment 4
To vertex 6
5
g
4
1 f=0
2
12 11
10
9
e
8
Fig. 33 (Z13 ,0) triple system on Type V cubic
5
g
4
3
2 f = 0 13
1 12
11
10
e
9
Fig. 34 (Z14 ,0) triple system on Type V cubic with vertex 7 at infinity
References
1. Bix, R.: Conics and Cubics. Springer ScienceCBusiness Media, LLC, New York (2006)
2. Harris, M: Thirdpoint groupoids. Master’s thesis, Virginia State University, (2008)
3. Knapp, A.: Eliptic Curves. Princeton University Press, (1992)
4. Fletcher, R: Geometric Triple Systems with Base Z2 Zn , submitted for publication in Springer
Proceedings in Mathematics and Statistics, (2016)
Geometric Ramifications of Invariant
Expressions in the Binary Hypercommutative
Variety
Abstract The binary hypercommutative (BH) variety, also referred to as the

variety of thirdpoint groupoids in Harris (Thirdpoint groupoids, Masters thesis,
Virginia State University, 2008), is a collection of algebras associated naturally
with the nonsingular points of an irreducible cubic curve. The identities which
define these algebras have, as consequences, expressions whose value is invariant
under any permutation of the variables comprising the expression. We characterize
such expressions and Conjecture that they can be used to determine points of
intersection between a given cubic curve and an arbitrary algebraic curve. We prove
the Conjecture in the case of the intersection of a cubic ” and a conic “: If ”, “ meet
in the five points a,b,c,d,e in the real projective plane, then they meet also in the
point e*f(a*b)*(c*d)g where a*b denotes the point of intersection besides a,b where
the line joining a,b meets ”. The expression e*f(a*b)*(c*d)g is invariant in the BH
variety. The Conjecture is also proved for two types of singular cubics. We provide
illustrations as strong evidence, but cannot prove similar statements pertaining to
the intersection of a nonsingular cubic with higher degree algebraic curves.
Keywords Cubic curve • Algebraic curve • Hypercommutative • Groupoid •

Equational variety • Conic
1 Introduction
The binary hypercommutative (BH) variety is the collection of algebras which

satisfy the identities:
x y D y x (1)

x x y D y (2)

VA 23806, USA


x y u v D x u y v (3)
A word in this variety is a properly parenthesized expression consisting of

variables and the * operation. If T is a BH algebra, and elements from T are
substituted for the variables in a word, then the resulting element of T is the value
of the word with respect to T. A word is monotone if no variable in the word is
repeated, and a monotone word is invariant if the value of the word with respect
to any BH algebra remains unchanged under any permutation of the variables. For
example, the words a*b, (a*b)*(c*d) are invariant by virtue of identities (1) and (3).
We also regard the word consisting of a single variable as invariant. Consider the
word e*f(a*b)*(c*d)g. Using identities (1), (2), (3) we have e*f(a*b)*(c*d)g D
fa*(e*a)g* f(a*b)*(c*d)g D fa*(a*b)g* f(e*a)*(c*d)g D b*f(e*a)*(c*d)g. Now it
is clear that e*f(a*b)*(c*d)g is invariant; we have switched the elements e and b and
since (a*b)*(c*d) is invariant, there is nothing special about b. In general, if w is
a word which is expressed in the form u*v where u,v are invariant, then w is itself
invariant in case it is possible to interchange two variables, one from u and one from
v, without changing the value of w. The words u, v are the principle subwords of w.
The motivation for the study of the BH variety lies in the theory of cubic curves.
If ” is an irreducible cubic curve, then we can define a binary operation on the
nonsingular points of ” by setting a*b equal to the third point besides a,b which lies
at the intersection of the line [a,b] and ”. This operation is well defined according
to the following theorem which can be found in [1].
Theorem 1 Let L be a line that intersects an irreducible cubic at least
twice, counting multiplicities. Then L intersects exactly three times, counting
multiplicities.
The product a*a denotes the point of contact besides a, of the tangent to ” at a
with the cubic ”. In case a*a D a, the point a is called a flex of ”, and the tangent at
a intersects ” at a with multiplicity 3. It is known that an irreducible cubic curve has
three collinear flexes. Identities (1), (2) are clearly satisfied by this operation. It is a
rather remarkable property of irreducible cubics, that identity (3) is also satisfied.
Theorem 2 If is an irreducible cubic curve, then the algebra ( ,*) defined on the
nonsingular points of lies in the BH variety.
The proof of Theorem 2 can also be found in [1]. In Fig. 1 we illustrate identity
(3) on a typical irreducible cubic curve. The invariant word e*f(a*b)*(c*d)g has
an interesting geometric significance in connection with cubic curves, which we
discuss in the next section. In [2] members of the BH variety are referred to as
thirdpoint groupoids and a quite different set of properties is determined.
Geometric Ramifications of Invariant Expressions in the Binary. . . 97
c*d
b
c
a*b
a x
b*d
a*c
Fig. 1 The hypercommutative axiom: (a*b)*(c*d) D (a*c)*(b*d) D x
2 Intersection of Cubic and Conic
We shall find the following theorem useful.

Theorem 3 Let G D 0 and H D 0 be distinct algebraic curves of degree n. Assume
that there is a conic K D 0 such that IP (G,K) D IP (H,K) for every point P in the
projective plane and such that K intersects G or H a total of 2n times, counting
multiplicities. Then there is a curve W D 0 of degree n-2 such that IP (G,H) D
IP (G,K) C IP (G,W) D IP (H,K) C IP (H,W).
The proof of Theorem 3 can be found in [1]. The notation IP (G,K) refers to the
intersection multiplicity of the curves G,K at the point P. Now we consider a conic
which intersects a cubic in five points in the real projective plane.
Theorem 4 Let K be a conic which meets an irreducible cubic curve in points
fa,b,c,d,eg in the real projective plane. Then K also meets in the point f D
a*f(b*c)*(d*e)g.
Proof Let f denote the sixth point, counting multiplicities, where the conic K meets
”, and let Ÿ denote the cubic consisting of the three lines [a,f], [e,d], and [b,c].
The conic K intersects each of the two cubics ”, Ÿ in the same six points, namely
a,b,c,d,e,f. By Theorem 3 the intersections of ”, Ÿ consist of the intersections of
either curve with K together with its intersections with a curve W of degree 1, i.e.,
a line. Thus the points e*d, b*c, q (see Fig. 2), which are the remaining points of
intersection of ”, Ÿ when the intersections with K are removed, must be collinear.
Then we must have q D (b*c)*(e*d) and f D a*q D a*f(b*c)*(d*e)g.
In Theorem 4 we see the geometric significance of the invariant expression
a*f(b*c)*(d,e)g: it yields the sixth point of intersection of a conic and a cubic
which meet in five points, a,b,c,d,e in the real projective plane. The natural
γ d
e*d
q
c
b
f
b*c
Fig. 2 Intersection of conic and cubic
question then is can we find an eight variable invariant expression which yields
the ninth point of intersection of two cubics ? Consider the seven variable
monotone expression (c*d)*fb *f(e*f)*(g*h)gg whose principal subwords are
invariant, and note that (c*d)*fb * f(e*f)*(g*h)gg D (c*b)*fd*f(e*f)*(g*h)gg
by axiom (3). We have interchanged two variables, one from each invariant
principal subword, and obtained an equivalent expression. We can immediately
conclude that (c*d)*fb * f(e*f)*(g*h)gg is invariant. Now consider the
eight variable expression a * f(c*d)*fb * ((e*f)*(g*h))gg whose principal
subwords are invariant, and note that a*f(c*d)*fb*((e*f)*(g*h))ggDfc*(c*a)g*
f(c*d)*fb*((e*f)*(g*h))ggDfc*(c*d)g*f(c*a) * ((e*f)*(g*h))gg D d* f(c*a) *
((e*f)*(g*h))gg. We have interchanged the a with the d from the second principal
subword to obtain an equivalent expression, and so we can conclude that
a * f(c*d)*fb * ((e*f)*(g*h))gg is invariant. Observe also that a *f(c*d)*fb
* ((e*f)*(g*h)g D fb*(a*b)g* f(c*d)* fb * ((e*f)*(g*h))ggD f(a*b)*(c*d)g*
f(e*f)*(g*h)g so we can conclude that this latter expression is also invariant. In
Fig. 3 we illustrate two cubic curves which meet in nine points, a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,x
where h is the point at infinity on vertical lines. The figure indicates that x D
f(a*b)*(c*d)g* f(e*f)*(g*h)g, so we have evidence that the invariant expression
f(a*b)*(c*d)g* f(e*f)*(g*h)g yields the ninth point of intersection of two irreducible
cubics which meet in the eight points a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h.
a*b d
g (a*b)*(c*d) e*f
a
c*d
x
g*h e
(e*f)*(g*h)
b
Fig. 3 Intersecting cubics
3 Invariant Expressions in the BH Variety
The observations of the previous section suggest that invariant expressions in the BH
variety may have significant geometric ramifications regarding the intersections of
cubic curves with algebraic curves of various degrees. It is important then to answer
the following questions: (1) Do invariant expressions exist of any given length ?
(2) Are invariant expressions of the same length equivalent ? The constructions
in Section 2 provide a clue to a general procedure for constructing invariant
expressions.
Theorem 5 Let w be a word in the BH variety and suppose w D (b*c)*v and
v D a*u where u,v are words, v is invariant, and u does not contain the variables
b,c. Then w is invariant.
Proof Consider: w D (b*c)*(a*u) D (b*a)*(c*u). We have interchanged two
variables of w, one from the invariant principal subword b*c and the other from the
invariant principle subword a*u, without changing the value of w. We can conclude
that w is invariant.
Theorem 6 Let w be a word in the BH variety and suppose w D a*v and
v D (b*c)*u where u,v are words, v is invariant, and u does not contain the
variable a. Then w is invariant.
Proof Consider: w D a*f(b*c)*ug D fb*(a*b)g* f(b*c)*ugD fb*(b*c)g*f(a*b)*ug
D c* f(a*b)*ug. We have interchanged the variable a from the first principal
invariant subword (which is just the single variable a) with the variable c from
the second invariant principal subword, without changing the value of w. We can
conclude that w is invariant.
Theorems 5 and 6 allow us to build the following infinite sequence of invariant
expressions:
E1 D a; E2 D a*b; E4 D (a*b)*(c*d); E5 D e*f(a*b)*(c*d)gD e*E4 ; E7 D
(f*g)*E5 ; E8 D h*E7 ; etc. The subscripts represent the length, i.e., the number of
variables, in the expression. So our sequence contains an invariant expression of
length p precisely when p 1 (mod 3) or p 2 (mod 3). We shall see that no
invariant word can have a length which is a multiple of 3. When we write the word
Ep *Eq we really mean for Ep and Eq to be represented with disjoint variable sets. So,
for example, the notation E4 *E4 represents the word f(a*b)*(c*d)g*f(e*f)*(g*h)g
which we have seen to be invariant, and which we have shown to be equivalent
to a*f(c*d)*fb*((e*f)*(g*h))gg D E1 *E7 D E8 . This observation leads to our next
result.
Theorem 7 If p, q are both congruent to 1 (mod 3) or both congruent to 2 (mod 3),
then Ep *Eq D EpCq , and EpCq is invariant.
Proof Note that when p 2 (mod 3) we have Ep D E1 *Ep-1 , and when p 1
(mod 3) we have Ep D E2 *Ep-2 . Clearly the theorem holds if pCq < 5. Let k
5 and assume inductively that the theorem holds whenever pCq < k. Sup-
pose pCq D k, and p2(mod 3) and q2(mod 3). Then Ep *Eq D (E1 *Ep-1 )*
(E1 *Eq-1 ) D (E1 *E1 )*( Ep-1 *Eq-1 ) D E2 *EpCq-2 D EpCq . In the last equality we
use the fact that pCq 1(mod 3), and in the second to last equality we use
the inductive hypothesis. Now suppose pCq D k, and p 1(mod 3) and q
1(mod 3). Without loss of generality we can assume that q4. Then Ep *Eq D
Ep *( E2 *Eq-2 ) D Ep *(E2 *(E1 *Eq-3 ) since q-2 2(mod 3). Then Ep *(E2 *(E1 *Eq-3 )
D Ep *f(x*y)*(w*Eq-3 )gDfy*(x*y)g*f(y*Ep )*(w*Eq-3 )g D x * f(y*Ep )*( w*Eq-3 )g
D x*(EpC1 *Eq-2 ) D x*EpCq-1 D EpCq . Since pCq 2 (mod 3) or pCq 1 (mod 3),
the word EpCq is invariant.
Let (G,C) be an abelian group with identity 0, and let g be a fixed element of G.
If we define a binary operation * on the elements of G by a*b D g – a – b, then it
is readily seen that (G,*) is a BH algebra. If we take the group of integers (Z,C) for
the abelian group and set g D 0 we obtain a*b D -a – b; (a*b)*(c*d) D aCbCcCd;
e*f(a*b)*(c*d)g D -e – a – b – c – d, etc., and we find that if p 1 (mod 3), then
the valuation of Ep in this model is a sum of the variables which comprise the word
Ep , and if p2(mod 3), then the valuation of Ep is a sum of the inverses of the
variables in Ep . In the former case we say that Ep is positive, and in the latter case
we say Ep is negative. The product of two positive expressions is negative, and the
product of two negative expressions is positive. If a word w D u*v is the product of
a positive expression u and a negative expression v, then w cannot be invariant since
it is not invariant in the integer model. For example, if we take u D (a*b)*(c*d) and
v D (e*f), then u*v D f(a*b)*(c*d)g*(e*f) D (aCbCcCd)*(-e –f) D -a –b – c – d
Ce Cf. This last expression is not invariant in the integer model, for example, if a D
e D f D 1 and b D c D d D 0, then -a – b – c – d C e C f D 0, but -e – f – c – d C a
C b D -1, and thus u*v cannot be invariant. We can conclude that the word Ep *Eq is
not invariant if p 1(mod 3) and q 2 (mod 3). In our final theorem of this section
we give a complete determination of invariant expressions in the BH variety.
Theorem 8 A word w is invariant in the BH variety iff w D Ep for some positive
integer p which is not a multiple of 3.
Proof We have shown in Theorems 5 and 6 that Ep is invariant whenever p is not a
multiple of 3. So suppose w is an invariant BH word, and let jwj denote its length.
We proceed by induction on jwj. If jwj D 1 or 2, then w D E1 or w D E2 . If jwj D 3,
then w D E1 *E2 is not invariant since E1 is positive and E2 is negative. Assume
inductively that if an invariant BH word y has 3 jyj<p and jyj not a multiple of 3,
then y D Ejyj . Suppose jwj D p and let u, v denote the principal subwords of w, so
w D u*v. If 3 divides jwj, then it must be that either 3 divides juj or 3 divides jvj.
Suppose without loss of generality that 3 divides juj, but then u is not invariant by
our inductive hypothesis, and as u is a subword of w, the word w also cannot be
invariant. Now suppose p 1 (mod 3), then it must be that juj 2 (mod 3) and
jvj 2 (mod 3). Since w is invariant, the subwords u, v must also be invariant,
and since juj<p and jvj<p, we obtain by the inductive hypothesis that u D Ejuj and
v D Ejvj . Then by Theorem 7, w D Ejuj * Ejvj D EjujCjvj D Ejwj D Ep . If p 2
(mod 3), then juj 1(mod 3) and jvj 1(mod 3), and by the same argument we
obtain w D Ep .
4 Conclusion
We seek a proof for the following Conjecture:

Conjecture 9 Let ” be an irreducible cubic curve and let Ÿ be an algebraic curve of
positive degree n which meets ” in p D3n nonsingular points in the real projective
plane. If the word Ep-1 is evaluated at any 3n-1 of the intersection points, then the
remaining point of intersection is obtained.
As further evidence for Conjecture 9 we illustrate in Fig. 4, the intersection
of a moon quartic Q with a three-pronged cubic curve L. The moon-shaped
quartic was obtained by inverting an ellipse. In this Figure E11 is given by:
h*f(a*b)*ff*f(k*e)*fd*((j*g)*(c*m)gggg, and its value is the 12th point of inter-
section x of ” and Ÿ.
We can prove Conjecture 9 in a few cases by using parameterizations. In
accordance with [1], irreducible cubics can be put into five Types. Type I consists
of cubics which can be transformed into zy2 D x3 , these are known as cuspidal
cubics; Type II consists of cubics which can be transformed into x3 C y3 D 3xyz,
these are called crunodal cubics; Type III consists of cubics that can be put in the
form z(x2 C y2 ) D y(3x2 - y2 ), these are called acnodal cubics. These are the three
types of singular irreducible cubics, each named after the type of singularity they
contain. A cuspidal cubic is the inverse of a parabola by a point on the parabola;
m
k L
j
g f*E7
h
j*g
(k*e)*(d*E4) = E7
f
c*m
Q
k*e
(a*b)*( f *E7) = E10
e ( j*g)*(c*m) = E4
d
d*E4 c
x = h*E10
b
a*b a
Fig. 4 Cubic meets moon quartic
a crunodal cubic is the inverse of a hyperbola by a point on the hyperbola, and

an acnodal cubic is the inverse of an ellipse by a point on the ellipse. We have
given homogenized forms of the equations for these cubics all of which can be
found in [3]. The remaining two Types encompass the nonsingular cubics: Type IV
consists of those cubics which can be put into the form z2 x D y(y-x)(y – k2 x), where
0 < k2 < 1. These are cubics which consist of two circuits which we have referred
to as the bell and the oval. Type V cubics consist of a single circuit and can be put
in the form z2 (y – x) D (y C x)(a2 x2 C b2 y2 ), where a2 C b2 D 1. Again these
equation forms are due to Hilton [3]. We can prove Conjecture 9 for cuspidal cubics
as follows.
Theorem 10 Conjecture 9 holds true in case is a cuspidal cubic.
Proof We may transform ” so that its equation becomes zy2 D x3 , and then
parameterize by setting x D t, y D 1, and z D t3 . Let P1 , P2 , P3 be three collinear
points on ” with parameters t1 , t2 , t2 , respectively. If the points lie on the line œx C
y C z D 0, then the parameters are roots of the equation
f .t/ D œt C C vt3 ; (4)

and thus f(t) must also be given by
f .t/ D .t–t1 / .t–t2 / .t–t3 / : (5)
The coefficient of t2 in (4) is 0, and the coefficient of t2 in (5) is -( t1 C t2 C t3 ),

so we must have t1 C t2 C t3 D 0. Thus we have
If 3 points of zy2 D x3 are collinear, then the sum of their parameters is 0, and
conversely.
Up to this point is the argument given by Hilton in [3]. We will just extend the
argument from a line to an algebraic curve Ÿ of degree n. Suppose œ\Ÿ contains
the 3n points P1 , : : : ,P3n with parameters t1 , : : : , t3n , respectively. If Ÿ is given by
F(x,y,z), then the parameters must be roots of the polynomial

f .t/ D F t; 1; t3 : (6)
The high power term in f(t) arises from the term zn in F(x,y,z), and is given
by t3n . The term in f(t) with the next highest power arises from the term xzn-1
in F(x,y,z), and is given by t3n-2 , thus f(t) has no term of degree 3n-1. Since the
parameters t1 , : : : , t3n are roots of f(t), f(t) must also be given by
f .t/ D .t–t1 / .t–t2 / .t–t3 / : : : : .t–t3n / : (7)
The coefficient of t3n-1 in (7) is -(t1 C t2 C : : : C t3n ), which must be 0 by

comparison with (6). So we conclude
If is a cuspidal cubic and is an algebraic curve of degree n which meets in
3n points with parameters t1 , : : : , t3n , then t1 C : : : C t3n D 0.
The invariant expression E2 D P1 *P2 has parameter -t1 - t2 . (Since P1 , P2 , and
P1 *P2 are collinear, the sum of their parameters is 0 as we have shown above.) We
can then determine that E4 D (P1 *P2 )* (P3 *P4 ) has parameter t1 C t2 Ct3 Ct4 and
E5 D P5 *f(P1 *P2 )* (P3 *P4 )g has parameter - t1 - t2 - t3 - t4 - t5 . In general, if s 1
mod 3, then Es has parameter t1 C t2 C : : : . Cts , and if s 2 mod 3, then Es has
parameter - (t1 C t2 C : : : . Cts ). Since 3n-1 2 mod 3, E3n-1 has parameter - (t1 C
t2 C : : : . Ct3n-1 ) D t3n . Since t3n is the parameter of P3n , we have E3n-1 D P3n in
accordance with Conjecture 9.
A similar approach can be used to prove Conjecture 9 in case ” is a crunodal
cubic.
Theorem 11 Conjecture 9 holds in case is a crunodal cubic.
Proof In [3] it is given that a crunodal cubic can be put in the form x3 C y3 D 3xyz
when we obtain a parameterization: x D 3t, y D 3t2 , z D 1C t3 . Suppose points with
parameters t1 , t2 , t3 lie in the line œx C y C z D 0. Then the parameters are roots
of the equations

œ .3t/ C 3t2 C 1 C t3 D 0; (8)
.t–t1 / .t–t2 / .t–t3 / D 0: (9)

Since (8) and (9) must be identical, their constant terms must be identical and
thus D -(t1 t2 t3 ).
We conclude that the product of the parameters of three collinear points on
is 1.
This much is given as an exercise in [3]. We will now generalize this result by
replacing the line with an arbitrary algebraic curve Ÿ of degree n. Let F(x,y,z) D 0
be the equation of Ÿ and let P1 , : : : , P3n be the points of ”\Ÿ with parameters t1 ,
: : : , t3n , respectively. These parameters must be roots of the polynomial

g .t/ D F 3t; 3t2 ; 1 C t3 D 0: (10)
The term czn in the equation of Ÿ gives rise to the high power term of g(t),
namely ct3n . The parameters must then also be roots of the equation
c .t–t1 / .t–t2 / : : : .t–t3n / D 0: (11)
The term czn D c(1Ct3 )n also gives rise to the constant term of (10), namely c.
The constant terms in (10), (11) must be identical so we have c D c(-1)3n (t1 t2 : : :
t3n ) which yields
t1 t2 : : : t3n D .1/3n : (12)
Using the above shown fact that the product of parameters of three collinear
points on ” is -1, we obtain the following results: if s 1 mod 6, then the parameter
of Es is t1 t2 : : : ts ; if s 2 mod 6, then the parameter of Es is (-1)/t1 t2 : : : ts ; if s 4
mod 6, then the parameter of Es is -t1 t2 : : : ts ; if s 5 mod 6, then the parameter of
Es is 1/ t1 t2 : : : ts . If n is odd, then 3n-1 2 mod 6 and E3n-1 has parameter (-1)/t1 t2
: : : t3n-1 D (-1)3n / t1 t2 : : : t3n-1 D t3n in accordance with (12). As a consequence
E3n-1 D P3n as stipulated by Conjecture 9. If n is even, then 3n-1 5 mod 6 and
E3n-1 has parameter 1/t1 t2 : : : t3n-1 D (-1)3n / t1 t2 : : : t3n-1 D t3n , and again we obtain
E3n-1 D P3n .
According to [3] an acnodal cubic can be put in the form z(x2 C y2 ) D y(3x2 –
2
y ) and can then be parameterized by x D cos ¥; y D sin ¥, and z D sin 3¥. It is
then shown that three points on this cubic with parameters ¥1 , ¥2 , ¥3 are collinear
iff ¥1 C ¥2 C ¥3 0 mod , and then it is claimed, without proof, that if six points
with parameters ¥1 , ¥2 , ¥3 , ¥4 , ¥5 , ¥6 lie on a conic, then ¥1 C ¥2 C ¥3 C ¥4 C
¥5 C ¥6 0 mod , and conversely. This last result as well as similar results for
nonsingular cubics we are unable to obtain.
References
1. Bix, R.: Conics and Cubics, a Concrete Introduction to Algebraic Curves, 2nd edn. Springer Sci.
and Business Media, LLC, New York (2006)
2. Harris, M.: Thirdpoint groupoids, Masters thesis, Virginia State University, (2008)
3. Hilton, H.: Plane Algebraic Curves. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1920)
Geometric Ramifications of Invariant
Expressions in the Ternary Hypercommutative
Variety
Abstract The Ternary Hypercommutative (TH) variety is an equational class of

algebras determined by the identities:
(i) [a,b,c] is invariant
(ii) [a,b,[a,b,c]] D c
(iii) [[a,b,c],[d,e,f],[g,h,j]] is invariant.
A word in this variety is a properly parenthetized expression consisting of
variables and the ternary operation [ , , ]. If T is a TH algebra, and elements from T
are substituted for the variables in a word, then the resulting element of T is the value
of the word with respect to T. A word is monotone if no variable is repeated, and
a monotone word is invariant if its value with respect to any TH algebra remains
unchanged under any permutation of its variables. Thus to say [a,b,c] is invariant
and is a shorthand way to express the identities [a,b,c] D [a,c,b] D [b,a,c] D [b,c,a]
D [c,a,b] D [c,b,a]. The geometric significance of the TH variety is found in the
study of intersection properties of circles with certain types of algebraic curves.
For example, if ’ is an ellipse and a, b, c are any three points of ’, then the
circle (a,b,c) meets ’ in a unique fourth point, counting multiplicities, which we
denote by our ternary operation [a,b,c]. Identities (i), (ii) are clearly satisfied by
this operation, and in Fletcher (Group Circle Systems on Conics, New Frontiers
of Multidisciplinary Research in STEAM-H, Springer International Publishing,
Cham, 2014) it is shown that axiom (iii) also holds. We call algebraic curves
whose intersection with circles satisfies the TH axioms supercyclic. We characterize
supercyclic curves and determine the invariant words in the TH variety. Evidence is
also given for a Conjecture regarding the significance of these words with respect to
intersection properties of supercyclic curves and general algebraic curves.
Keywords Plane algebraic curve • Equational variety • Intersections of algebraic

curves • Supercyclic curves • Invariant expressions • Inversion

VA 23806, USA

1 Introduction
This article is a sequel to and follows the same format as [2] where geometric
ramifications of invariant expressions in the binary hypercommutative (BH) variety
are examined. The BH variety is an equational class of algebras which satisfies the
identities:
a b D b a (1)

a a b D b (2)

a b c d D a c b d (3)
This variety can also be defined by saying a*b and (a*b)*(c*d) are invariant and
keeping (2) as stated. It can thus be seen that the TH algebra is a ternary version
of the BH variety. As explained in [2], the BH variety has its application in the
study of cubic curves. If ” is an irreducible cubic curve and a,b are nonsingular
points on ”, we define a*b to be the third point, counting multiplicities which lies
on the line ab and on ”. In this interpretation identities (1), (2) are clear. Identity (3)
requires some proof which can be found in [3]. In [2] it is shown that the expression
a*((b*c)*(d*e)) is invariant in the BH variety and in fact yields the 6th point of
intersection of a conic which meets ” in the 5 points a,b,c,d,e. Also in [2] all the
invariant BH words are determined and conjectured to yield points of intersection
of a cubic curve with an arbitrary algebraic curve. We follow a similar procedure
here: we will determine all invariant words in the TH variety with the hope that
similar geometric results may obtain.
2 Supercyclic Curves: Conics and Conic Inverses
In [1] it is shown that if ’ is a parabola, ellipse, or hyperbola, then a ternary operation

[ , , ] can be defined on the points of ’ by setting [a,b,c] equal to the fourth point,
counting multiplicities which lies on circle (a,b,c) and on ’. The expression [a,a,b]
refers to the point besides a, b which lies on the circle tangent to ’ at point a, and
which contains point b. The expression [a,a,a] refers to the point on ’ besides a
which lies on the unique circle which intersects ’ at point a with multiplicity 3. It
is also possible that [a,a,a] D a, in which case there exists a circle which meets ’
at a with multiplicity 4. In [1] it is shown that this ternary operation determines a
TH algebra on the points of ’. Identity (iii) in the TH variety can be replaced by the
seven variable identity:
ŒŒa; b; c ; Œ d; e; f ; q D ŒŒa; b; d ; Œ c; e; f ; q ; (4)

Geometric Ramifications of Invariant Expressions in the Ternary. . . 109
[c,e, f ]
b
x
e
[a,b,c]
d c
[a,b,d]
[d,e, f ]
f
Fig. 1 [[a,b,c],[d,e,f],q] D x D [[a,b,d],[c,e,f],q]
so to show (’, [ , , ]) is a TH algebra, it suffices to verify this identity. In Fig. 1

we illustrate identity (4) on an ellipse.
We call an algebraic curve upon which a TH algebra can be defined supercyclic.
Thus for an algebraic curve ” to be supercyclic it must be the case that every
circle or line which meets ” in three points a,b,c also meets ” in a unique fourth
point, counting multiplicities, which we designate as [a,b,c]. Then identity (3)
or (4) must be satisfied by this ternary operation. Thus every noncircular conic
is supercyclic. Since inversion maps circles to circles, and supercyclicity is an
intersection property involving circles, it follows that the inverse of any supercyclic
curve is again supercyclic. Actually, a circle which passes through the center of
inversion is inverted onto a line, so we must also consider lines which meet ” in four
points. (Properties of inversion can be found in [4].) If ¨ is the circle of inversion
and the center of ¨ lies on a noncircular conic, then inversion through ¨ yields a
supercyclic cubic curve. On the other hand, if the center of ¨ does not lie on the
conic, then a supercyclic quartic curve is obtained. In Fig. 2 we illustrate (4) on the
inverse of an ellipse with the center of inversion off the ellipse.
D
C
E [A,B,D]
[A,B,C]
X
B
[D,E,F]
A
[C,E,F]
F
Q
Fig. 2 Identity (4) illustrated on inverse of ellipse
3 Protocubic Curves
We shall call protocubic an irreducible algebraic curve which satisfies the BH

identities (1), (2), (3). Thus if Ÿ is protocubic, then it must be the case that every line
which meets Ÿ in two points a, b meets Ÿ in a unique third point a*b. We will show
that the inverse of a supercyclic curve ” by a circle with center on ” is protocubic and
that a protocubic curve is nothing more than an irreducible cubic. We shallQ make use
of a construct found in [5]. If G is an abelian group, g 2 G and ¥:G! an injective
mapping from G into the projective plane such that whenever a,b,c 2 G and aCbCc
D g, the corresponding points ¥(a), ¥(b), ¥(c) are collinear, then we call the set of
points ¥(G) and the associated collinear triples, a (G,g) geometric triple system. If
we let G D Z the group of integers under addition, and if we take g D 1, we obtain
a (Z,1) triple system.
Theorem 1 Let be supercyclic and let q be a point on . Then the inverse of by
a circle with center q is protocubic.
Proof Let Ÿ denote the inverse of ” by a circle ¨ with center q, and define a
binary operation ı on the points of ” by setting a ıb D [q,a,b]. If p is any point
on ”, let p0 denote the inverse of p with respect to ¨. Since circle (q,a,b) passes
through the center of inversion, the points a0 , b0 , (a ıb)0 , are collinear on Ÿ. Define
a binary operation * on Ÿ by setting a0 * b0 D (a ıb)0 , then certainly identities (1),
(2) are satisfied by *. To check identity (3), let a0 , b0 , c0 , d0 be any four points on Ÿ.
Then (a0 * b0 )* (c0 *d0 ) D (a ıb)0 * (c ıd)0 D ((a ıb) ı (c ıd))0 D ([q,a,b]ı[q,c,d])0 D [
[q, [q,a,b],[q,c,d] ]0 D [ [q, [q,a,c],[q,b,d] ]0 D ([q,a,c]ı[q,b,d])0 D (a ı c)0 * (b ı d)0
D (a0 * c0 )* (b0 * d0 ) D ((a ı c) ı (b ı d))0 D (a0 * c0 )* (b0 * d0 ).
Theorem 2 Every protocubic curve is an irreducible cubic curve.
Proof Let Ÿ be protocubic and let p be a nonsingular nonflex point of Ÿ. We
construct a (Z,1) triple system on Ÿ as follows. Choose point p as vertex 0 and let
vertex 1 be the point 0*0. Let vertex -1 D 1*1; let 2 D 0*-1 and -2 D 1*2. If k 3
and vertices f0, ˙ 1, ˙ 2, : : : , ˙ (k-1)g have been assigned to points on Ÿ, let (i)
k D 0*(-kC1), and (ii) -k D 1*k. We assume that vertex 0 (the generating vertex) is
chosen so that no point on Ÿ is assigned more than one integer label. In [5] it is shown
that this construction produces a (Z,1) triple system on Ÿ in case Ÿ is an irreducible
cubic curve, but the proof only employs the identity (3) which characterizes a BH
algebra. Thus the proof given in [5] is equally valid if we assume only that Ÿ is
protocubic. It is also shown in [5] that the vertices of a (Z,1) triple system must lie
on an irreducible cubic curve. Let ˜ denote the irreducible cubic which contains the
vertices of the (Z,1) triple system we have constructed on Ÿ. Then the irreducible
algebraic curve Ÿ intersects the cubic ˜ in infinitely many points. This can only
happen if ˜ is a factor of Ÿ, but since Ÿ is irreducible we must have that the two
curves are identical, and thus Ÿ is an irreducible cubic.
Now putting Theorems 1 and 2 together we have:
Corollary 3 Every supercyclic curve is the inverse of an irreducible cubic
curve.
4 Self-Inversive Character of Supercyclic Curves
Irreducible cubic curves belong to five Types in accordance with the classification
given in [3]. Type I are those cubics which can be transformed into y2 D x3 ; Type
II are cubics which can be transformed into y2 D x2 (xC1); Type III are those which
can be transformed into y2 D x2 (x-1). These three types are singular, each with a
single singularity; Type I curves have a cusp; Type II curves have a self-crossing
point known as a crunode, and Type III curves contain an isolated point called an
acnode. Type IV curves are those which can be transformed into y2 D x(x-1)(x-w);
w>1, and Type V are those which can be transformed into y2 D x(x2 C kx C 1); -2
< k < 2. Types IV and V are nonsingular; Type V cubics consist of one connected
component when regarded in the projective plane, and Type IV cubics have two
connected components: the bell and the oval. If Ÿ is Type IV, then the bell of Ÿ is
a subalgebra of (Ÿ,*). Now suppose Ÿ is the inverse of a supercyclic curve ” by a
circle ¨ with center q on ”. By Corollary 3, Ÿ is an irreducible cubic, but also as the
inverse of a supercyclic curve, it is supercyclic. It is shown in [6] that Ÿ contains a
single point at infinity which we denote by 1. From the collinear triple fa,b,a*bg
of Ÿ we obtain [a,b,a*b] D 1, and thus a*b D [a,b,1], a useful expression relating

theptwo operations which can be defined p on the points of Ÿ. Let u be a point of Ÿ
in 1, i.e., u*u D 1, and let p 2 u so (p*p)*(p*p) D 1. From the equation
(p*p)*(p*p) D 1 we obtain 1 D [p,p,1]* [p,p,1] D [[p,p,1] ,[p,p,1], 1]] D
[[p,p,p],[p,1,1],1] , which implies [p,p,p] D [[p,1 , 1 ], 1 , 1] D p. From all
this we obtain that Ÿ contains a [ , , ]—idempotent element. Inversion maps [ , , ]—
idempotent elements to [ , , ]—idempotent elements, so the inverse of p with respect
to ¨ is a [ , , ]—idempotent element of the supercyclic curve ”. We label this point
with 0, so [0,0,0] D 0 , and will build a (Z,0) circle system on ”. Q
Let G be an abelian group and g a fixed element of G, and let §:G! be an
injective mapping from G into the projective plane so that no five points in §(G)
are cocyclic. If for every four element subset fa,b,c,dg with aCbCcCd D g, the
corresponding points f§(a), §(b), §(c), §(d)g, are either cocyclic or collinear, then
we call the set of points §(G) and the associated cocyclic, (or collinear), four
element sets, a (G,g) circle system. Properties of circle systems can be found in
[6, 7]. We take G to be the additive group of integers (Z,C) and g to be the identity
0, to obtain our (Z,0) circle system. Now to construct a (Z,0) circle system on ” we
have already found a point which we have labeled 0 and which satisfies [0,0,0]D0
as is required in a (Z,0) circle system. The remaining vertices of our intended circle
system are defined as follows. Choose vertex 1 on ” so that [1]¤ 0,1 and let -1 D
[0,0,1]; let vertex 2 D [0,-1,-1] and vertex -2 D [0,0,2]; let vertex 3 D [0,-1,-2] and
vertex -3 D [0,0,3]. In general, for k0 we let (i) k D [0,-1,-kC1], and (ii) -k D
[0,0,k]. First we show that formulas (i), (ii) also hold when k<0. If k<0, then -k>0
and by (i) we have -k D [0,-1,kC1]. Replacing k by k-1 yields -(k-1) D [0,-1,k] or k
D [0,-1, -kC1] which is (i). On the other hand, (ii) immediately implies k D [0.0.-k]
which is (ii) with k replaced by -k. We assume that vertex 1 (the generating vertex)
is chosen so that no two points of ” receive the same integer label. To show that
the points so labeled form a (Z,0) circle system we must show that [a,b,c] D -a-b-c
for any integers a,b,c. First we show that [0,a,b] D -a-b 8a,b 2 Z. Consider: [0,1,k]
D [0, [0,0,-1], [0,0,-k]] D [0, [0,0,0], [0,-1,-k]] D [0,0,kC1] D -1-k. Now let m
>1 and assume inductively that [0,m,k] D -k-m 8k2Z. Consider: [0,mC1,k] D [0,
[0,-1,-m], [0,0,-k]] D [0,[0,0,-m],[0,-1,-k]] D [0,m,kC1] D -k-1-m. It now follows
by induction that [0,m,k] D -m-k 8m0. This equation also holds if m<0. We have
shown that [0,a,b] D -a-b 8a,b 2 Z. To finish the argument consider: [c,a,b] D [c,
[0,0,-a], [0,0,-b]] D [c, [0,0,0], [0,-a,-b]] D [c,0,aCb] D [0,c,aCb] D -c-a-b.
We have shown that a (Z,0) circle system can be constructed on a supercyclic
curve ”. It is shown in [6] that the vertices of a (Z,0) circle system lie on an algebraic
curve which is the inverse of an irreducible self-inversive cubic curve, so we can
conclude with the following strengthening of Corollary 3.
Theorem 4 Every supercyclic curve is the inverse of an irreducible self-inversive
cubic curve.
5 Self-Inversive Cubic Curves
In light of Theorem 4, it becomes important to obtain a description of irreducible

self-inversive cubic curves. Suppose Ÿ is such a curve and that ¨ is a circle which
inverts Ÿ onto itself. The center X of ¨ must lie on Ÿ since X must be the inverse of
the point at infinity on Ÿ. We may by translation suppose that X lies at the origin,
and by dilation we may also suppose that the radius of ¨ is 1. In [6] the equation of
a cubic which inverts onto itself via the unit circle is given as:

F .x; y/ D .ax C by/ x2 C y2 C 1 C ex2 C fxy C gy2 D 0: (5)
In (5) we must have at least one of a, b nonzero, else we no longer have a cubic.
Also we assume that the coefficients are chosen so that (5) remains irreducible. In
this section we would like to show that every irreducible self-inversive cubic curve
is supercyclic. In case (5) represents a nonsingular cubic Ÿ, it is shown in [6] that
Ÿ is supercyclic, so we need only consider here the singular case. Suppose Ÿ is an
irreducible singular cubic which inverts onto itself via the unit circle ¨. A singular
cubic has a unique singularity. For the curve Ÿ, this singularity must invert onto
itself and so must lie on ¨. By rotating Ÿ about the origin, we may assume that
this singularity occurs at the point (1,0). Starting with (5) as the equation for Ÿ, and
assuming Ÿ has its unique singularity at (1,0), we will develop a formula for Ÿ. Since
(1,0) lies on (5), we immediately obtain 2a C e D 0. Since (1,0) is a singular point
we must have I(1,0) (L, F(x,y)) 2 for all lines L through (1,0). (The notation I(1,0) (L,
F(x,y)) denotes the intersection multiplicity of L and F at (1,0).) If L has slope m,
then the equation of L is given by G(x,y) D y – m(x-1) D 0. Translating so that the
singularity lies at the origin, we obtain:
I.1;0/ .L; F .x; y// D I.0;0/ .G .x C 1; y/ ; F .x C 1; y// D

I.0;0/ ymx; .a .xC1/ Cby/ x2 C2xC2Cy2 2a.xC1/2 Cf .xC1/ yCgy2 : (6)
This, in accordance with [3], is given by the smallest positive degree of H(x,mx),
where H(x,y) is the underlined portion of (6), Consider:

H .x; mx/ D .axCaCbmx/ x2 C2xC2Cm2 x2 –2a x2 C2xC1 Cfmx .xC1/
(7)
Cg m2 x2
For the smallest positive degree of (7) to be larger than or equal to 2, we must
arrange for the coefficient of x in (7) to be 0. This yields m(2b C f) D 0, so either
f D -2b or m D 0. In case m D 0, (7) becomes H(x,0) D ax3 C ax2 which already
has a zero coefficient for x. Making the substitutions e D -2a and f D -2b in (5) we
obtain:

F .x; y/ D .ax C by/ x2 C y2 C 1 2ax2 2bxy C gy2 D 0 point at .1; 0/ (8)
As the equation of an irreducible cubic curve which inverts onto itself through
the unit circle, and which contains a singular point at (1,0). To be complete we must
also consider the possibility that L is vertical. For this we need to insure that I(0,0) (x,
H(x,y)) 2. The following Properties given in [3] will be needed to compute the
desired intersection multiplicity.
P1: I(0,0) (x,y) D 1,
P2: I(0,0) (F,G) D I(0,0) (F, G C FH)
P3: I(0,0) (F,GH) D I(0,0) (F,G) C I(0,0) (F,H)
P4: If the curve g does not contain the origin, then I(0,0) (F,G) D 0.
Now consider: I(0,0) (x, H(x,y)) D I(0,0) (x, (a(xC1)Cby)(x2 C 2x C 2 C y2 ) -
2a(xC1)2 C f(xC1)y C gy2 )D I(0,0) (x, (aCby)(2 C y2 ) – 2a Cfy C gy2 C xK(x)
where K(x) is a polynomial in x only. In Property P2 we let FD x; GD (aCby)(2 C
y2 ) – 2a Cfy C gy2 C xK(x), and H D -K(x) to obtain:

I.0;0/ .x; H .x; y// D I.0;0/ x; .a C by/ 2 C y2 –2a
C fy C gy2 D

I.0;0/ x; .a C g/ y2 C .2b C f/ y C by3 D I.0;0/ x; y by2 C .a C g/ y C .2b C f/ :
(9)
Now using Properties P1, P3 we obtain: I(0,0) (x, H(x,y))D I(0,0) (x, y) C I(0,0) (x,
by2 C (aCg)y C (2bCf)) D 1 C I(0,0) (x, by2 C (aCg)y C (2bCf)). If by2 C (aCg)y
C (2bCf)) does not contain the origin, then by Property P4, I(0,0) (x, by2 C (aCg)y C
(2bCf)) D 0 and thus I(0,0) (x, H(x,y))D 1. Since we require I(0,0) (x, H(x,y)) 2, it
must be that by2 C (aCg)y C (2bCf)) contains the origin, and thus 2b C f D 0. We
again obtain f D -2b and thus confirm (8) as the general equation of an irreducible
cubic curve Ÿ which inverts onto itself via the unit circle, and which contains its
unique singularity at (1,0).
We will invert (8) by a unit circle with center at the singular point (0,1). To do
this we will translate (8) so that the singularity lies at the origin, and then invert
through the unit circle. The desired translation is given by:
F .x C 1; y/ D ax3 C by3 C axy2 C bx2 y C ax2 C .a C g/ y2 D 0: (10)
To invert through the unit circle we replace x by x/(x2 C y2 ) and y by y/(x2 C y2 )

in (10) and then clear fractions to obtain:

ax3 C by3 C axy2 C bx2 y C x2 C y2 ax2 C .a C g/ y2 D
2
x C y2 ax C by C ax2 C .a C g/ y2 D 0: (11)
Ignoring the double point at the origin, we obtain the conic ax C by C

ax2 C(aCg)y2 ) D 0. Our singular cubic Ÿ is the inverse of a conic and thus is
supercyclic. We have proved:
Theorem 5 Every irreducible self-inversive cubic curve is supercyclic.
In the equation:
ax C by C ax2 C .a C g/ y2 D 0; (12)
we note that g ¤ 0 since otherwise we would obtain a circle whose inverse is

again a circle, (or a line), and not our cubic Ÿ. Also a¤ 0 since otherwise (12) is
reducible. If g D -a, then (12) reduces to a parabola and the singularity of Ÿ is a
cusp. We can put (12) in the form:
aCg 2 b
x2 C x C y C y D 0: (13)
a a
We see that if aCg

a
> 0, then (13) is an ellipse and the singularity of Ÿ is an acnode,
i.e., an isolated point, and if aCg
a
< 0, then (13) is a hyperbola and the singularity of
Ÿ is a crunode, i.e., a point where the curve crosses itself to form a loop. This same
information can also be gained by using partial derivatives. If M(x,y) D 0 is a curve,
then according to [8], a double point, i.e., a singularity is a crunode, acnode, or cusp
depending on whether:
2
ı2M ı2M ı2M
>; < or D : (14)
ıxıy ıx2 ıy2
By taking (10) for M(x,y) in (14) the reader may wish to verify the above-
mentioned results. Since x2 C y2 is a factor of the high power terms in (5), this
is an example of a circular cubic. In [8] it is shown that a circular cubic Ÿ is self-
inversive with respect to four mutually orthogonal circles. If Ÿ is Type IV, then three
of the circles with respect to which it is self-inversive are real. These real circles
are also described in [6]. The fourth circle is unreal but has a real center on Ÿ at the
radical center of the three real circles. In [6] this point is described as the center of a
circle which antiinverts Ÿ onto itself. (The antiinverse of a point P with respect to a
real circle ¨ with center O is the reflection through O of the inverse of P with respect
to ¨.) If Ÿ is Type V, then only two of the four self-inverting circles are real and these
are orthogonal. If Ÿ is Type I, then it is the inverse of a parabola by a point on the
parabola. The axis of symmetry of the parabola inverts into a circle which inverts
Ÿ onto itself. If the center of inversion is taken as the intersection of the axis of the
parabola with the parabola, then Ÿ reflects onto itself via the same axis. Thus Ÿ either
inverts onto itself via one real circle, or has a single axis of symmetry. If Ÿ is Type
II, then Ÿ is the inverse of a hyperbola. The two axes of symmetry of the hyperbola
invert either to two orthogonal circles which invert Ÿ onto itself or possibly to two
perpendicular axes of symmetry of Ÿ, or even to one axis of symmetry and to one
self-inverting circle with center on this axis. Similar conditions occur in case Ÿ is
Type III and thus the inverse of an ellipse. In light of Theorem 4, these same self-
inversive or reflective properties also apply to supercyclic curves. So we have:
Theorem 6 Let be a supercyclic curve. Then either (i) is self-inversive through

three mutually orthogonal real circles or (ii) has two perpendicular axes of
symmetry and is also self-inversive through a real circle with center at the crossing
point of its axes or (iii) has one axis of symmetry and is also self-inversive through
two orthogonal circles each with centers on the axis or (iv) is self-inversive
through exactly two orthogonal circles or (v) has exactly two perpendicular axes
of symmetry and is not self-inversive through any circle or (vi) has one axis of
symmetry and exactly one real self-inverting circle with its center on the axis or
(vii) inverts onto itself through only one circle or (viii) has one axis of symmetry
and is not self-inversive through any circle.
6 Bicircular Quartics
Our Eq. (5) represents a circular cubic. It is given in [8] that the inverse of a circular
cubic with respect to a circle with center on the cubic is again a circular cubic,
and the inverse with respect to a circle with center not on the cubic is a bicircular
quartic. A bicircular quartic is an algebraic curve of degree 4 which can be put into
the form
2
x2 C y2 C ax2 C by2 C 2gx C 2fy C c D 0: (15)
We have shown that a circular cubic is supercyclic, and since supercyclicity is

preserved by inversion, it follows that a bicircular quartic is also supercyclic. It
is also given in [8] that the inverse of a bicircular quartic with respect to a circle
with center not on the curve is a bicircular quartic and the inverse with respect
to a circle with center on the curve is a circular cubic. Since inversion maps
self-inverting circles, (or axes of symmetry) to self-inverting circles, (or axes of
symmetry), a bicircular quartic is self-inversive with respect to one, two orthogonal,
or three mutually orthogonal real circles. In Fig. 3 we illustrate a circular cubic •
of Type V which inverts onto itself via the orthogonal circles ’, “. Also depicted
is the bicircular quartic •0 and the circles ’0 and “0 which are inverses of •, ’, “,
respectively, with respect to the circle w. We chose w with center not on the cubic
• and also so that w is orthogonal to ’, and thus ’ D ’0 . The bicircular quartic
•0 inverts onto itself via the orthogonal circles ’0 and “0 . In Fig. 4 we illustrate a
circular cubic • of Type IV and its bicircular quartic inverse •0 via circle w. The
cubic • inverts onto itself via the three mutually orthogonal real circles ’, “, ”,
and its inverse •0 inverts onto itself via the mutually orthogonal circles ’0 , “0 , ” 0
which are the inverses of ’, “, ”, respectfully with respect to w. Again we have
chosen circle w to be orthogonal to ’, and thus ’D ’0 . We can now state our final
description of supercyclic curves.
Theorem 7 An algebraic curve is supercyclic iff it is a noncircular conic, a
circular cubic, or a bicircular quartic.
δ
δ'
β
α = α'
β' w
Fig. 3 Bicircular quartic obtained as inverse of circular cubic
α = α'
γ'
w δ
δ'
β
δ β'
δ'
Fig. 4 Type IV self-inversive cubic and bicircular quartic inverse

7 Invariant Expressions
In this section we determine the invariant expressions in the TH variety. Let P1

denote the TH word consisting of a single variable and let N3 D [P1 , P1 , P1 ]. All the
expressions we define are monotone, so the P1 ’s in the definition of N3 represents
three different variables. The subscripts represent the length of the expression. Thus
P9 D [N3 , N3 , N3 ] represents the monotone TH word [[x,y,z], [u,v,w], [q,r,s]]. In
general we define N8kC3 D [P1 , P1 , P8kC1 ] for k D 0,1,2, : : : and P8kC1 D [N3 , N3 ,
N8k-5 ] for k D 1,2,3, : : : . Of course N3 and P9 are invariant by axioms (1) and (3).
Consider:
N11 D ŒP1 ; P1 ; P9 D Œa; b; Œ Œc; d; e ; Œf; g; h ; Œj:k:l

D Œ Œ Œa; c; d ; c; d ; b; Œ Œc; d; e ; Œf; g; h ; Œj:k:l
D Œ Œ Œc; d; e ; c; d ; b; Œ Œa; c; d ; Œf; g; h ; Œj:k:l
D Œe; b; Œ Œc; d; a ; Œf; g; h ; Œj:k:l :
This is all that is needed to show that N11 is invariant. It suffices, in general,
to show that two variables can be interchanged between each pair among the
three principal subwords of a TH word, provided each principal subword is itself
invariant. Let k 2 and assume inductively that the expressions N8tC3 and P8tC1 are
invariant when t < k. Consider:
P8kC1 D ŒN3 ; N3 ; N8k5 D Œ Œ a; b; c ; Œ d; e; f ; Œ g; h; P8.k1/C1 :
Note that [g,h, P8(k-1)C1 ] D N8k-5 D N8(k-1)C3 is invariant by the inductive

hypothesis. Now we can use axiom (3) to interchange two variables one each from
principal subwords, for example,
Œ Œ a; b; c ; Œ d; e; f ; Œ g; h; P8.k1/C1 D Œ Œ g; b; c ; Œ d; e; f ; Œ a; h; P8.k1/C1 ;
And this suffices to show that P8kC1 is invariant. Consider:
N8kC3 D Œa; b; P8kC1 D Œa; b; Œ N3 ; N3 ; N8k-5 D Œ Œ a; b; ŒŒc; d; e ; N3 ; N8k-5

D Œ Œ Œa; c; d ; c; d ; b; Œ Œc; d; e ; N3 ; N8k-5
D Œ Œ Œc; d; e ; c; d ; b; Œ Œa; c; d ; N3 ; N8k-5 D Œ e; b; P8kC1
We have interchanged the variable a with the variable e from the invariant word
P8kC1 , which suffices to show N8kC3 is invariant. By induction we have proved
Theorem 8 The expressions N8kC3 D [P1 , P1 , P8kC1 ] and P8kC1 D [N3 , N3 , N8k-5 ]
are invariant in the TH variety for each positive integer k.
Theorem 9 If q,r,s are positive integers each congruent to 1 (mod 8), then [Pq , Pr ,
Ps ] D NqCrCs and if t,u,v are positive integers each congruent to 3 (mod 8) , then
[Nt , Nu , Nv ] D PtCuCv .
Proof We can suppose qr9 with q,r 1 (mod 8). The theorem is clearly true if
qDrDsD1 or if t D u D v D 3. It is also true by definition in case two from among
fq,r,sg equal 1, or if two from among ft,u,vg equal 3. Assume inductively that [Px ,
Py , Pz ] D NxCyCz and [Nx , Ny , Nz ] D PxCyCz if xCyCz < qCrCs. We can suppose
q r 9. Consider:

Pq ; Pr ; P1 D Pq ; Pr ; y D Pq ; N3 ; N3 ; Nr-6 ; y
i
D Œ Œ Pq ; w; z ; w; z ; ŒŒx; w; z ; N3 ; Nr-6 ; y

D Œ Œ x; w; z ; w; z ; Pq ; w; z ; N3 ; Nr-6 ;

i
y DŒ x; y; NqC2 ; N3 ; Nr-6 DŒ P1 ; P1 ; PqCr-1 D NqCrC1 :
Note that in the last step we have used the inductive hypothesis since (qC2) C 3
C (r-6) D rC q – 1 < qCrCs.
We have shown

Pq ; Pr ; P1 D NqCrC1 if q; r are positive integers congruent to 1 .mod 8/ : (16)
Now suppose s, q, r are positive integers, each congruent to 1 (mod 8), and with
qr9. Consider:

i
Pq ; Pr ; Ps D Pq ; N3 ; N3 ; Nr-6 ; Ps D Œ Œ Pq ; w; z ; w; z ; ŒŒx; w; z ; N3 ; Nr-6 ; Ps

D Œ Œ Œx; w; z ; w;
z ; Œ Pq ; w; z ; N3 ; Nr-6 ; Ps D Œ x; Œ NqC2 ; N3 ; Nr-6 ; Ps
D PqCr-1 ; Ps ; P1 D NqCrCs :
The last equality is due to (16). Finally suppose t,u,v are positive integers each
congruent to 3 (mod 8). Consider:
ŒNt ; Nu ; N3 D Œ Œ x; y; Pt2 ; Œ a; b; Pu2 ; N3 D Œ Œ x; y; a ; Œ b; Pt2 ; Pu2 ; N3

D ŒN3 ; N3 ; NtCu3 D PtCuC3 :
We have shown
ŒNt ; Nu ; N3 D PtCuC3 if t; u are positive integers each congruent to 3 .mod 8/ :

(17)
Now suppose t,u,v are positive integers each congruent to 3 (mod 8). Consider:
ŒNt ; Nu ; Nv D ŒŒx; y; Pt2 ; Œ a; b; Pu2 ; Nv D Œ Œ x; y; a ; Œ b; Pt2 ; Pu2 ; Nv

D ŒNv ; NtCu3 ; N3 D PtCuCv :
The last equality is due to (17).

Theorem 10 Every invariant word in the TH variety is equivalent to P8kC1 or
N8kC3 , k D 0,1,2, : : : .
Proof If a,b,c 2 Z, and we define a ternary operation on Z by setting [a,b,c] D a –
b – c, we obtain a TH algebra we call the integer model. A TH word is negative if
its valuation in the integer model is a sum of the (additive) inverses of the variables
in the word. For example, N3 D [a,b,c] is negative as is N11 D [x. y, [[a,b,c], [d,e,f],
[g,h,j] ]] D -x –y –a –b –c –d –e –f –g –h –j. A TH word is positive if its valuation
in the integer model is a sum of its variables. For example, P9 D [[a,b,c], [d,e,f],
[g,h,j] ] D aCbCcCdCeCfCgChCj is positive. In fact P8kC1 is positive and N8kC3
is negative for every nonnegative integer k. Clearly, for a TH word to be invariant
it must be either positive or negative. It is easily seen that P1 and P9 are the only
positive words with length 9, and N3 and N11 are the only negative words with
length 11. Let Z D [U,V,W] be an invariant TH word with principal subwords
U,V,W and with length k. Suppose inductively that every invariant TH word with
length less than k is equivalent to P8tC1 or N8tC3 for some positive integer t. For Z
to be invariant, it must be either positive or negative. If Z is positive, then each of
its principal subwords U,V,W must be negative. Since these subwords have length
less than k, we can invoke the inductive hypothesis to conclude that U D Np , V
D Nq , and W D Nr for positive integers p,q,r each congruent to 3 (mod 8). Then
by Theorem 9, Z D [Np , Nq , Nr ] D PpCqCr . Similarly, if Z is negative, then its
principal subwords must each be positive, say U D Ps , V D Pt and W D Pu . Then
Z D [Ps , Pt , Pu ] D NsCtCu by Theorem 9.
8 Conclusion
Our main purpose is to present the following Conjecture involving the intersection
of certain supercyclic curves with certain algebraic curves.
Conjecture Let ” be a bicircular quartic curve and let Ÿ be an arbitrary algebraic
curve with odd degree n D 2tC1. Suppose ” and Ÿ meet in 4n real points A1 , A2
, : : : , A4n , then the valuation of the word E4n-1 D E8tC3 at A1 , A2 , : : : , A4n-1
equals A4n .
In Figs. 5 and 6 we present evidence for the Conjecture. In Fig. 5 the quartic ”
meets the cubic L in the 12 points A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,J,K,L. The invariant expression
E11 is evaluated in the form
E11 D ŒE; H; Œ ŒA; I; K ; ŒB; D; J ; ŒC; F; L : (18)

Fig. 5 Bicircular quartic B

meets cubic A
F P9
[A,I,K] D
E
G H
I
[B,D,J]
[C,F,L]
L
K J
J I
γ D L
E
[C,G,L]
[I,E,F]
C
H
E9
K
[J,D,K]
Fig. 6 Inverse of hyperbola meets cubic

It can be seen that the valuation of E11 yields the remaining point of intersec-
tion G.
In Fig. 6 the quartic ” is the inverse of a hyperbola by a point not on the
hyperbola. The three pronged curve Ÿ is a typical cubic designed so that its
intersection with ” contains the maximum number (12) of real points. The points
of intersection are labeled A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L and the invariant word E11 is
evaluated in the form
E11 D ŒA; B; Œ ŒC; G; L ; ŒI; E; F ; ŒJ; D; K : (19)
From the figure we see again that E11 evaluates to H, the remaining point of
intersection of ” and Ÿ.
Interestingly, the Conjecture seems to apply only to bicircular quartics and not
two the other two categories of supercyclic curves, namely noncircular conics and
circular cubics. It cannot be expected to work in the case of conics if, for example,
we let our algebraic curve Ÿ consist of an odd number of lines. Since we can
freely change the second point of intersection of one of the lines, it is clearly
impossible to use all but one of the intersection points to predict the remaining
point of intersection. It is not clear why the Conjecture fails in case ” is a circular
cubic.
References
1. Fletcher, R.: Group Circle Systems on Conics, New Frontiers of Multidisciplinary Research in
STEAM-H, vol. 90. Springer International Publishing (2014)
2. Fletcher, R.: Geometric Ramifications of Invariant Expressions in the Binary Hypercommutative
Variety, submitted for publication, Springer (2016)
3. Bix, R.: Conics and Cubics. Springer, New York (2006)
4. Pedoe, D.: Geometry, a Comprehensive Course. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1970)
5. Fletcher, R.: Geometric Triple Systems with Base Z and Zn , submitted for publication, Springer
(2016)
6. Fletcher, R.: Self-Inversive Cubic Curves. In: Mathematical Sciences with Multidisciplinary
Applications, vol. 157, Springer Proceedings in Mathematics and Statistics (2016)
7. Robinson, D.: Self-inversive properties of group circle systems, Masters thesis, Virginia State
University Library (2015)
8. Hilton, H.: Plane Algebraic Curves. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1920)
The Psychoneuroimmunological Influences
of Recreational Marijuana
Larry Keen II, Arlener D. Turner, Deidre Pereira, Clive Callender,

and Alfonso Campbell
Abstract Background: Marijuana is the most widely used illicit substance in the
USA and self-reported use has remained steady over the past decade. Numer-
ous publications examine the influence of marijuana use on various facets of
human physiology including neurocognitive function, immune function, and illness
symptom control, each discussing marijuana’s influence in a narrow or compart-
mentalized fashion. However, there is a scant literature discussing the empirical and
clinical implications of the intersection of these constructs. The primary objective
of this review is to review and synthesize this disparate literature and propose
future research directions. Thus, this review examines the literature that relates the
influence of marijuana to: (1) neurocognitive function; (2) immune function; (3)
treatment uses; and (4) propose future directions.
Methods: Clinical and nonclinical empirical studies were collected and utilized
to inform this review. The authors used PubMed search engine as the primary
mechanism used to identify relevant articles.
L. Keen II ()
Department of Psychology, Virginia State University, 1 Hayden Drive, PO Box 9079,
Petersburg, VA, 23806, USA
A.D. Turner
Department of Behavioral Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, 1653 W Congress Pkwy,
Chicago, IL, USA
D. Pereira
Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, University of Florida, 1225 Center Drive,
Gainesville, FL, USA
C. Callender
College of Medicine, Howard University Hospital, 520 W St NW, Washington, DC, USA
A. Campbell
Department of Psychology, Howard University, 2400 Sixth St NW, Washington, DC, USA

124 L. Keen II et al.
Conclusion: Given the legalization efforts of recreational marijuana use, there

is a need to discuss health and treatment effects of marijuana use from a more
comprehensive, psychoneuroimmunological or biopsychosocial framework. We
will discuss the need for an interdisciplinary research and future steps regarding
the examination of marijuana use.
Keywords Marijuana • Immune function • Cytokine • Cognitive function •

Imaging • Cannabinoids
1 Introduction
1.1 Foundation and Statistics
Marijuana is the most widely used illicit drug in the USA, with approximately 5.7
million people above the age of 12 reporting daily marijuana use over the past year
[1]. Approximately 19 million individuals report using marijuana in the past 30 days
[1] and nearly 9% of individuals who use marijuana meet the criteria for dependence
or abuse [2]. Marijuana has been used for various recreational and medicinal reasons
for over 200 years [3]. In fact, it is possible that the cannabis plant has been used for
medical purposes since 2737 BC [4] and may be the oldest psychotropic drug [5].
Given the recent movement for the legalization of marijuana in the USA over
the last decade, 23 states and the District of Columbia have legalized marijuana in
some form, which portends an increase in marijuana users in the coming years. This
forecast is based on the idea that marijuana use is directly related to changes in the
risk of legal punishment [6]. With decreases in legal ramifications for marijuana use
or possession, more individuals may report using. As the routes of administration
expand from smoking marijuana to utilizing edibles and vaporizing butane hash
oil, marijuana use is becoming widely more acceptable than in previous decades.
Additionally, the National Institute on Drug Abuse has suggested that given the
evolution of marijuana growth, marijuana may actually be increasing in Delta 9-
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the main psychoactive compound in marijuana [2].
This idea has not been well examined in the epidemiological or psychopharmaco-
logical literature, as many studies are focusing on any use of marijuana and not
examining the specified types used recreationally. This suggests that individuals
who are newly initiated into marijuana use may be at higher risk for any negative
effects of the drug [2].
In general, marijuana is seen as a “gateway” drug, leading to subjectively more
harmful drugs [7]. However, this position has become more controversial, given
competing theories [8, 9]. Empirically, there have been many studies examining
marijuana’s influence on various physiological states [10], pathological conditions
[11], and neurocognitive outcomes [12]. However, to date, researchers have not
examined the intersection among these constructs and their subsequent potential
influences on health outcomes. This notion is substantiated by a PubMed search
The Psychoneuroimmunological Influences of Recreational Marijuana 125
using keywords representing each field, such as “marijuana,” “immune function,”

and “cognition” (and their variants), yielding less than eight results. None of which
examine the intersection of these constructs relative to epidemiological constructs
or health outcomes. This is imperative, as fields become more interdisciplinary and
treatment or care programs are looking to generate more comprehensive forms of
care.
1.2 Theoretical Framework
Overall, there is a large amount of research that examines marijuana use with
decision-making processes [13], a cellular literature that examines marijuana use
and disease susceptibility [14], but the authors are unaware of any current studies
that incorporate each of these components in the same statistical or theoretical
model. Historically, previous research have attempted to provide interdisciplinary
models, such as the psychoimmunological model, which calls for an integration of
psychological factors in addition to immune factors to elucidate the mechanisms
involved in disease conditions [15]. There are models that include the physiological
systems needed for a comprehensive view of marijuana’s influence on the human
body, such as Maier and Watkins [16] posited bidirectional pathway that connects
the immune system to the brain. The authors suggest that through this bidirectional
pathway, much of the complex interplay between psychological phenomena and
adaptive immune response can be examined. Unfortunately, these authors did
not include an environmental or behavioral component that could account for
substance use. There are conceptual models that would fit this paradigm, such as the
biopsychosocial model, which attempts to integrate various mechanisms in order
to mitigate disease or identify primary vectors [17]. The current review looks to
present different components in the empirical literature in hopes of substantiating
a psychoneuroimmunological model of recreational marijuana use and infectious
disease susceptibility.
2 Marijuana and Neurocognitive Function
2.1 Marijuana Constituents and Function in CB1 Saturated

Cortical Regions
Marijuana contains over 60 different cannabinoids, but only two constituents are
currently the main focus of research: THC and cannabidiol (CBD). Previous
research suggests that this is due to the role of THC as the main psychoactive
constituent and CBD’s role as the most abundant naturally occurring constituent [18,
19]. While CBD does not appear to impair cognition [20, 21], THC is thought to be
the primary constituent that influences neurocognitive performance [22, 23]. THC
binds to the Cannabinoid-1 (CB1) receptors, which are distributed in various areas
of the central nervous system. Generally, CB1 receptors are found presynaptically,
in cortical areas that are responsible for the behavioral and pharmacological effects
of marijuana use. These areas include the dorsolateral prefrontal and orbitofrontal
regions, motor areas, hippocampus, amygdala, the striatum, and the cerebellum
[19, 24]. The preponderance of CB1 receptors in the central nervous system
suggests that the introduction of exogenous cannabinoids in the human body would
interfere with normal neurocognitive processes governed by these brain regions
when levels of this substance exceeded values required for normal functioning of the
cannabinergic system [22, 25]. For example, due to the high densities of the CB1
in the cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, and the basal ganglia, previous research
suggests that cannabinoids are involved in attentional and memory processes, as
well as in executive functions as these areas are the neural substrates for these
specific neurocognitive domains [12, 26–28]. Much of the early research into the
neurocognitive consequences of marijuana use focused on acute intoxication with
the inference that it leads to impairments in memory and attention (see [29, 30] for
review). However, later examinations, as with this review, focus more on the non-
acute effects, which are less clear cut but show more diffuse deficits.
2.2 Marijuana and Neuroimaging Studies Findings
Neuroimaging studies have begun to examine the neural substrates underlying the
neurocognitive consequences of marijuana use, with varying results. Specifically,
resting state examinations using positron emission tomography (PET) during acute
intoxication have shown an increase in global metabolism and regional metabolic
increases in the orbitofrontal cortex, prefrontal cortex (PFC), and basal ganglia in
long-term marijuana users which was not seen in nonusers [31–35]. Moreover, while
there were minimal to no differences between groups on task performance, PET and
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies involving neurocognitive
challenge have reported differential activation during executive functioning and
memory tasks between recently abstinent marijuana users and nondrug using
controls. For example, PET examinations have indicated that chronic marijuana
users show decreased blood flow in the PFC, increased blood flow in the cerebellum,
and altered lateralization of the hippocampus for memory tasks when compared
to nondrug using controls [36]. Previous research utilizing PET also suggests
hypoactivity in the anterior cingulate and prefrontal cortices, and hyperactivity in the
hippocampus during executive functioning tasks [37]. Interestingly, neither Block
et al. [36] nor Eldreth et al. [37] found differences in the actual performance on the
neurocognitive tasks, despite the differential activation in different cortical regions.
Examinations of brain activation in recently abstinent chronic marijuana users using
fMRI indicate increased activation in the PFC, anterior cingulate, and basal ganglia
when compared to controls [38–40]. This line of research posits that both resting
Table 1 Marijuana’s influence on cortical regions and structures

Type of study Duration Outcome Source
Resting state PET Acute Increases in global brain glucose metabolism [31–35]
with marked increases in the specific regions
of the orbitofrontal cortex, prefrontal cortex,
and basal ganglia
Resting state PET Acute Global increases in cerebral blood flow with [32–34]
marked increases in the regions of the
prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, and the
insular cortex
PET with memory Non-acute Decreased cerebral blood flow in the [36]
task prefrontal cortex, increased cerebral blood
flow in the cerebellum, and altered
lateralization of the hippocampus
PET with executive Non-acute Hypoactivity in the anterior cingulate and [37]
function task prefrontal cortices, and hyperactivity in the
hippocampus
fMRI with memory Non-acute Increased global brain activation with marked [38, 39]
task increases in the prefrontal cortex, anterior
cingulate, and basal ganglia
fMRI with executive Non-acute Increased activation in the prefrontal, insular, [40]
function task and parietal cortices
PET positron emission tomography scan, fMRI functional magnetic resonance imaging
state and activated neuroimaging paradigms indicate changes in metabolism and

activation in cortical areas responsible for neurocognitive processes in marijuana
users [12]. Similarly, heavy, long-term recently abstinent marijuana users show
more widespread brain activation than controls when attempting a spatial working
memory task [39]. These results suggest that even in the absence of performance
differences, marijuana users display persistent metabolic and activation alterations
in the brain. The results of neuroimaging research that demonstrate the effects of
marijuana on the brain are presented in Table 1.
Previous research suggests that the enhanced brain activity demonstrated by
marijuana users indicates a need for increased neural effort or a change in strategy
to meet task demands and maintain good task performance [41]. This would account
for the lack of differences reported between marijuana users and controls to be
subtle. Neurocognitive examinations of marijuana use’s consequences posit deficits
in attention [42–45], memory [21, 39, 46], processing speed [43], verbal learning
[43, 47–52], and executive function [46, 49, 53–59].
2.3 Marijuana, Neurocognition, and Study Discrepancies
Most researchers agree that the neurocognitive dysfunction related to marijuana

use extends beyond the period of intoxication, but how far beyond that period has
less of a consensus. Some findings suggest that the negative impact of marijuana
use on cognition is temporary and reversible [60–62], while others indicate that
impairments are still seen 28 days to 3 months after last marijuana use and that
deficits may increase as years of regular marijuana use increase [37, 45, 63].
These inconsistencies may stem from differences in methodology. For example,
it has been indicated that examinations of non-acute effects of marijuana on
cognition suffer from possible methodological issues surrounding the parameters
of marijuana use. The specific parameters mentioned were frequency of marijuana
use, duration of marijuana use, and age of onset of marijuana use [64]. Each of
these parameters is associated with neurocognitive dysfunction when examined
separately; therefore, examining a population that is heterogeneous on any of
these parameters could confound results. However, the more likely culprit in these
inconsistencies may be the subtlety of deficits shown by marijuana users, especially
given that neuroimaging research indicates that marijuana users show metabolic and
activation differences even in the absence of performance differences. Moreover,
adult marijuana users who initiated use before 16 years of age have been associated
with increased cortical activation possibly reflecting more effort due to suboptimal
cortical efficiency during neurocognitive challenge [65]. These results coupled with
findings that memory deficits are more pronounced in younger marijuana samples
suggest that the maturing brains of teenagers may be more vulnerable to the harmful
effects of marijuana use on the brain and show lasting effects [22]. Overall, the
considerable variability among the findings presented in the literature regarding the
long-term effects of marijuana use on cognition sets a solid foundation to begin
exploring the potential moderators or more proximal factors in this relationship.
3 Marijuana and the Immune System
3.1 Marijuana and Cannabinoids
Numerous researchers have explored the relationship between marijuana (or its’
constituents) and immune function over the past 35 years. Most of the literature is
based on experimental research in laboratory settings that involve in human and
murine vitro studies (for review, see [14, 66]). Previous research points to the
inhibitory influence of cannabinoids anti-inflammatory or modulatory properties
on the cytokine network. The endocannabinoid system has been suggested to be
associated with the modulation of the cytokine network. However, the literature
also points to the exogenous cannabinoids as the potential immunosuppressant [67].
Very few studies have examined the acute effects for marijuana smoking on immune
cells, but there is also a dearth of literature examining long-term effects of marijuana
use on immune system cells or function [68]. This is imperative to examine, given
that marijuana is used recreationally by many with age of initiation of use as
early as 12 years old [1]. With so many individuals using marijuana recreationally,
even inconsistent use or sporadic use, researchers should explore marijuana use
in the context of subsequent immunological effects. Differences in patterns of use
Fig. 1 The influence of marijuana on the peripheral and central nervous systems. This figure
details cortical immune functions in each region or area
may predict future infections or conditions comprised of proinflammatory cytokine

dysfunction. Overall, this body of research has focused on the marijuana and
immune system relationship at the cellular level.
Immune cells express both CB1 (primarily in the central nervous system) and
CB2 (primarily in the peripheral nervous system) receptors, suggesting a physio-
logical connection between the endocannabinoid system and the immune system
(see Fig. 1). This endocannabinoid system plays a pivotal role in the mitigation
of functional immunity do to its direct ties to the hypothalamic pituitary axis and
influence on the proliferation of natural killer cells and other adaptive immune
cells [69, 70]. However, the exact role or connection between these two systems
is still controversial [71]. In exploring the potential physiological overlap between
these two systems, researchers have found that the cannabinoid system influences
the production and proliferation of some immune cells, specifically cytokines.
Comparison among many of the published findings is problematic, given the
different types of experimental methodologies and quantification of outcomes [72].
CB2 are in close relation to various cells of the immune system and are typically
seen in the pancreas and the lymphoid system [73]. CB2 are suggested to act as
a function of immunosuppressant or modulation [74]. In both animal and human
models, the majority of the literature suggests CB2 as anti-inflammatory based on
various types of immune cells and health conditions [19]. Though THC is known
to activate the CB1 and CB2 receptors and use them to signal throughout the
endocannabinoid network, CBD, the non-psychoactive component in marijuana,
does not typically activate these receptors. Interestingly, CBD is suggested to have
anti-inflammatory effects [75].
3.2 Marijuana and Immunity
Marijuana and its’ biologically active constituents have been associated with various
types of immune cells (for review, see [76]). Overall, marijuana is associated with
decreases in lymphocyte function [77], lung alveolar macrophage function, and
granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor [78], TNF-alpha [78, 79], IL-6
[78, 80, 81], IL-8 and neutrophils [82], Natural Killer (NK) cells function [83–
85], IL-2 [83, 84], and IL-10 [83], Transforming Growth Factor B-1 [84], and
IL-17 [81]. Interestingly, Monnet-Tschudi et al. [86] reported an upregulation of
IL-6 48 h after a single administration of THC within a murine model. CBD and
THC both have been suggested to have immunosuppressive effects as constituents
of marijuana. However, the literature suggests that immune cells, or systems they
directly influence, may be slightly different [87].
THC, the psychoactive constituent of marijuana, is associated with various agents
within the immune system (for review, see [88]). THC is associated with suppressed
Natural Killer (NK) cells function [89], CD40 ligand [90], IL-8, TNF, IFN [91], T
cells, IFN, and mRNA related to Th1 cytokine production [92], IL-12 [93, 94], TNF
[95, 96], T cells, and mRNA related to Th1 cytokine production [92]. In murine
models, researchers have reported an inverse relationship between THC and IL-
2 [97], natural killer cells [98], increases in Th2 antibodies and decreases in Th1
antibodies [99], NK cells, IFN, IL-2, T and B lymphocytes [100], IL-12 and IFN
[101, 102], IFN [103, 104], IL-6 [105], and Th1 related dendritic cells [106].
Verhoeckx et al. [107] discussed the potential damage done by THC through
marijuana use and suggested exploring THC-acid as it may be metabolized via a
different pathway. THC-acid is a chemical, when burned, converts to THC. These
researchers reported that THC-acid not only inhibited TNF levels but did so for a
longer period of time than THC.
THC was not associated with IL-2 function [77]. THC and CBD have also been
shown to increase the expression of IL-10, an anti-inflammatory cytokine [81].
Moreover, THC was reported to increase mRNA levels for Th2 cytokine levels [92].
In murine models, THC is reported to upregulate IL-4 and IL-10 [108, 109], IL-4
[101], IL-10, and TGF-“ [104]. See Table 2 for a listing of the cells influenced by
marijuana.
Table 2 Marijuana’s influence on Th1 and Th2 immune cells

Cellular structure Influence Source
Lymphocyte Decrease [77]
Alveolar macrophage (lung) Decrease [78]
Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor Decrease [78]
CRP Decrease [110, 111]
CRP Increase [112]
TNF-alpha Decrease [78, 80, 91, 95, 96]
IL-6 Decrease [78, 80, 81, 105]
IL-8 Decrease [82, 91]
Neutrophils Decrease [82]
NK cells Decrease [85]
NK cells Decrease [83, 84]
IL-10 Decrease [83]
TGF B-1 Decrease [84]
IL-17 Decrease [81]
CD40 ligand Decrease [90]
IFN Decrease [91, 92]
T cells mRNA Decrease [92]
IL-2 Increase [97, 100]
Th1 antibodies Decrease [99]
Th2 antibodies Increase [99]
NK cells, IFN, T & B lymphocytes Decrease [100]
IL-12, IFN Decrease [101, 102]
IFN Decrease [103, 104]
Th1 dendritic cells Decrease [106]
IL-10 Increase [81]
mRNA (Th2) Increase [92]
IL-4, IL-10 Increase [108, 109]
IL-4 Increase [101]
IL-10 and TGF-B Increase [104]
CRP C-reactive protein, TNF tumor necrosis factor, IL-6 interleukin 6, IL-8 interleukin-8, NK Cells
natural killer cells, IL-2 interleukin 2, IL-10 interleukin 10, IL-17 interleukin 17, CD40 ligand
cluster of differentiation 40, IFN interferon, mRNA messenger ribonucleic acid, IL-2 interleukin 2,
IL-4 interleukin 4, IL-12 interleukin 12, TGF-B transforming growth factor
To date, very few published studies have explored this relationship at the
epidemiological level. Among these studies, self-reported lifetime use of marijuana
use was found to be associated with lower levels of IL-6 [80] and TNF [79].
In addition, there are very few epidemiological studies that have explored the
relationship between marijuana use and inflammatory markers, specifically [79, 80,
110–112]. Of these, Alshaarawy and Anthony [110] have the largest sample, uti-
lizing a population-based sample. These researchers reported that recent marijuana
use was associated with lower C-Reactive Protein (CRP) levels in a nonclinical,
predominately White sample. In contrast to Alshaarawy and Anthony [110],
Costello et al. [112] reported a positive association between CRP and marijuana use
in the past 3 months among children aged 9–21 years in a longitudinal examination.
However, these researchers also reported that this association did not survive
correction for covariates. Additionally, Rajavashisth et al. [113] found that higher
levels of CRP were associated with non-marijuana users in comparison to former
and frequent users in a sample of predominately White, middle-aged population-
based study. In contrast to these inverse associations between marijuana use and
inflammatory markers, Muniyappa et al. [111] reported that chronic marijuana
users have higher CRP levels than their non-marijuana using counterparts in a
small sample matched on age, sex, and BMI. Taken together, these studies begin a
foundation for epidemiological exploration of marijuana and immune function. This
line of research will allow for the examination of incidence of infectious disease
conditions associated with various patterns of marijuana use. Potential findings
could inform clinical trials and subsequent prevention or intervention programs that
are based on biobehavioral processes and not just pure epidemiological constructs.
3.3 Marijuana Use and Infection Susceptibility
Marijuana is commonly used in combination with illicit substances. In accordance

with this, individuals who inject drugs may leave themselves more susceptible
to various diseases due to the immunosuppressive influence of marijuana in
conjunction with opiates or stimulants [114]. Specifically, some researchers suggest
that marijuana use exacerbates vascular and proinflammatory symptomatology in
immunity based conditions, such as HIV [91]. Moreover, marijuana use (either
medical or recreational) has been reported to be associated with the development
of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis [115–117]. This finding suggests how the
immunosuppression produced by marijuana use may function in individuals who
are already or at risk for immune dysfunction. Cabral and Pettit [118] discuss this
issue, suggesting that cannabinoids increase susceptibility to infectious diseases.
Moreover, Huemer et al. [119] reported that the use of marijuana a day before
infection augmented the severity of the subsequent cowpox infection in a group
of mice. Though these researchers focus on animal based models, this sets a strong
foundation for future research to begin exploring this research question in humans,
even at the epidemiological or global level.
4 Marijuana Use and Symptom Palliation
In 1964, THC was isolated and utilized to control nausea during chemotherapy [3].
After the discovery of the endocannabinoid system [120], clinicians and researchers
began to elucidate the therapeutic nature of marijuana and its constituents [72].
Moreover, with the budding exploration of marijuana as a therapeutic agent, few
regions of the USA have begun employing medical marijuana programs to distribute
marijuana for medicinal purposes. Medicinal marijuana users who are approved for
these programs: (1) are individuals with more severe symptomatology or diseases;
(2) may be individuals with a history of substance use; (3) may potentially develop
dependence or have negative health outcomes based on the medicinal marijuana use
[121]. In addition to the decreases in physiological symptomatology, improving the
quality of life for patients with severe or chronic conditions may also play a critical
role in the rise of medicinal marijuana usage. In the alleviation of pain, palliative
care looks to improve the quality of life for the patient as much as possible. This
raises a very interesting discussion, as there are two clear sides to the conversation
regarding medicinal marijuana use. One side cites various side effects and the
potential harmful effects of marijuana use in any capacity. While the other speaks to
the quality of life for the truly suffering patients and weight the alleviation of disease
symptomatology more than the short-term effects of marijuana use. Philipsen et al.
[122] coin this debate Nonmalfeasance (“First, do no harm”) versus Beneficence
(“Do all the good you can”).
Overall, the literature exploring the therapeutic potential for marijuana and its
constituents is growing. Such conditions include but are not limited to neurodegen-
eration, irritable bowel syndrome, brain injury, arthritis, and vascular inflammation
(for review, see [123, 124]). The underlying theme for the relationship between
marijuana’s therapeutic utility and these conditions is the inflammatory function
proximal to each condition.
Endocannabinoids control various central nervous system and peripheral nervous
system functions, such as movement, memory, cognitive function, neuroendocrine
secretion, and immune system modulation [72]. Endocannabinoids also have the
ability to regulate neurotransmission, which may be the key in neurological diseases
such as multiple sclerosis or Parkinson’s disease where you have overactive
neurotransmission. Previous research posits that marijuana does not present harmful
or negative outcomes, as long as it is used in moderation [125]. Much of the focus
has been on marijuana’s mitigating influence on various disease symptoms (nausea,
appetite, etc.); however, there is a growing literature examining the antitumoral
function of THC within cancer [126].
Given the anti-inflammatory effects of THC, various medical fields have begun
exploring the treatment usages. For example, Gaffal et al. [103] reported that topi-
cally applied THC may attenuate inflammation related to allergy in an experimental
murine sample in the field of dermatology. Previous research has reported that
marijuana use may improve Hepatitis C virus treatment adherence and reduce the
likelihood of virologic relapse after treatments [125]. Marijuana has been reported
to decrease disease activity and even reduce the need for prescribed medication
in individuals with Crohn’s disease [127]. Further, within the Naftali et al. [127]
examination of marijuana’s influence on Crohn’s disease, researchers posited that
it was not only the anti-inflammatory effects of marijuana that aided in disease
symptoms amelioration, but the gastrointestinal effects (i.e., reduction in diarrhea)
as well. Interestingly, a recent study reveals that an ultralow dose of THC may
reduce myocardial damage if administered before or up to 24 h after induced
myocardial infarction in mice [128]. This finding suggests a potential cardiopro-
tective component of marijuana use, seemingly in dose–response relationship.
Utilizing smoking marijuana as the primary route of administration may deter
various health professionals from promoting its health benefits. In the addiction
literature, one commonly sees the use of marijuana paired with other illicit drugs
or legal substances such as alcohol. However, smoking may be the preferred route
of administration due to the efficiency in receiving the desired effect. Specifically,
smoking introduces the exogenous cannabinoids to the bloodstream faster, yielding
the sought anti-inflammatory effect. Nevertheless, some researchers suggest that
consuming marijuana orally may have the same potent influence as smoking [127].
This may be critical if the goal is to alleviate pain, nausea, or any other symptoms
in the gut.
5 Conclusions
Taken together, this literature presents a pattern in the effects of marijuana on

immune function. Specifically, marijuana seems to suppress the Th1 branch of
the immune system, while potentially augmenting various agents within the Th2
branch of the immune system. Given the abundance of CB1 receptors in the
central nervous system and majority of the CB2 receptors are in the periphery,
marijuana seems to have a concomitant effect on the human physiology. Marijuana
also influences the central nervous system; cerebral and subcortical structures
involved in memory, decision-making, processing speed, and autonomic regulation
are all affected by marijuana use. The potential bidirectional influence of marijuana
can be traced throughout the nervous system with the principles outlined in
psychoneuroimmunology [129]. Specifically, the alteration of cortical activation
relating to the HPA axis and the autonomic nervous system in addition to the various
neurocognitive effects portrays a comprehensive portrayal of marijuana’s influence
on human physiology. Identifying the psychoneuroimmunological influences of
marijuana use will aid in examining and evaluating both deleterious and health
promoting effects to the human physiology and behavior. However, the complex
interplay between the peripheral and central nervous systems altered by marijuana
use may vary based on an individual’s health status.
The number of individuals using marijuana will continue to increase with various
states choosing to legalize the recreational use. With legalization, comes the use of
edibles and other variation in routes of administration. Though these items are safe
for consumption, the dosage of THC and other chemicals must be regulated and
studied further. As individuals are gaining freedom to access/use marijuana legally
in various forms, policy makers and individuals involved in regulating marijuana
in the USA may need to examine if there are increases in polysubstance uses.
Marijuana use is associated with the constructs reported in this review; however, the
literature does not discuss how polysubstance users immune, neurocognitive, and
disease susceptibility vary by substance grouping. Recreational use of marijuana
has varied effects on the human anatomy. Identifying different mechanisms from
various fields of research may elucidate the nexus of influence that surrounds
recreational marijuana use. This identification may work through models such as the
biopsychosocial model, which incorporates physiological, psychological, and social
factors that may be applied to the examination of marijuana and potential disease
effects or development. At a cellular level, marijuana has both immunosuppressive
and anti-inflammatory effects. However, negative effects of marijuana use include
risk of opportunistic infections among individuals with impaired cell-mediated
immunity as well as impaired neurocognitive functioning across recreational and
chronic users. Although there is a growing body of literature highlighting these
cellular, clinical, and population-based effects, there is an extremely scant amount
of research, to our knowledge, that examines the psychoneuroimmunological effects
of marijuana use.
There is a large literature on the influence of marijuana uniquely on immunosup-
pression at the cellular level, neuropsychological processes, and potential treatment
and disease utilities. However, much of this literature does not empirically intersect.
Future research should begin to discuss marijuana use from a psychoneuroim-
munological perspective in order to provide comprehensive understanding of data
and performance from various samples. Moreover, negative data reporting is a
phenomenon that has limited the progression of the literature. Researchers must
attempt to report null findings as well as significant findings in order to provide
a more complete picture of the influence of recreational marijuana use. Having
a comprehensive literature that intersects multiple fields would allow for a clear
presentation of marijuana’s effects, further informing policy and legalization efforts.
Role of Funding Source This project was supported by grant #P20 MD000512
from National Center on Minority Health and Health Disparities.
Conflict of Interest No conflict declared.
Contributors Drs. Keen II, Turner, Pereira, Callender, and Campbell contributed
to the literature search and writing/editing of this article and have approved the final
article.
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Image Segmentation with the Aid
of the p-Adic Metrics
Andrei Khrennikov and Nikolay Kotovich
Abstract We present the results of numerical simulation for image segmentation

based on the chain distance clustering algorithm. The key issue is the use of
the p-adic metric, where p > 1 is a prime number, at the scale of levels of
brightness (pixel wise). In previous studies the p-adic metric was used mainly in
combination with spectral methods. In this paper this metric is explored directly,
without preparatory transformations of images. The main distinguishing feature of
the p-adic metric is that it reflects the hierarchic structure of information presented
in an image. Different classes of images match with in general different prime
p (although the choice p D 2 works on average). Therefore the presented image
segmentation procedure has to be combined with a kind of learning to select the
prime p corresponding to the class of images under consideration.
Keywords Image segmentation • p-adic metric • Clustering • Clustering

algorithm
1 Introduction
In theory of computer vision segmentation of images is defined as partition of an

image I into say N disjoint domains Ri , which are treated as homogeneous with
respect to some characteristic (for example, the level of brightness, texture, color)
and essentially different from other domains with respect to this characteristic, see,
e.g., [1–5]:
N
[ Ri D I;
iD1
A. Khrennikov ()
International Center for Mathematical Modelling, Physics, Engineering, Economics, and
Cognitive Science, Linnaeus University, 35195, Växjö, Sweden
N. Kotovich
Institute of System Analysis of Russian Academy of Science, 117218, Moscow, Russia

144 A. Khrennikov and N. Kotovich
Ri \ Rj D ∅ for i; j D 1; 2; : : : ; NI i ¤ j;
P .Ri / D TRUE for i D 1; 2; : : : N;

P Ri [ Rj D FALSE for neighboring domains Ri and Ri ;
where P(Ri ) is the predicate of homogeneity on the set of pixels composing the
domain Ri.
Segmentation is one of the most important stages of the analysis of images char-
acteristics. Permanently increasing interest in this topic is expressed in particular
in a huge number of publications devoted to different aspects of segmentation of
images, development and improvement of various algorithms of segmentation, see,
e.g., [1–5]. And the number of publications is growing rapidly, IEEE statistics [6]: in
1970–1979: 11 publications; in 1980–1989: 314 publications; in 1990–1999: 3066
publications; in 2000–2009: 9938 publications.
In different studies segmentation of images was based on the use of various
types of distances, e.g., Euclidean metric or its square, Hamming metric, Chebyshov
metric, and so on. In particular, we point to the theoretical and experimental studies
based on the use of p-adic metrics and more generally ultrametrics [7–10]. For
instance, in works [7, 8] there were presented results of numerical experiments on
segmentation of images presented as JPEG, MPEG images with the aid of the p-adic
metric in the spectral domain (the Fourier transform of the image).
In this paper we present the result of numerical experiments on segmentation of
images with the aid of chain clustering algorithms with fixed threshold based on
the use of the p-adic metric for comparing the levels of brightness associated with
pixels. This is a kind of “direct clustering,” i.e., without preparatory transformations
of images such as based on the spectral methods (methods based on the use of the
Fourier transform).
The main distinguishing feature of the p-adic metric is that it reflects the
hierarchic structure of information presented in an image. Different classes of
images match with in general different prime p (although the choice p D 2
works in average). Therefore the presented image segmentation procedure has to
be combined with a kind of learning to select the prime p corresponding to the
class of images under consideration. In the numerical experiments from which
results are presented here, the “p-learning” was done manually. In future it can be
done automatically, either with the aid of the direct selection of various primes,
p D 2,3, : : : , or with the aid of more advanced learning procedures.
Coupling of the p-adic metric and more generally ultrametric to cognition and
in particular its role in recognition and processing of images by a human brain
was enlightened in a series of works [11–18]. In this approach hierarchy of mental
information is encoded in hierarchy on a branch of the p-adic tree: further from
the root is associated with less importance. P-adics and generally ultrametrics
provide a possibility to encode the information into topology. Then processing
Image Segmentation with the Aid of the p-Adic Metrics 145
of mental information can be mathematically modeled by dynamical systems in

ultrametric spaces (a good mathematical theory was developed only for p-adic
spaces). Continuity of the evolution of the information state of the brain (“mental
state”) with respect to ultrametric preserves the hierarchic structure of information.
Decisions and general outputs of the process of thinking are represented by
attractors of the dynamical systems. The latter is the standard feature of the
dynamical systems approach to cognition. The novelty is the use of ultrametric
(mainly the p-adic metric) and the hierarchic structure of the process of approaching
attractors—solutions.
For numerical studies for signals of different kinds, see, e.g., the work of
Murtagh on ultrametric structure of astrophysical signal data [19]; he also used
p-adic metric for hierarchical clustering for search and retrieval [19, 20]. Recently
Bradley elaborated novel algorithms for information processing and signal analysis,
in particular, for image segmentation [21–24].
P-adic neural networks were applied to data classification problems and learning
as well as structuring video-streams of information [25].
2 Ultrametric and p-Adic Spaces: Brief Introduction
We recall, e.g., [11], that a metric on the space X is said to be an ultrametric, if it

satisfies the strong triangle inequality:
(x,y) max [ (x,z), (z,y)], x,y,z2 X.
p-adic ultrametric on the space Zp,N of p-discrete vectors of the length N with
coordinates belonging to the set of digits f0,1, : : : ,p-1g, where p > 1 is a prime
number, is defined in the following way.
Let x D (˛ 0 ,..., ˛ n-1 ), y D (ˇ 0 ,..., ˇ n-1 ) 2 Zp,N . We set (x,y) D 1/pk if ˛ j D ˇ j ,
j D 0,1, : : : ,k-1, and ˛ k ¤ ˇ k . This is an ultrametric.
In the same way the p-adic ultrametric is introduced on the space Zp of p-discrete
vectors of infinite length with coordinates belonging to the set of digits f0,1, : : : ,
p-1g. In this paper we shall use only vectors with finite number of coordinates.
However, in theoretical studies Zp plays an important role [11].
Geometrically Zp can be represented as the homogeneous tree with m branches
leaving each of its vertexes; the branches leaving a vertex are numbered as
i D 0,1, : : : , p-1. Therefore the branches of the tree are labelled as infinite vectors
of the form x D (˛ 0 , : : : , ˛ n-1, : : : , ) belonging to the set f0,1, : : : ,p-1g.
Algebraically the elements of Zp are represented by sums:
x D ’0 C ’1 p C : : : :: C ’N-1 pN-1 C : : : :
with naturally defined arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, and multipli-

cation [11]. This is a ring with respect to these operations. It is called the ring of
p-adic integers (because all “usual integers” belong to it).
One can extend this ring by using sums including finite numbers of terms with
negative powers of p. This is the field Qp of p-adic numbers, i.e., the operation of
division is also well defined [11].
3 Chain Algorithm for Clustering
In this section we present the basic definitions which will be used in further
considerations on chain segmentation algorithms.
A sequence of points a D x0 , x1 , : : : , xn-1 , xn D b in a metric space (X,) is called
an "-chain joining a and b if (xk , xkC1 ) " for any k n. If there exists an "-chain
joining a and b they are said to be "-linkable.
We recall that ultrametric spaces are characterized by the following result:
Theorem A metric space is ultrametric if and only if no two points a ¤ b in it are
"-linkable for any " < (a,b).
Thus by this theorem, for arbitrary two points of an ultrametric space, there is
no "-chain joining a and b for " < (a,b) which is strictly less than the distance
between these points. This property also implies that a metric space is in fact an
ultrametric space.
Let now (X,) be an arbitrary metric space. We set

(x,y) D Inf f":x and y are "-linkableg, x,y2 X.
This function has all properties of an ultrametric, besides non-degeneration (it
can be that
(x,y) D 0 for some x ¤ y). It is the so-called pseudo-ultrametric.
It is called the chain distance between points x and y. We remark that theorem
implies that in an ultrametric space (X,) the original metric coincides with the
corresponding chain distance.
We use an algorithm of chain clustering. This algorithm belongs to the group
of AH-methods (agglomerative hierarchical clustering), see, e.g., [26, 27] for the
general references.1 The crucial specialty of our approach is the use of the special
metric, the p-adic one.
Step 0 Any object of the set of objects under study can be chosen as the generator
of the process of clustering. This object gets two labels, n D 1 (its number) and
D 0 (distances).
Step 1 Then we consider all other objects and take the object such that the distance
0 between this object and the object with n D 1 is minimal. This new object gets
n D 2 and D 0 .
::: :::
1
This is the nearest neighbor chain algorithm, that, with the reciprocal or mutual nearest neighbor;
this is the standard efficient implementation for all standard agglomerative hierarchical clustering
algorithms.
Step N Then we consider all other objects and take the object such that the distance
00 between this object and the set of previously chosen objects is minimal.
It is easy to see that thus defined the distance is the chain distance. At each step
we take the object such that the distance between this object and the set of objects
that have been already enumerated is minimal. This procedure is repeated until all
objects are enumerated. Finally, all objects are ordered (enumerated) in a so-called
chain and each object in it has the label —the distance to the set of previous objects.
In more detailed presentation we have:
1. There is given nonempty set A and a metric on it.
2. Take an arbitrary x from A; assign to it n D 1 and distance D 0. We define the
set M as containing this point x.
3. If all elements of A have been used, then go to the end—to step 8.
4. Take one of the elements of A, say y, having the minimal distance to M.
5. Assign y this minimal distance.
6. Add y to M and enumerate it, n D n C 1.
7. Got to step 3.
8. End: all elements of A have been enumerated and to each of them there were
assigned the corresponding distance.
Splitting of the set of objects into clusters is based on the following procedure.
Let r0 > 0 be some constant (the parameter of clustering). We would like to build
clusters in such a way that the chain distance between objects inside one cluster
will be r0 and at the same time the chain distance between objects belonging to
different clusters will > r0 . To do this, we consider labels of all objects and find
objects such that > r0 . Suppose that there are objects with numbers n1 , : : : , nK .
The first cluster consists of all objects with 1 n < n1 ; the second one –
n1 n < n2 , and so on.
By varying the parameter r0 we can analyze different variants of clustering.2
4 Chain Clustering with a Fixed Threshold
Here consider the following fast version of the chain clustering method, namely
chain clustering with a fixed threshold.
Let us fix a distance between clusters, r0 > 0. Any object can be taken as the
initial object. It gets the label as belonging to the first cluster. The first cluster is
constructed by grouping all objects such that the distance from them to the initial
object is less than the threshold r0 . Then, for each of these new objects that were
taken into the first cluster, the procedure is repeated (by considering only the objects
2
This (thresholding chains or relation representations, from, e.g., single link clustering, or the
minimal spanning tree) has been used for image segmentation in some previous work. A review
that includes some of this work is available, e.g., in [28].
that do not already belong to the cluster). When there are no more objects that could
be collected to the first cluster, some object that does not belong to the first cluster
is taken as the base of the second cluster and so on. If we have N objects, then in the
worst case we need N (N1)/2 operations of distance computation, but in the best
case only N operations.
5 Results: p-Adic Clustering
In this section we present the results of segmentation of images with the aid of the
p-adic metric by chain clustering method with fixed threshold r0 . The neighboring
pixels are unified in a cluster if the distance between their levels of brightness is less
than the fixed threshold. To be more precise, we remark that, as always for colored
pictures, we consider three components: (R) red, (G) green, (B) blue, and each of
them is quantized by using 256 levels.3 For each color, we use the p-adic distance
and finally unify colors by using the max-metric with respect to colors. We note that
by taking max of a family of ultrametrics one again obtains an ultrametric.
The crucial point of our study was the use of the p-adic distance. Here, see Figs.
1, 2, 3, and 4, we proceeded with the value p D 3 and the threshold r0 D 1/3. As was
already remarked in the introduction, in average, i.e., without specification of the
class of images, the simulation with value p D 3 produces reasonably good outputs.
Heuristically it is clear why it happens. Roughly speaking the value p D 2 is too
small, the levels of brightness are too often considered (from the 2-adic viewpoint)
as close to each other; the value p D 5 is too big, the levels of brightness are too
often considered (from the 5-adic viewpoint) as far from each other. Of course, this
is pure heuristics. In general some classes of symbols are better adapted to, e.g.,
Fig. 1 Sky and rocks, p D 3, r0 D 1/3
3
We noted that future work would consider other color encoding beyond RGB (YUV, etc.); also
dynamic range, here 256, to be extended.
Fig. 2 Land, river, and sky, p D 3, r0 D 1/3
Fig. 3 Land, penguins, and sky, p D 3, r0 D 1/3
Fig. 4 Walls, door-segment, and books, p D 3, r0 D 1/3

2-adic, or 5-adic processing. Again, as was remarked in the introduction, in future

more advanced methods of p-learning, p-adaptivity to a class of images, can be
elaborated, e.g., by using the color histograms of images. Moreover, for a moment
we proceed with the same prime p for all colors, (R), (G), (B). In principle, for some
classes of symbols p can depend on colors, i.e., one can get better segmentation by
using three different prime p. Finally, we remark that, as well as in modelling of
cognition, one need not restrict considerations to the case of the prime numbers.
It is possible to apply our algorithm to the case of nonprime m D 2,3,4, 5, 6, : : : ,
i.e., to work in the rings of the so-called m-adic numbers [11]. The use of primes is
preferable in the process of determination of the presence of a hierarchic structure
in the image. We remark that any natural m can be represented as the product of
the powers of its prime factors. Therefore the intrinsic m-adic structure of an image
is combination of the p-adic structures corresponding to the prime divisors of m.
If we select one of them, then we will be able to extract at least the component
corresponding to this divisor. For example, take m D 6; its prime factors are 2 and 3.
If an image has the 6-adic internal structure, its component will be visible already
for 2-adic clustering. Thus the use of primes is justified, since it simplifies finding
of the proper basis of processing. Of course, if one has sufficient computational
abilities and no time restriction, it is possible to experiment even with composite
natural numbers to find a better matching.
We remark that for p D 3 the possible thresholds are equal to 1, 1/3, 1/9, : : : ,
corresponding to 3-adic balls of these radii. Hence, we performed clustering with
the aid of balls of the radius r D 1/3. One can see that such a simple clustering
algorithm gives a reasonably good output.
The use of the p-adic distance is crucial; see further comparison with clustering
with the aid of the same algorithm, but with the Euclidean metric, Section 6.
Finally, we present, see Fig. 5, the output of the clustering algorithm for the
image represented at Fig. 2 (the left-hand side image) but with the parameters p D 2
and r0 D 1/2. The quality of segmentation is not satisfactory, further play with the
parameter r0 does not improve the quality.
Fig. 5 Land, river, and sky,

p D 2, r0 D 1/2
6 Comparison with the Euclidean Metric
The following three pictures are outputs of the Euclidean distance clustering with
different thresholds for the original picture at the left-hand side of Fig. 2. For
r0 D 20, Fig. 6, large segments are absent, for r0 D 28, Fig. 7a, segmentation
is reasonable, but the sky started to merge with parts of the land surface, further
increasing of the threshold, r0 D 30, Fig. 7b, implies further merging of sky with
parts of the land surface. The same happens for the picture represent at the left-
hand side of Fig. 3, for relatively small thresholds, large segments are absent, too
many small details; however, increasing of the threshold leads to disappearance of
segments corresponding to penguins, see Fig. 8, where r0 D 28. Thus clustering
based on the Euclidean distance leads to merging of important structures which are
clearly visible in images obtained as outputs of p-adic clustering.
Fig. 6 Land, river, and sky,

Euclidean distance clustering,
relatively low threshold
r0 D 20
Fig. 7 (a, b) Land, river, and sky, Euclidean distance clustering, with increasing threshold, r0 D 28
and r0 D 30
Fig. 8 Land, penguins, and

sky, Euclidean distance
clustering, relatively high
threshold r0 D 28
7 Concluding Remarks
This pilot study demonstrated that the p-adic metric can serve as a useful tool for
image segmentation. The hierarchical structure encoded with the aid of this metric
matches well with hierarchic presentation of information and, in particular, images
of human brain. An important advantage of the algorithm explored in this paper is
its simplicity. And in spite of simplicity, it produces reasonably good segmentation,
at least comparing with segmentation produced by the similar algorithm, but based
on the Euclidean distance.
We plan to extend our studies and apply this p-adic method of image segmen-
tation to concrete problems of image analysis. In particular, we plan to use it
in geology for recognition of special oil-related structures, cf. [24, 29]. Here oil
flows in porous disordered media which has the tree-like structure. We remark that
geometrically p-adic numbers are represented by homogeneous trees. Therefore
p-adic distance can be explored to model clustering of geological structures.
However, the straightforward application of the p-adics is not possible. Geological
structures are more complex geometrically than simply the homogeneous p-adic
trees. They can be represented as ultrametric space. The computer representation of
such general ultrametric trees is a separate problem for study.
Finally, we make a remark on the speed of the presented clustering algorithm
based on the use of the p-adic metric comparing with the speed of the similar
clustering algorithms based on the use of the Euclidean metric. The presented p-adic
distance algorithm does not provide speed up in image clustering. Thus from this
viewpoint it is not more effective than ones exploring the Euclidean distance.4
4
However, the following comment can be useful to clarify the situation with computational speed
up. Clustering that uses a p-adic distance can be considered by analogy with (1) creating a
hierarchical clustering, and then (2) cutting the hierarchy to produce a partition. This analogy
is more the case if the hierarchy is a contiguity-constrained one. The computational requirements
that are referred to quite negatively as regards this work may not be all that bad, especially if
one makes comparison relative to straightforward, Euclidean distance or related, segmentation.
The main issue is that the use of p-adic distances leads to extraction of new
clusters which are “not visible” for other distances. For some classes of images,
p-adic clustering is more appropriate than the standard clustering.
Ideologically we propose to look at the same image from different viewpoints:
from Euclidean and from p-adic. Some classes of images have the intrinsic
hierarchic structure which can be adequately encoded by p-adics. In the original
Euclidean representation this intrinsic hierarchy is shadowed and it becomes visible
only in the p-adic representation.
As was pointed out, p-adic clustering matches well with the tree-like structures in
images. Such structures are very common in geology, as tree-like capillary networks
in porous random media. Therefore we hope that p-adic clustering would be applied
oil industry (and plan to realize these expectations in further works, cf. [29–31]).
This paper was financially supported by the grant “Math Modelling of Complex
Hierarchic Systems,” Linnaeus University.
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19. Murtagh, F.: On ultrametricity, data coding, and computation. J. Classif. 21, 167–184 (2004)
20. Murtagh, F., Contreras, P.: Fast, linear time, m-adic hierarchical clustering for search and
retrieval using the baire metric, with linkages to generalized ultrametrics, hashing, formal
concept analysis, and precision of data measurement. P-Adic Numbers Ultrametr. Anal. Appl.
4, 45–56 (2012)
21. Bradley, P.: Degenerating families of dendrograms. J. Classif. 25, 27–42 (2008)
22. Bradley, P.: From image processing to topological modelling with p-adic numbers. P-Adic
Numbers Ultrametr. Anal. Appl. 2, 293–304 (2010)
23. Bradley, P.: Mumford dendrograms. Comput. J. 53, 393–404 (2010)
24. Bradley, P.: Comparing G-maps with other topological data structures. GeoInformatica. 18,
595–620 (2014)
25. Benois-Pineau, J., Khrennikov, A.: Significance delta reasoning with p-adic neural networks:
application to shot change detection in video. Comput. J. 53, 417–431 (2010)
26. Kaufman, L., Rousseeuw, P.J.: Finding groups in data: an introduction to cluster analysis, 1st
edn. John Wiley, New York (1990)
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learning, 2nd edn, pp. 520–528. Springer, New York (2009)
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29. Khrennikov, A., Kozyrev, S.V., Oleschko, K., Jaramillo, A.G., de Jesus Correa Lopez, M.:
Application of p-adic analysis to time series. Infinite Dimens. Anal. Quantum Probab. Relat.
Top. 16, 1350030 (2013)
30. Khrennikov, A., Oleschko, K., de Jesús Correa Lopez, M.: Modeling fluid’s dynamics with
master equations in ultrametric spaces representing the treelike structure of capillary networks.
Entropy. 18(7), 249 (2016)
31. Khrennikov, A., Oleschko, K., de Jesús Correa Lopez, M.: Application of p-adic wavelets
to model reaction-diffusion dynamics in random porous media. J. Fourier Anal. Appl. 22,
809–822 (2016)
The Primes are Everywhere, but Nowhere : : :
Klaudia Oleschko, Andrei Khrennikov, Beatriz F. Oleshko,

and Jean-Francois Parrot
Abstract In this note we present the Prime Number Paradigm: “Nature encodes
its laws with the aid of prime numbers.” We claim that prime number skeletons of
data-sets contain the basic structures represented them. This paradigm is illustrated
by a variety of data: from astrophysics to geophysics (including petroleum data),
and reading comprehension. We remark that the ideas about the fundamental (and
even mystical) role played by primes in mathematics and in physics were discussed
by many scientists during the last 2000 years. The main advantage of our approach
is its close connection with real experimental data. To present deeper patterns in
data, the prime skeletons can be extended to p-adic skeletons. P-adic numbers play
the important role number theory and recently they started to be widely used in
theoretical physics, form string theory and theory of complex disordered systems to
geophysics.
Keywords Primes • P-adic fields • Image analysis
K. Oleschko
Centro de Geociencias, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM), Campus UNAM
Juriquilla, Blvd. Juriquilla 3001, C.P. 76230, Queretaro, Qro., México
A. Khrennikov ()
International Center for Mathematical Modelling, Physics, Engineering, Economics, and
Cognitive Science, Linnaeus University, 35195, Växjö, Sweden
B.F. Oleshko
Universidad Autonoma de México (UNAM), Centro de Ciencias de la Complejidad (C3),
Cuerpo B, Nivel 1, Circuito Mario de la Cueva 20, Cd. Universitaria, Delegación Coyoacán,
C.P. 04510, Cd. Mx., México
J.-F. Parrot ()
Instituto de Geografía, Universidad Autonoma de México (UNAM), Cd. Universitaria,
Delegación Coyoacán, 04510 Ciudad de México, México

156 K. Oleschko et al.
1 Introduction
The aim of this chapter is to enlighten a computational (or algorithmic) perspective

of prime and p-adic numbers in number theory with special attention to its
application to geophysics and physics in general.
One of the main goals of the modern science is to extract (with minimum
loss) the space and time patterns of the complex systems from the huge multiscale
and multiphysics information coming day by day to the experimental and applied
scientific areas. The data encrypted by Nature or during the experimentation are
not only enriched with different kind of noise but also are full of unnecessary
details. During the last 15 years, we tried to find the best mode to find the skeleton
of information coming from the numerous research projects. In a natural way,
working with the huge data banks, where each number plays the role of elemental
particle, therefore it cannot be excluded from the results interpretation without some
serious argument, our efforts were routed to number theory. From the beginning,
the importance of prime numbers in our data pattern was observed and taken into
account during the information processing. Two crucial points have changed our
data perception of research results. First of all, it is related with the results of
purely curiosity based daily life experiment, accomplished by one of the authors
(B.F. Oleshko: see Figs. 1 and 2). The next step is related with the beginning of our
Group collaboration with Prof. Khrennikov who gave the p-adic numbers approach
to physics and especially to some extremely important geophysics data processing.
We recall that in modern science the construction of a bridge between the number
theory, and especially between prime numbers, and computer experiments, has
begun in the early 1970s of past XX Century by Merkle and Hellman [1]. In their
pioneer paper, these authors have established the strong link between the number
theory and cryptography envisioning the computational and especially algorithmic
perspective for prime numbers [2]. Nowadays, encryption became crucial for
modern life and science, from quantum to cosmic researches ([32] 11. 2016). It
seems not surprising that the principles of codification developed by Kerchoffs
in 1883 have resulted in the development of a dynamic security protocol for face
recognition systems using seismic waves [3]. Notwithstanding, in spite of these
examples of close relation existing between encryption and prime numbers, the
experimental face of this topic is fairly recent. Of course, there are many available
well-known encryption algorithms, but only small part of them is related to prime
or p-adic numbers. However, after recent Nature publication [4] about the peculiar
pattern found in “random” prime numbers, the new wave of computer researches
was appeared in order to document numerically the Hardy–Littlewood k-tuple
conjecture.
Our challenges are still different from the above exemplified works. We are
looking for the basic rules of how does Nature encrypt the natural complex systems
by prime numbers. Let us enlist some historical facts in order to understand from
where our main ansatz derived.
The Primes are Everywhere, but Nowhere : : : 157
Fig. 1 (a) The original position of the Observer during the moonrise imaging. Note: the size of (a)
and (b) images is 960 by 720 pixels. The original photograph size is 3072 by 2304 pixels. (b) Rings
around the sun observed on the selected prime numbers map, extracted from the corresponding
grayscale photograph. The primes corresponding to 18% of more than seven millions of numbers
on the original 3072 by 2304 matrix. For this example, only some primes are colored, but for each
number only one color is used. The moon is corresponding to the small black point distinguished
with difficulty on the down part of the map between the seventh and eighth rings. (c) The rings
around the sun have disappeared at the critical point, when the moon can be distinguished. (d) The
prime numbers rings have appeared around the moon, while the rest of primes corresponding to
the sun ring have disappeared step by step
Fig. 1 (continued)
It is well known that prime numbers play the exceptional role not only
in mathematics but also in physics, from quantum physics (see above-cited
reference) to theory of complex disordered systems and geophysics, information
processing, biology, and cognitive science. These numbers are considered
as the most fundamental blocks (sometimes called elemental particles or
“periodic table of mathematics,” 6) of the quantitative representation of natural
phenomena. This was recognized already in the Ancient times; for example,
in one of the earliest texts mentioning prime numbers, Nicomachus of Gerasa
(c.60–c.120 CE), see ([5], [Book 1, chapter XII]), we can find the following
statement, p. 222: “the prime and incomposite [ : : : ] has received this name because
it can be measured only by the number which is first and common to all, unity,
Fig. 2 (a) The original graph of the pressure curve. (b) The prime number skeleton of the original
graph of the pressure curve. (c) Shape coincidence of the graphs of the original pressure curve and
its prime skeleton
and by no other. [ : : : ] To be sure, when they are combined with themselves, other
numbers might be produced, originating from them as from a fountain and a root,
wherefore they are called “prime”, because they exist beforehand as the beginnings
of the others. For every origin is elementary and incomposite, into which everything
is resolved and out of which everything is made, but the origin itself cannot be
resolved into anything or constituted out of anything.” Crandall and Pomerance [2]
have underlined that the information encoded in primes is always more important
than that of the composite numbers.
Later, after creation of atomic physics and quantum mechanics, comparison
of prime numbers to “the atoms of number theory” became very popular. This
comparison can be rooted to the work of [6]:
It remains unresolved but, if true, the Riemann Hypothesis will go to the heart of what
makes so much of mathematics tick: the prime numbers. These indivisible numbers are the
atoms of arithmetic.
This analogy of prime numbers to atoms and more generally to quanta played
the important role in establishing foundations of the information viewpoint on
the modern physics, especially quantum mechanics. This viewpoint on physics
celebrated in the famous statement of Wheeler [7]:
It from bit. Otherwise put, every ‘it’—every particle, every field of force, even the space-
time continuum itself—derives its function, its meaning, its very existence entirely even if
in some contexts indirectly—from the apparatus-elicited answers to yes-or-no questions,
binary choices, bits. ‘It from bit’ symbolizes the idea that every item of the physical
world has at bottom - a very deep bottom, in most instances - an immaterial source and
explanation; that which we call reality arises in the last analysis from the posing of yes–
no questions and the registering of equipment-evoked responses; in short, that all things
physical are information-theoretic in origin and that this is a participatory universe.
The nature is viewed as constructed from elementary information blocks. This

viewpoint led to flourishing of the information interpretation of quantum mechanics,
Zeilinger [8, 9], Brukner and Zeilinger [10], and Plotnitsky and Khrennikov [11]
for a variety of approaches. In turn, the information treatment of physics led to the
understanding that in physics numbers have to be considered as the fundamental
entities [12].
This number-theoretic approach to physics implies recognition of the role of
prime numbers, see above citations: “ into which everything is resolved and out of
which everything is made,” “the atoms of arithmetic.” Starting with prime numbers,
we immediately arrive to the notion of p-adic numbers, number fields generated by
the fixed prime number p > 1, and all its powers. Nowadays, the p-adic number
fields serve as a novel mathematical tool for a variety of applications, from quantum
physics to theory of complex disordered systems and geology, e.g., [12–18].
2 Primes: From Basics of Number Theory to Fractals
The distribution of prime numbers was one the basic problems which led to creation
of number theory, especially analytic number theory. We recall that this is trivially
formulated problem of accounting the number of primes (x) in the segment [0, x].
One of the first contributions to solution of this problem was due to [33]. He derived
the approximate integral formula distribution function (x):
Z N
1
Li.N/ D dtI (1)
2 ln t
So the function (x) is approximately equal to Li(x), x !1. This integral

representation served as the basis for further study of the asymptotic of (x). Finally,
the following celebrating asymptotic relation was obtained:
.x/
x= ln x: (2)
Nowadays, after development of fractal theory, a lot attention was paid to the
fractal structure of prime numbers and its applications to data analysis, see,
for example, Cattani [19], Cloitre [20], and Batchko [21]. This (random) fractal
structure of the set of prime numbers P is encoded not directly in the distribution of
primes, but in the distribution of gaps between the successive primes:
gn D pnC1 pn :
Theoretical analysis of the structure of these gaps is very complicated and we

present just a few basic results. The main efforts were set to estimate asymptotically
gn from below; the best known result is due to Rankin: there exists a constant c>0
such that the equality
c ln n ln ln nln ln ln ln n
gn D : (3)
.ln ln ln n/2
holds for infinitely many values n. However, for applications, one is interested
in the probability distribution of these gaps and its features. This is a very
complicated mathematical problem; its theoretical study has not yet led to rigorous
mathematical results; the main achievements were approached with the aid of
numerical simulation, see papers of Wolf [22, 23] and Scafetta et al. [24].
Denote by hN (d) the number of gaps of the length d between successive primes
less than N.
The results of computer simulation obtained [22] shows that hN (d) is distributed
exponentially:
hN .d/
exp fd.N/=Ng : (4)
We note that this quantity determines the probability of randomly selecting a pair
of consecutive primes separated by a gap of size d.
Some authors, e.g., Julia [25] and Wolf [26], proposed statistical physics models
in which prime numbers played the role of particles. In particular, in Wolf [26] there
was constructed a statistical model of “prime gas,” cf. with above discussion on
prime atoms and information physics. Here the prime numbers acted as particles;
in this model, the nth prime pn has the energy gn D pnC1 - pn , i.e., the gap between
successive primes. By taking into account the asymptotic of the prime counting
function, the quantity hN (d) can be represented as:
hN .d/
exp fd=ln Ng : (5)
In Wolf [26], the quantity TDln N was interpreted as temperature of the prime
gas, so hN (d) was interpreted as the Boltzmann factor.
Recently prime numbers found novel applications to geophysics. Here the prime
number structure of data is closely related with the fractal geometry of capillary
networks in random porous media [27, 28]. Prime numbers provide compact and
informationally rich representation of the underlying fractal structure. By taking into
account data which is encoded not only by prime numbers but even their powers, we
improve richness of representation. Mathematically the latter is realized in the fields
of p-adic numbers. Recently this approach was actively explored to model diffusion
of fluids, e.g., oil, oil-in-water, and water-in-oil emulsions in capillary networks
[15–18].
3 Searching Primes in Natural Phenomena: Some

Representative Examples
As we emphasized in the title of this paper, prime numbers are everywhere; they
determine the basic number-theoretic structure of various natural phenomena. At the
same time, it is not easy to extract the prime number structure from real data. The
components of some data-set corresponding to different primes (and their powers
generating p-adic fields) “interfere” resulting in the standard real number structure
of graphs and images.
Consider, as the important illustration, p-adic physics [12–18]; it is about the
p-adic components (for all primes, p>1) of physical quantities; for example, string
amplitudes. These components are unified with the aid of the adele ring. The integral
effect of these components corresponds to the real physical quantity. However, to
decompose the latter in its p-adic components, for pD2,3, : : : , 1997, 1999, : : : .,
is the very difficult problem which has not yet been solved. This problem can be
compared with the problem of factorization of a natural number n into the prime
factors. Up to now, nobody was able to design algorithm that can factor all integers
in polynomial time.
In theory of complex disordered systems (spin glasses), the p-adic structure
is encoded [29] in the Parisi matrix. However, it is merely the exhibition of the
ultrametric structure corresponding to the internal hierarchy inside spin glasses and
not their number-theoretic features. We also point to a series of works to detect the
ultrametric structure in variety of data-sets [30, 31].
We have designed two computer programs in order to extract the prime numbers
and corresponding p-adic structure from multiscale and multiphysics images and
time series. In the following examples, we will show some more interesting
examples of contrasting natural systems analysis.
3.1 Image Analysis

3.1.1 Prime Numbers Distribution in Atmosphere
The first example refers to the quantification of some optical effects by primes.
The coronae and diffraction were chosen as optical effects which, in words of [34]
“teach much about physics and especially optics.” The images of moonrise were
taken by the Observer (Fig. 1a) during the sunset. The Observer was sitting on
the beach taking images of moonrise during around two hours, when the sunset
has occurred behind her. This was the Full Moon day in Los Cabos, Mexico,
when the moon and sun were perfectly aligned. The primes were extracted directly
from these photographic images, showing, first, the clear ring-like patterns of sun
light diffraction on the water saturated atmosphere, and, then, the moon rings. The
contrasting images of critical phenomena (Fig. 1c) occurred during the change of
sun rings pattern (Fig. 1b) to moon pattern (Fig. 1d), which were documented not
only visually but also by prime numbers statistics.
We present a few images of primes distribution across the sunset/moonset
transition (Fig. 1a–d). Only prime numbers were mapped and colored. In fact,
in the pure atmosphere (without clouds) saturated with water vapor the primes
follow the real number line in very strong order. This ring-like structure is not
only straightforwardly visible (with very small “interference” of the consecutive
primes, without any noisy counterparts of images. Notwithstanding, any original
image transformation (change of size, gamma of colors, etc.) is following by the

change of primes distribution across the number matrix. Thus, primes are really
everywhere and nowhere.
The similar but more complex prime numbers patterns were extracted from
images of Atmosphere–Water–Solid Surface Interfaces, where the Roughness was
statistically encrypted by prime numbers.
3.2 Time Series Patterns Encrypted by Prime Numbers
During any geophysical exploration, the volume of information workflow is always

the huge problem. We are successfully using the primes patterns in order to
drastically decrease the data volume. In Fig. 2a–c, the example of oil pressure
representation, the primes decrease the length of the original time series (more than
19,000 values) to only 6% without any statistically significant change in graphic
shape and behavior. The zoom applied to the curve shows the strong similarity
between the original curve and its primes copy.
4 Conclusions
There are two main questions we are trying to answer now. First of all, we are
looking for the distribution of gaps between the primes extracted from the natural
scenes under contrasting physical conditions, as well as from the corresponding
time series (for instance, the radar and laser data matrices). The other question is:
from where the primes came to the real physical word and where these numbers
disappeared?
In order to answer the last question, we have analyzed a set of NASA images,
taken from the cosmic space. On the prime numbers map (Fig. 3b) extracted from
the NASA original image (Fig. 3a), the prime numbers disappeared on the bound of
atmosphere. We conclude that the prime number distribution is closely related with
the nature of energy source.
Acknowledgements This paper was financially supported by the project SENER-CONACYT-

Hidrocarburos, Yacimiento Petrolero como un Reactor Fractal, N 168638 and by the Consejo
Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT), Mexico, under grant 312-2015, Fronteras de la
Ciencia.
Fig. 3 (a) NASA image taken from the cosmic space. (b) Prime number skeleton corresponding
to the image of (a)
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The Logical Combinatorial Approach Applied
to Pattern Recognition in Medicine
Martha R. Ortiz-Posadas
Abstract The logical combinatorial approach of the pattern recognition theory

works with the description of objects in terms of a combination of quantitative and
qualitative variables, giving the possibility to consider absent information for the
values of some variables in the object description. This approach uses supervised
classification algorithms, which are based on the concept of partial precedence, that
is, partial analogies (an object can be alike to another object, not in its totality).
These characteristics are suitable to model classification problems in Medicine.
The objective of this work is to show the usefulness of the logical combinatorial
approach to solve problems of pattern recognition in Medicine by illustrating
three case studies: the differential diagnosis of Glaucoma, a method for comparing
somatotypes (human body types in terms of physical structure), and the prognosis
of rehabilitation of patients with cleft lip and palate.
Keywords Medical pattern recognition • Logical combinatorial approach •

Supervised classification
1 Introduction
The logical combinatorial approach of pattern recognition theory [1] works with the
descriptions of the objects in terms of a combination of quantitative and qualitative
variables. These variables can be processed by numeric functions in a differential
manner, depending on their nature. Furthermore, this approach gives the possibility
to consider absent information for the values of some variables in the object
descriptions. For classifying objects, there are algorithms based on the concept of
partial precedence, that is, partial analogies. An object can be similar to another
object but not in its totality; those parts which do look, although not of the same
M.R. Ortiz-Posadas ()

Electrical Engineering Department, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Av. San
Rafael Atlixco No. 186, Col. Vicentina, Delegación Iztapalapa, C. P. 09340, Ciudad de México,
Mexico

170 M.R. Ortiz-Posadas
magnitude, can give information about possible regularities. All these characteristics
are suitable to model classification problems in soft sciences such as Medicine.
The logical combinatorial approach has been applied to several medical prob-
lems. For example, a new approach for the differential medical diagnosis was
proposed; based on the change in the characterization of the disease period, it
offered k-admissible values for patient signs and symptoms in order to represent
different degrees in symptom manifestation, and this provides more flexibility in
making differential diagnosis for physicians [2]. Later, a new method for a complete
description of the primary and secondary cleft palates was proposed, incorporating
elements related to the palate, lip, and nose, that were also reflecting the surgical
complexity of this medical problem. Using this method, it is possible to incorporate
elements that are not considered in other approaches and to describe all possible
clefts that may exist [3]. Other work shows a similarity function modeled by this
approach for comparing the condition of patients with this kind of malformations.
The function includes the importance of every variable as well as a weight which
reflects the surgical complexity of the cleft [4], and a computational tool for the
prognosis of the rehabilitation of these patients was developed [5]. It is important
to say that these kinds of congenital malformations are treated by a Cleft Palate
Team encompassing four medical specialties: reconstructive surgery, orthodontics,
speech therapy, and psychology. In this sense, there are some works applying the
logical combinatorial approach for modeling each aspect. There is a work [6]
that shows how a similarity function modeled by this approach can be used to
compare the orthodontic condition of patients with cleft lip and/or palate; and how
this function allows to assess the effect of treatment in a single patient, hence
providing valuable auxiliary criteria for medical decision-making as to the patient’s
rehabilitation. There is also a method to evaluate the speaking quality of patients
with cleft palate [7] by a similarity function modeled by this approach. This method
allows the specialists to know the speaking quality of their patients performed
during rehabilitation and they can modify or continue with their planned therapeutic
strategy.
There are other biological fields where this approach has been applied. Such is
the case for the cytogenetic analysis. Cytogenetics is a branch of genetics that is
concerned with the study of the structure and function of the cell, especially the
chromosomes. The identification of chromosomes must be performed in the process
of cellular division (metaphase). Related with this topic, there is a mathematical
model that considers three characteristics related to the chromosome form: size,
centromere position, and secondary constrictions; and a computational tool was
developed based in such model. This tool helps in the development of new
techniques applied in automated systems for the identification of chromosomes
allowing better precision in this task [8].
Health technology management is another field where the logical combinatorial
approach has been applied. For example, due to the wide variety of medical equip-
ments existing in clinical areas, there is an important question: which and how often
electrical safety tests must be applied to the medical equipment. There are important
differences about the electrical safety, such as the electrical insulation or the hazard
The Logical Combinatorial Approach Applied to Pattern Recognition in Medicine 171
considering the connection between patient and electrical instrumentation. In this

sense, an electrical safety priority index for medical equipment was established [9],
involving different classifications related with electrical safety, in order to provide
a numeric code indicating the priority and frequency for applying the electrical
safety tests to medical equipment. Also a strategy for the distribution of the imaging
services of the Costa Rican Public Health System was developed, for a more
equitable access to the entire population of the country [10]. That for, different
aspects were considered such as the type and number of the imaging equipment
available in the health care centers, as well as the distance and time that take to travel
to get the service in the Capital, among others. These aspects were weighted and
included into a mathematical function, whose result is an indicator that considers
the conditions of the current imaging service and the community access to it. The
function was applied to eight different regions, and the results showed in which
ones it was necessary to strengthen the infrastructure and resources of its imaging
services, in order to provide a more equitable service across the country.
The objective of this work is to show the usefulness of the logical combinatorial
approach to deal with problems of pattern recognition in Medicine by illustrating
three case studies: the differential diagnosis of glaucoma, a method for comparison
of somatotypes, and the prognosis of the rehabilitation of patients with cleft lip
and palate. I present not just the mathematical model of each clinical problem but
also the solution of the problem classification using an algorithm based on partial
precedence, tested with a patient sample.
2 Mathematical Model
Let U be a universe of objects, and let us consider a given finite sample O D

fO1 , : : : , Om g of such (descriptions of the) objects. We shall denote by XD fx1 ,
. .., xn g the set of features or variables used to study these objects. Each of these
features has associated a set of admissible values (its domain of definition) Mi,
iD 1, : : : , n. These sets of values, in contrast to other approaches, can be of any
nature: variables can be quantitative and qualitative simultaneously. Each of these
sets contains a special symbol denoting the absence of information (missing data).
Thus, some variables are numeric; others, symbolic; incomplete information about
some objects is allowed. This will turn out to be a fundamental feature of this pattern
recognition paradigm. By a description of an object O, we understand an n-tuple
I(O)D(x1 (O), : : : , xn (O)), where xi : M!Mi , for iD1, : : : , n, are the variables of
features used to describe it. Over Mi , no algebraic or topologic structure is assumed.
Any of the pattern recognition problems mentioned above is formulated from a set
of descriptions of m such objects [11].
Definition 1 Let the initial space representation (ISR) be the object space represen-
tation defined by the Cartesian product of Mi sets:
I(O) D (x1 (O), : : : , xn (O)) 2 M1 : : : Mn
Remark There is no norm or algebraic operation over Mi defined a priori. But this
does not mean that they cannot be present in ISR. Sometimes one can consider a
function which does not satisfy the norm properties over Mi (over ISR).
Definition 2 Let C D fC1 , : : : , Cn g be a set of functions called comparison criteria
for each variable xi 2X such as: Ci : Mi Mi !
i ; iD1, : : : , n where
i can be of any
nature; it is an ordered set and can be finite or infinite.
Remark Comparison criteria can denote similarity or difference. For the sake of
illustration, we present the following examples of an ordered set
i :
• If
i D [0, 1], the value 1 represents maximum similarity/difference and
the value zero the minimum. Any intermediate value represents a grade of
similarity/difference between compared values.
• If the comparison criterion is finite valued, that is:
i D f0, 1, 2, : : : , mg, it is not
difficult to transform i into: i D f0, 1/m, 2/m, : : : , (m 1)/m, 1g. Obviously,
this is a subset of the interval [0,1]. Then, in this case, the intermediate values i
also represent a grade of similarity/difference between compared values.
The characteristics of each comparison criterion (Ci ) depend on the problem
being modeled. However, it is important to remark that every Ci is designed
individually to reflect the nature and interpretation of each feature xi . In this sense,
the set C allows the differentiation and nonuniform treatment of the features that
describe the objects. Furthermore, it also gives the possibility to consider “absent
information” in some feature values in the objects descriptions. It is important to
mention that all comparison criteria must be defined jointly with the experts, in order
to incorporate his/her expertise. In the context of medical problems, the experts
will be the physicians, surgeons, etc. with knowledge, expertise, and the ability to
provide criteria about medical problem being modeled.
3 Supervised Classification
Many problems in Medicine, such as differential diagnosis of diseases, to determine

the patient’s treatment, or to prognosticate the patient’s rehabilitation, are problems
of supervised classification. In general, physicians reach their conclusions for
diagnosis or prognosis on the basis of the analogies found between patients by
accumulating knowledge through their experiences and observations. Thus, the
analogy concept is present in almost all the reasoning of the medicine specialists.
The availability of additional methods for the evaluation of such analogies or
similarities, considering their description, is important to provide auxiliary criteria
for medical decision-making [4, 6]. In this sense, it is convenient to introduce the
concept of analogy, which is a fundamental methodological tool in Medicine.
In supervised classification problems, we assume that the universe U is structured
in a finite number K1 , : : : , Kr of classes, and from each of them we have a sample
of descriptions of objects, the so-called learning matrix LM D K1 [ : : : [Kr .
The problem is to find the membership relations of a new object from U (outside the
given samples) with r classes. This relationship does not have to be all or nothing.
The logical combinatorial approach deals with spaces without algebraic (or any
other kind of) structure. The representation space is simply a Cartesian product,
which also has the peculiarity of being heterogeneous, that is, each of the sets
forming it can be of different nature: a set of real numbers, a set of labels, a set of
truth values, etc. [11]. An example of this appears in medical diagnosis problems,
where patients descriptions take the form I(O) D (female, 45, 38.6, *, slight, 2).
In soft sciences such as Medicine, objects are described in terms of qualitative and
quantitative variables. In the logical combinatorial approach, most algorithms of
supervised classification are based on partial precedence as the Voting algorithm,
described below.
3.1 Voting Algorithm
This algorithm comprises six steps [1]: (1) defining the system of support sets; (2)
defining the similarity function; (3) row evaluation, given a fixed support set; (4)
class evaluation for a fixed support set; (5) class evaluation for all the system of
support sets, and (6) resolution rule. Thus, to define a voting algorithm is to define
a set of parameters for each of the above six steps.
(1) Defining the system of support sets. A support set is a nonempty subset of
features which shall be used to analyze the objects, defined as:
Definition 3 Let ¨X be a support set, where ¨ ¤ ∅. A system of support sets
is defined as D ¨1 , : : : , ¨s . By Ö, we denote the ¨-part of O formed by the
variables xj 2 ¨m , mD1, : : : , s.
The system of support sets will allow analysis of the objects to be classified,
by paying attention to different parts or sub-descriptions of the objects, and not
analyzing the complete descriptions. Examples of systems of support sets are
combinations with a fixed cardinality, combinations with variable cardinality, the
power set of features, etc.
(2) Defining the similarity function. The analogy between two objects is formal-
ized by the concept of similarity function. This function is based on the comparison
criterion Ci generated for each variable xi . It is important to mention that the
similarity function can evaluate the similarity or difference between two objects,
i.e., between their descriptions.
Definition 4 Let ˇ:(Mi Mi )2 !
be the similarity function, where
(as in the
comparison criterion function) can be of any nature; it is an ordered set and can be
finite or infinite. For I(Oi ) and I(Oj ) being two object descriptions in the domain
(M1 . . .Mn ), ˇ(I(Oi), I(Oj )) is defined by:
• ˇ((C1 (x1 (Oi ), x1 (Oj )), : : : , Cn (xn (Oi ), xn (Oj )))), if Ci denotes similarity
• 1 ˇ((C1 (x1 (Oi ), x1 (Oj )), : : : , Cn (xn (Oi ), xn (Oj )))), if Ci denotes difference
Remark Both, the comparison criterion and the similarity function, are not neces-
sarily symmetric and, in general, these functions are not defined as positive, they do
not have to satisfy the triangle inequality, and there is no a priori metric considered.
Definition 5 Let “¨ be a partial similarity function defined by:
X
ˇ! .I .Oi / ; I.O// D 1 i Ci .xi .Oi / ; xi .O//
xi 2!
where ¨ represents a support set and i is the relevance parameter associated

with each variable xi defined by the expert.
(3) Row evaluation, given a fixed support set. When the system of support sets
and the similarity function have been defined, the voting process starts in the stage
of row evaluation. The similarity between the different parts of the objects already
classified and those to be classified is analyzed. Each row of LM (each object
Oi2LM) is compared with the object O to be classified using the similarity function
ˇ ! . This evaluation is a function of the similarity values among the different parts
being compared. An example of this evaluation is: ! (Oi ,O) D (!)ˇ(!I(Oi),
!I(O)), where (!) is the weight of the support set ¨ and ˇ(!I(Op ),!I(O)) is the
similarity value of the compared objects.
(4) Class evaluation for a fixed support set ¨. This consists in totaling the
evaluations obtained for each of the objects in LM with respect to the object O to be
classified. This total evaluation is a function of the rowhevaluations already obtained.
i
ˇ ˇ P
An example of this evaluation is: ! .O/ D 1= ˇKj ˇ
j

tD1;:::;jKj j ! .Oi ; O/ . The
upper index refers to the class Kj .
(5) Class evaluation for all the system of support sets . Evaluations are totaled
for all the system of support sets. Following our example, this step could be
expressed as follows:
1 X j
j .O/ D .O/
jj !2 !
(6) Resolution rule. It is a function that establishes a criterion which considers

each voting thus obtained and reaches a decision concerning the relations of the
object to be classified with every class of the posed problem.
4 Mathematical Modeling Applied to the Clinical Problems
4.1 Differential Diagnosis of Glaucoma
Glaucoma is a set of ocular disorders that leads to optic’s nerve damage, character-
ized by abnormally high intraocular fluid pressure, damaged optic disk, hardening
of the eyeball, and partial to complete loss of vision. It is the main cause for
irreversible blindness around the world. The World Health Organization estimates
37 million affected people, prognosticating 80 million by 2020 [12]. Accurate
diagnosis of glaucoma allows initiating drug and surgical treatment to avoid vision
loss. In the case of congenital glaucoma (incorrect or incomplete development of the
eye’s drainage canals during the prenatal period), its differential diagnosis is very
important because prescription of corticoids in young people is contraindicated,
because it interferes with normal child development. The objective of this work
was to develop a method for the differential diagnosis of glaucoma using the logical
combinatorial approach.
4.1.1 Mathematical Model
Six variables were defined: intraocular pressure (IOP), optic nerve/disc ratio (DR),
iridocorneal angle (ICA), visual acuity (VA), presence of scotomas (a partially
diminished or entirely degenerated visual acuity which is surrounded by a field of
normal—or relatively well-preserved—vision) (S), and age (A) [13]. Likewise, six
comparison criteria of difference were modeled considering Definition 2 (Section 2).
The zero value means that compared values are equal (there is no difference), and
the 1 value means that compared values have the greatest difference. The variables,
their domain, and their comparison criterion are shown in Table 1. Observe that the
comparison criterion function considers the absence of information denoted as (*).
The comparison between the descriptions of two eyes was determined consider-
ing Definition 4 (Section 3.1) by the Glaucoma similarity function “Glaucoma as:
6 6
!
X X
ˇGlaucoma .I .P1 / ; I .P2 // D 1 i Ci .xi .P1 / ; xi .P2 // = i (1)
iD1 iD1
where ¡i is the relevance parameter associated with each variable xi defined

by the expert. In this case: ¡IOP D 0.375, ¡DR D 0.25, ¡ICA D ¡VA D 0.125, and
¡S D¡A D0.0625.
4.1.2 Classification
The method was tested with a sample of 58 different clinical cases of glaucoma
diagnosis, reported in the medical literature [13]. Some cases were about bilateral
glaucoma, so the information was considered for both eyes. The learning matrix
(LM) was constructed with 48 eyes, and the control matrix (CM) with 10 eyes. The
following five classes were defined:
K1 : Open-angle Glaucoma (OAG); 12 eyes in LM and 2 in CM.
K2 : Close-angle Glaucoma (CAG); 14 eyes in LM and 2 in CM.
K3 : Congenital Glaucoma (CG); 7 eyes in LM and 2 in CM.
Table 1 Domain and comparison criteria of six glaucoma variables

xi Mi Ci
1. IOP N LH HI HII Vh
Normal N 0 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Lightly high LH 0 0.7 0.8 0.9
High I HI 0 0.7 0.8
High II HII 0 0.7
Very high VH 0
2. DR N S * D
Normal N 0 0.4 0.5 1
Suspect S 0 0.4 0.5
* * 0 0.4
Damage D 0
3. ICA G0 GI GII GIII GIV
Grade 0 G0 0 0.1 0.3 0.8 1
Grade I GI 0 0.1 0.3 0.8
Grade II GII 0 0.1 0.3
Grade III GIII 0 0.1
Grade IV GIV 0
4. VA f[0, 1], *]g jxyj (* D 1)
5. S fYes, No, *g Yes No *
Yes 0 1 1
No 0 1
* 0
6. A a b c d e
a D [0, 30] years a 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
b D (31, 45] years b 0 0.25 0.5 0.75
c D (45, 60) years c 0 0.25 0.5
d D [60, 70) years d 0 0.25
e D [70, 100] years e 0
K4 : Normal pressure Glaucoma (NPG); 9 eyes in LM and 2 in CM.

K5 : Eye hypertension (EHT); 6 eyes in LM and 2 in CM.
For the classification of 10 eyes in the CM, we used Eq. (1) for calculating the
similarity of each of these eyes with the 48 eyes in LM, and for the classification, the
voting algorithm described above. The results are shown in Table 2. Note that the
values highlighted in bold correspond to the higher values obtained by the Voting
algorithm for the classification.
The algorithm efficiency was 90%, because eye number 4 was incorrectly
classified. This eye obtained the great majority of votes for K5 , classifying it as
EHT, leaving K1 (OAA) in the second place, which is the class where the eye really
belongs to. The algorithm determined its similarity to this class probably because
this eye is an atypical case of GAA, being more alike to an HTO case.
Table 2 Classification of 10 Eye K1 K2 K3 K4 K5

eyes in control matrix
K1 4 0.344 0.263 0.317 0.309 0.372
11 0.336 0.245 0.334 0.305 0.332
K2 19 0.223 0.313 0.301 0.213 0.250
24 0.223 0.373 0.346 0.218 0.219
K3 33 0.272 0.266 0.372 0.254 0.280
39 0.215 0.274 0.363 0.215 0.202
K4 42 0.222 0.136 0.225 0.409 0.280
48 0.229 0.146 0.247 0.436 0.257
K5 52 0.242 0.168 0.229 0.264 0.448
56 0.284 0.193 0.224 0.248 0.431
4.1.3 Conclusion
This method provides a new approach for the diagnosis of glaucoma, because it
allows the absence of information in the values of some variables, and this is a
common situation in patient’s description. Sometimes, the patient does not take
all the required studies and all the information needed to do the diagnosis is not
available.
The method proposed here is useful in making the diagnosis of glaucoma at an
earlier stage and is also useful to determine the progression of damage at an earlier
stage than the traditional tests, because the similarity function allows evaluating the
likelihood not only of different eyes, but of the same eye in different points in time.
4.2 A Method for Comparing Somatotypes
The term somatotype is defined as the quantification of the present shape or physical
structure and composition of a human body and is one of the most frequent tasks
of Kineanthropometry, the discipline that studies the human body through the
measurements and assessments of their size, shape, proportionality, composition,
biological maturation, and body functions. The technique of somatotyping is used
to appraise body shape and composition. Somatotype concept is very useful in
different areas of healthcare, such as diet monitoring, effect of ergogenic aids, eating
disorders, and/or sport sciences, in order to compare an athlete somatotype with
his/her team, or with a standard reference, or with a normal population, or itself
at different stages of the training [14]. It is expressed in a three-number rating,
always in the same order, representing the components endomorphy, mesomorphy,
and ectomorphy, respectively. Endomorphy is the relative fatness, mesomorphy is
the relative muscle-skeletal robustness, and ectomorphy is the relative linearity or
slenderness of a physique [15] (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 The three main somatotypes [15]
The Heath–Carter Method of somatotyping is most commonly used today, and it

is necessary to calculate the three components mentioned above. The equation for
endomorphy [14] is a third-degree polynomial (Eq. 2).

Endomorphy D 0:7182 C 0:1451 .X/ 0:00068 X2 C 0:0000014 X3 (2)
where X D (sum of triceps, subscapular, and supraspinale skinfolds) multiplied

by 170.18/height in cm.
The Eq. (3) calculates mesomorphy [14]:
Mesomorphy D 0:858 humerus breadth C 0:601 femur breadth

C0:188 corrected arm girthC0:161 corrected calf girthheight 0:131C4:5
(3)
Three different equations are used to calculate ectomorphy [14] according to the
height–weight ratio (Eqs. 4, 5, and 6):
If HWR is greater than or equal to 40.75, then
Ectomorphy D 0:732 HWR 28:58 (4)
If HWR is less than 40.75 but greater than 38.25, then
Ectomorphy D 0:463 HWR 17:63 (5)

mesomorphy
rugby player
male basketballer
female basketballer
en
hy
do
orp
mo
tom
rph
ec
y
Fig. 2 Scheme of the somatochart used in Heath–Carter Method (Adapted from [17])
If HWR is equal to or less than 38.25, then
Ectomorphy D 0:1 (6)
Traditionally, the three-number somatotype rating is plotted on a two-

dimensional somatochart using X,Y coordinates derived from the rating (Fig. 2).
The objective of this work [16] was to develop a direct method for somatotype
classification, without using the equations and the somatochart by the Heath–Carter
Method, considering the three main somatotype classes: endomorph, mesomorph,
and ectomorph.
We used the 10 anthropometric dimensions (variables) proposed in the Heath–Carter

Method [14] and we defined their domain and their difference comparison criterion
considering Definition 2 in Section 2 (Table 3). In this criterion, 0 means that there
is no difference, and 1 represents the greatest difference between the two values
compared.
We defined three support sets (Definition 3, Section 3.1), one for each somatotype
component: ëndo D fx1 , x2 , x3 , x10 g; ¨meso D fx3 , x4 , x5 , x6 , x7 , x8 g; and ëcto D
fx9 , x10 g. So we defined three partial similarity functions considering Definition 5
(Section 3.1) as follows:
Table 3 Somatotype variables, domain, and comparison criterion

Variable Domain Comparison criteria 8
x1 : Supraspinale [6, 55] < 1 if
jx2 .Oi /x2 .Oj /j
skinfold C2 x2 .Oi / ; x2 Oj D 49 0:1
:0 in other case
8
x2 : Subscapular skinfold [8, 41] < 1 if
jx2 .Oi /x2 .Oj /j
C2 x2 .Oi / ; x2 Oj D 33 0:1
:0 in other case
8
x3 : Triceps skinfold [4, 25] < 1 if
jx2 .Oi /x2 .Oj /j
C2 x2 .Oi / ; x2 Oj D 21 0:1
:0 in other case
8
x4 : Medial calf skinfold [0.5, 3.0] < 1 if
jx2 .Oi /x2 .Oj /j
C2 x2 .Oi / ; x2 Oj D 2:5 0:1
:0 in other case
8
x5 : Calf girth, right [30.0, 43.0] < 1 if
jx2 .Oi /x2 .Oj /j
C2 x2 .Oi / ; x2 Oj D 13 0:5
:0 in other case
8
x6 : Upper arm girth, [29.0, 41.0] < 1 if
jx2 .Oi /x2 .Oj /j
elbow flexed and tensed C2 x2 .Oi / ; x2 Oj D 12 0:5
:0 in other case
8
x7 : Biepicondylar [8.0, 12.0] < 1 if
jx2 .Oi /x2 .Oj /j
breadth of the femur C2 x2 .Oi / ; x2 Oj D 4 0:5
:
8 0 in other case
x8 : Biepicondylar [5.0, 8.0] < jx2 .Oi /x2 .Oj /j
breadth of the humerus C2 x2 .Oi / ; x2 Oj D 1 if 3 0:5
:0 in other case
8
x9 : Body mass (weight) [51.0, 120.0] < 1 if
jx2 .Oi /x2 .Oj /j
C2 x2 .Oi / ; x2 Oj D 69 0:1
:0 in other case
8
x10 : Stature (height) [157.0, 190.0] < 1 if
jx2 .Oi /x2 .Oj /j
C2 x2 .Oi / ; x2 Oj D 33 0:1
:0 in other case

X Ct xt .Oi / ; xt Oj
ˇendo I .Oi / ; I Oj D 1 (7)
tD1;2;3;10
4
8
ˇmeso I .Oi / ; I Oj D 1 (8)
tD3
6
10
ˇecto I .Oi / ; I Oj D 1 (9)
tD9
2
Finally, the total similarity function was composed by the three partial similari-
ties as follows:
ˇendo C ˇmeso C ˇecto
ˇtotal I Oi ; I Oj D (10)
3
Table 4 Classification Subject ¦endo ¦meso ¦ecto

results of 9 somatotypes
O1 0.12 0.02 0
O2 0.32 0.03 0.03
O3 0.04 0.02 0
O4 0.1 0.12 0.09
O5 0.1 0.35 0.18
O6 0 0.28 0
O7 0.06 0.15 0.31
O8 0 0.08 0.63
O9 0 0 0.38
All similarity functions were bounded in the interval [0, 1], where 0 means
that there is no similarity (greatest difference) and 1 corresponds to identical
somatotypes.
The procedure to calculate the similarity between two somatotypes using the
similarity function is described as follows: First, the partial similarity between the
three components (“endo , “meso , and “ecto ) of each pair of somatotypes is calculated
using Eqs. (7), (8), and (9) respectively; and second, the overall similarity between
both somatotypes is calculated using Eq. (10).
For testing the classification method, there was a sample of 38 subjects previously
classified by the Heath–Carter Method into the three classes mentioned [16].
The LM was performed with 29 subjects: 10 in the endomorph class, 11 in the
mesomorph class, and 8 in the ectomorph class. The CM was constructed with
the 9 remaining subjects, 3 in each class mentioned. The classification results are
shown in Table 4. Note that the values highlighted in bold correspond to the higher
values obtained by the Voting algorithm for the classification. Subjects O1 , O2 , and
O3 obtained the major voting (similarity) for the endomorph class, and according
to the general solution rule these were classified into this class. In the same way,
subjects O4 , O5 , O6 were included in the mesomorph class and finally, subjects O7 ,
O8 , O9 were classified in the ectomorph class. In this way, 100% of the subjects
were correctly classified.
4.2.3 Conclusion
The method proposed offers a new perspective for somatotype comparison; it

does not need the three components rating neither the somatochart. It just uses
the 10 body measurements from the individual somatotype description and the
similarity function, in order to compare somatotypes. Furthermore, sometimes in
biotypological research or sport sciences, it is necessary to analyze one of the three
components in a separate way. Our method allows comparing (analyzing) each
component in separate way by defining the support sets and the partial similarity
function. Finally we have shown that our method is effective for comparing
somatotypes and estimates the similarity between them, and all these characteristics
make it simpler than the traditional methods.
4.3 Prognosis of the Rehabilitation of Patients with Cleft Lip

and Palate
Cleft lip and palate consist of congenital malformations in the lip and/or palate,
which are called cleft-primary palate and/or cleft-secondary palate, respectively
(Fig. 3). Primary palate is formed by the prolabium, the premaxilla, and columella
[18]. This is the “visible” part of these kinds of malformations. The secondary
palate begins at the incisive foramen and extends posteriorly. It includes the
horizontal portion of the premaxilla, horizontal portion of the palatine bones, and
Fig. 3 Cleft lip and palate (unilateral and bilateral) [21]

soft palate [18]. The worldwide incidence of these congenital abnormalities is 1.7
per 1000 live born babies [19]. In Mexico, the incidence is 0.81 per 1000 live born
babies [20], meaning more than 90,000 actual cases.
Surgical complexity for cleft reconstruction will depend on fissure complexity
involving lip, nose, and/or palate. Cleft correction translates into a very slow and
complex process; because it is related to the growth and development of the patient
and it requires at least one surgical procedure. The importance of prognosis of
the patient’s rehabilitation, and subsequent evaluation of the surgical result, is the
physician’s self-feedback during all the rehabilitation process. The physician will
learn if the work for patient rehabilitation is adequate, or if it can be improved. This
has a direct consequence in the future quality of patient’s life.
The objective of this work was to develop a method to help physicians to
assess and prognosticate the rehabilitation of patients with this kind of congenital
malformations.
It was necessary to define, in conjunction with surgeons, 18 variables related to the

three anatomical structures affected [3]: 2 variables for cleft (primary palate and
secondary palate); 9 for lip (symmetry of nasal floor, symmetry of nostril archs,
symmetry of nostrils (vertical and anteroposterior plane), nasal septum deviation,
length of columella, and width of nasal base), and 7 for nose (malocclusion by
maxillary retrusion, malocclusion by protrusive mandible, contact of the segments
bones, collapse of the maxillary (left, right, and anteroposterior), dental occlusion,
overbite (vertical and horizontal), and premaxilla (horizontal and vertical plane, and
centric)). These variables describe the cleft of the patient [3] and the model includes,
further, the importance of every variable. Likewise, six fuzzy comparison criteria
were modeled considering Definition 2 (Section 2). All of them were of absolute
difference type. That is, the minimum value of its domain means that the compared
values are equal (there is no difference), and the maximum value means that the
compared values are different [4].
The similarity function was defined considering the partial similarity (Definition
5, Section 3.1) related with the different structures considered in cleft. Three support
sets (Definition 3, Section 3.1) were defined: D f¨cleft , ¨lip , ¨nose g, where ¨cleft D
fx1 , x2 g, ¨lip D fx3 , : : : , x11 g, and ¨nose Dfx12 , : : : , x18 g. The three partial similarity
functions were defined [4] by:
2
X
ˇcleft .I .P1 / ; I .P2 // D 1 t Ct .xt .P1 / ; xt .P2 // (11)
tD1
where: ¡x1 D 0.65, ¡x2 D 0.35
11
X
ˇlip .I .P1 / ; I .P2 // D 1 t Ct .xt .P1 / ; xt .P2 // (12)
tD3
where: ¡t D f0.16, 0.15, 0.14, 0.15, 0.08, 0.12, 0.10, 0.05, 0.05g
18
X
ˇnose .I .P1 / ; I .P2 // D 1 t Ct .xt .P1 / ; xt .P2 // (13)
tD12
where: ¡t D f0.17, 0.25, 0.10, 0.10, 0.11, 0.15, 0.12g.

The total similarity function for cleft lip and palate “TC was defined by:

ˇTC .I .P1 / ; I .P2 // D 0:60 ˇcleft .I .P1 / ; I .P2 // C 0:20 ˇlip .I .P1 / ; I .P2 //
C 0:20 Œˇnose .I .P1 / ; I .P2 // (14)
where “cleft , “lip , and “nose are the similarity functions corresponding to the
affected structures cleft, lip, and nose, with a relevance parameter of 0.60, 0.20,
and 0.20, respectively.
The rehabilitation prognosis of patients with cleft palate is carried out by con-
sidering the original condition of the patient and taking into account the degree
of rehabilitation attained by previous patients cared for in the hospital. Prognosis
is conceived as a result from a supervised classification problem and uses a
learning matrix (LM) made from cleft descriptions from patients who already
finished their rehabilitation, and the voting classification algorithm. The LM was
divided into three postsurgical classes: excellent (E), very good (VG), and good
(G), determined from the evaluation of the surgical result of each patient. These
classes provide the expert with a criterion for the evaluation (classification) of the
degree of rehabilitation accomplished by the patient. Each patient is prognosticated
(classified) by comparing his/her initial description with the initial descriptions of
patients already included in the LM. The most relevant patients for the prognosis
will be those who are the most similar to the patient one is about to classify. This
means that the prognosis corresponds to the class that includes the patients most
similar to the subject that will be classified. In this way, a patient will be predicted
as VG if his/her description is most similar to patients from the LM included in the
“very good” class. In the same way, evaluation of rehabilitation advance is made
using the patient’s postsurgical description, and applying the expert criteria which
defined the postsurgical classes mentioned above. The classification will correspond
to the patient’s rehabilitation advance.
The method was tested with a sample of 95 patients attended by the cleft palate
team at the reconstructive surgery service of the Pediatric Hospital of Tacubaya,
which belongs to the Health Institute of the Federal District in Mexico City.
For acquiring patient data, we designed a patient’s registration form given to the
surgeons, in order to fill it out with the cleft description by the variables defined for.
The LM was constructed with 32 patients, distributed as follows: 10 in E class, 14
Table 5 Classification Class (algorithm) E VG G Total

results for 63 cleft palate
patients Class (inference)
Excellent (E) 17 2 0 19
Very good (VG) 0 26 3 29
Good (G) 0 1 14 15
Total 17 29 17 63
in VG class, and 8 in G class, and the CM (a patient’s sample already classified by

the physician that is going to be classified by the voting algorithm) was built with
63 patients: 19 in E, 29 in VG, and 15 in G.
The patients correctly classified are shown in the matrix diagonal of Table 5
(values highlighted in bold). Observe that from the 19 patients in the E class, 17
were correctly classified by the algorithm and 2 were incorrectly placed in the VG
class. From the 29 patients grouping in VG class, 26 were correctly classified by the
algorithm and 3 were incorrectly classified in G class. For those patients in G class,
14 were correctly classified and just one was incorrectly placed into VG class. In
total, there were 57 patients correctly classified, which represents 90.5%.
4.3.3 Conclusion
We developed a method to prognosticate the rehabilitation of patients with cleft lip

and/or palate, considering the original condition of the patient described in terms
of the variables defined for, and the degree of rehabilitation reached by previous
patients cared for in the hospital. Such prognosis is the result of a supervised
classification of the patients, taking into account the expertise (knowledge) of the
surgeons. It is important to say that, although the method was developed for a
particular medical problem, it can be useful in other fields of knowledge. This is
because we developed a method to assess the evolution of a process from its initial
condition to its conclusion, considering information about the process performance
itself. Furthermore, if we defined expert criteria about the expected results of the
process, it is feasible to evaluate the process advance at any time.
5 Conclusion
In this work, it is shown how the logical combinatorial approach is very useful
in the mathematical modeling and supervised classification of medical problems.
This is because this approach allows objects description including both qualitative
and quantitative variables simultaneously, and it can process them depending on the
variable type in an individual differential way by the comparison criterion function.
Furthermore, it is also possible to compare partial (or total) object description to
include both support set concept and the partial (or total) similarity function. As
well as the use of the Voting classification algorithm based on the concept of partial
precedence.
This paper serves as an illustration of the application of the logical combinatorial
approach to pattern recognition in three medical problems conceived as a supervised
classification one, in order to show that this approach is adequate for problem
modeling in soft sciences.
6 Future Work
It is important to say that even though there are more and better available health
technologies, physicians sometimes require specific information about a particular
diagnosis or treatment that commercial equipment does not provide. Hence, the
importance of developing knowledge-based computational tools to aid in medical
decision-making. In this sense, the logical combinatorial approach of pattern
recognition theory is currently being applied in two medical diagnostic problems:
liver fibrosis and cervical cancer.
Cervical Cancer (CC) worldwide is the second most prevalent neoplasm and the
fourth leading cause of cancer death in women [22]. Annually about 530,000 new
cases are detected, approximately half of which will end with the death of the patient
[23]. Most CC cases occur in underdeveloped or developing countries such as Latin
American and Caribbean countries. Particularly in Mexico, an incidence of 23.3
cases per 100,000 women and a mortality rate of 8.1 cases per 100,000 women are
estimated [24].
At present, there are technologies that can make a high resolution scan of the
slides that have the biopsies, to obtain a digital image. These technologies allow
to share the digital images with other pathologists around the world, in order to be
trained by an expert pathologist for training how to evaluate positive patterns of
immunohistochemistry with respect to the pixels of the image. However, there is no
mathematical tool that allows the analysis of biopsy images which can differentiate
types of epithelia and assign a diagnosis itself. Therefore, the development of
a computational tool for the analysis of cellular patterns in preneoplastic and
neoplastic cervical lesions, which provides an accurate and opportunistic diagnosis
itself, would be very useful to decongest the reading system of biopsies, to do
objective diagnosis, and deliver a correct result to the patient. This is the purpose of
this research.
On the other hand, liver fibrosis is the essential component of chronic liver
diseases and its final stage leads to cirrhosis. This is a condition with a high rate
of morbidity and mortality and it constitutes one of the main health problems in the
world. In some Latin American countries, cirrhosis of the liver occupies between 5ı
and 6ı place as a general cause of death [25]. In Mexico, liver cirrhosis morbidity in
2005 was 11.7 cases per 100,000 inhabitants and 12.4% in 2006, which represents
an increase of 6% [26].
In order to evaluate the progression of fibrosis, the most common test is the
invasive one, percutaneous liver biopsy; however, it will be better for patients to
have a noninvasive technique with high sensitivity and repeatability, which allows
the characterization of biological tissue and makes a truthful and timely fibrosis
diagnostic. That is why an initial study of the thermal characteristics of hepatic
tissue with different degrees of disease progression was made [27], and now the
combinatorial logic approach is currently being applied to classify tissue in the
different stages of progression of liver fibrosis to cirrhosis. In this way, it will
be possible to deepen the understanding of liver fibrosis and its development.
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(2016)
On the Uniqueness of Invariant Measures
for the Stochastic Infinite Darcy–Prandtl
Number Model
Rana D. Parshad and Brian Ewald
Abstract The infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model is an effective reduced model

for describing convection in a fluid-saturated porous medium. It is well known
that the deterministic model does not possess a unique invariant measure. In this
work, we study the dynamics of the infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model, under an
additive stochastic forcing of its low modes. This is the so-called stochastic infinite
Darcy–Prandtl number model. We prove that the stochastically forced system, does
indeed possess a unique invariant measure.
Keywords Stochastic infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model • Convection in

porous media • Invariant measures • Stochastic partial differential equations
1991 Mathematics Subject Classification. Primary: 60H15; 60H30; 37L40

Secondary: 76S05
1 Introduction
Applied analysts are often interested in the analysis and modeling of physical
phenomenon. Many of the models they investigate consist of a system of partial
differential equations, with appropriate initial and boundary conditions. The equa-
tions depend on initial data intrinsic to the physical process, as well as parameters,
which change according to physical situations. Varying these parameters, and taking
appropriate limits with respect to them, sometimes leads to a simplification of the
original model. This “reduced” model so to speak may be more tractable from
an analysis and/or computational point of view, than the original model. It might
R.D. Parshad ()

Department of Mathematics, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY 13699, USA
B. Ewald
Department of Mathematics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA

190 R.D. Parshad and B. Ewald
also lend valuable insight into the properties of the physical process. One might
then ask, what information is lost concerning the original model in the limiting
process, or alternatively what is preserved? Also, in what sense are the original
and reduced models close, if indeed they are so? A program to investigate such
questions, in the context of convective fluid flow, modeled by the Boussinesq
system, was initiated by Wang in [22–24]. We then continued this program in
[15, 16], for convective fluid flow in porous media, where we considered the Darcy–
Boussinesq system, and its “reduced” variant, the infinite Darcy–Prandtl number
model. Both of these models have generated considerable interest lately. They find
diverse applications in the fields of geothermal engineering, construction of thermal
insulators, nuclear waste management, thermal enhanced oil recovery, groundwater
flow, and hydraulic fracturing [2, 18, 19, 21]. Thus there is good reason to further
investigate the aforementioned systems. However, for chaotic systems such as these,
it is meaningless to talk of one single trajectory, or any information therein. This is
due to sensitive dependence on initial data, as well as on parameters. Alternatively,
one might focus on statistical properties, or “averages” of the system, such as
invariant measures [24]. For the deterministic Darcy–Boussinesq system, there is no
unique invariant measure. This is seen by constructing measures consisting of point
masses centered at various steady states [25]. These multiple steady states then
will give rise to multiple invariant measures. Our goal in the current manuscript is
to show the existence of a unique invariant measure, for the deterministic Infinite
Darcy–Prandtl number model, forced by a white noise. Although much of the
forthcoming analysis involves stochastics, for the benefit of the reader, we will
recap certain physical details of fluid flow in porous media, as well as details of
the Darcy–Boussinesq system and infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model, before we
proceed with the stochastic preliminaries.
Recall, a porous medium is a solid structure often called a matrix which consists
of interconnected void spaces called pores. In many physical situations, there is fluid
flow through such mediums [14], making it an important class of flows for physical
applications. It is impossible to know a priori the exact physical structure of porous
media at a local level. Hence, we consider averaging the flow over a representative
pore scale. The point of this is to build a continuum on which we can then apply the
regular principles of fluid mechanics. A porous medium has two important defining
features: the porosity and the permeability K. The porosity is defined as the ratio
of the void space to the whole space. The permeability K describes how easy or
difficult it is for the fluid to flow through a medium. The literature on modeling
convective flow in porous media is very extensive and dates back to the work of
Horton and Rogers [7] and Lapwood [8].
An effective model for convection in a porous medium is the Darcy–Boussinesq
system [14]. The physical space for the problem consists of a fluid-saturated porous
medium, confined between two plates, a distance of h units apart. The bottom plate
is heated to a temperature say T2 and the top plate is cooled to a temperature say T1
where T2 > T1 . In order to non-dimensionalize the problem, we measure length in
2
units of the layer thickness h, and time in units of the thermal diffusion timescale h .
Thus the fluid occupies the non-dimensional region
Uniqueness of Invariant Measures 191
D Œ0; Lx Œ0; Ly Œ0; 1: (1)
The differential heating induces convection in the fluid, which is modeled by a

system of coupled partial differential equations, see [14]. In non-dimensional form,
the equations are
1 @u
C u C rp D RaD kT; r u D 0; u3 jzD0;1 D 0; ujtD0 D u0 ; (2)
PrD @t
@T
C u rT D T; TjzD0 D 1; TjzD1 D 0; TjtD0 D T0 : (3)
@t
On the sidewalls, periodic boundary conditions are imposed for convenience.
Here u is the seepage velocity, T is the temperature field, and k is the upward
pointing unit vector. The first parameter in the system is the Darcy–Rayleigh number
defined as
g˛.T2 T1 /Kh
RaD D : (4)

where is the kinematic fluid viscosity, is the coefficient of thermal diffusion, ˛
is the volume expansion coefficient of the fluid, g is the gravitational constant, and
K is the Darcy permeability coefficient. The second parameter in the system is the
Darcy–Prandtl number defined as
h2
PrD D : (5)
K
As mentioned earlier, K measures the ability of the porous medium to transport
fluid and can vary quite drastically within different materials. We illustrate with a
table providing ranges in permeability of some common rocks [9],
Material Range of permeability (m/day)

Sand 101 to 5 103
Clay 5 107 to 103
Limestone 5 106 to 1
Sandstone 5 105 to 20
Dense crystalline rock 5 108 to 105
Thus we see that when the porous medium is say certain limestone or sandstone,
the permeability K is extremely small, in comparison to the thickness h of the
medium, which is of order 1. This situation leads to a very large PrD or Darcy–
Prandtl number. Under a large Darcy–Prandtl number assumption, this system can
be reduced to the infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model [5], via formally taking the
limit as PrD ! 1 in the Darcy–Boussinesq system [5]. Thus we can interpret
the physical meaning of an infinite Darcy–Prandtl number, as a situation where
the ratio of the layer thickness to the permeability of the medium is very large, or
h
K
>> 1, which results in PrD >> 1, so PrD ! 1 is a reasonable approximation.
The resulting reduced model is described by the following set of coupled partial
differential equations along with a free-slip set of boundary conditions:
u C rp D RaD kT; (6)

@T
C u rT D T; (7)
@t
ˇ ˇ
@u1 ˇˇ @u2 ˇˇ
u3 jzD0;1 D 0; D D 0; (8)
@z ˇzD0;1 @z ˇzD0;1
r u D 0; (9)
TjzD0 D 1; TjzD1 D 0; ujtD0 D u0 ; TjtD0 D T0 : (10)
On the sidewalls, periodic boundary conditions are imposed for convenience. There
are a number of works in the literature, on the infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model
[11, 17]. The model possesses strong solutions which are C1 in space. In fact, the
solutions are actually Gevrey regular in space, and analytic in time. For a detailed
proof of global existence of strong solution, as well as Gevrey regularity of solution,
the reader is referred to [11].
Note that the infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model is not equipped with homo-
geneous boundary conditions. This is circumvented by introducing a change of
variable
T D C .z/: (11)
Here .z/ is a background temperature profile: see [4]. We require that
.1/ D 0; .0/ D 1: (12)
Thus will satisfy homogenous boundary conditions,
jzD0;1 D 0: (13)
Inserting the above into (6) and (7) yields
rp C u D RaD k; (14)
r u D 0; (15)
@
C u r C u3 0 .z/ D C 00 .z/; (16)
@t
jzD0;1 D 0: (17)
We will suppose that the temperature profile is linear so .z/ D 1 z. Thus
0 .z/ D 1; (18)

also
00 .z/ D 0: (19)
Notice from (14), the velocity is completely determined by the temperature field
modulo the pressure. We will use this to our advantage and convert (14)–(16) to a
single equation. We apply the Leray–Hopf projector, denoted P, [20], to (14) and
insert the result into (16) to yield the following equation
@
D RaD P.k / r RaD 0 .z/ .P.k //3 ; (20)
@t
jzD0;1 D 0: (21)
Note that using the 3D Helmholtz decomposition [6], one can show that
.P.k//3 D , as long as is sufficiently regular. This is not an issue here, as the
solutions to the infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model are very regular [11]. Thus
using the abovementioned decomposition, and adding an appropriate white noise
to (20), we obtain the stochastic infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model
d D . RaD P.k / r RaD 0 .z/ / dt C dW; (22)

jzD0;1 D 0: (23)
Heuristically, the noise will connect the various branches of the attractor, which
would not be able to interact without the presence of the noise. Essentially, the
stochastic forcing introduces a probability of being “kicked” from one steady state
to another, an impossibility without the noise. The noise will thus connect all
disconnected branches of the attractor to yield an invariant measure. We pay the
price however by having to work in a probabilistic setting on a Hilbert space.
Techniques of adding noise to deterministic partial differential equations have
become quite popular. There is a vast literature on these so-called stochastic partial
differential equations. See [3] for a detailed treatment of such techniques. The
breadth of techniques covered in [3] is of a very technical nature. The authors treat
the case of infinite-dimensional noise. For our case however, a finite-dimensional
noise will suffice. Although there is no general theory to treat equations forced
by degenerate or finite-dimensional noise, there are various results that provide us
with valuable insight into the existence and uniqueness of invariant measures for
dissipative stochastic systems. We recall certain prominent results relevant in our
setting.
Mattingly, in his PhD dissertation, considered the 2D stochastic Navier–Stokes
equations forced by degenerate white noise [12]. He proved uniqueness of the
invariant measure for this equation. Later, along with E and Sinai he studied this
problem further, deriving various results that were reported in [13]. The methodol-
ogy developed by them was extended to a host of other stochastic partial differential
equations such as the stochastic Ginzburg–Landau and stochastic Cahn–Hilliard.
These equations were considered by E and Liu [10]. Recently these techniques were
also applied to the 3D truncated stochastic Boussinesq system by Wu and Lee [26].
Inspired by the above results, we rigorously investigate the stochastic infinite
Darcy–Prandtl number model (22). We primarily ask the following question. Does
there exist a unique invariant measure for (22)? Our contribution in the current
manuscript is to apply results directly from [10] to the stochastic infinite Darcy–
Prandtl number model, in order to answer the above question in the affirmative.
E and Liu in [10] prove the existence of a unique invariant measure for a general
dissipative stochastic PDE, under certain suitable conditions. We will systematically
check that the stochastic infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model satisfies each one of
these. We have organized our manuscript as follows. In Section 2, we describe the
mathematical formulation of the problem. Section 3 is aimed at validating the first
two conditions as posed in [10]: see the appendix. In Section 4, we make various
probabilistic estimates aimed at validating the remaining conditions. The results of
these sections are brought together in Section 5, where we state our main result via
Theorem 2. We then offer some concluding remarks in Section 6. In all estimates
made henceforth, C is a generic constant that can change in its value from line to
line, and sometimes within the same line, if so required.
2 The Mathematical Formulation
2.1 Stochastic Preliminaries
In this section, we discuss the stochastic framework on which much of the

subsequent analysis relies. The key idea is to perform stochastic analysis on a
Hilbert space. To this end, we would like to discuss the structure of the noise
and spaces used. For details, the reader is referred to [3]. We will formulate the
preliminaries in terms of a general equation of the form
d D . C R. // dt C dW; t 0; .0/ D 0 : (24)
which is defined on a separable Hilbert space H. For us is H D L2 .X/. This

is equipped with the standard inner product h; iH . is a self-adjoint linear
operator on the domain D. / H, with eigenvalues 0 1 2 : : :
N : : : ; limk!1 k D 1 and a complete orthonormal system of eigenvectors
e1 ; : : : eN : : : such that ei D i ei . Furthermore, W D. / 7! H is the
generator of a C0 semigroup S.t/, t 0, of linear operators on H.
For our specific application, the nonlinear term is
R. / D R.; r; z/ D RaD P.k / r RaD 0 .z/: (25)
such that R W D.R/ H 7! H. However, we will formulate things for a general R.

The noise W.; t/ is of the form

X
W.x; !; t/ D k !k .!; t/ek .x/; (26)
where the !k ’s are independent standard Brownian motions which generate the
filtered probability space .; F; Ft ; P/. The k 2 R are coordinate-wise standard
deviations, and the ek .x/ are as described earlier, and form a basis for L2 .X/.
Expectations are taken with respect to P. Defining noise with this structure facilitates
taking inner products. This becomes important in the energy estimates performed
henceforth. We will assume that (24) possesses a unique strong solution for almost
all ! 2 . Here we pause and define the notions of strong and weak solution.
Definition 2.1. A D. / valued predictable process .t/, t 2 Œ0; T, is called an
analytically strong solution of (24) if
Z t
.t/ D 0 C . .s/ C R. //ds C W.t/; P a:s (27)
0
Definition 2.2. An H valued predictable process .t/, t 2 Œ0; T, is called a mild
solution of (24) if
Z t Z t
.t/ D S.t/0 C S.t s/R. //ds C S.t s/dW.s/; P a:s (28)
0 0
Remark 1. Note that we already have a probability space , on which a Brownian

motion process is defined. Thus solutions are assumed to be defined pathwise; that
is, for each ! 2 , we would have a solution that .t; !/ only really depends on !
via W.!/, the Brownian path. Since we apply Ito’s formula along the paths, these
paths have to be well defined. This is not an issue, since strong solution is being
used here.
Furthermore, we have that (24) defines a stochastic semiflow
!
s;t u0 D u.s; tI !; u0 /: (29)
This semiflow generates a continuous Markovian semigroup. Next we define an

invariant measure.
Definition 2.3. A probability measure on the phase space H equipped with the
Borel -algebra is invariant if and only if
Z Z
F. /.d / D EŒF.t! /.d /; (30)
H H
for all continuous bounded functions F on H and all t 0.

An invariant measure can be extended to a measure p on the path space

C..1; 0; H/. First, we define a cylinder set
A D f.s/ 2 C..1; 0; H/; .ti / 2 Ai ; i D 0; : : : ng ; (31)
where t0 < t1 < t2 < . . . < tn < 0, and the Ai are Borel subsets of H. Define
B H by
˚
B D .; w/; 2 A0 ; t!0 ;ti 2 Ai ; i D 1; 2; ::n ; (32)
and define p .A/ D . P/.A/. Then p is consistent on cylinder sets and can be
extended to the natural -algebra by Kolmogorov’s extension theorem.
We also briefly recount the concept of Gibbsian dynamics of the low modes. We
partition the phase space H D L2 .X/ into a space of high modes and low modes:
Hl D span fek .x/; k Ng ; Hh D span fek .x/; k > Ng ; (33)
where H D Hl ˚ Hh . We denote by Pl the projection operator from H to Hl and by

Ph the projection operator from H to Hh . Thus a solution to (24) is written as .t/ D
.l.t/; h.t// where Pl ..t// D l.t/ and Ph ..t// D h.t/. We can thus rewrite (24) in
terms of its high-mode and low-mode components as
dl.t/ D l.t/ dt C Pl .R. // dt C dW.t/; (34)

dh.t/
D h.t/ C Ph .R. //: (35)
dt
Next a number of conditions are imposed on (24):
Condition 1: There exist constants 0 and K0 0 such that
hAx; xiH C hRx; xiH jxj2H C K0 : (36)
Condition 2: Let 1 ; 2 2 H and let D 1 2 . There exists a constant ˛ 2 Œ0; 1/

and a nonnegative function K. / on H such that
hR.1 / R.2 /; iH ˛ hA; iH C K.1 /jj2H : (37)
Furthermore,
Z
K. / d. / ˇ; (38)
H
for some constant ˇ independent of the invariant measure .

Condition 3: For all L0 2 P, hN 0 , and for all a 2 .0; 1/ and T 0, there exists
K 0 such that
Z 1
P N
jD.l.t/; h.t/; h.t//j 2
H ds < K 1 a > 0: (39)
0
Condition 41 : For all L0 2 P, a 2 .0; 1/, and T 0, there exists K 0 such that
Z T
P jG.l.s/; h.s//j2H ds < K 1 a > 0: (40)
0
If the above are satisfied, one obtains the following,

Theorem 1 (E and Liu, Journal of Statistical Physics, 2002). Suppose that the
stochastic partial differential equation (24) satisfies conditions 1–4 and N is chosen
large enough, then Eq. (24) has a unique invariant measure.
Note that given an ergodic invariant measure , for p -almost all ./ 2
C..1; 0; H/ we have that
Z t
1
lim K..s// ds ˇ; (41)
t0 !1 t t0 t0
Here K (see condition 2 in the appendix) is required to be a positive function and

will depend explicitly on the form of the equation considered.
We next define the set U C..1; 0; H/ to consist of all v W .1; 0 ! H
such that v satisfies the estimates derived in Lemma 4.4 and the integral estimate
derived above. Then due to conditions 1 and 2, which we prove henceforth, and the
ergodicity assumption, we have that p .U/ D 1. Also we will use l.t/ to denote
the value of the low modes of the solution at time t, and Lt to denote the entire
trajectory of the low modes from 1 to t. Therefore we have that l.t/ 2 Hl and
Lt 2 C..1; t; Hl /, and that l.s/ D Lt .s/ for 0 s t. We define a map ˆs .Lt ; h0 /
which is a solution to (35) at time s with initial condition h0 and low mode forcing Lt .
Remark 2. We consider measures on the function spaces with time set .1; t, as
we will show that for statistically invariant solutions of (22) existing for time from
1 to C1, h is uniquely determined by the past history of l from 1 to 0 for
almost all u.t/.
Note that ˆs .Lt ; h0 / only depends on the information of Lt between 0 and s.
Therefore we can define ˆt0 ;s .Lt ; h0 / for solutions starting from t0 rather than
time 0. We will suppose that N is large enough so that the requisite condition from
Lemma 5.1 holds. Then we can solve for the future of l using the Gibbsian dynamics
dl.t/ D Œ l.t/ C G.l.t/; ˆt .Lt // dt C dW.t/: (42)
Here
G.l; h/ D Pl .RaD P.k.l C h// r.l C h/ C RaD .l C h//: (43)
1
For the notation in conditions 3 and 4, please refer to Section 2.3 of [10].
Thus we have a closed form for the dynamics of the low modes given an initial
past. The following difference operator also appears often:
D.f ; g1 ; g2 / D G.f ; g1 / G.f ; g2 /: (44)
Remark 3. We only consider the case of finite-dimensional noise, that is when only
the low modes are forced. This facilitates making the energy estimates. However,
the arguments we make here apply when the high modes are also randomly forced.
All we require is that the forcing amplitudes on the high modes decay fast enough.
3 Proof of the Monotonicity and Coercivity of the Drift

Operator
We now proceed systematically to verify conditions 1–4, via (36), (37), (39),
and (40), from [10]. Essentially, we want to follow the ideas in [10] and reduce
the infinite-dimensional dynamics of the stochastic infinite Darcy–Prandtl number
model to the finite-dimensional Gibbsian dynamics. This will facilitate the use of
Girsanov’s Theorem to yield a unique invariant measure. In this section, we state
and prove two Lemmas, of which the first two conditions (36) and (37) will be a
direct consequence.
Lemma 3.1. For the infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model, there exist constants
> 0 and k0 0 such that
˝ ˛
h ; i2 C RaD P.k / r RaD 0 .z/; 2 j.t/j22 C k0 : (45)
0
Proof. From the form of (20), and the choice of .z/, that yields .z/ D 1, we
have
h ; i2 C hR. /; i2
D 0
E
D h ; i2 C RaD P.k / r RaD .z/;
2
jr j22 C RaD jj22

1
jj22 C RaD C1
C
This follows via integration by parts, Poincaré’s inequality
jj22 Cjr j22 ; (46)
and the estimates on the L2 norm of via (63), and Lemma 4.2. Here C1 D j.0/j22 C
0
C2
. Thus the lemma is proved for, say, D C1 and k0 D RaD C1 . t
u
Thus condition 1 (36) [10] is satisfied.
We now look at the difference of the nonlinear terms, R.1 2 /, where 1 and

2 are two different solutions to the infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model such
that 1 D l C h1 and 2 D l C h2 . Our motivation here is to put into effect
the Gibbsian dynamics formalism via (33)–(35), and then (42)–(44). Essentially,
the phase space has been split into a space of high modes and low modes, and
we want to derive a decay estimate on the difference of high modes for two
solutions, so that the Gibbsian dynamics via (42) is relevant. The next Lemma aims
at precisely estimating the difference of high modes via (44), in our setting. We set
D 1 2 D h1 h2 and state the following Lemma:
Lemma 3.2. For the infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model, there exists a constant
˛ 2 Œ0; 1/ and a nonnegative function K.1 / such that
hR./; i ˛ h ; i C K.1 /jj22 : (47)
Furthermore, there exists a uniform constant C such that

Z
K.1 / d.1 / C: (48)
H
Proof. Recall from the form of (22) we have
R./ D RaD P.k1 / r1 C RaD P.k2 / r2 C RaD 0 .z/ : (49)
We will rewrite R./ as
R./ D RaD P.k2 / r RaD r1 P.k/ C RaD 0 .z/: (50)
Without loss of generality, we assume 1 2 . We multiply (50) through by D

1 2 and integrate by parts to yield
˝ ˛
hR./; i D RaD P.k2 / r RaD r1 P.k/ C RaD 0 .z/P./;
Z Z
D RaD .1 /z dx C RaD 0 .z/P./ dx
2
H H
Z Z
D 2RaD 1 z C RaD 0 .z/P./ dx
H H
Z Z
2RaD 1 z C RaD jj2 dx
H H
This follows via integration by parts and using the regularity of so that
P.k/3 D . We next use Holders inequality and adopt the Ladyzhenskaya
inequality, along with Young’s inequality with to yield
Z Z
RaD
1 z C RaD jj2 dx
2 H H
2RaD j1 j4 jj4 jrj2 C RaD jj22

3 1
2RaD j1 j4 jrj24 jj24 jrj2 C RaD jj22
.2RaD /8 7
j1 j84 jj22 C jrj22 C RaD jj22
8 8
7 .2RaD /8
D h ; i2 C .RaD C j1 j84 /jj22 :
8 8
8
Thus the lemma is proved for, say, ˛ = 78 and K.1 / D .RaD C .2Ra8D / j1 j84 /. Note
since we have estimates on jr j22 , via Sobolev embedding of H01 ,! L4 , we have
the L4 estimates also. This also follows via L1 boundedness of . In order to see
how we obtain this estimate, that is,
Z
K.1 / d.1 / C; (51)
H
see the proof for Lemma 4.2. t

u
4 Estimates on the Growth Rate of Energy and Enstrophy
Our goal in this section is to derive estimates for the energy EŒj j22 and the enstrophy
EŒjr j22 . This is necessary to derive certain lemmas which are crucial for proving
the next set of conditions.
4.1 A Priori Estimates on the Energy
We begin with estimates on the energy. We apply Itô’s lemma on the map
1 2
.t/ 7! jj : (52)
2 2
This yields
Z
1
dj.t/j22 D ŒRaD 0 .z/P.k.t//.t/ dx jr.t/j22 hu r; i2 dt
2
1
h; dWi2 C 0 dt: (53)
2
P
Here 0 D jk j2 . Via the appropriate choice for .z/, we obtain

1 2 1 2 2
dj.t/j2 j.t/j2 jr.t/j2 dt C 0 dt h; dWi2 : (54)
2 2C
Define a stopping time T, for any given H, by

˚
T D inf t W j.t/j22 H 2 : (55)
Integrate (54) from 0 to t ^ T and take expectations to yield

Z t^T Z t^T
1 1 1
EŒj.t ^ T/j22 EŒj.0/j22 C EŒj.s/j22 ds EŒjr.s/j22 ds
2 2 2C 0 0
Z t^T
EŒ h; dWi2 C 0 .t ^ T/: (56)
0
Now define the quantity

Z t
MtT D h.s ^ T/; dWiL2 : (57)
0
We can show that the quadratic variation of MtT is finite, implying that MtT is a
martingale and so
EŒMtT D 0: (58)
We can therefore use the optional sampling Theorem to conclude

T
EŒMt^T D 0: (59)
Hence, we can take H ! 1 so T ! 1 and thus t ^ T ! t. Incorporating these

limits in (56) yields
Z t Z t
1 1 1
EŒj.t/j22 C EŒjr.s/j22 ds EŒj.0/j22 C EŒj.s/j22 ds C 0 t: (60)
2 0 2 2C 0
Thus application of Poincaré’s inequality yields

Z t Z t
1 1 1 1
EŒj.t/j22 C EŒj.s/j22 ds EŒj.0/j22 C EŒj.s/j22 ds C 0 t: (61)
2 C 0 2 2C 0
Thus we have
Z t
1 1 1
EŒj.t/j22 C EŒj.s/j22 ds EŒj.0/j22 C 0 t; (62)
2 2C 0 2
and an application of Gronwall’s lemma yields
0
EŒj.t/j22 e2C2 t EŒj.0/j22 C .1 e2C2 t /: (63)
C2
1
Here C2 D 2C .
We now state a lemma that enables us to derive a uniform bound on the L2 -norm
of .
Lemma 4.1. Consider a that is a solution to the stochastic infinite Darcy–Prandtl
number model. For an invariant measure on H, there exists a constant C such that
the following estimate holds uniformly in the time parameter:
Z
jj22 d. / C: (64)
H
˚
Proof. For any > 0, there is a b such that W j j22 b 1 . We define
the set
˚
B D W jj22 b : (65)
Thus we have that for any H and t > 0,

Z Z
.jj22 ^ H/ d. / D E.j0;t
!
j22 ^ H/ d. /
H H
Z
E.j0;t
!
j22 / d. / C H
B
0
e2C2 t b C .1 e2C2 t /:
C2
This follows via the estimates derived in (63). We now let t ! 1 and H ! 1 and
obtain the result, as was arbitrary. This proves the Lemma. t
u
4.2 A Priori Estimates on the Enstrophy
We will now derive estimates for EŒjr.t/j22 . We apply Itô’s lemma on the map
1
.t/ 7! jrj22 : (66)
2
This yields
Z
1
djr.t/j22 D Œj .t/j22 C RaD 0 .z/ dx dt
2 X
h ; dWi2 C .hRaD P.k / r; i2 C 1 / dt: (67)

P
Here 1 D k2 jk j2 . We now define the stopping time T, for any given H, by
˚
T D inf t W jr.t/j22 H 2 : (68)
We use the Cauchy–Schwartz, Hölder’s, Poincaré’s, and Young’s inequalities and

choose
1
0 .z/ D ; (69)
8RaD C3
where C3 is the constant that arises in the embedding of H 2 .X/ ,! H 1 .X/, i.e.,
jr j22 C3 j j22 ; (70)
This can easily be done via readjusting the temperature profile .z/, to still be linear
but decay at a sharper rate. Thus we obtain
1 1
djr.t/j22 Œj .t/j22 C RaD jj1 jr j2 j j2 C jr j22 dt
2 8C3
h ; dWi2 C 1 dt: (71)
Now recall the Gagliardo-Nirenberg interpolation inequality [1], for a function

on a bounded domain Rn
jDj jp C1 jDm j˛r jj1˛ jj1˛

q C C2 j js ; (72)

such that 1p D nj C 1r mn ˛ C 1˛
q
, where 1 q; r 1. s > 0 is arbitrary.
Using the above, we obtain
1 1
jr j2 C1 j j 24 jj42 C C2 j j22 ; (73)
3
we then use this to bound the nonlinear term:

Z
RaD .P.k / r / dx
X
Cjj1 jr j2 j j2

1 1
Cjj1 j C1 j j 24 jj42 C C2 jj22 j j2
3
3 1
Cj j2 jj4 C C2 jj22 j j2
2 2

1 21 3 1
C j j2 j j C j j22 C 4.C2 /2 j j42
2
4 4
43
3 1 21 4 1
C j j22 C j j4 C j j22 C 4.C2 /2 j j42
4
1 1
j j22 C C5 jj24 C j j22 C 4.C2 /2 j j24
4 4
4
This follows via the Sobolev embedding of L2 ,! L 3 , Cauchy–Schwartz inequality,
1 43
and Young’s inequality with , where D 4C . Thus we obtain
djrj22

2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2
2 j j2 C j j2 C jr j2 C C5 j j4 C 4C2 j j4 dt
2 8C3
h ; dWi2 C 1 dt: (74)
Now integrating from 0 to t ^ T and taking expectation on both sides yields
Ejr.t ^ T/j22
Z t^T Z t^T
1
Ej .s/j22 ds C EŒjr.s/j22 ds
0 4C 3 0
Z t^T

C C5 Ej.s/j24 C 4.C2 /2 Ej.s/j42 ds
0
Z t^T
E h ; dWi2 C 1 .t ^ T/: (75)
0
We now define the quantity

Z t
MtT D h .s ^ T/; dW.s/i2 ; (76)
0
and we can show that the quadratic variation of MtT is finite, implying that MtT is a
martingale and therefore EŒMtT D 0 . Then the optional sampling Theorem yields
EŒMt^T
T
D 0. Hence, we can take H ! 1, so T ! 1 and thus t ^ T ! t. Again
incorporating these limits in (75) gives
Z t Z t
1
EŒjr.t/j2
2
EŒjr.s/j2 ds C
2
EŒj .s/j22 ds
4C3 0 0
Z t^T

EŒjr.0/j22 C C5 Ej.s/j24 C 4.C2 /2 Ej.s/j42 ds C 1 t: (77)
0
Note the embedding of H 2 .X/ ,! H 1 .X/:
jr j22 C3 j j22 : (78)
Using the above in conjunction with the Poincaré’s inequality yields

Z t Z t
1 1
Ejr.t/j22 EŒjr.s/j22 ds C EŒjr.s/j22 ds
4C3 0 C3 0
Z t^T
EŒjr.0/j22 C C5 Ej.s/j24 C 4.C2 /2 Ej.s/j22 ds C 1 t; (79)
0
and so
Z t
EŒjr.t/j22 C4 EŒjr.s/j22 ds C EŒjr.0/j22 C .C5 C 1 /t: (80)
0
Here C4 D 4C3 3 and C5 is the uniform estimate on the sum of EŒj.s/j22 via (63),
and EŒj.s/j4 , via the L1 boundedness of . Hence, an application of Gronwall’s
lemma yields

1 C C5
EŒjr.t/j22 eC4 t .EŒjr.0/j22 / C .1 eC4 t /: (81)
C4
We now state a lemma that enables us to derive a uniform bound on the L2 -norm
of r .
Lemma 4.2. Consider a which is a solution to the stochastic infinite Darcy–
Prandtl number model. For an invariant measure on H, there exists a constant
C such that if jr.0/j22 C, then the following estimate holds uniformly in the time
parameter:
Z
jr j22 d. / C: (82)
H
Proof. The proof could follow via mimicking the methods for the L2 -norm of .
However, we provide an alternate proof. It follows from the a priori estimates on
EŒjr j22 that
Z t Z t
1 1 1
EŒj.t/j22 C EŒjr.s/j22 ds EŒj.t0 /j22 C EŒj.s/j22 ds C 0 .t t0 /:
2 t0 2 2C t0
(83)
This implies that

Z t
1 1 1
lim EŒjr.s/j22 ds lim EŒj.t0 /j22
t0 !1 t t0 t0 t0 !1 t t0 2
Z t
1 1
C lim EŒj.s/j22 ds C 0
t0 !1 t t0 2C t
0
C;
using the uniform estimates on EŒj.s/j22 . Thus, from ergodicity, it follows that
Z t Z
1
lim EŒjr.s/j22 ds D EŒjr.s/j22 d. / C: (84)
t0 !1 t t0 t0 H
However, an application of Fubini’s Theorem for nonnegative integrands implies

that
Z Z
EŒjr.s/j2 d. / D E Œjr.s/j22 d. / C;
2
(85)
H H
and from the definition of invariant measure we obtain

Z Z
E jr.s/j22 d. / D jr.s/j22 d. / C: (86)
H H
This proves the lemma. t

u
4.3 Probabilistic Estimate on Growth Rate of Energy and

Enstrophy
The following lemma gives a probabilistic estimate of the growth rate of j j22 and
jr j22 .
Lemma 4.3. For all a 2 .0; 1/, ı > 1, there exists a K1 such that if j0 j22 Cjr0 j22
C0 , then, for any t 0,
Rt Rt
j.t/j22 C jr.t/j22 C C. 0 jr.s/j22 ds C 0 j .s/j22 ds/
P 1 a: (87)
C1 C C2 t C K1 .t C 1/ı
Proof. From (54) and (67), we have that

Z t Z t
j.t/j22 C jr.t/j22 C C jr.s/j22 ds C j .s/j22 ds
0 0
Z t Z t
C.j.0/j22 C jr.0/j22 / C .0 C C5 C 1 /t C h; dWi2 h ; dWi2
0 0
Z t Z t
C1 C C2 t C h; dWi2 h ; dWi2 :
0 0
Consider the processes

Z t
Mt D h; dWi2 (88)
0
and
Z t
Mt1 D h ; dWi2 : (89)
0
For our purpose, it suffices to show that, for t 0,

K1
P Mt C Mt1 .t C 1/ı 1 a: (90)
2
We consider the quadratic variations of the processes Mt and Mt1 to obtain

Z t

ŒM; Mt .max /2 j.s/j22 ds (91)
0
and
Z t

ŒM 1 ; M 1 t . max /2 j.s/j22 ds; (92)
0
where

.max /2 D sup jk j2 (93)
and

. max /2 D sup jk2 k j2 : (94)
Here the k are the standard deviations of the kth components of the noise. This is
not to be confused with the subscript k we use next to indicate an index in time. Note
that we have obtained estimates on the L2 -norm of . We thus proceed by defining
the following events
( )
K1 ı
Bk D sup jMs j .k C 1/ : (95)
s2Œ0;k 4
We proceed by making an estimate of the probability of this event.
42
P fBk g EŒjMs j2 .Doob0 sinequalityappliedto Bk /
.K1 /2 .k
C 1/2ı
" #
42
E sup jMs j 2
.K1 /2 .k C 1/2ı s2Œ0;k
42
EŒ.ŒM; Mk / (Burkholder–Davis–Gundy inequality)
.K1 /2 .k C 1/2ı
Z t
42
E .max / 2
j.s/j 2 ds .estimateon EŒ.ŒM; Mjk //
2
.K1 /2 .k C 1/2ı 0
Z k
42
. / 2
EŒj.s/j22 ds
.K1 /2 .k C 1/2ı max 0
42
. /2 Ck .estimateon EŒj.s/j22 /:
.K1 /2 .k C 1/2ı max
Therefore we have that

Ck
P fBk g : (96)
.k C 1/2ı
We note that
( )
K1 ı [ X
P Mt .t/ D 1 P Bk 1 P fBk g : (97)
4 k k
We see that these sums are finite for sufficiently large ı. In particular, ı > 1 suffices.
We note
X
K1 ı
P Mt .t/ 1 P fBk g : (98)
4 k
P
We can make the sum k P fBk g arbitrarily small by increasing K1 , since
X 1 X Ck 1 X 1 C
P fBk g 2 2ı
2 p
2: (99)
k
K1 k .k C 1/ K1 k k K1
q
2C
Here p > 1. Thus, given a 2 .0; 1/, if we choose K1 D a
, we obtain

K1 ı a
P Mt > t : (100)
4 2
The same argument applies to the process Mt1 . Similar estimates can be made on
P fAk g where
( )
K1
Ak D sup jMs1 j .k C 1/ı : (101)
s2Œ0;k 4
Thus after performing a similar analysis as above, we can choose K1 large enough
to have

K1 ı a
P Mt >
1
.t/ ; (102)
4 2
and then combining (100) and (102) yields

K1
P Mt C Mt1 ı
.t C 1/ 1 a; (103)
2
for t 0, as was required. This completes the proof of the lemma. t

u
We next prove the following lemma.
Lemma 4.4. Let p be a measure induced on C..1; 0; L2 .X// by any given
stationary measure . Fix any K0 0 and ı > 12 . Then for p -almost every
trajectory .s/ in C..1; 0; L2 .X//, there exists a constant T1 such that for s 0
we have that
j.s/j22 0 C K0 min.T1 ; jsj/ı : (104)
Proof. The basic energy estimates give us

Z t Z t
j.t/j22 j0 j22 C1 j.s/j22 ds C 0 .t t0 / C h.s/; dW.s/i2 : (105)
t0 t0
Define the quantity

Z s Z s
Fk .s/ D C1 j.t/j22 dt C h.t/; dW.t/i2 : (106)
k k
By the above definition, we have that, for any k 1,
sup j.s/j22 j.k/j22 C 0 C sup Fk .s/: (107)

s2Œk;kC1 s2Œk;kC1
We now define the event

( )
Ak D .s/ W sup j.t/j22 0 C K0 jk 1jı : (108)
s2Œk;kC1
Let
\
UT D Ak : (109)
kT
Then
!c
\ [
UTc D Ak D Ack ; (110)
kT kT
and we have that

!
[ X
p .UTc / D p Ack p .Ack /: (111)
kT kT
It follows from the definition of a measure that

K0
p .Ack / p ..s// W j.k/j22 jK 1jı
2
( )
K0 ı
C p ..s// W sup Fk .s/ jK 1j : (112)
s2Œk;kC1 2
We will now estimate each of the quantities on the right-hand side of the above
inequality. We proceed with the first one. Chebyshev’s inequality yields

K0 16
p ..s// W j.k/j22 jK 1jı 2 .Ej.k/j22 /: (113)
2 K0 jk 1j2ı
We now use the earlier derived energy estimates to yield

K0 C
p ..s// W j.k/j22 jK 1jı : (114)
2 jk 1j2ı
Here C absorbs the uniform bounds of the energy estimates derived earlier. If we
choose ı > 12 , then
X C
< 1: (115)
k
jk 1j2ı
Now we have shown that

Z s

ŒMk ; Mk .max /2 j.t/j22 dt: (116)
k
We have that
1
Fk .s/ C1 Mk /2
ŒMk ; Mk : (117)
.max
Recall the exponential martingale inequality for any positive constants ˛ and ˇ:
( )
˛
P sup Mk .s/ ŒMk ; Mk ˇ e˛ˇ : (118)
s2Œk;0 2
It therefore follows that

˚ K0

p ..s// W sups2Œk;kC1 Fk .s/ 2
jk 1j2ı
2K0 2K0
jk1jı 2 jk1jı
e .max /2 Ce .max / (119)
C2 jk1jı
C1 e :
Again, clearly for ı > 12 , we have that

X ı
C1 eC2 jk1j < 1: (120)
k
Hence, we arrive at
X X C X ı
p .Ack / 2ı
C C1 eC2 jk1j < 1: (121)
kT k
jk 1j k
This implies that

X
p .Ack / < 1; (122)
kT
and by the Borel–Cantelli lemma we have that
p .lim sup Ack / D 0: (123)

k!1
This tells us that for large values of k the complement of Ak would p -almost never
occur. Hence, Ak would p -almost certainly occur. Hence, there must exist a time
T1 such that
j.s/j22 0 C K0 min.T1 ; jsj/ı : (124)
Therefore the lemma is proved. t

u
5 Control of High Modes
We now state a lemma which gives an estimate on the difference of high modes
of two different solutions to (22). This lemma is crucial for a proof of the third
condition that follows subsequently.
Lemma 5.1. Suppose there exist two solutions to the stochastic infinite Darcy–
Prandtl number model:
1 .t/ D l.t/ C h1 .t/ (125)
and
2 .t/ D l.t/ C h2 .t/: (126)
Then there exists a positive constant C such that when N is chosen so that
D .1 ˛/N 2 C ˇ < 0; (127)
then 1 D 2 , i.e., h1 .t/ D h2 .t/. Furthermore, given a solution .t/, any h0 , and
t 0, the limit exists:
lim ˆt0 ;t .l; h0 / D h.t/: (128)

t0 !1
Note that the ˛ and ˇ referred to in the Lemma above are introduced in condition
2, via (37) in [10]. The ˆ is the same as introduced earlier.
Proof. Let .t/ D h1 .t/ h2 .t/. Then subtracting the requisite equations yields
d
D A C Ph ŒR.1 2 /: (129)
dt
We multiply the above equation by , integrate by parts, and use condition 2 to yield
djj22
D hA; i C hŒR.1 2 /; i
dt
1
hA; i C hA; i C .C C K.1 /jj22 /
4
3N 2 2
jj2 C .C C K.1 //jj22 :
4
Then there exists T2 depending on t and 1 such that for t0 T2 , we have that
Z t
3N 2
.t t0 / C .C C K.1 // ; ds .t t0 /: (130)
4 t0
Hence, by Gronwall’s inequality, we have

Z t
3N 2
jj22 exp . /.t t0 / C .C C K.1 // ds
4 t0
e.tt0 / j.t0 /j22

e.tt0 / Œ0 C K0 .t0 /ı :
It follows then that for any time t0R min.T1 ; T2 /, we have, as t0 ! 1,
4 t
exponential decay when N 2 3.tt 0 / t0
.C C K.1 // ds.
For the second part of the lemma, let the high mode of the given solution .t/ be
h1 , and the solution to the high-mode equation starting from t0 and h0 be h2 . Then
we have
( ! Z )
t
2 2 3N 2
jj2 jh.t0 / h0 j2 exp C K.1 .s// ds : (131)
4 t0
By the argument made before, .t/ decays to 0 as t0 ! 1, and the limit equals
h.t/. This proves the lemma. t
u
5.1 Proof of Third Condition
We are now in a position to verify the third condition, via (39) from [10]. We
N
fix L0 2 P and h.0/, which is an initial value for the high mode at time 0. Let
Ls D Ss! L0 define Ss! , and l.s/ D Lt .s/ for s t. Then we know that with probability
1, h.s/ D ˆs .Ls / where .s/ D .l.s/; h.s//, by Lemma 4.3. Fix a constant C0 such
that j.0/j22 C jr.0/j22 C0 . For any positive C, we define
Z t
D.C/ D f 2 C.Œ0; 1/; Ll2 / W jj22 C jrj22 C .jrj22 C j j22 / ds C1 C C2 t C C tı :
0
(132)
Here D f .s/ C ˆs .f ; ˆ0 .L0 //.

Now we project .t/ onto Hl , and by Lemma 5.1 we have that for any a 2 .0; 1/,
there exists a C such that
˚
P ! W Ss! L0 2 D.C/ > 1 a > 0: (133)
N
Therefore if we set h.s/ N
D ˆs .Ls ; h.0// N
and .s/ D h.s/ h.s/, then D l C h D
N
l C h C . We state the following Lemma.
Lemma 5.2. For the set D.C/ as defined in (132), the following estimate holds
Z 1
sup N
jD.l.t/; h.t/; h.t//j 2
dt < 1; (134)
f !WSt! L0 2D.C/ g 0
N is defined in Eq. (44).

where D.l; h; h/
Proof. We have
N 22
jD.l.t/; h.t/; h.t/j
˝ ˛
D sup N r.l C h///;
jRaD Pl .P.k.l C h/ r.l C h// P.k.l C h/ N w j2
fw2L2 ;jwj2 1g
sup jRaD hPl .P.k.l C h/ r//; wi j2
fw2L2 ;jwj2 1g
C sup j hRaD Pl .P.kr.l C h///; wi j2
f w2L2 ;jwj2 1 g
sup jRaD hPl .P.k.l C h/ //; rwi j2
fw2L2 ;jwj2 1 g
C sup j hRaD Pl .P.k.l C h///; rwi j2
fw2L2 ;jwj2 1g
sup Ra2D jPl .rw/j21 jP.k.l C h//j22 jj22
fw2L2 ;jwj2 1 g
C sup Ra2D jPl .rw/j21 jP.k.l C h//j22 jj22
fw2L2 ;jwj2 1g
sup Ra2D .jwj2H 3 /jj22 jj22
fw2L2 ;jwj2 1 g
C.N/ Ra2D j j22 jj22 :
This follows via integration by parts and the embeddings
H 2 .X/ ,! L1 .X/ ,! L2 .X/; (135)
and
H 3 .X/ ,! W 1;1 .X/: (136)
Note that if Lt 2 D.C/, we can use the estimates on j j22 in Lemma 4.2, and on jj22
in Lemma 5.1 to yield
2 C 1 CC/t
N 22 j.0/j22 C.N/e.N
jD.l.t/; h.t/; h.t/j 2 .C1 C C2 t/: (137)
1
If N is chosen such that N 2 > 2
C C as t ! 1, the right-hand side decays
exponentially. This yields
Z 1
sup N
jD.l.t/; h.t/; h.t//j 2
2 dt
f!WSt! L0 2D.C/g 0
Z 1
2 C 1 CC/t
sup tı C.N/e.N 2 .C1 C C2 t/ dt
!WSt! L0 2D.C/
f g 0
<K
< 1:
This proves the Lemma. t

u
Thus condition 3 via (39) from [10] is verified.
5.2 Estimation of High Modes
The following Lemma will be useful in proving the last condition from [10]. This
gives an estimate on the high modes of a solution to the stochastic infinite Darcy–
Prandtl number model.
Lemma 5.3. If h.t/ is the high-mode component of the solution to the stochastic
Darcy–Boussinesq equation with low-mode forcing l 2 RC.Œ0; t; Ll2 /, then jh.t/j22 is
t
bounded by a constant that depends only on jh.0/j22 and 0 jl.s/j22 ds.
Proof. We start with the equations for the high modes of the system, multiply them
by the high-mode component, and integrate the result by parts to yield
ddt 2
hj 2jrhj22 2RaD Ph .P.k.l C h// r.l C h/h C 2RaD 0 .z/Ph Œl C hh
j 2
2jrhj22 2RaD hP.k.l C h/ rl; hi hP.k.l C h/ rh; hi C C jhj22
Z
2jrhj2 2RaD .llz h C hlz h/ dx C 2RaD jhj22
2
H
RaD jlz j1 jlj22 C RaD jlz j1 jhj22 C 2RaD jlz j1 jhj22 C C jhj22
RaD j lz j2 jlj22 C RaD j lz j2 jhj22 C 2RaD j lz j2 jhj22 C C jhj22
RaD C.N/jlj22 C .3C.N/RaD C C/jhj22
RaD C.N/jlj22 C C.N/RaD jhj22 :
These follow via integration by parts, the embedding H 2 .X/ ,! L1 .X/, and the
uniform estimate on jj2 . Thus, via the Gronwall inequality, we obtain
Z t Z s
2 2 2 2
jhj2 jh.0/j2 C C.N/RaD jlj2 exp C jl. /j2 d C C.N/RaD s ds: (138)
0 0
This completes the proof of the Lemma. t

u
5.3 Proof of the Fourth Condition
Let us assume that jl.0/j2 M. We define, for f 2 C.Œ0; 1/; Ll2 / and 0 s T,
.s/ D f .s/ C ˆs .f ; ˆ0 .L0 //. Set
Z t
DT .C/ D f 2 C.Œ0; 1/; Ll2 / W jj22 ds < CT; 0 t T : (139)
0
We now state the following Lemma.

Lemma 5.4. For the set DT .C/ defined in (139), the following estimate holds:
Z t
sup jG.l.s/; ˆs .Ls ; ˆ0 .L0 //j22 ds < 1: (140)
fLt 2DT g 0
Proof. We know h.s/ D ˆs .Ls ; ˆ0 .L0 // with probability 1, from Lemma 5.1. Thus
we have
jG.l.s/; ˆs .Ls ; 0 .L0 ///j2

D sup hPl .P.k.l C h// r.l C h// RaD Pl .l C h/; wi
fw2L2 ;jwj2 1g
1˝ ˛
sup Pl .P.r.l C h///2 ; w C sup hRaD Pl .l C h/; wi
fw2L2 ;jwj2 1g 2 fw2L2 ;jwj2 1g
sup jPl rwj1 hjl C hj; jl C hji C RaD jPl rwj2 jlj2
fw2L2 ;jwj2 1g
sup jrwj1 .jl C hj22 C RaD jlj22 /
fw2L2 ;jwj2 1 g
C.N/.jlj22 C jhj22 /:
Here C.N/ absorbs various constants. Therefore we have that for l 2 DT .C /
Z t Z s
jhj22 jh.0/j22 C C.N/RaD jlj22 exp C jl. /j22 d C .C.N/RaD /s ds
0 0
Z T Z s
jh.0/j22 C C.N/RaD jlj22 exp C jl. /j22 d C .C.N/RaD /s ds:
0 0
This is less than some C by Lemma 5.3, as we are on a finite time interval Œ0; T.
Here C depends only on jh0 j2 and the C and T used to define DT .C/. Therefore
Z T
sup jG.l.s/; ˆs .Ls ; ˆ0 .L0 //j22 ds
Lt 2DT 0
Z T
C.N/.jlj22 C jhj22 / ds
0
Z T Z t
C.N/CT C C.N/RaD jlj22 exp C 2
jl.s/j2 ds C .C.N/RaD /t dt
0 0
C14 T
C12 T C C13 e
K
< 1:
Thus the Lemma is proved. t

u
Condition 4 via (40) from [10] now follows. Since we have verified that the
stochastic infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model satisfies all the conditions as
postulated in [10], we can apply the results that appear therein, to yield the following
result:
Theorem 2. The stochastic infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model, as defined
via (22), possesses a unique invariant measure for
4C
N2 > ; (141)
3
where C is the uniform constant appearing in Lemma 4.2.
6 Conclusion
In conclusion, we have shown the uniqueness of invariant measure for the stochastic
infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model, under stochastic forcing of low modes.
Various questions remain open at this point, for example, the uniqueness of an
invariant measure for the stochastic Darcy–Boussinesq system. In this case, we
would have to add noise to both the velocity and temperature equations. This is
conceivably a harder question to tackle as the Darcy–Boussinesq system is only
weakly dissipative.
We have shown in [16] that the stationary statistical properties for the determin-
istic Darcy–Boussinesq system are upper semicontinuous after lifting in the singular
limit, i.e., for 2 IM , 0 0 , there exists a weakly convergent subsequence,
denoted , and 0 2 IM0 such that
* L.0 /: (142)
Here is an invariant measure for the Darcy–Boussinesq system and 0 is an

invariant measure for the infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model. It would be of
further interest then to derive uniqueness conditions on the , and 0 as well.
Another difficult question to consider would be the zero-noise limit of both the
stochastic infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model and stochastic Darcy–Boussinesq
system. In particular, since we have shown uniqueness for the stochastic infinite
Darcy–Prandtl number model, we could consider a “ı” model of the stochastic
infinite Darcy–Prandtl number model, where ı is a simple multiplicative parameter
which enters the system as
d D . P.k / r C RaD P. // dt C ı dW; (143)

jzD0 D 0; jzD1 D 0: (144)
Hence, we would have a unique invariant measure for each fixed ı. What can be
said about the limit of these as ı goes to zero, the “zero-noise limit”? Some work
has been done in this regard for axiom A systems [27]. However, these are difficult
to verify pragmatically for most physical systems we deal with.
Acknowledgements The first author would like to sincerely acknowledge the suggestions and
guidance provided by his PhD advisor Dr. Xiaoming Wang. These greatly helped in completing
the current work.
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108, 733–754 (2002)
Pricing Barrier Options Using Integral
Transforms
Edgard Ngounda, Kailash C. Patidar, and Edson Pindza
Abstract Barrier options are a class of exotic options that are traded in over-the-
counter markets worldwide. These options are particularly attractive for their lower
cost compared to vanilla options. However, the closed form analytical solutions
for the partial differential equations modeling these options are not easy to obtain
and therefore one usually seeks numerical approaches to find them. In this paper,
we consider two types of exotic options, namely a single barrier European down-
and-out call and a double barrier European knock-out call options. Like some
other standard and nonstandard options, these barrier options also have non-smooth
payoffs at the exercise price. This non-smooth payoff is the main cause of the
reduction in accuracy when the classical numerical methods, for example, lattice
method, Monte Carlo method, or other methods based on finite difference and finite
elements are used to solve such problems. In fact, the same happens when one uses
the spectral method which is known to preserve the exponential accuracy. In order
to retain this high-order accuracy, in this paper we propose a spectral decomposition
method which approximates the unknown solution by rational interpolants on each
sub-domain. The resulting semi-discrete problem is solved by a contour integral
method. Our numerical results affirm that the proposed approach is very robust and
gives very reliable results.
Keywords Barriers options • Laplace transform • Spectral methods • Domain

decomposition
AMS Subject Classification (2010): 65M70; 65R10; 91G60
E. Ngounda • K.C. Patidar () • E. Pindza

Department of Mathematics and Applied Mathematics, University of the Western Cape, Private
Bag X17, Bellville 7535, South Africa

222 E. Ngounda et al.
1 Introduction
The market for barrier options has been expanding rapidly over the last two decades
[20]. They are characterized by the dependence of their payoffs on the path of the
underlying asset throughout their lifetime. When the asset price reaches a specified
barrier level, these options are either exercisable (activated) in which case they are
called knock-in options or they expire (extinguish) in which case they are called
knock-out options.
Both knock-in and knock-out options are divided into down and up options
depending on the level of the asset price compared to the barrier level. On one hand,
knock-out options are either up-and-out or down-and-out. The up-and-out options
can be exercised unless the asset price reaches the barrier level from below and the
down-and-out options are exercisable until the asset price reaches the barrier level
from above. Knock-in options are also classified as the up-and-in and down-and-
in knock-in options. The up-and-in options are exercisable if the asset reaches the
barrier level from below whereas the down-and-in options can be exercised only if
the asset price reaches the barrier from above the barrier level.
An important issue of pricing barrier options is whether the barrier crossing is
monitored in continuous time or in discrete time. A continuously monitored option
is an option which is monitored constantly between the current and the final time
T at maturity of the option. A discretely monitored option is only monitored at
discrete time t t1 < t2 <; : : : ; < tN < T: On the market, barrier options are
mostly discretely monitored. Analytical solutions of these options are expressed
in terms of an m-dimensional integral over the m-dimensional multivariate normal
distribution. However, the computation of the multivariate normal distribution is
compromised when m > 5 (where m is the number of monitored points) [16], and
thus one has to resort to numerical methods for practical implementation [4, 8, 12].
We prefer to solve the options that are monitored continuously under the Black–
Scholes framework because they give their holders more flexibility in exercising.
As far as numerical methods for barrier options valuation are concerned, lattice
methods have been used quite extensively despite their low level of accuracy.
However, the implementation of these methods presents a computational challenge.
Numerous techniques have been developed to improve their computational cost
[11], still the improvement is not fully satisfying. Recently, Monte Carlo methods
have emerged as a viable alternative to lattice methods. In this context, Barraquand
and Martineau [1] obtained some promising results for multi-asset American
options.
Finite-difference methods appear to be cost effective and flexible, compared to
lattice and Monte Carlo methods, for pricing barrier options. In [3], the authors
considered an explicit finite-difference approach. They constructed a grid which
lies right on the barrier and applied interpolation to find the values of the option.
Following on the same principle, Figlewski et al. [9] used an adaptive method to
refine the mesh in regions of interest (around a barrier) and obtained very efficient
results.
Pricing Barrier Options Using Integral Transforms 223
In [22], Zvan et al. took advantage of the higher order implicit methods to
successfully price a variety of barrier option problems. Their approach used a fine
grid around the location of the barrier. Fang and Oosterlee [6] considered the
Fourier-based numerical method for American and barrier options. They obtained
exponential results. This approach was extended in [7] to Bermudan and Barrier
options under the Heston stochastic volatility model. The two-dimensional pricing
problem was dealt with by a combination of a Fourier cosine series expansion in one
dimension and high-order quadrature rules in the other dimension. Error analysis
and experiments confirmed a fast error convergence.
A radial basis approach with Crank-Nicolson’s discretization in time was
proposed in [10] for pricing barrier, European, and Asian options. Recently a high-
order accurate implicit finite-difference method to price various types of barrier
options was applied in [14]. This approach was used for both the discretely and
continuously monitored options. The scheme was also applied to the analysis of
Greeks such as and of the option.
In [14], Ndogmo and Ntwiga used a fourth-order -method for the continuously
and discretely monitored options. To refine grid points in regions of interest,
they used a coordinate transformation. The strength of their approach lies on a
probability-based optimal determination of the boundary conditions, along with the
option values. The authors in [5] developed a robust method for both continuously
and discretely monitored barrier options. The method is based on the method-of-
line and can evaluate the solution of the option price problem and its Greeks very
accurately. Furthermore, this approach efficiently handles standard barrier options
and barrier options with early exercise feature.
In this paper, we propose the use of a multi-domain spectral method and
the Laplace transformed method. The multi-domain method uses spectral method
directly in each sub-domain. Appropriate matching conditions are imposed at the
interface of the sub-domains to ensure the continuity of the solution and that of its
first derivative. After the spatial discretization, the resulting semi-discrete problem
is solved by a contour integral method.
The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 outlines the model
problem. In Section 3, we discuss the basic idea of spectral domain decomposition
method and its implementation to the model problem. In Section 4, we describe the
application of the Laplace transform to solve the semi-discrete problem. Numerical
results are presented in Section 5. In Section 6, we draw some concluding remarks
and present the scope for future research.
2 Description of Model Problem
We assume that the asset satisfies the following stochastic differential equation
dS
D dt C dWt ; (1)
S
where is a constant representing the drift rate, is the volatility of the underlying
asset, and dWt is a Wiener process with mean zero and variance of dt. Under the Itô
process, (1) gives the following Black–Scholes partial differential equation for the
valuation of an option V:
@V 1 @2 V @V
C 2 S2 2 C rS rV D 0: (2)
@t 2 @S @S
Here, t is the current time at which the option V.S; t/ is valued before the expiration
of the option at time T. For numerical computation, we set D T t and rewrite (2)
to a convenient form as follows
@V 1 @2 V @V
D 2 S2 2 C rS rV; (3)
@ 2 @S @S
with the boundary, initial, and barrier conditions given as follows:
• For single barrier down-and-out call, the boundary conditions are
V.0; / D 0; V.Smax ; / D Smax Ker ; (4)
whereas the barrier constraint is

8
< 0; SX and 0 T;
V.S; / D (5)
:
V.S; /; otherwise:
The initial condition is given by

8
< 0; S X;
V.S; 0/ D (6)
:
S K; otherwise:
Here, X is barrier level, K is the strike price, and Smax is chosen sufficiently large.
• For double barrier knock-out call, the boundary conditions are
V.0; / D 0; V.Smax ; / D 0; (7)
and barrier constraint is given by

8
< 0; S X1 or S X2 and 0 T;
V.S; / D (8)
:
V.S; /; otherwise:
The initial condition is given by

8
ˆ
ˆ 0; S X1 ;
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
<
V.S; 0/ D S E; X1 S X2 ; (9)
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
:̂ 0; S X2 :
Here, X1 and X2 represent the lower and upper level barriers, respectively, K is
the strike price, and Smax is chosen sufficiently large.
We use the spectral domain decomposition approach for discretization of (3) in
the next section.
3 Spectral Domain Decomposition Method
The exponential convergence rate of spectral method is strictly dependent on the

smoothness of the unknown function. However, option pricing problems involve
PDEs with initial conditions that are non-smooth. Therefore, direct application of a
spectral method to the solution of the Black–Scholes equation leads to a low-order
(slowly converging) approximation.
While dealing with problems having non-smooth initial data, Tee and Trefethen
[19] proposed a new spectral method based on rational interpolants. In their
paper, they considered problems whose solutions exhibit localized regions of
rapid variation, such as sharp spikes and thin layers, but are still analytic on the
computational interval. Unlike this work, here we consider decomposing the domain
rather than using a grid stretching in order to maintain the exponential accuracy.
Instead of spectral methods based on polynomial interpolants, we shall consider
spectral method based on rational interpolants for their improved stability properties
compared to their polynomial counterparts [2]. To begin with, let us note that the
rational approximation for a function u at the Chebyshev points k , k D 0; 1 : : : ; N
is given by
N
X wk
u.k /
kD0
k
uN ./ D N
; (10)
X wk
kD0
k
where the wk I k D 0; 1; : : : ; N are the barycentric weights defined by w0 D

1=2, wN D .1/N =2, and wk D .1/k ; k D 1; : : : ; N 1. For the spectral
polynomial method, the mth order differentiation matrix associated with the rational
interpolant (10) is given by
0 1
N
X
wk
B u.k / C
dm B C
N
.m/
X B kD0 k C
uN .k / D m B C (11)
d B X N
wk C
kD0 @ A
kD0
k
N
X .m/
D Djk u.k /; (12)
kD0
.m/
where Djk are the entries of the differentiation matrix of order m. Formula to
.m/
construct DN are given by Schneider and Werner in [17] for m D 1 and m D 2
and later generalized for any order by Tee in [19]. The first- and second-order
differentiation matrices are given by the following formulas
8 wk
ˆ
ˆ ; j¤k
ˆ wj .j k /
<
.1/
Djk D X .1/ (13)
ˆ
ˆ Dji ; j D k;
:̂
i¤k
and
8
ˆ
ˆ 2D
.1/
D
.1/
1 ; j ¤ k;
ˆ
ˆ
< jk jj j k
.2/
Djk D X .2/ (14)
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ Dji ; j D k:
:̂
i¤k
The above expression will be used when we approximate the first and second
derivative terms in (3).
From our earlier discussion in this section, we know that the direct application
of spectral method to the Black–Scholes problem leads to low-order convergence
results. This poor convergence is attributed due to the non-smoothness of the initial
condition at the strike price. This motivates our attempt to recover the spectral
accuracy. To this end, we consider decomposing the domain into different sub-
domains. We split the domain at the point of discontinuity and apply the Chebyshev
spatial discretization in each sub-domain to reduce the problem to a set of coupled
ordinary differential equations in time. Since the function is analytic on each
subinterval including the point of discontinuity (strike K), spectral accuracy can
be obtained provided that appropriate matching conditions are set across this point
of discontinuity.
To begin with this, we consider the domain decomposition approach for (3).
Since the initial condition is non-smooth at the strike price K, we split the interval
Œ0; Smax into two subintervals, # D Œ0; K and D ŒK; Smax , of lengths d# D K and
d D Smax K, respectively. To apply the Chebyshev discretization, we map each of
these subintervals to the reference interval Œ1; 1 by using the linear transformation
8 #
ˆ
< d2 . C 1/; S 2 Œ0; K;
S#; ./ D (15)
:̂ d . C 1/ C K; S 2 ŒK; Smax :
2
The linear transformation to the derivative of S#; ./ leads to

8 #
ˆ
< d2 d; S 2 Œ0; K;
dS#; ./ D (16)
:̂ d d; S 2 ŒK; Smax ;
2
which implies
8
2 @
ˆ
< d# @
; S 2 Œ0; K;
@ @ @
(17)
@S @ @S :̂ 2 @
d @
; S 2 ŒK; Smax :
From Eqs. (16) and (17), we can rewrite (3) into each sub-domain as follows
@V # 2 @2 V # 2r # @V #
D # 2 2 S# ./2 C S ./ rV # ; (18)
@ .d / @ 2 d# @
and
@V 2 @2 V 2r @V
D 2 2 S ./2 C S ./ rV : (19)
@ .d / @ 2 d @
Using matrix notations, we have
2 2r
VP # D 2 .W # /2 D.2/ V # C # W # D.1/ V # rV # ; (20)
.d# /2 d
and
2 2r
VP D 2 .W /2 D.2/ V W D.1/ V rV ; (21)
.d /2 d

where ‘’ denotes the differentiation w.r.t. , and W #; D diag .2=d#; /S#; ./ .
Defining
2
B# WD 2 .W # /2 D.2/ ; (22)
.d# /2
2r # .1/
C# WD W D ; (23)
d#
we can rewrite (20) and (21) as
VP # D .B# V # / C .C# V # / rV # ; (24)
and
VP D .B V / C .C V / rV : (25)
To impose the boundary conditions, we substitute the first and last equations from
the first and second sub-domains, respectively, by the corresponding boundary
conditions in (7). Two additional equations are enforced to ensure that the boundary
conditions are satisfied. To ensure the continuity of the solution and that of its first
derivative at the interface, we impose the following matching conditions across the
point of discontinuity, i.e., at the strike price K. Defining

V ˘ D VN# D V0 ; (26)
and

@VN# @V0
D ; (27)
@ @
we see that from Eqs. (24)–(26) implies

2VP ˘ D B# C C# rI # V # N C ..B C C rI / V /0 ; (28)
where I # and I are identity matrices on # and , respectively.

On the other hand, Eq. (27) yields
2 .1/ # 2
#
D V N D.2/ V 0 D 0: (29)
d d
The solution vector V is obtained from the system of 2N C 2 equations
from (24), (25), (28), (29), and the boundary conditions. We combine the
approximations from the two sub-domains with boundary and matching conditions
included into the following global system.
VP D AV: (30)
Here, V is the vector

V D V0# ; : : : ; VN# ; V0 ; : : : ; VN ;
and
A D B C C rI;
where I is the identity, B and C are block diagonal matrices of B#; and C#; ,
respectively. After the discretization, the resulting semi-discrete problem is solved
using Laplace method as discussed in the next section.
4 Solving Semi-discrete Problem by Applying Laplace

Transform
Following our approach, presented in our recent work [15], on a Talbot contour
[18] of hyperbolic type, we can analyze the error by decomposing it into three parts:
Discretization error, Truncation error, and Conditioning error; based on which we
can derive optimal contour parameters. We have also shown in that work that the
optimal error while using the Laplace transform method is exponentially small. In
what follows, we discuss its application to solve the problem under consideration.
A direct application of the Laplace transform to (30) leads to
.zI A/b
V D V0 ; (31)
where I is the identity matrix and b

V the Laplace transform of V.; t/ defined by
Z 1
b
V.; z/ D V.; t/ezt dt: (32)
0
The inverse is evaluated on a contour known as the Bromwich contour as

Z
1
V.; t/ D ezt b
V.; z/dz; t > 0: (33)
2i
The contour is chosen such that it encloses all the singularities of b

V.:; z/.
z D z.`/; 1 < ` < 1;
with the property that Re z ! 1 as ` ! ˙1.

On the contour z.`/ D e .1 C sin .i` ˛// ; ` 2 R, the inversion formula (33)
can be rewritten as
Z 1
1
V.; t/ D ez.`/t b
V .; z.`// z0 .`/d`; (34)
2i 1
where
z0 .`/ D b
i cos .i` ˛/ :
For h > 0 such that `k D kh, where k is an integer, the trapezoidal rule can then
be expressed by
1
h X z.`k /t b
V.; t/ e V .; z.`k // z0 .`k /: (35)
2i kD1
In practice, the infinite sum has to be truncated at a finite integer M. Furthermore,

because of the symmetry of the contour, we can rewrite (35) as
( M
)
h X ı z.`k /t b 0
VM .; t/ Re e V .; z.`k // z .`k / : (36)
i kD0
where ‘ı’ indicates that the first term is divided by 2. The benefit of using (36) is
that it reduces by half the summation (35) and subsequently the number of linear
system to be evaluated in (31).
Now to analyze the error, we note that in our approximation, we encounter three
types of errors: (1) The application of the trapezoidal rule (35) to the unbounded
integral (34) introduces discretization error; (2) a truncation of the infinite series (35)
produces a truncation error, and (3) the evaluation of (35) done in floating point
environment introduces a roundoff error. Estimates on these errors are as follows:
4.1 Discretization Error
The discretization error is the difference between the continuous formula (34) and
the corresponding trapezoidal formula (35), i.e.,
Z 1
1 1
z.`/t b 0 h X z.`k /t b
Ed D e V .; z.`// z .`/d` e V .; z.`k // z0 .`k /: (37)
2i 1 2i kD1
Following estimate on the discrete error (37) can be obtained by using contour
integral to represent Ed (see [15] for further details):
2e2d=h C
jEd j !0 as h ! 0: (38)
1 e2d=h
4.2 Truncation Error
The truncation error is given by

1 1
h X z.`k /t b h X z.`k /t b
Et D e V .; z.`k // z0 .`k / e V .; z.`k // z0 .`k /
2i kD1 2i kD1
N1 1
!
h X X
D ez.`k /t b
V .; z.`k // z0 .`k / C ez.`k /t b
V .; z.`k // z0 .`k /
2i kD1 kDNC1
1
h X z.`k /t b
D e V .z.`k // z0 .`k /: (39)
i kDNC1
Because of the exponential factor ez.`k /t , the terms in the sum decrease exponentially
as k ! 1.
4.3 Conditioning Error
We note that in (35), the approximation fQ .t/ requires the evaluation of the trans-
formed F.zk / D F.z.`k //, for k D M; M C 1; : : : ; M 1; M. In reality,
these evaluations are affected by roundoff errors which means that the actual
Q k/ D e
approximation that takes place is F.z V.; zk / C k ; k D M; M C 1; : : : ; M
1; M; where k > 0 is a small value such that jk j , with given by the machine
precision. As a result, (35) implies
h X zk t e
M
fLM .t/ D e V.; zk / C k z0k
2i kDM
M
h X zk t 0
D VM .t/ C e k z k :
2i kDM
Setting
M
h X zk t 0
f .t/ D e k z k :
2i kDM
and using the techniques discussed in [15], we can see that

ee
t

f .t/ ŒL ..1 %/e
t sin ˛/ : (40)
e% sin ˛ t
We note that (40) is independent of b

V.; z/ and propagates moderately with respect
to e
t.
In summary, we can see that the total error is fully controllable as long as we
choose the optimal values of the associated parameters. The derivation of these
parameters is described below.
4.4 Derivation of Optimal Contour Parameters
To derive optimal parameters of the contour when solving barrier options pricing
problems, we note that the computational effort in the evaluation of VM .; t/ in (35)
comes from the evaluation of the Laplace transform e V.; z/ in (31) for each z.`k /.
Furthermore, we note that this evaluation of e V.; t/ is independent of time t and thus
can be carried out once and subsequently use the same evaluation to approximate
VM .; t/ at different time level over an interval Œt0 ; ƒt0 for an integer ƒ. Note also
that various methods for finding an optimal contour were developed in [13, 21]. In
[21], the following convergence estimate for the family of hyperbolic contours was
derived
Ed D O.e2.=2˛/=h /; Ed D O.ee

t2 ˛=h
/; h ! 0: (41)
Hence the total discretization error on the strip .d; d/ is given by
Er D Ed C Ed :
Moreover, the truncation error that we found satisfies
Et D O.ee
t.1sin ˛ cosh.hM//
/; M ! 1: (42)
To obtain an optimal contour parameter, we argue as follows: first note that only
the second equation in (41) and Eq. (42) are time dependent. On one hand, the
error Et decreases when t increases and thus is maximumpat t0 . To see this, we
consider ˛ 2 .=4; =2/ whichimpliesthattheinequality 1= 2 < sin ˛ < 1 holds:
For M ! 1, multiplication of both sides of the inequality by cosh.hM/ yields
cosh.hM/
p < sin ˛ cosh.hM/ < cosh.hM/:
2
p
Since cosh.hM/= 2 > 1 for sufficiently large M, we get
1 sin ˛ cosh.hM/ 0; for a fixed h ¤ 0 and M ! 1:
On the other hand, the discretization error Ed increases with t and so is maximum
at t D ƒt0 .
To estimate the optimal parameters of the contour on Œt0 ; ƒt0 , an asymptotic

balance of the three errors at their maximum, i.e., Et , Ed , Ed is required. To this
end, we set
ƒt0 2 ˛=h D e
2 .=2 ˛/ =h D e t0 .1 sin ˛ cosh.hM// : (43)
We solve these equations for e

and h. From the first equation, we have
4˛ 2
e
h D : (44)
ƒt0
The last equation in (43) together with (44) yields
. 2˛/ ƒ C 4˛
cosh.hM/ D ;
.4˛ / sin ˛
From this, it follows that

. 2˛/ ƒ C 4˛
A.˛/ D hM D cosh1 : (45)
.4˛ / sin ˛
Therefore, we obtain
A.˛/
hD (46)
M
and
4˛ 2 4˛ 2 M
e
D D : (47)
hƒt0 A.˛/ ƒt0
The contour parameters (47) and (46) are fixed and time independent. As a
result, the corresponding contour is also fixed over the interval Œt0 ; ƒt0 . From the
parameters derived above, the error is
EM D O.eB.˛/M /; (48)
where
2 2 ˛
B.˛/ D : (49)
.2˛/ƒC4˛
cosh1 .4˛/ sin ˛
The optimal error is obtained when B.˛/ attains its maximum for each value of ƒ.
In our computation, we choose ƒ D 50 and obtained optimal parameters as listed
in Table 1. Below we discuss the numerical results obtained by using the proposed
approach.
Table 1 Optimal parameters ƒ ˛ A.˛/ ƒt0 =M B.˛/

of the contour for ƒ D 50
50 0:9381 5:5582 0:3452 0:7152
Table 2 Values of the European single barrier down-and-out options using the CN, ILT-FDM,
and our ILT-SDDM
Error Error
S Exact sol. CN ILT-FDM ILT-SDDM Error (CN) (ILT-FDM) (ILT-SDDM)
7 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.000 0.000 0.000
8 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.000 0.000 0.000
9 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.000 0.000 0.000
11 1.294595 1.293735 1.294598 1.294595 8.6E-4 1.9E-5 2.2E-13
13 3.116046 3.116054 3.116043 3.116046 7.0E-5 1.8E-5 1.8E-13
15 5.100318 5.100347 5.100310 5.100318 2.8E-5 5.1E-5 3.8E-13
17 7.099529 7.099532 7.099529 7.099529 3.3E-5 5.6E-6 6.7E-13
19 9.099502 9.099502 9.099502 9.099502 8.8E-5 3.3E-7 5.8E-13
5 Numerical Results
In this section, we present some numerical results which show the performance of
our approach for single and double barrier options. As an example of a single barrier
option, we consider the European down-and-out options whereas for double barrier
option, we consider the knock-out call options.
In Table 2, we present the values of a down-and-out call option obtained by using
the inverse Laplace transform combined with the finite-difference method (ILT-
FDM), Crank-Nicolson method (CN), and our Laplace transform method combined
with spectral decomposition method (ILT-SDDM). Furthermore, we list the errors in
the solutions obtained by these three methods. The first column gives the values of
the asset whereas the second column contains the values of the exact solution. Next
three columns represent the solutions obtained by above three methods and then the
remaining columns show the errors. The other parameters used in the simulations
are K D 10, D 0:2, r D 0:02, D 0:5, and X D 9. We see that the errors obtained
by the proposed approach are very small.
Figure 1 (top) shows the graphs of the exact and numerical solution of the
European down-and-out option price and that of the computed solution using the
ILT-SDDM. We have also computed the and as shown in the bottom left and
bottom right plots of this figure. The convergence results obtained by CN, ILT-FDM,
and ILT-SDDM methods are presented in Fig. 2 (top). In this figure, we also present
errors for (bottom left) and (bottom right) obtained by using our ILT-SDDM.
We use the same parameters as those used for the results presented in Table 2.
In Table 3, we show the results obtained for two barriers X1 and X2 . In this
experiment, we solve the problem for asset price ranging from Smin D 90 to
Smax D 115. The barriers are applied at X1 D 95 and X2 D 110. Other parameters
are K D 100, D 0:25, r D 0:05, and D 0:25. The table includes results obtained
12
ILT−SDDM
exact solution
10
Call option (V)

6
−2
0 5 10 15 20
Asset price (S)
1.2 0.3
ILT−SDDM
solution exact
1 0.25
0.8 Gamma (Γ) 0.2
0.6 0.15
Delta (Δ)
0.4 0.1
0.2 0.05
ILT−SDDM
solution exact
0 0
−0.2 −0.05
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Asset price (S) Asset price (S)
Fig. 1 Values of the European single barrier down-out call option (top) and its (bottom left) and
(bottom right) using K D 10; D 0:20; r D 0:05; T D 0:50, and X D 9
by using our ILT-SDDM, and by using Crank-Nicolson (CN) and Crank-Nicolson

improved (CN-improved) methods presented in [20]. We also list the errors in the
solutions obtained by these methods. As reference solutions at the barriers, we use
the values 0:0969796 at X1 and 0:081481 at X2 as obtained in [20]. The results
confirm that the proposed approach outperforms the other methods mention here.
Figure 3 shows the graphs that we obtained by using the ILT-SDDM to price
double barrier options for the set of parameters used for the computation of results
presented in Table 3. The top figure shows the value of the option where the bottom
figures show its (left) and (right).
It is clear from all the tabular results and graphs that the proposed method is very
competitive.
6 Concluding Remarks and Scope for Future Research
In this paper, we presented a robust numerical method to price a class of barrier

options. These are traded in over-the-counter markets worldwide. These options are
particularly attractive for their lower cost compared to vanilla options. However, the
ILT−SDDM
ILT−FDM
CN
−5
10
Absolut errors of V −10

10
5 10 15 20 25 30
Asset
−9
10
−10 10
−10
10
Absolute errors for Δ
Absolute errors for Γ

−11
10
−11
10
−12
10 −12
10
−13 −13
10 10
−14
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25
Fig. 2 Convergence of CN method, ILT-FDM, and ILT-SDDM for the single barrier European
down-out call options (top), (bottom left) and (bottom right) using K D 10; D 0:20;
r D 0:05; T D 0:50, and X D 9. We took N D 50 in each of the two sub-domains
closed form analytical solutions for the partial differential equations modeling these
options are not easy to obtain and therefore one usually seeks numerical approaches
to find them. We described the spectral domain decomposition and the Laplace
transform methods for valuing single and double barriers option prices. As can
be seen from Tables 2, 3 and Figs. 2, 3, the proposed approach gave very accurate
results for the down-and-out call and the double barrier options.
With regard to the extension of the proposed approach for multi-asset problems,
we would like to point out that there are significant technicalities involved with
derivation of optimal contour parameters as whole of the analysis has to be extended
for multiple dimensions.
Acknowledgements The two authors Edgard Ngounda and Edson Pindza acknowledge the
Agence Nationale des Bourses du Gabon for the financial support. Kailash C. Patidar’s research
was supported by the South African National Research Foundation.
Table 3 Values of the European double barrier knock-out options using the CN, CN-improved, and our ILT-SDDM
Valueat Reference sol. CN [20] CN-improved [20] ILT-SDDM Error (CN) Error (CN-improved) Error (ILT-SDDM)
X1 0.096979 0.094017 0.097002 0.096979 1.90E-1 3.10E-5 9.20E-8
Pricing Barrier Options Using Integral Transforms
X2 0.081481 0.909154 0.081503 0.081481 9.90E-1 2.89E-5 8.70E-8

Parameter values are K D 100; D 0:25; r D 0:05; T D 0:5; X1 D 95, and X2 D 110
237
0.16
0.14
Double barrier Call option (V)

0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
−0.02
90 95 100 105 110 115
Asset price (S)
0.3 0.05
0
0.2
−0.05
0.1
−0.1
Gamma (Γ)
0
Delta (Δ)
−0.15
−0.1 −0.2
−0.25
−0.2
−0.3
−0.3
−0.35
−0.4 −0.4
90 95 100 105 110 115 90 95 100 105 110 115
Fig. 3 Values of the European double barrier knock-out call option (top) and its (bottom left)
and (bottom right) using K D 100; D 0:25; r D 0:05; T D 0:5; X1 D 95, and X2 D 110
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Philosophy of Adelic Physics
Matti Pitkänen
Abstract The p-adic aspects of Topological Geometrodynamics (TGD) will be

discussed. Introduction gives a short summary about classical and quantum TGD.
This is needed since the p-adic ideas are inspired by TGD based view about physics.
p-Adic mass calculations relying on p-adic generalization of thermodynamics
and super-symplectic and super-conformal symmetries are summarized. Number
theoretical existence constrains lead to highly non-trivial and successful physical
predictions. The notion of canonical identification mapping p-adic mass squared to
real mass squared emerges, and is expected to be a key player of adelic physics
allowing to map various invariants from p-adics to reals and vice versa.
A view about p-adicization and adelization of real number based physics is
proposed. The proposal is a fusion of real physics and various p-adic physics to
single coherent whole achieved by a generalization of number concept by fusing
reals and extensions of p-adic numbers induced by given extension of rationals to a
larger structure and having the extension of rationals as their intersection.
The existence of p-adic variants of definite integral, Fourier analysis, Hilbert
space, and Riemann geometry is far from obvious and various constraints lead to
the idea of number theoretic universality (NTU) and finite measurement resolution
realized in terms of number theory. An attractive manner to overcome the problems
in case of symmetric spaces relies on the replacement of angle variables and their
hyperbolic analogs with their exponentials identified as roots of unity and roots of e
existing in finite-dimensional algebraic extension of p-adic numbers. Only group
invariants—typically squares of distances and norms—are mapped by canonical
identification from p-adic to real realm and various phases are mapped to themselves
as number theoretically universal entities.
Also the understanding of the correspondence between real and p-adic physics
at various levels—space-time level, imbedding space level, and level of “world of
classical worlds” (WCW)—is a challenge. The gigantic isometry group of WCW
and the maximal isometry group of imbedding space give hopes about a resolution
of the problems. Strong form of holography (SH) allows a non-local correspondence
M. Pitkänen ()
Karkinkatu 3 I 3, 03600 Karkkila, Finland
e-mail: [email protected]; http://tgdtheory.com/public_html/

242 M. Pitkänen
between real and p-adic space-time surfaces induced by algebraic continuation from
common string world sheets and partonic 2-surfaces. Also local correspondence
seems intuitively plausible and is based on number theoretic discretization as
intersection of real and p-adic surfaces providing automatically finite “cognitive”
resolution. The existence of p-adic variants of Kähler geometry of WCW is a
challenge, and NTU might allow to realize it.
I will also sum up the role of p-adic physics in TGD inspired theory of
consciousness. Negentropic entanglement (NE) characterized by number theoretical
entanglement negentropy (NEN) plays a key role. Negentropy Maximization Prin-
ciple (NMP) forces the generation of NE. The interpretation is in terms of evolution
as increase of negentropy resources.
Keywords Adelic physics • Space-time • Planck constants • P-adicization •

Topological Geometrodynamics
1 Introduction
I have developed during last 39 years a proposal for unifying fundamental interac-
tions which I call “Topological Geometrodynamics” (TGD). During last 20 years
TGD has expanded to a theory of consciousness and quantum biology and also
p-adic and adelic physics have emerged as one thread in the number theoretical
vision about TGD.
Since quantum TGD and physical arguments have served as basic guidelines in
the development of p-adic ideas, the best manner to introduce the subject of p-adic
physics is by describing first TGD briefly.
In this article I will consider the p-adic aspects of TGD—the first thread of the
number theoretic vision—as I see them at this moment.
1. I will describe p-adic mass calculations based on p-adic generalization of
thermodynamics and super-conformal invariance [27, 34] with number theoret-
ical existence constrains leading to highly non-trivial and successful physical
predictions. Here the notion of canonical identification mapping p-adic mass
squared to real mass squared emerges and is expected to be key player of adelic
physics and allow to map various invariants from p-adics to reals and vice versa.
2. I will propose the formulation of p-adicization of real physics and adelization
meaning the fusion of real physics and various p-adic physics to single coherent
whole by a generalization of number concept fusing reals and p-adics to larger
structure having algebraic extension of rationals as a kind of intersection.
The existence of p-adic variants of definite integral, Fourier analysis, Hilbert
space, and Riemann geometry is far from obvious, and various constraints lead to
the idea of NTU and finite measurement resolution realized in terms of number
theory. Maybe the only manner to overcome the problems relies on the idea that
various angles and their hyperbolic analogs are replaced with their exponentials
Philosophy of Adelic Physics 243
and identified as roots of unity and roots of e existing in finite-dimensional

algebraic extension of p-adic numbers. Only group invariants—typically squares
of distances and norms—are mapped by canonical identification from p-adic to
real realm and various phases are mapped to themselves as number theoretically
universal entities.
Another challenge is the correspondence between real and p-adic physics at
various levels: space-time level, imbedding space level, and WCW level. Here
the enormous symmetries of WCW and those of imbedding space are in crucial
role. Strong form of holography (SH) allows a correspondence between real and
p-adic space-time surfaces induced by algebraic continuation from string world
sheets and partonic 2-surface, which can be said to be common to real and p-adic
space-time surfaces.
3. In the last section I will describe the role of p-adic physics in TGD inspired theory
of consciousness. The key notion is negentropic entanglement (NE) characterized
in terms of number theoretic entanglement negentropy (NEN). Negentropy
Maximization Principle (NMP) would force the growth of NE. The interpretation
would be in terms of evolution as increase of negentropy resources—Akashic
records as one might poetically say. The newest finding is that NMP in statistical
sense follows from the mere fact that the dimension of extension of rationals
defining adeles increases unavoidably in statistical sense—separate NMP would
not be necessary.
In the sequel I will use some shorthand notations for key principles and key
notions. Quantum field theory (QFT); relativity principle (RP); equivalence princi-
ple (EP); general coordinate invariance (GCI); world of classical worlds (WCW);
Strong form of GCI (SGCI); strong form of holography (SH); preferred extremal
(PE); zero energy ontology (ZEO); quantum criticality (QC); hyper-finite factor
of type II1 (HFF); number theoretical universality (NTU); canonical identification
(CI); Negentropy Maximization Principle (NMP); negentropic entanglement (NE);
number theoretical entanglement negentropy (NEN) are the most often occurring
acronyms.
2 TGD Briefly
This section gives a brief summary of classical and quantum TGD, which to my
opinion is necessary for understanding the number theoretic vision.
244 M. Pitkänen
2.1 Space-Time as 4-Surface
TGD forces a new view about space-time as 4-surface of 8-D imbedding space.
This view is extremely simple locally but by its many-sheetedness topologically
much more complex than GRT space-time.
2.1.1 Energy Problem of GRT as Starting Point
The physical motivation for TGD was what I have christened the energy problem of
general relativity [61, 68].
1. The notion of energy is ill-defined because the basic symmetries of empty space-
time are lost in the presence of gravity. The presence of matter curves empty
Minkowski space M 4 so that its isometries realized as transformations leaving
the distances between points and thus shapes of 4-D objects invariant are lost.
Noether’s theorem states that symmetries and conservation laws correspond to
each other. Hence conservation laws are lost and conserved quantities are ill-
defined. Usually this is not seen a practical problem since gravitation is so weak
interaction.
2. The proposed way out of the problem is based on the assumption that space-
times are imbeddable as 4-surfaces to some 8-dimensional space H D M 4
S by replacing the points of 4-D empty Minkowski space with 4-D very small
internal space S. The space S is unique from the requirement that the theory has
the symmetries of standard model: S D CP2 , where CP2 is complex projective
space with four real dimensions [61]. Isometries of space-time are replaced with
those of imbedding space. Noether’s theorem predicts the classical conserved
charges for given general coordinate invariant (GCI ) action principle.
Also now the curvature of space-time codes for gravitation. Equivalence principle
(EP) and general coordinate invariance (GCI) of GRT augmented with relativity
principle (RT) of SRT remain the basic principles. Now, however, the number of
solutions to field equations—preferred extremals (PEs)—is dramatically smaller
than in Einstein’s theory [25, 67].
1. An unexpected bonus was geometrization classical fields of standard model for
S D CP2 . Also the space-time counterparts for field quanta emerge naturally
but this requires a profound generalization of the notion of space-time: the
topological inhomogeneities of space-time surface are identified as particles.
This means a further huge reduction for dynamical field like variables at the level
of single space-time sheet. By general coordinate invariance (GCI) only four
imbedding space coordinates appear as variables analogous to classical fields: in
a typical GUT their number is hundreds.
2. CP2 also codes for the standard model quantum numbers in its geometry in the
sense that electromagnetic charge and weak isospin emerge from CP2 geometry:
the corresponding symmetries are not isometries so that electroweak symmetry
breaking is coded already at this level. Color quantum numbers correspond

to the isometries of CP2 defining an unbroken symmetry: this also conforms
with empirical facts. The color of TGD, however, differs from that in standard
model in several aspects and LHC has began to exhibit these differences via the
unexpected behavior of what was believed to be quark gluon plasma [37]. The
conservation of baryon and lepton numbers follows as a prediction. Leptons and
quarks correspond to opposite chiralities for imbedding space spinors.
3. What remains to be explained in standard model is family replication phe-
nomenon for leptons and quarks. Both quarks and leptons appear as three families
identical apart from having different masses. The conjecture is that fermion
families correspond to different topologies for 2-D surfaces characterized by
genus telling the number g (genus) of handles attached to sphere to obtain the
surface: sphere, torus, etc. The 2-surfaces are identified as “partonic 2-surfaces”
whose orbits are light-like 3-surface at which the signature of the induced metric
of space-time surface transforms from Minkowskian to Euclidian. The partonic
orbits replace the lines of Feynman diagrams in TGD Universe in accordance
with the replacement of point-like particle with 2-surface.
Only the three lowest genera are observed experimentally. A possible expla-
nation is in terms of conformal symmetries: the genera g 2 allow always Z2 as
a subgroup of conformal symmetries (hyper-ellipticity) whereas higher genera
in general do not. The handles of partonic 2-surfaces could form analogs of
unbound many-particle states for g > 2 with a continuous spectrum of mass
squared but for g D 2 form a bound state by hyper-ellipticity [27].
4. Later further arguments in favor of H D M 4 CP2 have emerged. One of them
relates to twistorialization and twistor lift of TGD [49, 69, 70]. 4-D Minkowski
space is unique space-time with Minkowskian signature of metric in the sense
that it allows twistor structure. This is a problem in attempts to introduce twistors
to General Relativity Theory (GRT) and a serious obstacle in the quantization
based on twistor Grassmann approach, which has demonstrate its enormous
power in the quantization of gauge theories. In TGD framework one can ask
whether one could lift also the twistor structure to the level of H. M 4 has twistor
structure and so does also CP2 : which is the only Euclidian 4-manifold allowing
twistor space, which is also a Kähler manifold! This led to the notion of twistor
lift of TGD inducing rather recent breakthrough in the understanding of TGD.
TGD can be also seen as a generalization of hadronic string model—not yet
superstring model since this model became fashionable 2 years after the thesis
about TGD [20]. Later it has become clear that string like objects, which look
like strings but are actually 3-D, are basic stuff of TGD Universe and appear in all
scales [29, 67]. Also strictly 2-D string world sheets popped up in the formulation
of quantum TGD (analogy with branes) [53, 65] so that one can say that string
model in 4-D space-time is part of TGD.
Concluding, TGD generalizes standard model symmetries and provides an
incredibly simple proposal for a dynamics: only four classical field variables and
in fermionic sector only quark and lepton like spinor fields. The basic objection
246 M. Pitkänen
against TGD looks rather obvious in the light of after-wisdom. One loses linear
superposition of fields, which holds in good approximation in ordinary field
theories, which are almost linear. The solution of the problem to be discussed later
relies on the notion many-sheeted space-time [68].
2.1.2 Many-Sheeted Space-Time
The replacement of the abstract manifold geometry of general relativity with the
geometry of 4-surfaces brings in the shape of surface as seen from the perspective of
8-D space-time as additional degrees of freedom giving excellent hopes of realizing
the dream of Einstein about geometrization of fundamental interactions.
The work with the generic solutions of the field equations assignable to almost
any variational principle satisfying GCI led soon to the realization that the topolog-
ical structure of space-time in this framework is much more richer than in GRT.
1. Space-time decomposes into space-time sheets of finite size. This led to the
identification of physical objects that we perceive around us as space-time sheets.
The original identification of space-time sheet was as a surface of H with outer
boundary. For instance, the outer boundary of the table would be where that
particular space-time sheet ends (what “ends” means is not, however, quite
obvious!). We would directly see the complex topology of many-sheeted space-
time! Besides sheets also string like objects and elementary particle like objects
appear so that TGD can be regarded also as a generalization of string models
obtained by replacing strings with 3-D surfaces.
It turned that boundaries are probably excluded by boundary conditions.
Rather, two sheets with boundaries must be glued along their boundaries together
to get double covering. Sphere can be seen as simplest example of this kind of
covering: northern and southern hemispheres are glued along equator together.
2. The original vision was that elementary particles are topological inhomogeneities
glued to these space-time sheets using topological sum contacts. This means
drilling a hole to both sheets and connecting with a very short cylinder. Two-
dimensional illustration should give the idea. In this conceptual framework
material structures and shapes would not be due to some mysterious substance
in slightly curved space-time but reduce to space-time topology just as energy-
momentum currents reduce to space-time curvature in GRT.
This view has gradually evolved to much more detailed picture. Elementary
particles have wormhole contacts as basic building bricks. Wormhole contact is
very small region with Euclidian (!) signature of the induced metric connecting
two Minkowskian space-time sheets with light-like boundaries carrying spinor
fields and there particle quantum numbers. Wormhole contact carries magnetic
monopole flux through it and there must be second wormhole contact in order
to have closed lines of magnetic flux. Particle world lines are replaced with 3-D
light-like surfaces—orbits of partonic 2-surfaces—at which the signature of the
induced metric changes.
One might describe particle as a pair of magnetic monopoles with opposite

charges. With some natural assumptions the explanation for the family replica-
tion phenomenon in terms of the genus g of the partonic 2-surface is not affected.
Bosons emerge as fermion anti-fermion pairs with fermion and anti-fermion at
the opposite throats of the wormhole contact. In principle family replication
phenomenon should have bosonic analog. This picture assigns to particles strings
connecting the two wormhole throats at each space-time sheet so that string
model mathematics becomes part of TGD.
The notion of classical field differs in TGD framework in many respects from
that in Maxwellian theory.
1. In TGD framework fields do not obey linear superposition and all classical
fields are expressible in terms of four imbedding space coordinates in given
region of space-time surface. Superposition for classical fields is replaced with
superposition of their effects [57, 61]—in full accordance with operationalism.
Particle can topologically condense simultaneously to several space-time sheets
by generating topological sum contacts (not stable like the wormhole contacts
carrying magnetic monopole flux and defining building bricks of particles).
Particle “experiences” the superposition of the effects of the classical fields at
various space-time sheets rather than the superposition of the fields.
It is also natural to expect that at macroscopic length scales the physics of
classical fields (to be distinguished from that for field quanta) can be explained
using only four primary field like variables. Electromagnetic gauge potential
has only four components and classical electromagnetic fields give an excellent
description of physics. This relates directly to electroweak symmetry breaking in
color confinement which in standard model imply the effective absence of weak
and color gauge fields in macroscopic scales. TGD, however, predicts that copies
of hadronic physics and electroweak physics could exist in arbitrary long scales
[36] and there are indications that just this makes living matter so different as
compared to inanimate matter.
2. The notion of induced gauge field means that one induces electroweak gauge
potentials defining the so-called spinor connection at space-time surface (induc-
tion of bundle structure). Induction boils down locally to a projection of the
imbedding space vectors representing the spinor connection. The classical fields
at the imbedding space level are non-dynamical and fixed and extremely simple:
one can say that one has generalization of constant electric field and magnetic
fields in CP2 . The dynamics of the 3-surface, however, implies that induced
fields can form arbitrarily complex field patterns. This is essentially dynamics
of shadows.
Induced gauge fields are not equivalent with ordinary free gauge fields.
For instance, the attempt to represent constant magnetic or electric field as a
space-time surface has a limited success. Only a finite portion of space-time
carrying this field allows realization as 4-surface. I call this topological field
quantization. The magnetization of electric and magnetic fluxes is the outcome.
Also gravitational field patterns allowing imbedding are very restricted: one
248 M. Pitkänen
implication is that topological with over-critical mass density are not globally
imbeddable. This would explain why the mass density in cosmology can be at
most critical. This solves one of the mysteries of GRT based cosmology [45].
Quite generally, the field patterns are extremely restricted: not only due to
imbeddability constraint but also due to the fact that by SH only very restricted
set of space-time surfaces can appear solutions of field equations: I speak of
preferred extremals (PEs) [25, 67, 68]. One might speak about archetypes at
the level of physics: they are in quite strict sense analogies of Bohr orbits in
atomic physics: this implies by the realization of GCI. This kind of simplicity
does not conform with what we observed. The way out is many-sheeted space-
time. Although fields do not superpose, particles experience the superposition of
effects from the archetypal field configurations (superposition is replaced with
set theoretic union).
3. The important implication is that one can assign to each material system a
field identity since electromagnetic and other fields decompose to topological
field quanta. Examples are magnetic and electric flux tubes and flux sheets and
topological light rays representing light propagating along tube like structure
without dispersion and dissipation making em ideal tool for communications
[41]. One can speak about field body or magnetic body of the system.
Field body indeed becomes the key notion distinguishing TGD inspired model
of quantum biology from competitors but having applications also in particle
physics since also leptons and quarks possess field bodies. The is evidence for
the Lamb shift anomaly of muonic hydrogen [9] and the color magnetic body
of u quark whose size is somewhat larger than the Bohr radius could explain the
anomaly [37]. The magnetic flux tubes of magnetic body carry monopole fluxes
existing without generating currents. In cosmology the flux tubes assignable to
the remnants of cosmic strings make possible long range magnetic fields in all
scales impossible in standard cosmology. Also super-conductivity is proposed to
rely on dark heff D n h Cooper pairs at pairs of flux tubes carrying monopole
flux.
GRT and gauge theory limit of TGD is obtained as an approximation.
1. GRT/gauge theory type description is an approximation obtained by lumping
together the space-time sheets to single region of M 4 , with gravitational fields and
gauge potentials as sums of corresponding induced field quantities at space-time
surface geometrized in terms of geometry of H. Gravitational field corresponds to
the deviation of the induced metric from Minkowski metric using M 4 coordinates
for space-time surface so that the description applies only in long length scale
limit.
Space-time surface has both Minkowskian and Euclidian regions. Euclidian
regions are identified in terms of what I call generalized scattering/twistor
diagrams. The 3-D boundaries between Euclidian and Minkowskian regions
have degenerate induced 4-metric and I call them light-like orbits of partonic
2-surfaces or light-like wormhole throats analogous to blackhole horizons. The
interiors of blackholes are replaced with the Euclidian regions and every physical
system is characterized by this kind of region.
Lumping of sheets together implies that global conservation laws cannot hold
exactly true for the resulting GRT type space-time. Equivalence principle (EP) as
Einstein’s equations stating conservation laws locally follows as a local remnant
of Poincare invariance.
2. Euclidian regions are identified as slightly deformed pieces of CP2 connecting
two Minkowskian space-time regions. Partonic 2-surfaces defining their bound-
aries are connected to each other by magnetic flux tubes carrying monopole flux.
Wormhole contacts connect two Minkowskian space-time sheets already at
elementary particle level, and appear in pairs by the conservation of the monopole
flux. Flux tube can be visualized as a highly flattened square traversing along
and between the space-time sheets involved. Flux tubes are accompanied by
fermionic strings carrying fermion number. Fermionic strings give rise to string
world sheets carrying vanishing induced em charged weak fields (otherwise em
charge would not be well-defined for spinor modes). String theory in space-time
surface becomes part of TGD. Fermions at the ends of strings can get entangled
and entanglement can carry information.
3. Strong form of GCI (SGCI) states that light-like orbits of partonic 2-surfaces on
one hand and space-like 3-surfaces at the ends of causal diamonds on the other
hand provide equivalent descriptions of physics. The outcome is that partonic
2-surfaces and string world sheets at the ends of CD can be regarded as basic
dynamical objects.
Strong form of holography (SH) states the correspondence between quantum
description based on these 2-surfaces and 4-D classical space-time description,
and generalizes AdS/CFT correspondence. One has huge super-symplectic
symmetry algebra acting as isometries of WCW with conformal structure
[28, 53, 65], conformal algebra of light-cone boundary extending the ordinary
conformal algebra, and ordinary Kac-Moody and conformal symmetries of string
world sheets. This explains why 10-D space-time can be replaced with ordinary
space-time and 4-D Minkowski space can be replaced with partonic 2-surfaces
and string world sheets. This holography looks very much like the one we are
accustomed with!
2.2 Zero Energy Ontology
In standard ontology of quantum physics physical states are assumed to have

positive energy. In zero energy ontology (ZEO) [54] physical states decompose to
pairs of positive and negative energy states such that the net values of the conserved
quantum numbers vanish. The interpretation of these states in ordinary ontology
would be as transitions between initial and final states, physical events.
250 M. Pitkänen
2.2.1 ZEO and Positive Energy Ontology
ZEO is consistent with the crossing symmetry of QFTs meaning that the final states
of the quantum scattering event can be described formally as negative energy states.
As long as one can restrict the consideration to either positive or negative energy
part of the state ZEO is consistent with positive energy ontology. This is the case
when the observer characterized by a particular CD studies the physics in the time
scale of much larger CD containing observer’s CD as a sub-CD. When the time
scale sub-CD of the studied system is much shorter that the time scale of sub-CD
characterizing the observer, the interpretation of states associated with sub-CD is in
terms of quantum fluctuations.
ZEO solves the problem, which emerges in any theory assuming symmetries
giving rise to conservation laws. The problem is that the theory itself is not able to
characterize the values of conserved quantum numbers of the initial state of say
cosmology. In ZEO this problem disappears since in principle any zero energy
state is obtained from any other state by a sequence of quantum jumps without
breaking of conservation laws. The fact that energy is not conserved in GRT based
cosmologies can be also understood since each CD is characterized by its own
conserved quantities. As a matter of fact, one must speak about average values of
conserved quantities since one can have a quantum superposition of zero energy
states with the quantum numbers of the positive energy part varying over some
range.
At the level of principle the implications are quite dramatic. In quantum jump as
recreation replacing the quantum Universe with a new one it is possible to create
entire sub-Universes from vacuum without breaking the fundamental conservation
laws. From the point of view of consciousness theory the important implication is
that “free will” is consistent with the laws of physics. This makes obsolete the basic
arguments in favor of materialistic and deterministic world view.
2.2.2 Zero Energy States Are Located Inside Causal Diamond
By quantum classical correspondence zero energy states must have space-time and
imbedding space correlates.
1. Positive and negative energy parts of zero energy state reside at future and past
light-like boundaries of causal diamond (CD) identified as intersection of future
and past directed light-cones and visualizable as double cone. The analog of CD
in cosmology is big bang followed by big crunch. Penrose diagrams provide an
excellent 2-D visualization of the notion. CDs form a fractal hierarchy containing
CDs within CDs. Disjoint CDs are possible and CDs could also intersect.
The interpretation of CD in TGD inspired theory of consciousness is an
imbedding space correlate for perceptive field of conscious entity: the contents of
conscious experience are about the region defined by CD. At the level of space-
time sheets the experience come from space-time sheets in the interior of CD.
Whether the sheets can be assumed to continue outside CD is still unclear.
Quantum measurement theory must be modified in ZEO since state function

reduction can happen at both boundaries of CD and the reduced states at opposite
boundaries are related by time reversal. One can also have quantum superposition
of CDs changing between reductions at active boundary followed by localization
in the moduli space of CDs with the tip of passive boundary fixed. Quantum
measurement theory generalizes to a theory of consciousness with continuous
entity identified as a sequence of state function reductions at active (changing)
boundary of CD [23].
2. By number theoretical universality (NTU) the temporal distances between the
tips of the intersecting light-cones are assumed to come as integer multiples
T D m T0 of a fundamental time scale T0 defined by CP2 size R as T0 D R=c.
p-Adic length scale hypothesis [39, 66] motivates the stronger hypothesis that
the distances tend to come as octaves of T0 : T D 2n T0 . One prediction is that in
the case of electron this time scale is 0.1 s defining the fundamental biorhythm.
Also in the case u and d quarks the time scales correspond to biologically
important time scales given by 10 ms for u quark and by 2.5 ms for d quark [24] .
This means a direct coupling between microscopic and macroscopic scales.
2.3 Quantum Physics as Physics of Classical Spinor

Fields in WCW
The notions of Kähler geometry of “world of classical worlds” (WCW) and WCW
spinor structure are inspired by the vision about the geometrization of the entire
quantum theory.
2.3.1 Motivations for WCW
The notion of “world of classical worlds” (WCW) [28, 33, 65] was forced by
the failure of both path integral approach and canonical quantization in TGD
framework. The idea is that the Kähler function defining WCW Kähler geometry
is determined by the real part of an action S determining space-time dynamics and
receiving contributions from both Minkowskian and Euclidian regions of space-
p
time surface X 4 (note that g4 is proportional to imaginary unit in Minkowskian
regions).
1. If S is space-time volume both canonical quantization and path integral would
make sense at least formally since in principle one could solve the time deriva-
tives of four imbedding space coordinates as functions of canonical momentum
densities (general coordinate invariance allows to eliminate four coordinates).
The calculation of path integral is, however, more or less hopeless challenge in
practice.
252 M. Pitkänen
2. A mere space-time volume as action is, however, not physically attractive. This
was thought to leave under consideration only Kähler action SK —Maxwell action
for the induced Kähler form expressible in terms of gauge potential defined by
the induced Kähler gauge potential of CP2 . This action has, however, a huge
vacuum degeneracy. Any space-time surface with at most 2-D CP2 projection,
which is Lagrangian sub-manifold of CP2 , is vacuum extremal. Symplectic
transformations acting like U(1) gauge transformations generate new vacuum
extremals. They, however, fail to act as symmetries of non-vacuum extremals so
that gauge invariance is not in question: the deviation of the induced metric from
flat metric is the reason for the failure. This degeneracy is assumed to give rise to
what might be called 4-D spin glass degeneracy meaning that the landscape for
the maxima of Kähler function is fractal.
3. Canonical quantization fails because by the extreme non-linearity of the action
principle making it is impossible to solve time derivatives explicitly in terms of
canonical momentum densities. The problem is especially acute for the canonical
imbedding of empty Minkowski space to M 4 CP2 . The action is vanishing
up to fourth order in imbedding space coordinates so that canonical momentum
densities vanish identically and there is no hope of defining propagator in path
integral approach. The mechanical analog would be criticality around where the
potential reduces to V / x4 . Quantum criticality is indeed a basic aspect of TGD
Universe.
The hope held for a long time was that WCW geometry allowing to get rid of
path integral would solve the problems. One could, however, worry about vacuum
degeneracy implying that WCW metric becomes extremely degenerate for vacuum
extremals and also holography becomes extremely non-unique for them. Also the
expected failure of perturbative approach around M 4 is troublesome.
2.3.2 WCW and Twistor Lift of TGD
During last year this picture has indeed changed, thanks to what might be called
twistor lift of TGD [49, 69, 70] inspired by twistor Grassmann approach to super-
symmetric gauge theories [7]. Remarkably, twistor lift would provide automatically
the fundamental couplings of standard model and GRT and also the scale assigned
to GUTs as CP2 radius. PEs would be both extremals of Kähler action and minimal
surfaces.
1. The basic observation is E4 , and its Euclidian compactification S4 and CP2 are
completely unique in that they allow twistor space with Kähler structure [3].
This was discovered by Hitchin at roughly the same time as I discovered TGD!
This generalizes to M 4 having a generalization of ordinary Kähler structure to
what I have called Hamilton–Jacobi structure by decomposition M 4 D M 2
E2 , where M 2 allows hypercomplex structure [49, 69]. One can consider also
integral distributions of tangent decompositions M 4 D M 2 .x/ E2 .x/, depending
on position. The twistor space has a double fibration by S2 with base spaces
identifiable as M 4 and conformal compactification of M 4 for which metric is

defined only up to conformal scaling. The first fibration M 4 S2 with a well-
defined metric would correspond to the classical TGD.
2. Both Newton’s constant G and cosmological constant ƒ emerge from twistorplift
in M 4 factor. The radius of S2 is identified in terms of Planck length lP D G.
For CP2 factor, the radius corresponds to the radius of CP2 geodesic sphere. 4-D
Kähler action can be lifted to 6-D Kähler action only for M 4 CP2 so that TGD
would be completely unique both mathematically and physically. The twistor
space of CP2 is flag-manifold SU.3/=U.1/ U.1/ having interpretation as the
space for the choices of quantization axis of color isospin and hypercharge. This
choice could correspond to a selection of Eguchi–Hanson complex coordinates
for CP2 by fixing their phase angles in which isospin and hypercharge rotations
induce shifts.
3. The physically motivated conjecture is that the PEs can be lifted to their 6-D
twistor bundles with S2 serving as a fiber, that one induce the twistor structure
and the outcome is equal to the twistor structure of space-time surface, and that
this condition is at least part of the PE property. This would correspond to the
solution of massless wave equations in terms of twistors in the original twistor
approach of Penrose [13]. The analog of spontaneous compactification would
lead to 4-D action equal to Kähler action plus volume term. One could of course
postulate this action directly without mentioning twistors at all.
The coefficient of the volume term would correspond to dark energy density
characterized by cosmological constant ƒ being extremely small in cosmological
scales. It removes vacuum degeneracy although the situation remains highly non-
perturbative. This can be combined with the earlier conjecture that cosmological
constant ƒ behaves as ƒ / 1=p under p-adic coupling constant evolution so that
ƒ would be large in primordial cosmology.
4. The generic extremals of space-time action would depend on coupling parame-
ters, which does not fit with the number theoretic vision inspiring speculations
that space-time surface can be seen as quaternionic sub-manifolds of 8-D
octonionic space-time [48], satisfying quaternion analyticity [69], or a 4-D
generalization of holomorphy. By SH the extremals are, however, “preferred.”
What could this imply?
Intriguingly, all known non-vacuum extremals and also CP2 type vacuum
extremals having null-geodesic as M 4 projection are extremals of both Kähler
action and volume term separately! The dynamics for volume term and Kähler
action effectively decouple and coupling constants do not appear at all in field
equations. The twistor lift would only select minimal surface amongst vacuum
extremals, modify the Kähler function of WCW identifiable as exponent for the
real part of action, and provide a profound mathematical and physical motivation
for cosmological constant ƒ remaining mysterious GRT framework. One could
even hope that preferred extremals are nothing but minimal surface extremals
of Kähler action with the vanishing conditions for some sub-algebra of super-
symplectic algebra satisfied automatically!
254 M. Pitkänen
The analog of decoupling of Kähler action and volume term should take place
also for induced spinors. This is expected if mere analyticity properties make
spinor modes solutions of modified Dirac equations. This is true in 2-D case
Hamilton–Jacobi structure should guarantee this in 4-D case [53, 69].
PEs depend on coupling parameters only via boundary conditions stating the
vanishing of Noether charges for a sub-algebra of super-symplectic algebra and
its commutator with entire algebra. Also the conservation conditions at 3-D light-
like surfaces at which the signature of metric changes imply dependence on
coupling parameters. These conditions allow the transfer of classical charges
between Minkowskian and Euclidian regions necessary to understand momen-
tum exchange between particles and environment classically only if Kähler
couplings strength is complex—otherwise there is no exchange of conserved
quantities since their real resp. imaginary at the two sides [30]. Interestingly, also
in twistor Grassmann approach the massless poles in propagators are complex.
This picture conforms with the conjecture that discrete p-adic evolution
of the Kähler coupling strength in subset of primes near prime powers of
two corresponds to complex zeros of zeta [30]. This conforms also with
the conjectured discreteness of p-adic coupling constant evolution by phase
transitions changing the values of coupling parameters. One implication is that
all loop corrections in functional integral vanish.
5. In path integral approach quantum TGD would be extremely non-perturbative
around extremals for which Kähler action vanishes. Same is true also in WCW
approach. The cure would be provided by the hierarchy of Planck constants
heff =h D n, which effectively scales ƒ down to ƒ=n. n would be the number
sheets of the M 4 covering defined by the space-time surface: the action of Galois
group for the number theoretic discretization of space-time surface could give
rise to this covering. The finiteness of the volume term in turn forces ZEO: the
volume of space-time surface is indeed finite due to the finite size of CD.
Consider now the delicacies of this picture.
1. Should assign also to M 4 the analog of symplectic structure giving an additional
contribution to the induced Kähler form? The symmetry between M 4 and CP2
suggests this, and this term could be highly relevant for the understanding of
the observed CP breaking and matter antimatter asymmetry [79]. Poincare
invariance is not lost since the needed moduli space for M 4 Kähler forms would
be the moduli space of CDs forced by ZEO in any case, and M 4 Kähler form
would serve as the correlate for fixing rest system and spin quantization axis in
quantum measurement.
2. Also induced spinor fields are present. The well-definedness of electromagnetic
charge for the spinor modes forces in the generic case the localization of the
modes of induced spinor fields at string world sheets (and possibly to partonic
2-surfaces) at which the induced charged weak gauge fields and possibly also
neutral Z 0 gauge field vanish. The analogy with branes and super-symmetry force
to consider two options.
Option I: The fundamental action principle for space-time surfaces contains

besides 4-D action also 2-D action assignable to string world sheets, whose
topological part (magnetic flux) gives rise to a coupling term to Kähler gauge
potentials assignable to the 1-D boundaries of string world sheets containing
also geodesic length part. Super-symplectic symmetry demands that modified
Dirac action has 1-, 2-, and 4-D parts: spinor modes would exist at both string
boundaries, string world sheets, and space-time interior. A possible interpretation
for the interior modes would be as generators of space-time super-symmetries
[56].
This option is not quite in the spirit of SH and string tension appears as
an additional parameter. Also the conservation of em charge forces 2-D string
world sheets carrying vanishing induced W fields and this is in conflict with the
existence of 4-D spinor modes unless they satisfy the same condition. This looks
strange.
Option II: Stringy action and its fermionic counterpart are effective actions
only and justified by SH. In this case there are no problems of interpretation.
SH requires only that the induced spinor fields at string world sheets determine
them in the interior much like the values of analytic function at curve determine
it in an open set of complex plane. At the level of quantum theory the scattering
amplitudes should be determined by the data at string world sheets. If induced
W fields at string world sheets are vanishing, the mixing of different charge
states in the interior of X 4 would not make itself visible at the level of scattering
amplitudes! In this case 4-D spinor modes do not define space-time super-
symmetries.
3. Why the string world sheets coding for effective action should carry vanishing
weak gauge fields? If M 4 has the analog of Kähler structure [79], one can speak
about Lagrangian sub-manifolds in the sense that the sum of the symplectic
forms of M 4 and CP2 projected to Lagrangian sub-manifold vanishes. Could the
induced spinor fields for effective action be localized to generalized Lagrangian
sub-manifolds? This would allow both string world sheets and 4-D space-time
surfaces but SH would select 2-D Lagrangian manifolds. At the level of effective
action the theory would be incredibly simple.
Induced spinor fields at string world sheets could obey the “dynamics of
avoidance” in the sense that both the induced weak gauge fields W; Z 0 and
induced Kähler form (to achieve this U(1) gauge potential must be sum of M 4
and CP2 parts) would vanish for the regions carrying induced spinor fields. They
would couple only to the induced em field (!) given by the R12 part of CP2 spinor
curvature [21] for D D 2; 4. For D D 1 at boundaries of string world sheets the
coupling to gauge potentials would be non-trivial since gauge potentials need not
vanish there. Spinorial dynamics would be extremely simple and would conform
with the vision about symmetry breaking of weak group to electromagnetic gauge
group.
The projections of canonical currents of Kähler action to string world sheets
would vanish, and the projections of the 4-D modified gamma matrices would
define just the induced 2-D metric. If the induced metric of space-time surface
256 M. Pitkänen
reduces to an orthogonal direct sum of string world sheet metric and metric
acting in normal space, the flow defined by 4-D canonical momentum currents
is parallel to string world sheet. These conditions could define the “boundary”
conditions at string world sheets for SH.
This admittedly speculative picture has revolutionized the understanding of
both classical and quantum TGD during last year [68–70]. In particular, the
construction of single-sheeted PEs as minimal surfaces allows a kind of lego
like engineering of more complex PEs [74]. The minimal surface equations
generalize Laplace equation of Newton’s gravitational theory to non-linear massless
d’Alembert equation with gravitational self-coupling. One obtains the analog of
Schwartschild solution and radiative solutions describing also gravitational radiation
[68]. An open question is whether classical theory makes sense if also the analog of
Kähler form in M 4 is allowed.
2.3.3 Identification of WCW
The notion of WCW [28, 33, 65] was inspired by the super-space approach of
Wheeler in which three-geometries are the basic geometric entities.
1. In TGD framework 3-surfaces take this role. Einstein’s program for geometriz-
ing classical physics is generalized to a geometrization of entire quantum
physics. Hermitian conjugation corresponds to complex conjugation in infinite-
dimensional context so that WCW must have Kähler geometry. The geometriza-
tion of fermionic statistics/oscillator operators is in terms of gamma matrices
of WCW expressible as linear combinations of oscillator operators for second
quantized induced spinor field. Formally purely classical spinor modes of WCW
represent many-fermion states as functionals of 3-surface. One can also interpret
gamma matrices as generators of super-conformal symmetries in accordance
with the fact that also SUSY involves Clifford algebra.
In ZEO the entanglement coefficients between positive and negative energy
parts of zero energy states determine the S-matrix so that S-matrix would be
coded by the modes of WCW spinor fields. Twistor approach to TGD [69]
suggests that the S-matrix reduces completely to the symmetries defined by the
multi-local (locus corresponds to partonic 2-surface) generators of the Yangian
associated with the super-symplectic algebra.
2. ZEO forces to identify 3-surfaces as pairs of 3-surfaces with members at the
opposite boundaries of CD. SH reduces them to a collection of partonic 2-
surfaces at boundaries of CD plus number theoretic discretization in space-time
interior. Basic geometric objects are pairs of initial and final states (coordinates
for both in mechanical analogy) rather than initial states with initial value
conditions (coordinates and velocities in mechanical analogy) and initial value
problem transforms to boundary value problem. Processes rather than states
become the basic elements of ontology: this has far reaching consequences in
biology and neuroscience.
3. The realization of GCI requires that the definition of WCW Kähler function
assigns to a “physically” 3-surface a unique 4-surface for 4-D general coordinate
transformations to act: “physically” could mean “apart from transformations
acting as gauge transformations” not affecting the action and conserved classical
charges. The outcome is holography.
4. Strong form of holography (SH) would emerge as follows. The condition that
light-like 3-surfaces defining boundaries between Euclidian and Minkowskian
regions are basic geometric entities equivalent with pairs of space-like 3-surfaces
at the ends of given causal diamond CD implies SH: partonic 2-surfaces and their
4-D tangent space data should code the physics. One could also speak about
almost/effective two-dimensionality. Tangent space data could in turn be coded
by string world sheets. Number theoretical discretization of space-time interior
with preferred coordinates in the extension of rationals could give meaning for
“almost.”
5. Kähler metric is expressible both in terms of second derivatives of Kähler
function K [33] and as anticommutators of WCW gamma matrices expressible
as linear combinations of fermionic oscillator operators. This suggests a close
relationship between space-time dynamics and spinor dynamics.
Super-symplectic symmetry between the action defining space-time surfaces
(Kähler action plus volume term) and modified Dirac action would realize this
relationship. This is achieved if the modified gamma matrices are defined by
the canonical momentum currents of 2-D action associated with string world
sheets. These currents are parallel to the string world sheets. This implies the
analog of AdS/CFT correspondence requiring only that induced spinor modes at
string world sheets determine them in space-time interior (this is like analytic
continuation). The localization of spinor modes at string world sheets is not
required as I believed first.
The geometry of loop spaces developed by Freed [2] serves as a model in the
construction of WCW Kähler geometry [65].
1. The existence of loop space Riemann connection requires maximal isometry
group identifiable as Kac-Moody group so that Killing vector fields span the
entire tangent space of the loop space.
2. In TGD framework the properties of Kähler action lead to the idea that WCW is
union of homogenous or even symmetric spaces of symplectic algebra acting at
4
the boundary of ıCD ıCDC [ ıCD , ıCD˙ ıM˙ CP2 . ZEO requires that
the conserved quantum numbers for physical states are opposite for the positive
and negative energy parts of the states at the two opposite boundary parts of
CD. The symmetric spaces G=H in the union are labelled by zero modes, which
do not appear in the line element as differentials but only as parameters of the
metric. Conserved Noether charges of isometries and symplectic invariants of
examples of zero modes as also the super-symplectic Noether charges invariant
under complex conjugation of WCW coordinates.
3. Homogenous spaces of the symplectic group G are obtained by dividing a
subgroup H. An especially attractive option is suggested by the fractal structure
258 M. Pitkänen
of the symplectic algebra containing an infinite hierarchy of sub-algebras Gn for

which conformal weights are n > 0-multiples of those for G. For this option
H D Gn is isomorphic to G and one could have infinite hierarchies of inclusions
analogous to the hierarchy of inclusions of hyper-finite factors of type II1 (HFFs).
PE property requires almost two-dimensionality and elimination of huge number
of degrees of freedom. The natural condition is that the Noether charges of Gn
vanish at the ends of CD. A stronger condition is that also the Noether charges
for ŒG; Gn vanish. This implies effective normal algebra property and G=Gn acts
effectively like group.
The inclusion of HFFs would define measurement resolution with included
factor acting like gauge algebra. Measurement resolution would be naturally
determined by the number theoretic discretization of the space-time surface so
that physics as geometry and number theory visions would meet each other.
4. This inclusion hierarchy can be identified in terms of quantum criticality (QC).
The transitions n ! kn increasing the value of n > 0 reduce QC since pure
gauge symmetries are reduced, and new physical super-symplectic degrees of
freedom emerge. QC also requires that Kähler couplings strength analogous to
temperature is analogous to critical temperature so that the quantum theory is
uniquely defined if their is only one critical temperature. Spectrum for ˛K seems
more plausible and the possibility that Kähler coupling strength depends on the
level of the number theoretical hierarchy defined by the allowed extensions of
rationals can be considered [30].
2.3.4 WCW Spinor Structure
The basic idea is geometrization of quantum states by identifying them as modes of

WCW spinor fields [53, 65]. This requires definition of WCW spinors and WCW
spinor structure, WCW gamma matrices and Dirac operator, etc.
The starting point is the definition of WCW gamma matrices using a represen-
tation analogous to the usual vielbein representation as linear combinations of flat
space gamma matrices. The conceptual leap is the observation that there is no need
to assume that the counterparts of flat space gamma matrices have vectorial quantum
numbers. Instead, they are identified as fermionic oscillator operators for second
quantized free induced spinor fields at space-time surface.
This allows geometrization of the fermionic statistics since WVW spinors for a
given 3-surface are analogous to fermionic Fock states. One can also say that spinor
structure follows as a square root of metric and also that the spinor basis defines a
geometric correlate of Boolean mind [26]. The dependence of WCW spinor field on
3-surface represents the bosonic degrees of freedom not reducible to many-fermion
states. For instance, most of hadron mass would be associated with these degrees of
freedom.
Quantum TGD involves Dirac equations at space-time level, imbedding space
level, and level of WCW. The dynamics of the induced spinor fields is related by
super-symmetry to the action defining space-time surfaces as preferred extremals
[53, 65].
1. The gamma matrices in the equation—modified gamma matrices—are deter-

mined by contractions of the canonical momentum currents of Kähler action with
the imbedding space gamma matrices. The localization at string world sheets for
which only induced neutral weak fields or only em field are non-vanishing is
accompanied by the integrability condition that various conserved currents run
along string world sheets: one can speak of sub-flow.
2. Modified Dirac equation can be solved exactly just like in the case of string
models using holomorphy and the properties of complexified modified gamma
matrices. This is expected to be true also in 4-D case by Hamilton–Jacobi
structure. If the dynamics of avoidance is realized the modified Dirac equation
would be essentially free Dirac equation and holomorphy would allow to solve it.
At the level of WCW one obtains also the analog of massless Dirac equation as
the analog of Super-Virasoro conditions of Super-Virasoro algebra.
1. The fermionic counterparts of super-conformal gauge conditions assignable
with sub-algebra Gn of super-symplectic conformal symmetry associated with
the both light-cone boundary (light-like radial coordinate), with conformal
symmetries of light-cone boundary, and with string world sheets.
2. The ground states of super-symplectic representations satisfy massless imbed-
ding space Dirac equation in imbedding space so that Dirac equations in WCW,
in imbedding space, and at string world sheets are involved. In twistorialization
also massless M 8 Dirac equation emerges in the tangent space M 8 of imbedding
space assignable to the partonic 2-surfaces and generalizes the 4-D light-likeness
with its 8-D counterpart applying to states with M 4 mass. Here octonionic
representation of imbedding space gamma matrices emerges naturally and allows
to speak about 8-D analogs of Pauli’s sigma matrices [49].
2.4 Quantum Criticality, Measurement Resolution, and

Hierarchy of Planck Constants
The notions of quantum criticality (QC), finite measurement resolution, and hierar-
chy of Planck constants proposed to give rise to dark matter as phases of ordinary
matter are central for TGD [31, 52, 62].
These notions relate closely to the strong form of holography (SH) implied by
strong form of general coordinate invariance (SGCI). In adelic physics all this would
relate closely to the hierarchy of extensions of rationals serving as a correlate for
number theoretical evolution.
260 M. Pitkänen
2.4.1 Finite Measurement Resolution and Fractal Inclusion Hierarchy of

Super-Symplectic Algebras
The notion of finite measurement resolution realized in terms of inclusions of hyper-

finite factors of type II1 (HFFs) is one of the ideas that emerged for about decade
ago [52]. The vision is that the action of the included algebra generates states not
distinguishable from the original state in the measurement resolution used.
The fractal hierarchy of isomorphic sub-algebras of super-symplectic algebra—
call it g—defines an excellent candidate for the realization of finite measure-
ment resolution. Similar hierarchies can be assigned also for the extended super-
conformal algebra assignable with light-like boundaries of CD and with Kac-Moody
and conformal algebras assignable to string world sheets.
An interesting possibility is that the conformal weights assignable to infinitesimal
scaling operator of the light-like radial coordinate of light-cone boundary corre-
spond to zeros of Riemann zeta [66, 72]. A kind of dual spectrum would correspond
to conformal weights that correspond to logarithms for powers of primes. One
can identify the conformal weight as negative of the pole of fermionic zeta zF D
.s/=.2s/ natural in TGD framework. The real part of conformal weight for the
generators is hR D 1=4 for “non-trivial” poles and positive integer h D n > 0
for “trivial” poles. There is also a pole for h D 1. Hence one obtains tachyonic
ground states, which must be assumed also in p-adic mass calculations [34].
Also the generators of Yangian algebra [49] integrating the algebras assignable
to various partonic 2-surfaces to a multi-local algebra are labelled by a non-negative
integer n analogous to conformal weight and telling the number of partonic 2-
surfaces involved with the action of the generator. Also this algebra has similar
fractal hierarchy of sub-algebras so that the considerations that follow might
apply also to it. Now that number of partonic 2-surface would play the role of
measurement resolution.
As noticed, there are also other algebras, which allow conformal hierarchy
if one can restrict the conformal weights to be non-negative. The first of them
generates generalized conformal transformations of light-cone boundary depending
on light-like radial coordinate as parameter: also now radial conformal weights for
generators can have zeros of zeta as spectrum. As a special case one obtains infinite-
dimensional group of isometries of light-cone boundary. Second one corresponds to
ordinary conformal and Kac-Moody symmetries for induced spinor fields acting on
string world sheets. Also here similar hierarchy of sub-algebras can be considered.
In the following argument one restricts to super-symplectic algebra assumed to act
as isometries of WCW.
Consider now how the finite measurement resolution could be realized as an
infinite hierarchy of super-symplectic gauge symmetry breakings. The physical
picture relies on quantum criticality of TGD Universe. The levels of the hierarchy
labelled by positive integer n and a ball at the top of ball at. . . serve as a convenient
metaphor.
1. The sub-algebra gn for which conformal weights of generators (whose commu-

tators give the sub-algebra) are positive integer multiples for those of the entire
algebra g defines the algebra acting as pure gauge algebra defining a sub-group
of symplectic group. The action of gn as gauge algebra would mean that it affects
on degrees of freedom below the measurement resolution. One can assign to this
algebra a coset space G=Gn of the entire symplectic group G and of subgroup
Gn . This coset space would describe the dynamical degrees of freedom. If the
subgroup were a normal subgroup, the coset space would be a group. This is
not the case now since the commutator Œg; gn of the entire algebra with the sub-
algebra does not belong to gn .
However, if one poses stronger—physically very attractive—gauge conditions
stating that not only gn but also the commutator algebra Œg; gn annihilates the
physical states and that corresponding classical Noether charges vanish, one
obtains effectively a normal subgroup and one has good hopes that coset space
acts effectively as group, which is finite-dimensional as far as conformal weights
are considered.
2. n > 0 is essential for obtaining effective normal algebra property. Without this
assumption the commutator Œg; gn would be entire g. If the spectrum of super-
symplectic conformal weights is integer valued it is not obvious why one should
pose the restriction n 1.
3. In this framework pure conformal invariance could reduce to a finite-dimensional
gauge symmetry. A possible interpretation would be in terms of Mc-Kay
correspondence [4] assigning to the inclusions of HFFs labelled by integer
n 3 a hierarchy of simply laced Lie-groups. Since the included algebra would
naturally correspond to degrees of freedom not visible in the resolution used, the
interpretation as a dynamical gauge group is suggestive. The dynamical gauge
group could correspond to n-dimensional Cartan algebra acting in conformal
degrees of freedom identifiable as a simply laced Lie group. This would assign
a infinite hierarchy of dynamical gauge symmetries to the broken conformal
gauge invariance acting as symmetries of dark matter. This still leaves infinite
number of degrees of freedom assignable to the imbedding space Hamiltonians
and spectrum generated by zeros of zeta but this might have interpretation in
terms of gauging so that additional vanishing conditions for Noether charges are
suggestive.
2.4.2 Dark Matter as Large Phases with Large Gravitational Planck

Constant heff D hgr
D. Da Rocha and Laurent Nottale [11] have proposed that Schrödinger equation
with Planck constant replaced with what might be called gravitational Planck
constant gr D GmM v0
( D c D 1). v0 is a velocity parameter having the value
v0 D 144:7˙:7 km/s giving v0 =c D 4:6104 . This is rather near to the peak orbital
velocity of stars in galactic halos. Also subharmonics and harmonics of v0 seem to
appear. The support for the hypothesis coming from empirical data is impressive
[42, 44].
262 M. Pitkänen
1. The proposal is that a Schrödinger equation results from a fractal hydrodynamics.

Many-sheeted space-time, however, suggests that astrophysical systems are at
some levels of the hierarchy of space-time sheets macroscopic quantum systems
and that only the generalizations of Bohr orbits are involved. The space-time
sheets in question would carry dark matter.
2. Nottale’s hypothesis would predict a gigantic value of gr . Equivalence principle
and the independence of gravitational Compton length ƒgr D gr =m D
GM=v0 D 2rS =v0 (typically astrophysical scale) on mass m imply however
that one can restrict the values of mass m to masses of microscopic objects
so that gr would be much smaller. Large gr could provide a solution of the
blackhole collapse (IR catastrophe) problem encountered at the classical level.
The resolution of the problem inspired by TGD inspired theory of living matter
is that it is the dark matter at larger space-time sheets, which is quantum coherent
in the required time scale [44].
One could criticize the hypothesis since it treats the masses M and m
asymmetrically: this is only apparently true [62].
3. It is natural to assign the values of Planck constants postulated by Nottale to the
space-time sheets mediating gravitational interaction and identifiable as magnetic
flux tubes (quanta). The cross section of the flux tube corresponds to a sphere
Si2 CP2 , i D I; II [70]. SI2 is homologically non-trivial carrying Kähler
magnetic monopole flux. SII2 is homologically trivial carrying vanishing Kähler
magnetic flux but non-vanishing electroweak flux [70].
The flux tubes of type I have both Kähler magnetic energy and dark energy
due to the volume action. Flux tubes of type II would have only the volume
energy. Both flux tubes could be remnants of cosmic string phase of primordial
cosmology. The energy of these flux quanta would be correlated for galactic dark
matter and volume action and also magnetic tension would give rise to negative
“pressure” forcing accelerated cosmological expansion. This leads to a rather
detailed vision about the evolution of stars and galaxies identified as bubbles of
ordinary and dark matter inside flux tubes identified also as dark energy.
4. Both theoretical consistency and certain experimental findings from astrophysics
[10, 14] and biology [58, 59] suggest the identification heff D n h D hgr .
The large value of hgr can be seen as a manner to reduce the string tension
of fermionic strings so that gravitational (in fact all!) bound states can be
described in terms of strings connecting the partonic 2-surfaces defining particles
(analogous to AdS/CFT description) [65]. The values heff =h D n can be
interpreted in terms of a hierarchy of breakings of super-conformal symmetry
in which the super-conformal generators act as gauge symmetries only for a sub-
algebras with conformal weights coming as multiples of n. Macroscopic quantum
coherence in astrophysical scales is implied. If also modified Dirac action is
present, part of the interior degrees of freedom associated with the fermionic
part of conformal algebra become physical.
Fermionic oscillator operators could generate super-symmetries and sparticles
could correspond to dark matter with heff =h D n > 1. One implication would be
that at least part if not all gravitons would be dark and be observed only through
their decays to an ordinary high frequency graviton (E D hfhigh D heff flow ) or to
a bunch of n low energy gravitons.
2.4.3 Hierarchies of Quantum Criticalities, Planck Constants, and Dark

Matters
Quantum criticality is one of the cornerstone assumptions of TGD. In the original

approach the value of Kähler coupling strength ˛K together with CP2 radius R
fixed quantum TGD is analogous to critical temperature. Twistor lift [70] brings
in additional coupling constant ƒ obeying p-adic coupling constant evolution and
Planck length lG , which like CP2 radius would not obey coupling constant evolution
(as also G). The values of these parameters should be fixed by quantum criticality.
What else does quantum criticality mean is, however, far from obvious, and I
have pondered the notion repeatedly both from the point of view of mathematical
description and phenomenology [33, 53, 65].
1. Criticality is characterized by long range correlations and sensitivity to exter-
nal perturbations and living systems define an excellent example of critical
systems—even in the scale of populations since without sensitivity and long
range correlations cultural evolution and society would not be possible. For
a physicist with the conceptual tools of existing theoretical physics the recent
information society in which the actions of people at different side of globe are
highly correlated should look like a miracle.
2. The hierarchy of Planck constants with dark matter identified as phases of
ordinary matter with non-standard value heff D n h of Planck constant is
one of the “almost-predictions” of TGD is definitely something essentially new
physics. The phase transition transforming ordinary matter to dark matter in this
sense generates long range quantal correlations and even macroscopic quantum
coherence.
Finding a universal mechanism generating dark matter has been a key
challenge during last 10 years. Could quantum criticality having classical or
perhaps even thermodynamical criticality as its correlate be always accompanied
by the generation of dark matter? If this were the case, the recipe would be
stupefyingly simple: create a critical system! Dark matter would be everywhere
and we would have observed its effects for centuries! Magnetic flux tubes
(possibly carrying monopole flux) define the space-time correlates for long range
correlations at criticality and would carry the dark matter. They are indeed key
players in TGD inspired quantum biology.
3. Change of symmetry is assigned with criticality as also conformal symmetry
(in 2-D case). In TGD framework conformal symmetry is extended and infinite
hierarchy of breakings of conformal symmetry so that a sub-algebras of various
conformal algebras with conformal weights coming as integer multiples of
integer n defining heff would occur.
4. Phase separation is what typically occurs at criticality and one should understand
also this. The strengthening of this hypothesis with the assumption heff D hgr ,
where hgr D GMm=v0 is the gravitational Planck constant originally introduced
by Nottale [62, 64]. In the formula v0 has dimensions of velocity, and will be
proposed to be determined by a condition relating the size of the system with
mass M to the radius within which the wave function of particle m with heff D hgr
is localized in the gravitational field of M.
264 M. Pitkänen
The condition heff D hgr implies that the integer n in heff is proportional to
the mass of the particle. The implication is that particles with different masses
reside at flux tubes with different Planck constant and separation of phases indeed
occurs.
5. What is remarkable is that neither gravitational Compton length nor cyclotron
energy spectrum depends on the mass of the particle. This universality could play
key role in living matter. One can assign Planck constant also to other interactions
such as electromagnetic interaction so that one would have hem D Z1 Z2 e2 =v0 .
The phase transition could take place when the perturbation series based on
the coupling strength ˛ D Z1 Z2 e2 = ceases to converge. In the new phase
perturbation series would converge since the coupling strength is proportional
to 1=heff . Hence criticality and separation into phases serve as criteria as one
tries to see whether the earlier proposals for the mechanisms giving rise to large
heff phases make sense. One can also check whether the systems to which large
heff has been assigned are indeed critical.
One example of criticality is super-fluidity. Superfluids exhibit rather mysterious
looking effects such as fountain effect [6] and what looks like quantum coherence of
superfluid containers, which should be classically isolated. These findings serve as a
motivation for the proposal that genuine superfluid portion of superfluid corresponds
to a large heff phase near criticality at least and that also in other phase transition like
phenomena a phase transition to dark phase occurs near the vicinity [62].
But how does quantum criticality relate to number theory and adelic physics?
heff =h D n has been identified as the number of sheets of space-time surface
identified as a covering space of some kind. Number theoretic discretization defining
the “spine” for a monadic space-time surface. Pitkänen [77] defines also a covering
space with Galois group for an extension of rationals acting as covering group.
Could n be identifiable as the order for a sub-group of Galois group? If this is
the case, the proposed rule for heff changing phase transitions stating that the
reduction of n occurs to its factor would translate to spontaneous symmetry breaking
for Galois group and spontaneous—symmetry breakings indeed accompany phase
transitions.
2.4.4 TGD Variant of AdS/CFT Duality
AdS/CFT duality [8] has provided a powerful approach in the attempts to

understand the non-perturbative aspects of super-string theories. The duality states
that conformal field theory in n-dimensional Minkowski space M n identifiable
as a boundary of n C 1-dimensional space AdSnC1 is dual to a string theory in
AdSnC1 S9n .
As a mathematical discovery AdS/CFT duality is extremely interesting but it
seems that it need not have much to do with physics as such. From TGD point
of view the reason is obvious: the notion of conformal invariance is quite too
limited. In TGD framework conformal invariance is extended to a super-symplectic
4
symmetry in ıM˙ CP2 , whose Lie-algebra has the structure of conformal algebra.
Also ordinary super-conformal symmetries associated with string world sheets are
present as well as generalization of 2-D conformal symmetries to their analogs at
light-cone boundary and light-like orbits of partonic 2-surfaces. In this framework
AdS/CFT duality is expected to be modified.
The matrix elements GKL of Kähler metric of WCW can be expressed in two
manners. As contractions of the derivatives @K @L K of the Kähler function of WCW
with isometry generators or as anticommutators fK ; L g of WCW gamma matrices
identified as super-symplectic Noether super charges assignable to fermionic strings
connecting partonic 2-surfaces. Kähler function is identified as real part of the
action: if coupling parameters are real it reduces to the action for the Euclidian
space-time regions with 4-D CP2 projection and otherwise contains contributions
from both Minkowskian and Euclidian regions. The action defines the modified
gamma matrices appearing in modified Dirac action as contractions of canonical
momentum currents with imbedding space gamma matrices.
This observation suggests that there is a super-symmetry between action and
modified Dirac action. The problem is that induced spinor fields naive of SH and
also well-definedness of em charge demand the localization of induced spinor modes
at 2-D string world sheets. This simply cannot be true. On the other hand, SH only
requires that the data about induced spinor fields and space-time surface at the string
world sheets is enough to construct the modes in space-time interior.
This leaves two options if one assumes that SH is exact (recall, however, that
the number theoretic interpretation for the hierarchy of Planck constants suggests
that the number theoretic spin of monadic space-time surface represents additional
discrete data needed besides that assignable to string world sheets to describe dark
matter). As found in the Section 2.3.2, there are two options.
Option I: The analog of brane hierarchy is realized at the level of funda-
mental action. There is a separate fundamental 2-D action assignable with string
world sheets—area and topological magnetic flux term—as also world line action
assignable to the boundaries of string world sheets. By previous argument string
tension should be determined by the value of the cosmological constant ƒ obeying
p-adic coupling constant evolution rather than by G: otherwise there is no hope
about gravitationally bound states above Planck scale. String tension would appear
as an additional fundamental coupling parameter (perhaps fixed by quantum
criticality). This option does not quite conform with the spirit of SH.
Option II: 4-D space-time action and corresponding modified Dirac action
defining fundamental actions are expressible as effective actions assignable to string
world sheets and their boundaries. String world sheet effective action could be
expressible as string area for the effective metric defined by the anticommutators
of modified gamma matrices at string world sheet. If the sum of the induced Kähler
forms of M 4 and CP2 vanishes at string world sheets the effective metric would be
the induced 2-D metric: this together with the observed CP breaking could provide
a justification for the introduction of the analog of Kähler form in M 4 . String tension
would be dynamical rather than determined by lP and depend on ƒ, lP , R, and ˛K .
This representation of Kähler action would be one aspect of the analog of AdS/CFT
duality in TGD framework.
266 M. Pitkänen
Both options would allow to understand how strings connecting partonic 2-

surfaces give rise to the formation of gravitationally bound states. Bound states of
macroscopic size are possible only if one allows hierarchy of Planck constants and
this is required also by the (extremely) small value of ƒ (in cosmic scales).
Consider the concrete realizations for this vision.
1. SGCI requires effective two-dimensionality. In given UV and IR resolutions
partonic 2-surfaces and string world sheets are assignable to a finite hierarchy
of CDs inside CDs with given CD characterized by a discrete scale coming as an
integer multiple of a fundamental scale (essentially CP2 size). ƒ would closely
relate to the size scale of CD. String world sheets have boundaries consisting
of either light-like curves in induced metric at light-like wormhole throats and
space-like curves at the ends of CD whose M 4 projections are light-like. These
braids carrying fermionic quantum numbers intersect partonic 2-surfaces at
discrete points.
2. This implies a rather concrete analogy with AdS5 S5 duality, which describes
gluons as open strings. In zero energy ontology (ZEO) string world sheets are
indeed a fundamental notion and the natural conjecture is that these surfaces are
minimal surfaces, whose area by quantum classical correspondence depends on
the quantum numbers of the external particles.
2.4.5 String Tension of Gravitational Flux Tubes
For Planckian cosmic strings only quantum gravitational bound states of length of
order Planck length are possible. There must be a mechanism reducing the string
tension. The effective string tension assignable to magnetic flux tubes must be
inversely proportional to 1=h2eff , heff D nh D hgr D 2GMm=v0 in order to obtain
gravitationally bound states in macroscopic length scales identified as structures for
which partonic 2-surfaces are connected by flux tubes accompanied by fermionic
strings.
The reason is that the size scale of (quantum) gravitationally bound states of
masses M and m is given by gravitational Compton length ƒgr D GM=v0 [44, 62,
64] assignable to the gravitational flux tubes connecting the masses M and m. If the
string tension is of order ƒ2gr this is achieved since the typical length of string would
be ƒgr . Gravitational string tension must be therefore of order Tgr
1=ƒ2gr . How
could this be achieved? One can imagine several options and here only the option
based on the assumptions
1. Twistor lift makes sense.
2. Fundamental action is 4-D for both space-time and fermionic degrees of freedom
and 2-D string world sheet action is an effective action realizing SH. Note
effective action makes also possible braid statistics, which does not make sense
at fundamental level.
3. Also M 4 carries the analog of Kähler form and the sum of induced Kähler forms
from M 4 and CP2 vanishes at string world sheets and also weak gauge fields
vanishes at string world sheets leaving only em field.
is considered since it avoids all the objections that I have been able to invent.
For the twistor lift of TGD [70] predicting cosmological constant ƒ depending
on p-adic length scale ƒ / 1=p the gravitational strings would be naturally
homologically trivial cosmic strings. These vacuum extremals of Kähler action
transform to minimal surface extremals with string tension given by vac S, where
vac the density of dark energy assignable to the volume term of the action and S
the transverse area of the flux tube. One should have vac S D 8ƒS=G D 1=ƒ2gr so
that one would have
G
8ƒS D :
ƒ2gr
ƒ for flux tubes (characterizing the size of CDs containing them) would depend on
the gravitational coupling Mm.
2.5 Number Theoretical Vision
Physics as infinite-D spinor geometry of WCW and physics as generalized number

theory are the two basic vision about TGD. The number theoretical vision involves
three threads [46–48].
1. The first thread [47] involves the notion of number theoretical universality NTU:
quantum TGD should make sense in both real and p-adic number fields (and their
algebraic extensions induced by extensions of rationals). p-Adic number fields
are needed to understand the space-time correlates of cognition and intentionality
[32, 39, 40].
p-Adic mass calculations lead to the notion of a p-adic length scale hierarchy
quantifying the notion of the many-sheeted space-time [32, 39]. One of the
first applications was the calculation of elementary particle masses [34]. The
basic predictions are only weakly model independent since only p-adic ther-
modynamics for Super-Virasoro algebra are involved. Not only the fundamental
mass scales would reduce to number theory but also particle masses are predicted
correctly under rather mild assumptions and are exponentially sensitive to the p-
adic length scale predicted by p-adic length scale hypothesis. Also predictions
such as the possibility of neutrinos to have several mass scales were made on
the basis of number theoretical arguments and have found experimental support
[27, 34].
2. Second thread [48] is inspired by the dimensions D D 1; 2; 4; 8 of the basic
objects of TGD and assumes that classical number fields are in a crucial role
in TGD. 8-D imbedding space would have octonionic structure and space-time
268 M. Pitkänen
surfaces would have associative (quaternionic) tangent space or normal space.

String world sheets could correspond to commutative surfaces. Also the notion
of M 8 H-duality is part of this thread and states that quaternionic 4-surfaces of
M 8 containing preferred M 2 in its tangent space can be mapped to PEs in H by
assigning to the tangent space CP2 point parametrizing it. M 2 could be replaced
by integrable distribution of M 2 .x/. If PEs are also quaternionic one has also H
H duality allowing to iterate the map so that PEs form a category. Also quaternion
analyticity of PEs is a highly attractive hypothesis [49]. For instance, it might
be possible to interpret string world sheets and partonic 2-surfaces appearing in
strong form of holography (SH) as co-dimension 2 surfaces analogous to poles
of analytic function in complex plane. Light-like 3-surfaces might be seen as
analogs of cuts. The coding of analytic function by its singularities could be seen
as analog of SH.
3. The third thread [46] corresponds to infinite primes and leads to several
speculations. The construction of infinite primes is structurally analogous to
a repeated second quantization of a supersymmetric arithmetic quantum field
theory with free particle states characterized by primes. The many-sheeted
structure of TGD space-time could reflect directly the structure of infinite prime
coding it. Space-time point would become infinitely structured in various p-adic
senses but not in real sense (that is cognitively) so that the vision of Leibniz
about monads reflecting the external world in their structure is realized in terms
of algebraic holography. Space-time becomes algebraic hologram and realizes
also Brahman = Atman idea of Eastern philosophies.
3 p-Adic Mass Calculations and p-Adic Thermodynamics
p-Adic mass calculations carried for the first time around 1995 were the stimulus
eventually leading to the number theoretical vision as a kind dual for the geometric
vision about TGD. In this section I will roughly describe the calculations [27, 34]
and the questions and challenges raised by them.
3.1 p-Adic Numbers
Like real numbers, p-adic numbers (http://tinyurl.com/hmgqtoh) can be regarded

as completions of the rational numbers to a larger number field [32]. Each prime
p defines a p-adic number field allowing the counterparts of the usual arithmetic
operations.
1. The basic difference between real and p-adic numbers is that p-adic topology
is ultra-metric. Ultrametricity means that the distance function d.x; y/ (the
counterpart of jx yj in the real context) satisfies the inequality
d.x; z/ Maxfd.x; y/; d.y; z/g ;

(Max(a, b) denotes maximum of a and b) rather than the usual triangle inequality
d.x; z/ d.x; y/ C d.y; z/ :
2. The topology defined by p-adic numbers is compact-open. Hence the generaliza-

tion of manifold obtained by gluing together n-balls fails because smallest open
n-balls are just points and one has totally disconnected topology.
3. p-Adic numbers are not well-ordered like real numbers. Therefore one cannot
assign orientation to the p-adic number line. This in turn leads to difficulties with
attempts to define definite integrals and the notion of differential form although
indefinite integral is well-defined. These difficulties serve as important guidelines
in the attempts to understand what p-adic physics is and also how to fuse real and
various p-adic physics to a larger structure.
4. p-Adic numbers allow an expansion in powers of p analogous to the decimal
expansion
X
xD xn pn ;
n0
and the number of terms in the expansion can be infinite so that p-adic number
need not be finite as a real number. The norm of the p-adic number (counterpart
of jxj for real numbers) is defined as
X
Np .x/ D xn pn D pn0 ;
n0
and depends only very weakly on p-adic number. The ultra-metric distance
function can be defined as dp .x; y/ D Np .x y/.
5. p-Adic numbers allow a generalization of the differential calculus. The basic
rules of the p-adic differential calculus are the same as those of the ordinary
differential calculus. There is, however, one important new element: the set of
the functions having vanishing p-adic derivative consists of the so-called pseudo-
constants, which are analogs of real valued piecewise constant functions. In
the real case only constant functions have vanishing derivative. This implies
that p-adic differential equations are non-deterministic. This non-determinism is
identified as a counterpart of the non-determinism of cognition and imagination
[40].
3.2 Model of Elementary Particle
p-Adic mass calculations [27, 34] rely heavily on a topological model for elemen-
tary particle and it is appropriate to describe it before going to the summary of
calculations.
270 M. Pitkänen
3.2.1 Family Replication Phenomenon Topologically
One of the basic ideas of TGD approach to particle physics has been genus-
generation correspondence: boundary components of the 3-surface should be
carriers of elementary particle numbers and the observed particle families should
correspond to various boundary topologies.
With the advent of zero energy ontology (ZEO) this picture has changed
somewhat.
1. The wormhole throats identified as light-like 3-surfaces at which the induced
metric of the space-time surface changes its signature from Minkowskian to
Euclidian correspond to the light-like orbits of partonic 2-surfaces. One cannot
of course exclude the possibility that also boundary components allow to satisfy
boundary conditions without assuming vacuum extremal property of nearby
space-time surface.
The intersections of the wormhole throats with the light-like boundaries of
causal diamonds (CDs) identified as intersections of future and past directed light
cones (CDCP2 is actually in question but I will speak about CDs) define special
partonic 2-surfaces and the conformal moduli of these partonic 2-surfaces appear
in the elementary particle vacuum functionals [27] naturally. A modification of
the original simple picture came from the proposed identification of physical
particles as bound states of two wormhole contacts connected by tubes carrying
monopole fluxes.
2. For generalized scattering diagrams stringy trouser vertices are replaced with
vertices at which the ends of light-like wormhole throats meet. This vertex is the
analog of 3-vertex for Feynman diagrams in particle physics lengths scales and
for the biological replication (DNA and even cell) in macroscopic length scales.
In this picture the interpretation of the analog of trouser vertex is in terms
of propagation of same particle along two different paths. This interpretation
is mathematically natural since vertices correspond to 2-manifolds rather than
singular 2-manifolds, which are just splitting to two disjoint components. Second
complication comes from the weak form of electric-magnetic duality forcing
to identify physical particles as weak strings with magnetic monopoles at their
ends and one should understand also the possible complications caused by this
generalization.
These modifications force to consider several options concerning the identifica-
tion of light fermions and bosons and one can end up with a unique identification
only by making some assumptions. Masslessness of all wormhole throats—also
those appearing in internal lines—and dynamical SU.3/ symmetry for particle
generations are attractive general enough assumptions of this kind. Bosons and
their possible spartners would correspond to wormhole contacts with fermion and
anti-fermion at the throats of the contact. The expectation was that free fermions
and their possible spartners correspond to CP2 type vacuum extremals with single
wormhole throat. It turned, however, that dynamical SU.3/ symmetry forces to
identify massive (and possibly topologically condensed) fermions as pairs of .g; g/
type wormhole contacts. The existence of higher boson families would mean
breaking of quark and lepton universality and there are indications for this kind
of anomaly [36] .
3.2.2 The Notion of Elementary Particle Vacuum Functional
Obviously one must know something about the dependence of the elementary
particle state functionals on the geometric properties of the boundary component
and in the sequel an attempt to construct what might be called elementary particle
vacuum functionals (EPVFs) is made. The basic assumptions underlying the
construction are the following ones [27]:
1. EPVFs depend on the geometric properties of the two-surface X 2 representing
elementary particle.
2. EPVFs possess extended Diff invariance: all 2-surfaces on the orbit of the 2-
surface X 2 correspond to the same value of the vacuum functional. This condition
is satisfied if vacuum functionals have as their argument, not X 2 as such, but some
2- surface Y 2 belonging to the unique orbit of X 2 (determined by the principle
selecting PE as a generalized Bohr orbit [25, 33, 67]) and determined in general
coordinate invariant manner.
3. ZEO allows to select uniquely the partonic 2-surface as the intersection of the
wormhole throat at which the signature of the induced four-metric changes with
either the upper or lower boundary of CDCP2 . This is essential since otherwise
one could not specify the vacuum functional uniquely.
4. Vacuum functionals possess conformal invariance and therefore for a given genus
depend on a finite number of variables specifying the conformal equivalence
class of Y 2 .
5. Vacuum functionals satisfy the cluster decomposition property: when the surface
Y 2 degenerates to a union of two disjoint surfaces (particle decay in string model
inspired picture), vacuum functional decomposes into a product of the vacuum
functionals associated with disjoint surfaces.
6. EPVFs are stable against the decay g ! g1 Cg2 and one particle decay g ! g1.
This process corresponds to genuine particle decay only for stringy diagrams.
For generalized scattering diagrams the interpretation is in terms of propagation
along two different paths simultaneously.
In [27] the construction of EPVFs is described in detail. This requires some basic
concepts related to the description of the space of the conformal equivalence classes
of Riemann surfaces and the concept of hyper-ellipticity. Since theta functions will
play a central role in the construction of the vacuum functionals, also their basic
properties are needed. Also possible explanations for the experimental absence of
the higher fermion families are considered. Concerning p-adic mass calculations,
the key question is how to construct p-adic variants of EPVFs.
272 M. Pitkänen
3.3 p-Adic Mass Calculations

3.3.1 p-Adic Thermodynamics
Consider first the basic ideas of p-adic thermodynamics.

1. p-Adic valued mass squared is identified as thermal mass in p-adic thermody-
namics. Boltzmann weights exp.E=T/ do not make sense if one just replaces
exponent function with the p-adic variant of its Taylor series. The reason is that
exp.x/ has p-adic norm equal to 1 for all acceptable values of the argument x
(having p-adic norm smaller than one) so that partition function does not have
the usual exponential convergence property. Nothing however prevents from
consider Boltzmann weights as powers pn making sense for integer values of n.
Here the p-adic norm approaches zero for n ! C1: thus the correspondences
eE=T $ pE=Tp .
The values of E=Tp must be quantized to integers. This is guaranteed if E is
integer valued in suitable unit of energy and 1=Tp has integer valued spectrum
using same unit for Tp . Super-conformal invariance guarantees integer valued
spectrum of E, which in the recent case corresponds to mass squared. These
number theoretical conditions are very powerful and lead to the quantization of
also thermal mass squared for given p-adic prime p.
2. The P p-adic mass Psquared is mapped to real number by canonical identification
I W xn pn ! xn pn or its variant for rationals. Canonical identification
is continuous and maps powers of pn to their inverses. One modification of
canonical identification maps rationals m=n in their representation in which m
and n have no common divisors to I.m/=I.n/. The predictions of calculations
depend in some cases on which variant one uses but rational option looks the
most reasonable choice.
3. p-Adic length scale hypothesis states that preferred p-adic primes correspond to
powers of 2: p ' 2k , but smaller than 2k . The values of k form with p D 2k 1
is prime—Mersenne prime—are especially favored. The nearer the prime p to
2k , the more favored p is physically. One justification for the hypothesis is that
preferred primes have been selected by an evolutionary process.
4. It turns out that p-adic temperature is Tp D 1 for fermions. For gauge bosons
Tp 1=2 seems to be necessary assumption for gauge bosons implying that the
contribution to mass squared is very small so that super-symplectic contribution
assignable to the wormhole magnetic flux tube dominates for weak bosons.
For canonical identification m=n ! I.m/=I.n/ second order contribution to
fermionic mass squared is very small.
5. The large values of p-adic prime p guarantee that the p-adic thermodynamics
converges extremely rapidly. For m=n ! I.m/=I.n/ already the second order
contribution is extremely small since the expansion for the real mass squared is
in terms of 1=p and for electron with p D M127 one has p
1038 . Hence the
calculations are essentially exact and errors are those of the model. It is quite
possible that calculations could be done exactly using exact expressions for the
super-symplectic partition functions generalized to p-adic context. The success

of the p-adic mass calculations is especially remarkable because p-adic length
scale hypothesis p ' 2k predicts exponential sensitivity of the particle mass
scale on k.
3.3.2 Symmetries
The number theoretical existence of p-adic thermodynamics requires powerful

symmetries to guarantee integer valued spectrum for the thermalized contribution
to the mass squared.
1. Super-conformal symmetry with integer valued conformal weights for Virasoro
scaling generator L0 is essential because it predicts in string models that mass
squared is apart from ground state contribution integer valued in suitable
units. In TGD framework fermionic string world sheets are characterized by
super-conformal symmetry. This gives the p-adic thermodynamics assumed in
the calculations. One could, however, assign Super-Virasoro algebra also to
super-symplectic algebra having its analog as sub-algebra with positive integer
conformal weights. Same applies to the extended conformal algebra of light-cone
boundary.
2. TGD, however, predicts also generalization of conformal symmetry associated
with light-cone boundary involving ordinary complex conformal weights and the
conformal weight associated with the light-like radial coordinate. For the latter
conformal weights for the generators of supersymmetry might be given by h D
sn =2. sn zero of zeta or pole h D s D 1 of zeta.
Also super-symplectic symmetries would have similar radial spectrum of con-
formal weights. Conformal confinement requiring that the conformal weights of
states are real implies that the spectrum of conformal weights for physical states
consists of non-negative integers as for ordinary super-conformal invariance.
It is not clear whether thermalization occurs in these degrees of freedom
except perhaps for trivial conformal weights. These degrees of freedom need
not therefore contribute to thermal masses of leptons and quarks but would give
dominating contribution to hadron masses and weak boson masses. The negative
conformal weights predicted by h D s=2 hypothesis predict that ground state
weight is negative for super-symplectic representations and must be compensated
for massless states.
The assumption that ground state conformal weight is negative and thus
tachyonic is essential in case of p-adic mass calculations [34], and only for
massless particles (graviton, photon, gluons) it vanishes or is of order O.1=p/.
This could be achieved if the ground state of super-symplectic representation has
h D 0.
3. Modular invariance [27] assignable to partonic 2-surfaces is a further assumption
similar to that made in string models. This invariance means that for a given
genus the dynamical degrees of freedom of the partonic 2-surface correspond to
finite-dimensional space of Teichmueller parameters. For genus g D 0 this space
is trivial.
274 M. Pitkänen
Also modular invariance for string world sheets can be considered. By SH

the information needed in mass calculations should be assignable to partonic 2-
surfaces: the assumption is that one can assign this information to single partonic
2-surface. Stringy contribution would be seen only in scattering amplitudes.
This might be true only effectively: the recent view about elementary particles
is that they are pairs of wormhole contacts connected by flux tubes defining a
closed monopole flux and wormhole throats of contact have same genus for light
states. Furthermore the quantum numbers of particle are associated with single
throat for fermions and with opposite throats of single contact for bosons. The
second wormhole contact would carry neutralizing weak charges to realize the
finite range of weak interactions as “weak confinement.”
The number of genera is infinite and one must understand why only three
quark and lepton generations are observed. An attractive explanation is in terms
of symmetry. For the three lowest genera the partonic 2-surfaces are always
hyper-elliptic and have thus global conformal Z2 symmetry. For higher genera
this is not true always and EPVFs constructed from the assumption of modular
invariance vanish for the hyper-elliptic surfaces. This suggests that the higher
genera are very massive or can be interpreted as many-particle states of handles,
which are not bound states but have continuous mass squared.
3.3.3 Contributions to Mass Squared
There are several contributions to the p-adic thermal mass squared come from the
degrees of freedom, which are thermalized.
Super-conformal degrees of freedom associated with string world sheets are
certainly thermalized. p-Adic mass calculations strongly suggest that the number
of super-conformal tensor factors is N D 5 but also N D 4 and N D 6 can be
considered marginally.
I have considered several identifications of tensor factors and not found a
compelling alternative. If one assumes that super-symplectic degrees of freedom
do not contribute to the thermal mass, string world sheets should explain masses
of elementary fermions. Here charged lepton masses are the test bench. On the
other hand, if super-symplectic degrees of freedom contribute one obtains additional
tensor factor assignable to h D s=2, s trivial zero of zeta. Only one tensor
factor emerges since Hamiltonians correspond to the products of functions of the
coordinates of light-cone boundary and CP2 .
1. SU.2/L U.1/ gives two tensor factors. SU.3/ gives one tensor factor. The
two transversal degrees of freedom for string world sheet suggest 2 degrees of
freedom corresponding to Abelian group E2 . Rotations, however, transform these
degrees to each other so that 1 tensor factor should emerge. This gives four tensor
factors. Could it correspond to the degrees of freedom parallel to string at its end
assignable to wormhole throat? Could normal vibrations of partonic 2-surface?
This would N D 5 tensor factors. Another possibility is that the fifth tensor
factor comes from super-symplectic Super-Virasoro algebra defined by trivial
conformal weights.
2. Super-symplectic contributions need not be present for ordinary elementary

fermions. For weak bosons they could give string tension assignable to the
magnetic flux tube connecting the wormhole contacts. It is not clear whether
this contribution is thermalized. This contribution might be present only for the
phases with heff D n h. This contribution would dominate in hadron masses.
3. Color degrees of freedom contribute to the ground state mass squared since
ground state corresponds to an imbedding space spinor mode massless in 8-
D sense. The mass squared contribution corresponds to an eigenvalue of CP2
spinor d’Alembertian. Its eigenvalues correspond to color multiplets and only the
covariantly constant right handed neutrino is color singlet. For the other modes
the color representation is non-trivial and depends on weak quantum numbers
of the fermion. The construction of the massless state from a tachyonic ground
state with conformal weight hvac D 3 must involve colored super-Kac Moody
generators compensating for the anomalous color charge so that one obtains color
single for leptons and color triplet for quarks as massless state.
4. Modular degrees of freedom give a contribution depending on the genus g of the
partonic 2-surface. This contribution is estimated by considering p-adic variants
of elementary particle vacuum functionals vac [34] expressible as products
of theta functions with the structure of partition function. Theta functions are
expressible as sums of exponent functions exp.X/ with X defined as a contraction
of the matrix ij defined by Teichmueller parameters between integer valued
vectors.
In ZEO the interpretation of vac is as a complex square root of partition
functional (quantum theory as complex square root of thermodynamics in ZEO).
The integral of jj2 over allowed moduli has interpretation as partition function.
The exponential exp.Re.X// D pRe.X/=log.p/ has interpretation as an exponential of
“Hamiltonian” defined by the vacuum conformal weight defined by moduli. T D
log.p/ is identified as p-adic temperature as in ordinary p-adic thermodynamics.
NTU requires that the integration over the moduli parameters reduces to a sum
over number theoretically universal moduli parameters. The exponents exp.X/
must exist p-adically. PE property alone could guarantee this. The exponentials
appearing in theta functions should reduce to products pk piy D exp.k=log.p//piy
where k is integer and piy a root of unity. The vacuum expectation value of
Re.X/ contributing to the mass squared is obtained from R the standard formula
as logarithmic temperature derivative of the “integral” jvac j2 . The formula is
same as for the Super-Virasoro contributions apart from the integration reducing
to a sum.
The considerations of the Section 4.2 [72] suggest that for given p-adic prime
p the exponent k C iy corresponds to a linear combinations of poles of fermionic
zeta zF .s/ D .s/=.2s/ in the class C.p/ with non-negative integer coefficients.
This class corresponds essentially to the conformal weights of a fractal sub-
algebra of super-symplectic algebra. It could give rise also to the complex values
of action so that Riemann zeta would define the core of TGD.
The general dependence of the contribution of genus g to mass squared on g
follows from the functional form of EPVF as a product theta functions serving as
276 M. Pitkänen
building brick partition functions apart from overall multiplicative constant and
gives a nice agreement with the observed charged lepton mass ratios. The basic
feature of the formula is exponential dependence on g.
5. The super-symplectic stringy contribution assignable to the magnetic flux tube
dominates for weak bosons and is analogous to the stringy contribution to the
hadron masses.
p-Adic mass calculations leave open several questions. What is the precise origin
of preferred p-adic primes and of p-adic length scale hypothesis? How to understand
the preferred number N D 5 of Super-Kac-Moody tensor factors? How to calculate
the contribution of super-symplectic degrees of freedom—are they thermalized?
Why only three lowest genera are light and what are the masses of the predicted
bosonic higher genera implying breaking of fermion universality.
3.4 p-Adic Length Scale Hypothesis
p-Adic length scale hypothesis [38, 39] has served as a basic hypothesis of p-
p
adic TGD for several years. This hypothesis states that the scales Lp D pl,
4
p
l D 1:376 10 G are fundamental length scale at p-adic condensate level p. The
original interpretation of the hypothesis was following:
1. Above the length scale Lp p-adicity sets on and effective course grained space-
time or imbedding space topology is p-adic rather than ordinary real topology.
Imbedding space topology seems to be more appropriate identification.
2. The length scale Lp serves as a p-adic length scale cutoff for the quantum field
theory description of particles. This means that space-time begins to look like
Minkowski space so that the QFT M 4 ! CP2 becomes a realistic approximation.
Below this length scale string like objects and other particle like 3-surfaces are
important.
3. It is un-natural to assume that just single p-adic field would be chosen from
the infinite number of possibilities. Rather, there is an infinite number of cutoff
length scales. To each prime p there corresponds a cutoff length scale Lp above
which p-adic quantum field theory M 4 ! CP2 makes sense and one has a
hierarchy of p-adic QFTs. These different p-adic field theories correspond to
different hierarchically levels possibly present in the topological condensate.
Hierarchical ordering < p1 < p2 < : : : means that only the surface p1 < p2 can
condense on the surface p2 . The condensed surface can in practice be regarded
as a point-like particle at level p2 described by the p-adic conformal field theory
below length scale Lp2 .
The recent view inspired by adelic physics is that preferred p-adic primes
correspond to the so-called ramified primes for the algebraic extension of ratio-
nals defining the adele [66]. Weak form of Negentropy Maximization Principle
(WNMP) [35] in turn allows to conclude that the length scales corresponding to
powers of primes are preferred. Therefore p-adic length scale hypothesis general-
izes. There is evidence for 3-adic time scales in biology [16, 17] and 3-adic time
scales can be also assigned with Pythagorean scale in geometric theory of harmony
[43, 71].
3.5 Mersenne Primes and Gaussian Mersennes Are Special
Mersenne primes and their complex counterparts Gaussian Mersennes pop up in

p-adic mass calculations and both elementary particle physics, biology [55], and
astrophysics and cosmology [63] provide support for them.
3.5.1 Mersenne Primes
One can also consider the milder requirement that the exponent D 2L0 represents
trivial scaling represented by unit in good approximation for some p-adic topology.
Not surprisingly, this is the case for L0 D mpk since by Fermat’s theorem
ap mod p D 1 for any integer a, in particular a D 2. This is also the case for L0 D mk
such that 2k mod p D 1 for p prime. This occurs if 2k 1 is Mersenne prime: in
this case one has 2L0 D 1 modulo p so that the sizes of the fractal sub-algebras are
exponentially larger than the sizes of L0 / pn algebras. Note that all scalings aL0
are near to unity for L0 D pn whereas now only a D 2 gives scalings near unity
for Mersenne primes. Perhaps this extended fractality provides the fundamental
explanation for the special importance of Mersenne primes.
In this case integrated scalings 2L0 leave the states almost invariant so that even a
stronger form of the breaking of the exact conformal invariance would be in question
in the super-symplectic case. The representation would be defined by the generators
for which conformal weights are odd multiples of n (Mn D 2n 1) and Lkn , k > 0
would generate zero norm states only in order O.1=Mn /.
Especially interesting is the hierarchy of primes defined by the so-called
Combinatorial Hierarchy resulting from TGD based model for abstraction process.
The primes are given by 2; 3; 7 D 23 1; 127 D 27 1; 2127 1, ..: L0 D n 127
would correspond to M127 -adicity crucial for the memetic code.
3.5.2 Gaussian Mersennes Are Also Special
If one allows also Gaussian primes, then the notion of Mersenne prime generalizes:
Gaussian Mersennes are of form .1 ˙ i/n 1. In this case one could replace the
p by scaling combined with a twist of =4 around some symmetry
scaling operations
axis: 1 C i D 2exp.i=4/ and generalized p-adic fractality would mean that for
certain values of n the exponentiated operation consisting of n basic operations
would be very near to unity.
278 M. Pitkänen
1. The integers k associated with the lowest Gaussian Mersennes are following:
2; 3; 5; 7; 11; 19; 29; 47; 73; 79; 113. k D 113 corresponds to the p-adic length
scale associated with the atomic nucleus and muon. Thus all known charged
leptons, rather than only e and , as well as nuclear physics length scale,
correspond to Mersenne primes in the generalized sense.
2. The primes k D 151; 157; 163; 167 define perhaps the most fundamental
biological length scales: k D 151 corresponds to the thickness of the cell
membrane of about ten nanometers and k D 167 to cell size about 2:56 m.
This observation also suggests that cellular organisms have evolved to their
present form p through four basic evolutionary stages. This also encourages to
think that 2exp.i=4/ operation giving rise to logarithmic spirals abundant in
living matter is fundamental dynamical symmetry in bio-matter.
Logarithmic spiral provides p the simplest model for biological growth as a
repetition of the basic operation 2exp.i=4/. The naive interpretation would be
thatpgrowth processes consist of k D 151; 157; 163; 167 steps involving scaling
by 2. This, however, requires the strange looking assumption that growth starts
from a structure of size of order CP2 length. Perhaps this exotic growth process
is associated with pair of MEs or magnetic flux tubes of opposite time orientation
and energy emerging CP2 sized region in a mini big bang type process and that
the resulting structure serves as a template for the biological growth.
3. k D 239; 241; 283; 353; 367; 379; 457 associated with the next Gaussian
Mersennes define astronomical length scales. k D 239 and k D 241 correspond
to the p-adic time scales 0:55 ms and 1:1 ms: basic time scales associated with
nerve pulse transmission are in question. k D 283 corresponds to the time
scale of 38:6 min. An interesting question is whether this period could define a
fundamental biological rhythm. The length scale L.353/ corresponds to about
2:6 106 light years, roughly the size scale of galaxies. The length scale
L.367/ ' 3:3 108 light years is of same order of magnitude as the size
scale of the large voids containing galaxies on their boundaries (note the analogy
with cells). T.379/ ' 2:1 1010 years corresponds to the lower bound for the
order of the age of the Universe. T.457/
1022 years defines a completely
superastronomical time and length scale.
3.6 Questions
The proposed picture leaves open several questions.

1. Could the descriptions by both real and p-adic thermodynamics be possible?
Could they be equivalent (possibly in finite measurement resolution) as is sug-
gested by NTU? The consistency of these descriptions would imply temperature
quantization and p-adic length scale hypothesis not possible in purely real
context.
2. What could the extension of conformal symmetry to super-symplectic symmetry

mean? One possible view is that super-symplectic symmetries correspond to
dark degrees of freedom and that only the super-symplectic ground states with
negative conformal weights affect the p-adic thermodynamics, which applies
only to fermionic degrees of freedom at string world sheets. Super-symplectic
degrees of freedom would give the dominant contribution to hadron masses and
could contribute also to weak gauge boson masses. N D 5 for the needed number
of tensor factors is, however, a strong constraint and perhaps most naturally
obtained when also the super-symplectic Virasoro associated with the trivial
zeros of zeta is thermalized.
3. What happens in dark sectors. Preferred extremal property is proposed to mean
that the states are annihilated by super-symplectic sub-algebra isomorphic to the
original algebra and its commutator with the entire algebra. The conjecture is that
this gives rise to Kac-Moody algebras as dynamical symmetries—maybe ADE
type algebras, whose Dynkin diagrams characterize the inclusion of HFFs. Does
this give an additional tensor factor to Super-Virasoro algebra?
4. Super-conformal symmetry true in the sense that Super-Virasoro conditions hold
true. Partition function, however, depends on mass squared only rather than the
entire scaling generator L0 as thought erratically in the first formulation of p-
adic calculation. This does not mean breaking of conformal invariance. Super-
Virasoro conditions hold true although partition function is for the vibrational
part of L0 determining the mass squared spectrum.
4 p-Adicization and Adelic Physics
This section is devoted to the challenges related to p-adicization and adelization of

physics in which the correspondence between real and p-adic numbers via canonical
identification serves as the basic building brick. Also the problems associated with
p-adic variants of integral, Fourier analysis, Hilbert space, and Riemann geometry
should be solved in a manner respecting fundamental symmetries and their p-adic
variants must be met. The notion of number theoretical universality (NTU) plays
a key role here. One should also answer to questions about the origin of preferred
primes and p-adic length scale hypothesis.
4.1 Challenges
The basic challenges encountered are construction of the p-adic variants of real
number based physics, understanding their relationship to real physics, and the
fusion of various physics to single coherent whole.
The p-adicization of real physics is not just a straightforward formal generaliza-
tion of scattering amplitudes of existing theories but requires a deeper understanding
280 M. Pitkänen
of the physics involved. The interpretation of p-adic physics as correlate for

cognition and imagination is an important guideline and will be discussed in more
detail in separate section.
Definite integral and Fourier analysis are basic elements of standard physics and
their generalization to the p-adic context defines a highly non-trivial challenge. Also
the p-adic variants of Riemann geometry and Hilbert space are suggestive. There
are, however, problems.
1. There are problems associated with p-adic definite integral. Riemann sum does
not make sense since it approaches zero if the p-adic norm of discretization
unit approaches zero. The problems are basically due to the absence of well-
orderedness essential for the definition of definite integral and differential forms
and their integrals.
Residue integration might make sense in finite angle resolution. For algebraic
extension containing ei=n the number theoretically universal approximation
i D n.ei=n 1/ could be used. In twistor approach integrations reduce to
multiple residue integrations and since twistor approach generalizes in TGD
framework, this approach to integration is very attractive.
Positivity is a central notion in twistor Grassmannian approach [5]. Since
canonical identification maps p-adic numbers to non-negative real numbers, there
is a strong temptation to think that positivity relates to NTU [73].
2. There are problems with Fourier analysis. The naive generalization of trigono-
metric functions by replacing eix with its p-adic counterpart is not physical. Same
applies to ex . Algebraic extensions are needed to get roots of unity and e as
counterparts of the phases and discretization is necessary and has interpretation
in terms of finite resolution for angle/phase and its hyperbolic counterpart.
3. The notion of Hilbert space P is problematic. The naive generalization of Hilbert
space norm square jxj2 D xn xn for state .x1 ; x2 ; : : :/ can vanish p-adically.
Also here NTU could help. State would contain as coefficients only roots of e and
unity and only the overall factor could be p-adic number. Coefficients could be
restricted to the algebraic numbers generating the algebraic extension of rational
numbers and would not contain powers of p or even ordinary p-adic numbers
expect in the overall normalization factor.
Second challenge relates toPthe relationship
P between real and p-adic physics.
Canonical identification (CI) xn pn ! xn pn or some of its variants should
play an important role. CI is expected to map the invariants appearing in scattering
amplitudes to their real counterparts.
1. Real and p-adic variants of space-time surfaces should exist and relate to each
other somehow. Is this relationship local and involve CI at space-time level
or imbedding space level? Or is it only a global and non-local assignment of
preferred real extremals to their p-adic counterparts? Or is between these extreme
options and involves algebraic discretization of the space-time surface weakening
the strong form of SH as already proposed? How do real and p-adic imbedding
spaces relate to each other and can this relationship induce local correspondence
between preferred extremals (PEs) [25, 67, 70]?
2. NTU in some sense is a highly suggestive approach to these questions and

would suggest that canonical identification applies to isometry invariants whereas
angles and hyperbolic angles, or rather the corresponding “phases” belonging
to an extension of p-adics containing roots of e and roots of unity are mapped
to themselves. Note that the roots of e define extensions of rationals, which
induce finite-dimensional algebraic extensions of p-adic numbers. This would
make possible to define imbedding space in accordance with NTU. Also the
Hilbert space could be defined by requiring that its points correspond to number
theoretically universal angles expressible in terms of roots of unity.
3. What about real and p-adic variants of WCW? Are they needed at all? Or
could their existence be used as a powerful constraint on real physics? The
representability of WCW as a union of infinite-dimensional symmetric spaces
labelled by zero modes suggests that the same description applies at the level of
WCW and imbedding space.
One cannot circumvent the question about how to generalize functional
integral from real WCW to p-adic WCWs. In particular, what is the p-adic
variant of the action defining the dynamics of space-time surfaces. In the case
of exponent of action the p-adic variant could be defined by assuming algebraic
universality: again the roots of e and of unity would be in central role. Also the
Kähler structure of WCW implying that Gaussian and metric determinants cancel
each other in functional integral would be absolutely crucial.
One must remember that the exponents of action for scattering amplitudes
for the stationary phase extremal cancel from the path integral representation of
scattering amplitudes. Also now this mechanism would allow to get rid of the
poorly defined exponent for single minimum. If there is sum over scattering
amplitudes assignable to different maxima, normalization should give ratios
of these exponents for different extrema/maxima and only these ratios should
belong to the extension of rationals.
The zero modes of WCW metric are invariants of super-symplectic group
so that canonical identification could relate their real and p-adic variants. Zero
modes could break NTU and would be behind p-adic thermodynamics and
dependence of mass scale on p-adic prime.
The third challenge relates to the fusion of p-adic physics and real physics to
a larger structure. Here a generalization of number concept obtained by glueing
reals and various p-adics together along an extension of rational numbers inducing
the extensions of p-adic numbers is highly suggestive. Adeles associated with the
extension of rationals are highly attractive and closely related notion. Real and
various p-adic physics would be correlates for sensory and cognitive aspects of
the same universal physics rather than separate physics in this framework. One
important implication of this view is that real entropy and p-adic negentropies
characterize the same entanglement with coefficients in an extension of rationals.
NTU for hyperbolic and ordinary phases is definitely the central idea. How the
invariance of angles under conformal transformations does relate to this? Could
one perhaps define a discretized version of conformal symmetry preserving the
282 M. Pitkänen
phases defined by the angles between vectors assignable with the tangent spaces
of discretized geometric structures and thus respecting NTU? Of should one apply
conformal symmetry at Lie algebra level only?
4.2 NTU and the Correspondence Between Real and p-Adic

Physics
p-Adic real correspondence is certainly the basic problem of p-adicization and

adelization. One can make several general questions about p-adic real correspon-
dence and canonical identification inspired by p-adic mass calculations.
How generally p-adic real correspondence does apply? Could canonical iden-
tification for group invariants combined with direct identification of ordinary and
hyperbolic phases identified as roots of unity and e apply at WCW and imbedding
space level having maximally symmetric geometries? Could this make sense even
at space-time level as a correspondence induced from imbedding space level [77]?
Does canonical identification apply locally for the discretizations of space-time
surface or only globally for the parameters characterizing PEs (string world sheets
and partonic 2-surfaces by SH), which are general coordinate invariant and Poincare
invariant quantities?
4.2.1 General Vision About NTU
The following vision seems to be the most feasible one found hitherto.
1. Preservation of symmetries and continuity compete. Lorenz transformations
do not commute with canonical identification. This suggests that canonical
identification applies only to Lorentz invariants formed from quantum numbers.
This is enough in the case of scattering amplitudes. Canonical identification
applies only to isometry invariants at the level of WCW and the phases/exponents
of ordinary/hyperbolic angles correspond to numbers in the algebraic extension
common to extensions of rationals and various p-adics.
2. Canonical identification applies at the level of momentum space and maps p-
adic Lorentz invariants of scattering amplitudes to their real counterparts. Phases
of angles and their hyperbolic counterparts should correspond to parameters
defining extension and should be mapped as such to their p-adic counterparts.
3. The constraints coming from GCI and symmetries do not allow local correspon-
dence but allow to consider its discretized version at space-time level induced by
the correspondence at the level of imbedding space.
This requires the restriction of isometries and other symmetries to algebraic
subgroups defined by the extension of rationals. This would imply reduction
of symmetry due to finite cognitive/measurement resolution and should be
acceptable. If one wants to realize the ideas about imagination, discretization
must be applied also for the space-time interior meaning partial breaking of SH
and giving rise to dark matter degrees freedom in TGD sense. SH could apply
in real sector for realizable imaginations only. Note that the number of algebraic
points of space-time surface is expected to be relatively small.
The correspondence must be considered at the level of imbedding space, space-
time, and WCW.
1. At the level of imbedding space p-adic–real correspondence is induced by points
in extension of rationals and is totally discontinuous. This requires that space-
time dimension is smaller than imbedding space dimension.
2. At space-time level the correspondence involves field equations derivable from
a local variational principle make sense also p-adically although the action itself
is ill-defined as 4-D integral. The notion of p-adic PE makes sense by strong
form of holography applied to 2-surfaces in the intersection. p-Adically, however,
only the vanishing of Noether currents for a sub-algebra of the super-symplectic
algebra might make sense. This condition is stronger than the vanishing of
Noether charges defined by 3-D integrals.
3. Correspondence at the level of WCW can make sense and reduces to that
for string world sheets and partonic 2-surfaces by SH. Real and p-adic 4-
surfaces would be obtained by algebraic continuation as PEs from 2-surfaces
by assuming that the space-time surface contains subset of points of imbedding
space belonging to the extension of rationals [77]. p-Adic pseudo-constants
make p-adic continuation easy. Real continuation need not exist always. p-
Adic WCW would be considerably larger than real WCW and make possible
a predictive quantum theory of imagination and cognition.
What I have called intersection of realities and p-adicities can be identified
as the set of 2-surfaces plus algebraic discretization of space-time interior. Also
the values of induced spinor fields at the points of discretization must be given.
The parameters characterizing the extremals (say coefficients of polynomials)—
WCW coordinates—would be in extension of rationals inducing a finite-D
extension of p-adic number fields.
The hierarchy of algebraic extensions induces an evolutionary hierarchy of
adeles. The interpretation could be as a mathematical correlate for cosmic
evolution realized at the level of the core of WCW defined by the intersection?
2-surfaces could be called space-time genes.
4. Also the p-adic variant Kähler action or at least the exponent of Kähler action
defining vacuum functional should be obtainable by algebraic continuation. The
weakest condition states that the ratios of action exponents for the maxima
of Kähler function to the sum of action exponents for maxima belong to the
extension. Without this condition the hopes of satisfying NTU seem rather
meager.
284 M. Pitkänen
4.3 NTU at Space-Time Level
What about NTU at space-time level? NTU requires a correspondence between real
and p-adic numbers and the details of this corresponds have been a long standing
problem.
1. The recent view about the correspondence between real PEs to their p-adic
counterparts does not demand discrete local correspondence assumed in the
earlier proposal [60]. The most abstract approach would give up the local cor-
respondence at space-time level altogether, and restrict the preferred coordinates
of WCW (having maximal group of isometries) to numbers in the extension of
rationals considered. WCW would be discretized.
Intuitively a more realistic view is a correspondence at space-time level in the
sense that real and p-adic space-time sheets intersect at points belonging to the
extension of rationals and defining “cognitive representations.” Only some p-adic
space-time surfaces would have real counterpart.
2. The strongest form of NTU would require that the allowed points of imbedding
space belonging an extension of rationals are mapped as such to corresponding
extensions of p-adic number fields (no canonical identification). At imbedding
space level this correspondence would be extremely discontinuous. The “spines”
of space-time surfaces would, however, contain only a subset of points of
extension, and a natural resolution length scale could emerge and prevent the
fluctuation. This could be also seen as a reason for why space-times surfaces
must be 4-D. The fact that the curve xn C yn D zn has no rational points for n > 2
raises the hope that the resolution scale could emerge spontaneously.
3. The notion of monadic geometry discussed in detail in [77] would realize this
idea. Define first a number theoretic discretization of imbedding space in terms
of points, whose coordinates in group theoretically preferred coordinate system
belong to the extension of rationals considered. One can say that these algebraic
points are in the intersection of reality and various p-adicities. Overlapping open
sets assigned with this discretization define in the real sector a covering by
open sets. In p-adic sector compact-open-topology allows to assign with each
point eighth Cartesian power of algebraic extension of p-adic numbers. These
compact-open sets define analogs for the monads of Leibniz and p-adic variants
of field equations make sense inside them.
The monadic manifold structure of H is induced to space-time surfaces
containing discrete subset of points in the algebraic discretization with field
equations defining a continuation to space-time surface in given number field,
and unique only in finite measurement resolution. This approach would resolve
the tension between continuity and symmetries in p-adic–real correspondence:
isometry groups would be replaced by their sub-groups with parameters in
extension of rationals considered and acting in the intersection of reality and
p-adicities.
The Galois group of extension acts non-trivially on the “spines” of space-time
surfaces. Hence the number theoretical symmetries act as physical symmetries
and define the orbit of given space-time surface as a kind of covering space. The
coverings assigned to the hierarchy of Planck constants would naturally corre-
spond to Galois coverings and dark matter would represent number theoretical
physics.
This would give rise to a kind of algebraic hierarchy of adelic 4-surfaces
identifiable as evolutionary hierarchy: the higher the dimension of the extension,
the higher the evolutionary level.
4.4 NTU and WCW

4.4.1 p-Adic–Real Correspondence at the Level of WCW
It has not been obvious whether one should perform p-adicization and adelization
at the level of WCW. Minimalist could argue that scattering amplitudes are all we
want and that their p-adicization and adelization by algebraic continuation can be
tolerated only if it can give powerful enough constraints on the amplitudes.
1. The anti-commutations for fermionic oscillator operators are number theoret-
ically universal. Supersymmetry suggests that also WCW bosonic degrees of
freedom satisfy NTU. This could mean that the coordinates of p-adic WCW
consist of super-symplectic invariants mappable by canonical identification to
their real counterparts plus phases and their hyperbolic counterparts expressible
as genuinely algebraic numbers common to all number fields. This kind of
coordinates are naturally assignable to symmetric spaces [77].
2. Kähler structure should be mapped from p-adic to real sector and vice versa.
Vacuum functional identified as exponent of action should be NTU. Algebraic
continuation defined by SH involves p-adic pseudo-constants. All p-adic continu-
ations by SH should correspond to the same value of exponent of action obtained
by algebraic continuation from its real value. The degeneracy associated with p-
adic pseudo-constants would be analogous to gauge invariance—imagination in
TGD inspired theory of consciousness.
3. Is it possible to have NTU for WCW functional integration? Or is it enough to
realize NTU for scattering amplitudes only. What seems clear that functional
integral must reduce to a discrete sum. Physical intuition suggests a sum over
maxima of Kähler function forming a subset of PEs representing stationary
points. One cannot even exclude the possibility that the set of PEs is discrete
and that one can sum over all of them.
Restriction to maximum/stationary phase approximation gives rise to sum
over exponents multiplied with Gaussian determinants. The determinant of
Kähler metric, however, cancels the Gaussian determinants, and one obtains only
a sum over the exponents of action.
286 M. Pitkänen
The breaking of strong NTU could happen: consider only p-adic mass
calculations. This breaking is, however, associated with the parts of quantum
states assignable to the boundaries of CD, not with the vacuum functional.
4.4.2 NTU for Functional Integral
Number theoretical vision relies on NTU. In fermionic sector NTU is necessary:

one cannot speak about real and p-adic fermions as separate entities and fermionic
anti-commutation relations are indeed number theoretically universal.
What about NTU in case of functional integral? There are two opposite views.
1. One can define p-adic variants of field equations without difficulties if preferred
extremals are minimal surface extremals of Kähler action so that coupling
constants do not appear in the solutions. If the extremal property is determined
solely by the analyticity properties as it is for various conjectures, it makes sense
independent of number field. Therefore there would be no need to continue the
functional integral to p-adic sectors. This in accordance with the philosophy
that thought cannot be put in scale. This would be also the option favored by
pragmatist.
2. Consciousness theorist might argue that also cognition and imagination allow
quantum description. The supersymmetry NTU should apply also to functional
integral over WCW (more precisely, its sector defined by CD) involved with the
definition of scattering amplitudes.
Key Observations
The general vision involves some crucial observations.

1. Only the expressions for the scattering amplitudes should satisfy NTU. This does
not require that the functional integral satisfies NTU.
2. Since the Gaussian and metric determinants cancel in WCW Kähler metric
P from maxima are proportional to action exponentials exp.Sk /
the contributions
divided by the k exp.Sk /. Loops vanish by quantum criticality.
3. Scattering amplitudes can be defined as sums over the contributions from the
maxima, which would have also stationary phase by the double extremal property
made possible by the complex value of ˛K . These contributions are normalized
by the vacuum amplitude. P
It is enough to require NTU for Xi D exp.Si /= k exp.Sk /. This requires that
Sk Sl has form q1 C q2 i C q3 log.n/. The condition brings in mind homology
theory without boundary operation defined by the difference Sk Sl . NTU for both
Sk and exp.Sk / would only values of general form Sk D q1 C q2 i C q3 log.n/ for
Sk and this looks quite too strong a condition.
4. If it is possible to express the 4-D exponentials as single 2-D exponential

associated with union of string world sheets, vacuum functional disappears
completely from consideration! There is only a sum over discretization with the
same effective action and one obtains purely combinatorial expression.
What Does One Mean with Functional Integral?
The definition of functional integral in WCW is one of the key technical problems of
quantum TGD [66]. NTU states that the integral should be defined simultaneously
in all number fields in the intersection of real and p-adic worlds defined by string
world sheets and partonic 2-surfaces with WCW coordinates in algebraic extension
of rationals and allowing by strong holography continuation to 4-D space-time
surface. NTU is powerful constraint and could help in this respect.
1. Path integral is not in question. Rather, the functional integral is analogous to
Wiener integral and perhaps allows identification as a genuine integral in the real
sector. In p-adic sectors algebraic continuation should give the integral and here
number theoretical universality gives excellent hopes. The integral would have
exactly the same form in real and p-adic sector and expressible solely in terms
of algebraic numbers characterizing algebraic extension and finite roots of e and
roots of unity Un D exp.i2=n/ in algebraic extension of p-adic numbers.
Since vacuum functional exp.S/ is exponential of complex action S, the
natural idea is that only rational powers eq and roots of unity and phases
exp.i2q/ are involved and there is no dependence on p-adic prime p! This is true
in the integer part of q and is smaller than p so that one does not obtain ekp , which
is ordinary p-adic number and would spoil the number theoretic universality.
This condition is not possible to satisfy for all values of p unless the value of
Kähler function is smaller than 2. One might consider the possibility that the
allow primes are above some minimum value.
The minimal solution to NTU conditions is that the ratios of action exponen-
tials for maxima of Kähler function to the sum of these exponentials belong to
the extension of rationals considered.
2. What does one mean with functional integral? TGD is expected to be an
integrable in some sense. In integrable QFTs functional integral reduces to a sum
over stationary points of the action: typically only single point contributes—at
least in good approximation.
For real ˛K and ƒ vacuum functional decomposes to a product of exponents of
p
real contribution from Euclidian regions ( g4 real) and imaginary contribution
p
Minkowskian regions ( g4 imaginary). There would be no exchange of momen-
tum between Minkowskian and Euclidian regions. For complex values of ˛K [30]
situation changes and Kähler function as real part of action receives contributions
from both Euclidian and Minkowskian regions. The imaginary part of action has
interpretation as analog of Morse function and action as it appears in QFTs. Now
saddle points must be considered.
288 M. Pitkänen
PEs satisfy extremely strong conditions [67, 70]. All classical Noether
charges for a sub-algebra associated with super-symplectic algebra and isomor-
phic to the algebra itself vanish at both ends of CD. The conformal weights of
this algebra are n > 0-ples of those for the entire algebra. What is fascinating
that the condition that the preferred extremals are minimal surface extremals of
Kähler action could solve these conditions and guarantee also NTU at the level
of space-time surfaces. Super-symplectic boundary conditions at the ends of CD
would, however, pose number theoretic conditions on the coupling parameters. In
p-adic case the conditions should reduce to purely local conditions since p-adic
charges are not well-defined as integrals.
3. In TGD framework one is constructing zero energy states rather calculating the
matrix elements of S-matrix in terms of path integral. This gives certain liberties
but a natural expectation is that functional integral as a formal tool at least is
involved.
Could one define the functional integral as a discrete sum of contributions
of standard form for the preferred extremals, which correspond to maxima
in Euclidian regions and associated stationary phase points in Minkowskian
regions? Could one assume that WCW spinor field is concentrated along single
maximum/stationary point.
Quantum classical correspondence suggests that in Cartan algebra isometry
charges are equal to the quantal charges for quantum states expressible in number
theoretically universal manner in terms of fermionic oscillator operators or WCW
gamma matrices? Even stronger condition would be that classical correlation
functions are identical with quantal ones for allowed space-time surfaces in the
quantum superposition. Could the reduction to a discrete sum be interpreted in
terms of a finite measurement resolution?
4. In QFT Gaussian determinants produce problems because they are often poorly
defined. In the recent case they could also spoil the NTU based on the exceptional
properties of e. In the recent case, however, Gaussian determinant and metric
determinant for Kähler metric cancel each other and this problem disappears.
One could obtain just a sum over products of roots of e and roots of unity. Thus
also Kähler structure seems to be crucial for the dream about NTU.
4.5 Breaking of NTU at the Level of Scattering Amplitudes
NTU in strong sense could be broken at the level of scattering amplitudes. At space-
time level the breaking does not look natural in the recent framework. Consider only
p-adic mass calculations predicting that mass scale depends on p-adic prime. Also
for the action strong form of NTU might fail for small p-adic primes since the value
of the real part of action would be larger than p. Should one allow this? What does
one actually mean with NTU in the case of action?
Canonical identification is an important element of p-adic mass calculations and
might also be needed to map p-adic variants of scattering amplitudes to their real
counterparts. The breaking of NTU would take place, when the canonical real
valued image of the p-adic scattering amplitude differs from the real scattering
amplitude. The interpretation would be in terms of finite measurement resolution.
By the finite measurement/cognitive resolution characterized by p one cannot detect
the difference. P P
The simplest form of the canonical identification is x D n xn pn ! xn pn .
Product xy and sum x C y do not in general map to product and sum in canonical
identification. The interpretation would be in terms of a finite measurement reso-
lution: .xy/R D xR yR and .x C y/R D xR C yR only modulo finite measurement
resolution. p-Adic scattering amplitudes are obtained by algebraic continuation
from the intersection by replacing algebraic number valued parameters (such as
momenta) by general p-adic numbers. The real images of these amplitudes under
canonical identification are in general not identical with real scattering amplitudes
the interpretation being in terms of a finite measurement resolution.
In p-adic thermodynamics NTU in the strong sense fails since thermal masses
depend on p-adic mass scale. NTU can be broken by the fermionic matrix elements
in the functional integral so that the real scattering amplitudes differ from the
canonical images of the p-adic scattering amplitudes. For instance, the elementary
particle vacuum functionals in the space of Teichmueller parameters for the partonic
2-surfaces and string world sheets should break NTU [27].
4.6 NTU and the Spectrum of Kähler Coupling Strength
During years I have made several attempts to understand coupling evolution in TGD
framework. The most convincing proposal has emerged rather recently and relates
the spectrum of 1=˛K to that for the zeros of Riemann zeta [30] and to the evolution
of the electroweak U(1) couplings strength.
1. The first idea dates back to the discovery of WCW Kähler geometry defined by
Kähler function defined by Kähler action (this happened around 1990) [33]. The
only free parameter of the theory is Kähler coupling strength ˛K analogous to
temperature parameter ˛K postulated to be is analogous to critical temperature.
Whether only single value or entire spectrum of values ˛K is possible remained
an open question.
About decade ago I realized that Kähler action is complex receiving a real
contribution from space-time regions of Euclidian signature of metric and imag-
inary contribution from the Minkowskian regions. Euclidian region would give
Kähler function and Minkowskian regions analog of QFT action of path integral
approach defining also Morse function. Zero energy ontology (ZEO) [61] led to
the interpretation of quantum TGD as complex square root of thermodynamics
so that the vacuum functional as exponent of Kähler action could be identified
as a complex square root of the ordinary partition function. Kähler function
would correspond to the real contribution Kähler action from Euclidian space-
290 M. Pitkänen
time regions. This led to ask whether also Kähler coupling strength might be
complex: in analogy with the complexification of gauge coupling strength in
theories allowing magnetic monopoles. Complex ˛K could allow to explain CP
breaking. I proposed that instanton term also reducing to Chern–Simons term
could be behind CP breaking.
The problem is that the dynamics in Minkowskian and Euclidian regions
decouple completely and if Euclidian regions serve as space-time correlates
for physical objects, there would be no exchanges of classical charges between
physical objects. Should one conclude that ˛K must be complex?
2. p-Adic mass calculations for two decades ago [34] inspired the idea that length
scale evolution is discretized so that the real version of p-adic coupling constant
would have discrete set of values labelled by p-adic primes. The simple working
hypothesis was that Kähler coupling strength is renormalization group (RG)
invariant and only the weak and color coupling strengths depend on the p-adic
length scale. The alternative ad hoc hypothesis considered was that gravitational
constant is RG invariant. I made several number theoretically motivated ad
hoc guesses about coupling constant evolution, in particular a guess for the
formula for gravitational coupling in terms of Kähler coupling strength, action
for CP2 type vacuum extremal, p-adic length scale as dimensional quantity [22].
Needless to say these attempts were premature and ad hoc.
3. The vision about hierarchy of Planck constants heff D n h and the connection
heff D hgr D GMm=v0 , where v0 < c D 1 has dimensions of velocity
[62] forced to consider very seriously the hypothesis that Kähler coupling
strength has a spectrum of values in one-one correspondence with p-adic length
scales. A separate coupling constant evolution associated with heff induced by
˛K / 1=eff / 1=n looks natural and was motivated by the idea that Nature
is theoretician friendly: when the situation becomes non-perturbative, Mother
Nature comes in rescue and an heff increasing phase transition makes the situation
perturbative again.
Quite recently the number theoretic interpretation of coupling constant evolu-
tion [66, 72] in terms of a hierarchy of algebraic extensions of rational numbers
inducing those of p-adic number fields encouraged to think that 1=˛K has
spectrum labelled by primes and values of heff . Two coupling constant evolutions
suggest themselves: they could be assigned to length scales and angles which
are in p-adic sectors necessarily discretized and describable using only algebraic
extensions involve roots of unity replacing angles with discrete phases.
4. Few years ago the relationship of TGD and GRT was finally understood [50].
GRT space-time is obtained as an approximation as the sheets of the many-
sheeted space-time of TGD are replaced with single region of space-time.
The gravitational and gauge potential of sheets add together so that linear
superposition corresponds to set theoretic union geometrically. This forced to
consider the possibility that gauge coupling evolution takes place only at the
level of the QFT approximation and ˛K has only single value. This is nice but
if true, one does not have much to say about the evolution of gauge coupling
strengths.
5. The analogy of Riemann zeta function with the partition function of complex
square root of thermodynamics suggests that the zeros of zeta have interpretation
as inverses of complex temperatures s D 1=ˇ. Also 1=˛K is analogous to
temperature. This led to a radical idea to be discussed in detail in the sequel.
Could the spectrum of 1=˛K reduce to that for the zeros of Riemann zeta
or—more plausibly—to the spectrum of poles of fermionic zeta F .ks/ D
.ks/=.2ks/ giving for k D 1=2 poles as zeros of zeta and as point s D 2?
F is motivated by the fact that fermions are the only fundamental particles in
TGD and by the fact that poles of the partition function are naturally associated
with quantum criticality whereas the vanishing of and varying sign allow no
natural physical interpretation.
The poles of F .s=2/ define the spectrum of 1=˛K and correspond to zeros of
.s/ and to the pole of .s=2/ at s D 2. The trivial poles for s D 2n, n D 1; 2; ::
correspond naturally to the values of 1=˛K for different values of heff D n h
with n even integer. Complex poles would correspond to ordinary QFT coupling
constant evolution. The zeros of zeta in increasing order would correspond to p-
adic primes in increasing order and UV limit to smallest value of poles at critical
line. One can distinguish the pole s D 2 as extreme UV limit at which QFT
approximation fails totally. CP2 length scale indeed corresponds to GUT scale.
6. One can test this hypothesis. 1=˛K corresponds to the electroweak U(1) coupling
strength so that the identification 1=˛K D 1=˛U.1/ makes sense. One also knows
a lot about the evolutions of 1=˛U.1/ and of electromagnetic coupling strength
1=˛em D 1=Œcos2 .W /˛U.1/ . What does this predict?
It turns out that at p-adic length scale k D 131 (p ' 2k by p-adic length
scale hypothesis, which now can be understood number theoretically [66]) fine
structure constant is predicted with 0.7% accuracy if Weinberg angle is assumed
to have its value at atomic scale! It is difficult to believe that this could be a mere
accident because also the prediction evolution of ˛U.1/ is correct qualitatively.
Note, however, that for k D 127 labelling electron one can reproduce fine
structure constant with Weinberg angle deviating about 10% from the measured
value of Weinberg angle. Both models will be considered.
7. What about the evolution of weak, color, and gravitational coupling strengths?
Quantum criticality suggests that the evolution of these couplings strengths
is universal and independent of the details of the dynamics. Since one must
be able to compare various evolutions and combine them together, the only
possibility seems to be that the spectra of gauge coupling strengths are given
by the poles of F .w/ but with argument w D w.s/ obtained by a global
conformal transformation of upper half plane—that is Möbius transformation
(see http://tinyurl.com/gwjs85b) with real coefficients (element of GL.2; R/) so
that one as F ..as C b/=.cs C d//. Rather general arguments force it to be and
element of GL.2; Q/, GL.2; Z/ or maybe even SL.2; Z/ (ad bc D 1) satisfying
additional constraints. Since TGD predicts several scaled variants of weak and
color interactions, these copies could be perhaps parameterized by some elements
of SL.2; Z/ and by a scaling factor K.
292 M. Pitkänen
Could one understand the general qualitative features of color and weak
coupling constant evolutions from the properties of corresponding Möbius
transformation? At the critical line there can be no poles or zeros but could
asymptotic freedom be assigned with a pole of cs C d and color confinement
with the zero of as C b at real axes? Pole makes sense only if Kähler action for
the preferred extremal vanishes. Vanishing can occur and does so for massless
extremals characterizing conformally invariant phase. For zero of as C b vacuum
function would be equal to one unless Kähler action is allowed to be infinite:
does this make sense? One can, however, hope that the values of parameters
allow to distinguish between weak and color interactions. It is certainly possible
to get an idea about the values of the parameters of the transformation and one
ends up with a general model predicting the entire electroweak coupling constant
evolution successfully.
To sum up, the big idea is the identification of the spectra of coupling constant
strengths as poles of F ..as C b=/.cs C d// identified as a complex square root
of partition function with motivation coming from ZEO, quantum criticality, and
super-conformal symmetry; the discretization of the RG flow made possible by the
p-adic length scale hypothesis p ' kk , k prime; and the assignment of complex zeros
of with p-adic primes in increasing order. These assumptions reduce the coupling
constant evolution to four real rational or integer valued parameters .a; b; c; d/. In
the sequel this vision is discussed in more detail.
4.7 Other Applications of NTU
NTU in the strongest form says that all numbers involved at “basic level” (whatever
this means!) of adelic TGD are products of roots of unity and of power of a root of
e. This is extremely powerful physics inspired by conjecture with a wide range of
possible mathematical applications.
1. For instance, vacuum functional defined as an exponent of action for preferred
externals would be number of this kind. One could define functional integral
as adelic operation in all number fields: essentially as sum of exponents of
action for stationary preferred extremals since Gaussian and metric determinants
potentially spoiling NTU would cancel each other leaving only the exponent.
2. The implications of NTU for the zeros of Riemann zeta [72] will be discussed in
more detail in the Appendix. Suffice it to say that the observations about Fourier
transform for the distribution of loci of non-trivial zeros of zeta together with
NTU lead to explicit proposal for the algebraic form of zeros of zeta. The testable
proposal is that zeros decompose to disjoint classes C.p/ labelled by primes p and
the condition that piy is root of unity in given class C.p/.
3. NTU generalizes to all Lie groups. Exponents exp.ini Ji =n/ of lie-algebra genera-
tors define generalizations of number theoretically universal group elements and
generate a discrete subgroup of compact Lie group. Also hyperbolic “phases”
based on the roots em=n are possible and make possible discretized NTU versions
of all Lie-groups expected to play a key role in adelization of TGD.
NTU generalizes also to quaternions and octonions and allows to define them
as number theoretically universal entities. Note that ordinary p-adic variants
of quaternions and octonions do not give rise to a number field: inverse
of
P quaternion can have vanishing p-adic variant of norm squared satisfying
2
n xn D 0.
NTU allows to define also the notion of Hilbert space as an adelic notion. The
exponents of angles characterizing unit vector of Hilbert space would correspond
to roots of unity.
4.8 Going to the Roots of p-Adicity
The basic questions raised by the p-adic mass calculations concern the origin of
preferred p-adic primes and of p-adic length scale hypothesis. One can also ask
whether there might be a natural origin for p-adicity at the level of WCW.
4.8.1 Preferred Primes as Ramified Primes for Extensions of Rationals?
The intuitive feeling is that the notion of preferred prime is something extremely
deep and to me the deepest thing I know is number theory. Does one end up with
preferred primes in number theory? This question brought to my mind the notion of
ramification of primes (http://tinyurl.com/hddljlf) (more precisely, of prime ideals
of number field in its extension), which happens only for special primes in a given
extension of number field, say rationals. Ramification is completely analogous
to the degeneracy of some roots of polynomial and corresponds to criticality
if the polynomial corresponds to criticality (catastrophe theory of Thom is one
application). Could this be the mechanism assigning preferred prime(s) to a given
elementary system, such as elementary particle? I have not considered their role
earlier also their hierarchy is highly relevant in the number theoretical vision about
TGD.
1. Stating it very roughly (I hope that mathematicians tolerate this sloppy language
of physicist): as one goes from number field K, say rationals Q, to its algebraic
extension L, the original prime ideals in the so-called integral closure (http://
tinyurl.com/js6fpvr) over integers of K decompose to products of prime ideals
of L (prime ideal is a more rigorous manner to express primeness). Note that the
general ideal is analog of integer.
Integral closure for integers of number field K is defined as the set of elements
of K, which are roots of some monic polynomial with coefficients, which are
integers of K having the form xn C an1 xn1 C : : : C a0 . The integral closures of
both K and L are considered. For instance, integral closure of algebraic extension
of K over K is the extension itself. The integral closure of complex numbers over
ordinary integers is the set of algebraic numbers.
294 M. Pitkänen
Prime
Q ideals of K can be decomposed to products of prime ideals of L:
P D Pei i , where ei is the ramification index. If ei > 1 is true for some i,
ramification occurs. Pi :s in question are like co-inciding roots of polynomial,
which for in thermodynamics and Thom’s catastrophe theory corresponds to
criticality. Ramification could therefore be a natural aspect of quantum criticality
and ramified primes P are good candidates for preferred primes for a given
extension of rationals. Note that the ramification make sense also for extensions
of given extension of rationals.
2. A physical analogy for the decomposition of ideals to ideals of extension is
provided by decomposition of hadrons to valence quarks. Elementary particles
become composite of more elementary particles in the extension. The decom-
Q e.i/
position to these more elementary primes is of form P D Pi , the physical
analog would be the number of elementary particles of type i in the state (http://
tinyurl.com/h9528pl). Unramified prime P would be analogous a state with
e fermions. Maximally ramified prime would be analogous to Bose–Einstein
condensate of e bosons. General ramified prime would be analogous to an e-
particle state containing both fermions and condensed bosons. This is of course
just a formal analogy.
3. There are two further basic notions related to ramification and characterizing it.
Relative discriminant is the ideal divided by all ramified ideals in K (integer of
K having no ramified prime factors) and relative different for P is the ideal of
L divided by all ramified Pi :s (product of prime factors of P in L). These ideals
represent the analogs of product of preferred primes P of K and primes Pi of L
dividing them. These two integers ideals would characterize the ramification.
In TGD framework the extensions of rationals (http://tinyurl.com/h9528pl) and
p-adic number fields (http://tinyurl.com/zq22tvb) are unavoidable and interpreted as
an evolutionary hierarchy physically and cosmological evolution would gradually
proceed to more and more complex extensions. One can say that string world
sheets and partonic 2-surfaces with parameters of defining functions in increasingly
complex extensions of prime emerge during evolution. Therefore ramifications and
the preferred primes defined by them are unavoidable. For p-adic number fields the
number of extensions is much smaller, for instance, for p > 2 there are only three
quadratic extensions.
How could ramification relate to p-adic and adelic physics and could it explain
preferred primes?
1. Ramified p-adic prime P D Pei would be replaced with its e:th root Pi in p-
adicization. Same would apply to general ramified primes. Each unramified
prime of K is replaced with e D K W L primes of L and ramified primes P
with #fPi g < e primes of L: the increase of algebraic dimension is smaller.
An interesting question relates to p-adic length scale. What happens to p-adic
length scales. Is p-adic prime effectively replaced with e:th root of p-adic prime:
Lp / p1=2 L1 ! p1=2e L1 ? The only physical option is that the p-adic temperature
for P would be scaled down Tp D 1=n ! 1=ne for its e:th root (for fermions
serving as fundamental particles in TGD one actually has Tp D 1). Could

the lower temperature state be more stable and select the preferred primes as
maximally ramified ones? What about general ramified primes?
2. This need not be the whole story. Some algebraic extensions would be more
favored than others and p-adic view about realizable imaginations could be
involved. p-Adic pseudo-constants are expected to allow p-adic continuations
of string world sheets and partonic 2-surfaces to 4-D preferred extremals with
number theoretic discretization. For real continuations the situation is more
difficult. For preferred extensions—and therefore for corresponding ramified
primes—the number of real continuations—realizable imaginations—would be
especially large.
The challenge would be to understand why primes near powers of 2 and
possibly also of other small primes would be favored. Why for them the number
of realizable imaginations would be especially large so that they would be
winners in number theoretical fight for survival?
Can one make this picture more concrete? What kind of algebraic extensions
could be considered?
1. In p-adic context a proper definition of counterparts of angle variables as
phases allowing definition of the analogs of trigonometric functions requires
the introduction of algebraic extension giving rise to some roots of unity. Their
number depends on the angular resolution. These roots allow to define the
counterparts of ordinary trigonometric functions—the naive generalization based
on Taylors series is not periodic—and also allows to defined the counterpart of
definite integral in these degrees of freedom as discrete Fourier analysis. For
the simplest algebraic extensions defined by xn 1 for which Galois group is
Abelian are unramified so that something else is needed. One has decomposition
Q e.i/
P D Pi , e.i/ D 1, analogous to n-fermion state so that simplest cyclic
extension does not give rise to a ramification and there are no preferred primes.
2. What kind of polynomials could define preferred algebraic extensions of ratio-
nals? Irreducible polynomials are certainly an attractive candidate since any
polynomial reduces to a product of them. One can say that they define the
elementary particles of number theory. Irreducible polynomials have integer
coefficients having the property that they do not decompose to products of
polynomials with rational coefficients. It would be wrong to say that only these
algebraic extensions can appear but there is a temptation to say that one can
reduce the study of extensions to their study. One can even consider the possibil-
ity that string world sheets associated with products of irreducible polynomials
are unstable against decay to those characterize irreducible polynomials.
3. What can one say about irreducible polynomials? P Eisenstein criterion (http://
k
tinyurl.com/47kxjz states following. If Q.x/ D kD0;::;n ak x is nth order
polynomial with integer coefficients and with the property that there exists at
least one prime dividing all coefficients ai except an and that p2 does not divide
a0 , then Q is irreducible. Thus one can assign one or more preferred primes to the
296 M. Pitkänen
algebraic extension defined by an irreducible polynomial Q of this kind—in fact

any polynomial allowing ramification. There are also other kinds of irreducible
polynomials since Eisenstein’s condition is only sufficient but not necessary.
Furthermore, in the algebraic extension defined by Q, the prime ideals P
having the above-mentioned characteristic property decompose to an n:th power
of single prime ideal Pi : P D Pni . The primes are maximally/completely ramified.
A good illustration is provided by equations x2 C 1 D 0 allowing roots x˙ D
p
˙i and equation x2 C2pxCp D 0 allowing roots x˙ D p˙ pp 1. In the first
case the ideals associated with ˙i are different. In the second case these ideals
are one and the same since xC DD x C p: hence one indeed has ramification.
Note that the first example represents also an example of irreducible polynomial,
which does not satisfy Eisenstein criterion. In more general case the n conditions
defined by symmetric functions of roots imply that the ideals are one and same
when Eisenstein conditions are satisfied.
4. What is so nice that one could readily construct polynomials giving rise to given
preferred primes. The complex roots of these polynomials could correspond
to the points of partonic 2-surfaces carrying fermions and defining the ends
of boundaries of string world sheet. It must be, however, emphasized that the
form of the polynomial depends on the choices of the complex coordinate. For
instance, the shift x ! xC1 transforms .xn 1/=.x1/ to a polynomial satisfying
the Eisenstein criterion. One should be able to fix allowed coordinate changes in
such a manner that the extension remains irreducible for all allowed coordinate
changes.
Already the integral shift of the complex coordinate affects the situation. It
would seem that only the action of the allowed coordinate changes must reduce
to the action of Galois group permuting the roots of polynomials. A natural
assumption is that the complex coordinate corresponds to a complex coordinate
transforming linearly under subgroup of isometries of the imbedding space.
Q e.i/
In the general situation one has P D Pi , e.i/ 1 so that as of now there are
preferred primes so that the appearance of preferred primes is completely general
phenomenon.
4.8.2 The Origin of p-Adic Length Scale Hypothesis?
p-Adic length scale hypothesis emerged from p-adic length scale hypothesis. A
possible generalization of this hypothesis is that p-adic primes near powers of
prime are physically favored. There indeed exists evidence for the realization of
3-adic time scale hierarchies in living matter [17] (http://tinyurl.com/jbh9m27) and
in music both 2-adicity and 3-adicity could be present: this is discussed in TGD
inspired theory of music harmony and genetic code [43]. See also [75, 78].
One explanation would be that for preferred primes the number of p-adic space-
time sheets representable also as real space-time sheets is maximal. Imagined
worlds would be maximally realizable. Preferred p-adic primes would correspond
to ramified primes for extensions with the property that the number of realizable
imaginations is especially large for them. Why primes satisfying p-adic length scale
hypothesis or its generalization would appear as ramified primes for extensions,
which are winners in number theoretical evolution?
Also the weak form of NMP (WNMP) applying also to the purely number
theoretic form of NMP [35] might come in rescue here.
1. Entanglement negentropy for a NE [35] characterized by n-dimensional projec-
tion operator is the log.Np .n// for some p whose power divides n. The maximum
negentropy is obtained if the power of p is the largest power of prime divisor
of p, and this can be taken as definition of number theoretical entanglement
negentropy (NEN). If the largest divisor is pk , one has N D k log.p/. The
entanglement negentropy per entangled state is N=n D klog.p/=n and is maximal
for n D pk . Hence powers of prime are favored, which means that p-adic length
scale hierarchies with scales coming as powers of p are negentropically favored
and should be generated by NMP. Note that n D pk would define a hierarchy of
heff =h D pk . During the first years of heff hypothesis I believe that the preferred
values obey heff D rk , r integer not far from r D 211 . It seems that this belief was
not totally wrong.
2. If one accepts this argument, the remaining challenge is to explain why primes
near powers of two (or more generally p) are favored. n D 2k gives large
entanglement negentropy for the final state. Why primes p D n2 D 2k r would
be favored? The reason could be following. n D 2k corresponds to p D 2, which
corresponds to the lowest level in p-adic evolution since it is the simplest p-
adic topology and farthest from the real topology and therefore gives the poorest
cognitive representation of real PE as p-adic PE (Note that p D 1 makes formally
sense but for it the topology is discrete).
3. WNMP [35, 51] suggests a more feasible explanation. The density matrix
of the state to be reduced is a direct sum over contributions proportional to
projection operators. Suppose that the projection operator with largest dimension
has dimension n. Strong form of NMP would say that final state is characterized
by n-dimensional projection operator. WNMP allows “free will” so that all
dimensions nk, k D 0; 1; : : :n1 for final state projection operator are possible.
One-dimensional case corresponds to vanishing entanglement negentropy and
ordinary state function reduction isolating the measured system from external
world.
4. The negentropy of the final state per state depends on the value of k. It is maximal
if n k is power of prime. For n D 2k D Mk C 1, where Mk is Mersenne prime
n 1 gives the maximum negentropy and also maximal p-adic prime available so
that this reduction is favored by NMP. Mersenne primes would be indeed special.
Also the primes n D 2k r near 2k produce large entanglement negentropy and
would be favored by NMP.
5. This argument suggests a generalization of p-adic length scale hypothesis so that
p D 2 can be replaced by any prime.
298 M. Pitkänen
5 p-Adic Physics and Consciousness
p-Adic physics as physics of cognition and imagination is an important thread in

TGD inspired theory of consciousness. In the sequel I describe briefly the basic of
TGD inspired theory of consciousness as generalization of quantum measurement
theory to ZEO (ZEO), describe the definition of self, consider the question whether
NMP is needed as a separate principle or whether it is implied is in statistical sense
by the unavoidable statistical increase of n D heff =h if identified as a factor of the
dimension of Galois group extension of rationals defining the adeles, and finally
summarize the vision about how p-adic physics serves as a correlate of cognition
and imagination.
5.1 From Quantum Measurement Theory to a Theory of

Consciousness
The notion of self can be seen as a generalization of the poorly defined definition of
the notion of observer in quantum physics. In the following I take the role of skeptic
trying to be as critical as possible.
The original definition of self was a subsystem able to remain unentangled
under state function reductions associated with subsequent quantum jumps. The
density matrix was assumed to define the universal observable. Note that a density
matrix, which is power series of a product of matrices representing commuting
observables has in the generic case eigenstates, which are simultaneous eigenstates
of all observables. Second aspect of self was assumed to be the integration of
subsequent quantum jumps to coherent whole giving rise to the experienced flow
of time.
The precise identification of self allowing to understand both of these aspects
turned out to be difficult problem. I became aware of the solution of the problem in
terms of ZEO (ZEO) only rather recently (2014).
1. Self corresponds to a sequence of quantum jumps integrating to single unit as
in the original proposal, but these quantum jumps correspond to state function
reductions to a fixed boundary of causal diamond CD leaving the corresponding
parts of zero energy states invariant—“small” state function reductions. The parts
of zero energy states at second boundary of CD change and even the position of
the tip of the opposite boundary changes: one actually has wave function over
positions of second boundary (CD sizes roughly) and this wave function changes.
In positive energy ontology these repeated state function reductions would have
no effect on the state (Zeno effect) but in TGD framework there occurs a change
for the second boundary and gives rise to the experienced flow of time and its
arrow and self: self is generalized Zeno effect.
2. The first quantum jump to the opposite boundary corresponds to the act of “free
will” or birth of re-incarnated self. Hence the act of “free will” changes the arrow
of psychological time at some level of hierarchy of CDs. The first reduction to
the opposite boundary of CD means “death” of self and “re-incarnation” of time-
reversed self at opposite boundary at which the temporal distance between the
tips of CD increases in opposite direction. The sequence of selves and time-
reversed selves is analogous to a cosmic expansion for CD. The repeated birth
and death of mental images could correspond to this sequence at the level of
sub-selves.
3. This allows to understand the relationship between subjective and geometric time
and how the arrow of and flow of clock time (psychological time) emerge. The
average distance between the tips of CD increases on the average as along as state
function functions occur repeatedly at the fixed boundary: situation is analogous
to that in diffusion. The localization of contents of conscious experience to
boundary of CD gives rise to the illusion that universe is three-dimensional. The
possibility of memories made possibly by hierarchy of CDs demonstrates that
this is not the case. Self is simply the sequence of state function reductions at
same boundary of CD remaining fixed and the lifetime of self is the total growth
of the average temporal distance between the tips of CD.
One can identify several rather abstract state function reductions selecting a
sector of WCW.
1. There are quantum measurements inducing localization in the moduli space of
CDs with passive boundary and states at it fixed. In particular, a localization in
the moduli characterizing the Lorentz transform of the upper tip of CD would be
measured. The measured moduli characterize also the analog of symplectic form
in M 4 strongly suggested by twistor lift of TGD—that is the rest system (time
axis) and spin quantization axes. Of course, also other kinds of reductions are
possible.
2. Also a localization to an extension of rationals defining the adeles should occur.
Could the value of n D heff =h be observable? The value of n for given space-
time surface at the active boundary of CD could be identified as the order of the
smallest Galois group containing all Galois groups assignable to 3-surfaces at
the boundary. The superposition of space-time surface would not be eigenstate
of n at active boundary unless localization occurs. It is not obvious whether this
is consistent with a fixed value of n at passive boundary.
The measured value of n could be larger or smaller than the value of n at the
passive boundary of CD but in statistical sense n would increase by the analogy
with diffusion on half line defined by non-negative integers. The distance from
the origin unavoidably increases in statistical sense. This would imply evolution
as increase of maximal value of negentropy and generation of quantum coherence
in increasingly longer scales.
3. A further abstract choice corresponds to the replacement of the roles of active
and passive boundary of CD changing the arrow of clock time and correspond to
a death of self and re-incarnation as time-reversed self.
300 M. Pitkänen
Can one assume that these measurements reduce to measurements of a density

matrix of either entangled system as assumed in the earlier formulation of NMP,
or should one allow both options. This question actually applies to all quantum
measurements and leads to a fundamental philosophical questions unavoidable in
all consciousness theories.
1. Do all measurements involve entanglement between the moduli or extensions
of two CDs reduced in the measurement of the density matrix? Non-diagonal
entanglement would allow final states, which are not eigenstates of moduli or of
n: this looks strange. This could also lead to an infinite regress since it seems
that one must assume endless hierarchy of entangled CDs so that the reduction
sequence would proceed from top to bottom. It looks natural to regard single CD
as a sub-Universe.
For instance, if a selection of quantization axis of color hypercharge and
isospin (localization in the twistor space of CP2 ) is involved, one would have
an outcome corresponding to a quantum superposition of measurements with
different color quantization axis!
Going philosophical, one can also argue that the measurement of density
matrix is only a reaction to environment and does not allow intentional free will.
2. Can one assume that a mere localization in the moduli space or for the extension
of rationals (producing an eigenstate of n) takes place for a fixed CD—a kind of
self-measurement possible for even unentangled system? If there is entanglement
in these degrees of freedom between two systems (say CDs), it would be reduced
in these self-measurements but the outcome would not be an eigenstate of density
matrix. An interpretation as a realization of intention would be appropriate.
3. If one allows both options, the interpretation would be that state function
reduction as a measurement of density matrix is only a reaction to environment
and self-measurement represents a realization of intention.
4. Self-measurements would occur at higher level say as a selection of quantization
axis, localization in the moduli space of CD, or selection of extension of
rationals. A possible general rule is that measurements at space-time level are
reactions as measurements of density matrix whereas a selection of a sector of
WCW would be an intentional action. This is because formally the quantum
states at the level of WCW are as modes of classical WCW spinor field single
particle states.
5. If the selections of sectors of WCW at active boundary of CD commute with
observables, whose eigenstates appear at passive boundary (briefly passive
observables) meaning that time reversal commutes with them—they can occur
repeatedly during the reduction sequence and self as a generalized Zeno effect
makes sense.
If the selections of WCW sectors at active boundary do not commute
with passive observables, then volition as a choice of sector of WCW must
change the arrow of time. Libet’s findings show that conscious choice induces
neural activity for a fraction of second before the conscious choice. This
would imply the correspondences “big” measurement changing the arrow of
time—self-measurement at the level of WCW—intentional action and “small”
measurement—measurement at space-time level—reaction.
Self as a generalized Zeno effect makes sense only if there are active
commuting with passive observables. If the passive observables form a maximal
set, the new active observables commuting with them must emerge. The increase
of the size of extension of rationals might generate them by expanding the state
space so that self would survive only as long at it evolves.
Otherwise there would be only single unitary time evolution followed by a
reduction to opposite boundary. This makes sense only if the sequence of “big”
reductions for sub-selves can give rise to the time flow experienced by self: the
birth and death of mental images would give rise to flow of time of self.
A hierarchical process starting from given CD and proceeding downwards to
shorter scales and stopping when the entanglement is stable is highly suggestive and
favors self-measurements. What stability could mean will be discussed in the next
section. CDs would be a correlate for self-hierarchy. One can say also something
about the anatomy and correlates of self-hierarchy.
1. Self experiences its sub-selves as mental images and even we would represent
mental images of some higher level collective self. Everything is conscious but
consciousness can be lost or at least it is not possible to have memory about it.
The flow of consciousness for a given self could be due to the quantum jump
sequences performed by its sub-selves giving rise to mental images.
2. By quantum classical correspondence self has also space-time correlates. One
can visualize sub-self as a space-time sheet “glued” by topological sum to the
space-time sheet of self. Subsystem is not described as a tensor factor as in
the standard description of subsystems. Also sub-selves of selves can entangle
negentropically and this gives rise to a sharing of mental images about which
stereo vision would be basic example. Quite generally, one could speak of
stereo consciousness. Also the experiences of sensed presence [19] could be
understood as a sharing of mental images between brain hemispheres, which are
not themselves entangled. This is possible also between different brains. In the
normal situation brain hemispheres are entangled.
3. At the level of eight-dimensional imbedding space the natural correlate of self
would be CD (causal diamond). At the level of space-time the correlate would
be space-time sheet or light-like 3-surface. The contents of consciousness of self
would be determined by the space-time sheets in the interior of CD. Without
further restrictions the experience of self would be essentially four-dimensional.
Memories would be like sensory experiences except that they would be about the
geometric past and for some reason are not usually colored by sensory qualia. For
instance, 0.1 s time scale defining sensory chronon corresponds to the secondary
p-adic time scale characterizing the size of electron’s CD (Mersenne prime M127 ),
which suggests that Cooper pairs of electrons are essential for the sensory qualia.
302 M. Pitkänen
5.2 NMP and Self
The view about Negentropy Maximization Principle (NMP) [35] has co-evolved
with the notion of self and I have considered many variants of NMP.
1. The original formulation of NMP was in positive energy ontology and made
same predictions as standard quantum measurement theory. The new element
was that the density matrix of sub-system defines the fundamental observable
and the system goes to its eigenstate in state function reduction. As found, the
localizations at to WCW sectors define what might be called self-measurements
and identifiable as active volitions rather than reactions.
2. In p-adic physics one can assign with rational and even algebraic entanglement
probabilities number theoretical entanglement negentropy (NEN) satisfying the
same basic axioms as the ordinary Shannon entropy but having negative values
and therefore having interpretation as information.
P The definition of p-adic
negentropy (real valued) reads as Sp D Pk log.jPk jp /, where j:jp denotes p-
adic norm. The news is that Np D Sp can be positive and is positive for rational
entanglement probabilities. Real entanglement entropy S is always non-negative.
NMP would force the generation of negentropic entanglement (NE) and
stabilize it. NNE resources of the Universe—one might call them Akashic
records—would steadily increase.
3. A decisive step of progress was the realization is that NTU forces all states in
adelic physics to have entanglement coefficients in some extension of rationals
inducing finite-D extension of p-adic numbers. The same entanglement can
be characterized by real entropy S and p-adic negentropiesPNp , which can be
positive. One can define also total p-adic negentropy: N D p Np for all p and
total negentropy Ntot D N S.
For rational entanglement probabilities it is easy to demonstrate that the
generalization of adelic theorem holds true: Ntot D N S D 0. NMP based
on Ntot rather than N would not say anything about rational entanglement. For
extensions of rationals it is easy to find that N S > 0 is possible if entanglement
probabilities are of form Xi =n with jXi jp D 1 and n integer [76]. Should one
identify the total negentropy as difference Ntot D N S or as Ntot D N?
Irrespective of answer, large p-adic negentropy seems to force large real
entropy: this nicely correlates with the paradoxical finding that living systems
tend to be entropic although one would expect just the oppositecite [76]: this
relates in very interesting manner to the work of biologists Jeremy England
[15]. The negentropy would be cognitive negentropy and not visible for ordinary
physics.
4. The latest step in the evolution of ideas NMP was the question whether NMP
follows from number theory alone just as second law follows form probability
theory! This irritates theoretician’s ego but is victory for theory. The dimension n
of extension is positive integer and cannot grow in statistical sense in evolution!
Since one expects that the maximal value of negentropy (define as N S) must
increase with n. Negentropy must increase in long run.
5.2.1 Number Theoretic Entanglement Can Be Stable
Number theoretical Shannon entropy can serve as a measure for genuine information
assignable to a pair of entanglement systems [35]. Entanglement with coefficients
in the extension is always negentropic if entanglement negentropy comes from p-
adic sectors only. It can be negentropic if negentropy is defined as the difference of
p-adic negentropy and real entropy.
The diagonalized density matrix need not belong to the algebraic extension since
the probabilities defining its diagonal elements are eigenvalues of the density matrix
as roots of N:th order polynomial, which in the generic case requires n-dimensional
algebraic extension of rationals. One can argue that since diagonalization is not
possible, also state function reduction selecting one of the eigenstates is impossible
unless a phase transition increasing the dimension of algebraic extension used
occurs simultaneously. This kind of NE could give rise to cognitive entanglement.
There is also a special kind of NE, which can result if one requires that density
matrix serves a universal observable in state function reduction. The outcome of
reduction must be an eigenspace of density matrix, which is projector to this sub-
space acting as identity matrix inside it. This kind of NE allows all unitarily related
basis as eigenstate basis (unitary transformations must belong to the algebraic
extension). This kind of NE could serve as a correlate for “enlightened” states of
consciousness. Schrödingers cat is in this kind of state stably in superposition of
dead and alive and state basis obtained by unitary rotation from this basis is equally
good. One can say that there are no discriminations in this state, and this is what is
claimed about “enlightened” states too.
The vision about number theoretical evolution suggests that NMP forces the
generation of NE resources as NE assignable to the “passive” boundary of CD
for which no changes occur during sequence of state function reductions defining
self. It would define the unchanging self as negentropy resources, which could be
regarded as kind of Akashic records. During the next “re-incarnation” after the first
reduction to opposite boundary of CD the NE associated with the reduced state
would serve as new Akashic records for the time-reversed self. If NMP reduces to
the statistical increase of heff =h D n the consciousness information contents of the
Universe increases in statistical sense. In the best possible world of SNMP it would
increase steadily.
5.2.2 Does NMP Reduce to Number Theory?
The heretic question that emerged quite recently is whether NMP is actually needed
at all! Is NMP a separate principle or could NMP reduced to mere number theory
[35]? Consider first the possibility that NMP is not needed at all as a separate
principle.
1. The value of heff =h D n should increase in the evolution by the phase transitions
increasing the dimension of the extension of rationals. heff =h D n has been
304 M. Pitkänen
identified as the number of sheets of some kind of covering space. The Galois
group of extension acts on number theoretic discretizations of the monadic
surface and the orbit defines a covering space. Suppose n is the number of sheets
of this covering and thus the dimension of the Galois group for the extension of
rationals or factor of it.
2. It has been already noticed that the “big” state function reductions giving rise to
death and re-incarnation of self could correspond to a measurement of n D heff
implied by the measurement of the extension of the rationals defining the adeles.
The statistical increase of n follows automatically and implies statistical increase
of maximal entanglement negentropy. Entanglement negentropy increases in
statistical sense.
The resulting world would not be the best possible one unlike for a strong
form of NMP demanding that negentropy does increase in “big” state function
reductions. n also decreases temporarily and they seem to be needed. In TGD
inspired model of bio-catalysis the phase transition reducing the value of n for the
magnetic flux tubes connecting reacting bio-molecules allows them to find each
other in the molecular soup. This would be crucial for understanding processes
like DNA replication and transcription.
3. State function reduction corresponding to the measurement of density matrix
could occur to an eigenstate/eigenspace of density matrix only if the correspond-
ing eigenvalue and eigenstate/eigenspace is expressible using numbers in the
extension of rationals defining the adele considered. In the generic case these
numbers belong to N-dimensional extension of the original extension. This can
make the entanglement stable with respect to state the measurements of density
matrix.
A phase transition to an extension of an extension containing these coefficients
would be required to make possible reduction. A step in number theoretic
evolution would occur. Also an entanglement of measured state pairs with those
of measuring system in containing the extension of extension would make
possible the reduction. Negentropy could be reduced but higher-D extension
would provide potential for more negentropic entanglement and NMP would
hold true in the statistical sense.
4. If one has higher-D eigenspace of density matrix, p-adic negentropy is largest
for the entire sub-space and the sum of real and p-adic negentropies vanishes for
all of them. For negentropy identified as total p-adic negentropy SNMP would
select the entire sub-space and NMP would indeed say something explicit about
negentropy.
5.2.3 Or Is NMP Needed as a Separate Principle?
Hitherto I have postulated NMP as a separate principle [35]. Strong form of NMP
(SNMP) states that Negentropy does not decrease in “big” state function reductions
corresponding to death and re-incarnations of self.
One can, however, argue that SNMP is not realistic. SNMP would force the
Universe to be the best possible one, and this does not seem to be the case. Also
ethically responsible free will would be very restricted since self would be forced
always to do the best deed that is increase maximally the negentropy serving as
information resources of the Universe. Giving up separate NMP altogether would
allow to have also “Good” and “Evil.”
This forces to consider what I christened weak form of NMP (WNMP). Instead
of maximal dimension corresponding to N-dimensional projector self can choose
also lower-dimensional sub-spaces and 1-D sub-space corresponds to the vanishing
entanglement and negentropy assumed in standard quantum measurement theory.
As a matter of fact, this can also lead to larger negentropy gain since negentropy
depends strongly on what is the large power of p in the dimension of the resulting
eigen sub-space of density matrix. This could apply also to the purely number
theoretical reduction of NMP.
WNMP suggests how to understand the notions of Good and Evil. Various
choices in the state function reduction would correspond to Boolean algebra, which
suggests an interpretation in terms of what might be called emotional intelligence
[51]. Also it turns out that one can understand how p-adic length scale hypothesis—
actually its generalization—emerges from WNMP [66].
1. One can start from ordinary quantum entanglement. It corresponds to a super-
position of pairs of states. Second state corresponds to the internal state of the
self and second state to a state of external world or biological body of self. In
negentropic quantum entanglement each is replaced with a pair of sub-spaces of
state spaces of self and external world. The dimension of the sub-space depends
on which pair is in question. In state function reduction one of these pairs is
selected and deed is done. How to make some of these deeds good and some
bad? Recall that WNMP allows only the possibility to generate NNE but does
not force it. WNMP would be like God allowing the possibility to do good but
not forcing good deeds.
Self can choose any sub-space of the sub-space defined by k N-dimensional
projector and 1-D sub-space corresponds to the standard quantum measurement.
For k D 1 the state function reduction leads to vanishing negentropy, and
separation of self and the target of the action. Negentropy does not increase in
this action and self is isolated from the target: kind of price for sin.
For the maximal dimension of this sub-space the negentropy gain is maximal.
This deed would be good and by the proposed criterion NE corresponds to
conscious experience with positive emotional coloring. Interestingly, there are
2k 1 possible choices, which is almost the dimension of Boolean algebra con-
sisting of k independent bits. The excluded option corresponds to 0-dimensional
sub-space—empty set in set theoretic realization of Boolean algebra. This
could relate directly to fermionic oscillator operators defining basis of Boolean
algebra—here Fock vacuum would be the excluded state. The deed in this
sense would be a choice of how loving the attention towards system of external
world is.
306 M. Pitkänen
2. A map of different choices of k-dimensional sub-spaces to k-fermion states is

suggestive. The realization of logic in terms of emotions of different degrees of
positivity would be mapped to many-fermion states—perhaps zero energy states
with vanishing total fermion number. State function reductions to k-dimensional
spaces would be mapped to k-fermion states: quantum jumps to quantum states!
The problem brings in mind quantum classical correspondence in quantum
measurement theory. The direction of the pointer of the measurement apparatus
(in very metaphorical sense) corresponds to the outcome of state function
reduction, which is now 1-D sub-space. For ordinary measurement the pointer
has k positions. Now it must have 2k 1 positions. To the discrete space
of k pointer positions one must assign fermionic Clifford algebra of second
quantized fermionic oscillator operators. The hierarchy of Planck constants and
dark matter suggests the realization. Replace the pointer with its space-time k-
sheeted covering and consider zero energy states made of pairs of k-fermion
states at the sheets of the n-sheeted covering? Dark matter would be therefore
necessary for cognition. The role of fermions would be to “mark” the k space-
time sheets in the covering.
The cautious conclusion is that NMP as a separate principle is not necessary and
follows in statistical sense from the unavoidable increase of n D heff =h identified as
dimension of extension of rationals define the adeles if this extension or at least the
dimension of its Galois group is observable.
5.3 p-Adic Physics as Correlate of Cognition and Imagination
The items in the following list give motivations for the proposal that p-adic physics
could serve as a correlate for cognition and imagination.
1. By the total disconnectedness of the p-adic topology, p-adic world decomposes
naturally into blobs, objects. This happens also in sensory perception. The pinary
digits of p-adic number can be assigned to a p-tree. Parisi proposed in the
model of spin glass [12] that p-adic numbers could relate to the mathematical
description of cognition and also Khrennikov [18] has developed this idea. In
TGD framework that idea is taken to space-time level: p-adic space-time sheets
represent thought bubbles and they correlate with the real ones since they form
cognitive representations of the real world. SH allows a concrete realization of
this.
2. p-Adic non-determinism due to p-adic pseudo-constants suggests interpretation
in terms of imagination. Given 2-surfaces could allow completion to p-adic
preferred extremal but not to a real one so that pure “non-realizable” imagination
is in question.
3. Number theoretic negentropy has interpretation as negentropy characterizing
information content of entanglement. The superposition of state pairs could
be interpreted as a quantum representation for a rule or abstracted association
containing its instances as state pairs. Number theoretical negentropy char-

acterizes the relationship of two systems and should not be confused with
thermodynamical entropy, which characterizes the uncertainty about the state of
single system.
The original vision was that p-adic non-determinism could serve as a correlate
for cognition, imagination, and intention. The recent view is much more cautious.
Imagination need not completely reduce to p-adic non-determinism since it has
also real physics correlates—maybe as partial realizations of SH as in nerve pulse
pattern, which does not propagate down to muscles.
A possible interpretation for the solutions of the p-adic field equations would be
as geometric correlates of cognition, imagination, and perhaps even intentionality.
Plans, intentions, expectations, dreams, and possibly also cognition as imagination
in general could have p-adic cognitive space-time sheets as their geometric corre-
lates. A deep principle seems to be involved: incompleteness is the characteristic
feature of p-adic physics but the flexibility made possible by this incompleteness is
absolutely essential for imagination and cognitive consciousness in general.
The most feasible view is that the intersections of p-adic and real space-time
surfaces define cognitive representations of real space-time surfaces (PEs, [25, 67,
70]). One could also say that real space-time surface represents sensory aspects of
conscious experience and p-adic space-time surfaces its cognitive aspects. Both real
and p-adics rather than real or p-adics.
The identification of p-adic pseudo-constants as correlates of imagination at
space-time level is indeed a further natural idea.
1. The construction of PEs by SH from the data at 2-surfaces is like boundary
value problem with number theoretic discretization of space-time surface as
additional data. PE property in real context implies strong correlations between
string world sheets and partonic 2-surfaces by boundary conditions a them. One
cannot choose these 2-surfaces completely independently in real context.
2. In p-adic sectors the integration constants are replaced with pseudo-constants
depending on finite number of pinary digits of variables depending on coor-
dinates normal to string world sheets and partonic 2-surfaces. The fixing of
the discretization of space-time surface would allow to fix the p-adic pseudo-
constants. Once the number theoretic discretization of space-time surface is
fixed, the p-adic pseudo-constants can be fixed. Pseudo-constant could allow a
large number of p-adic configurations involving string world sheets, partonic 2-
surfaces, and number theoretic discretization but not allowed in real context.
Could these p-adic PEs correspond to imaginations, which in general are not
realizable? Could the realizable intentional actions belong to the intersection
of real and p-adic WCWs? Could one identify non-realistic imaginations as
the modes of WCW spinor fields for which 2-surfaces are not extendable to
real space-time surfaces and are localized to 2-surfaces? Could they allow only
a partial continuation to real space-time surface. Could nerve pulse pattern
representing imagined motor action and not proceeding to the level of muscles
correspond to a partially real PE?
308 M. Pitkänen
Could imagination and problem solving be search for those collections of

string world sheets and partonic 2-surfaces, which allow extension to (realization
as) real PEs? If so, p-adic physics would be there as an independent aspect
of existence and this is just the original idea. Imagination could be realized
in state function reduction, which always selects only those 2-surfaces, which
allow continuation to real space-time surfaces. The distinction between only
imaginable and also realizable would be the extendability by using strong form
of holography.
3. An interesting question is why elementary particles are characterized by pre-
ferred p-adic primes (primes near powers of 2, in particular Mersenne primes).
Could the number of realizable imaginations for these primes be especially large?
I have the feeling that this view allows respectable mathematical realization of
imagination in terms of adelic quantum physics. It is remarkable that SH derivable
from—you can guess, SGCI (the Big E again!), plays an absolutely central role in it.
Appendix: Super-Symplectic Conformal Weights and Zeros of

Riemann Zeta
Since fermions are the only fundamental particles in TGD one could argue that the
conformal weight of the generating elements of supersymplectic algebra could be
negatives for the poles of fermionic zeta F . This demands n > 0 as does also the
fractal hierarchy of super-symplectic symmetry breakings. NTU of Riemann zeta in
some sense is strongly suggested if adelic physics is to make sense.
For ordinary conformal algebras there are only finite number of generating
elements (2 n 2). If the radial conformal weights for the generators of g
consist of poles of F , the situation changes. F is suggested by the observation that
fermions are the only fundamental particles in TGD.
Q
1. Riemann Zeta .s/ D p .1=.1ps / identifiable formally as a partition function
B .s/ of arithmetic boson gas with bosons with energy log.p/ and temperature
1=s D 1=.1=2 C iy/ should be replaced with Q that of arithmetic fermionic gas
given in the product representation by F .s/ D p .1 C ps / so that the identity
B .s//=F .s/ D B .2s/ follows. This gives
B .s/
:
B .2s/
F .s/ has zeros at zeros sn of .s/ and at the pole s D 1=2 of zeta.2s/. F .s/ has
poles at zeros sn =2 of .2s/ and at pole s D 1 of .s/.
The spectrum of 1=T would be for the generators of algebra f.1=2 C
iy/=2; n > 0; 1g. In p-adic thermodynamics the p-adic temperature is 1=T D
1=n and corresponds to “trivial” poles of F . Complex values of temperature
do not make sense in ordinary thermodynamics. In ZEO quantum theory can be
regarded as a square root of thermodynamics and complex temperature parameter
makes sense.
2. If the spectrum of conformal weights of the generating elements of the algebra

corresponds to poles serving as analogs of propagator poles, it consists of the
“trivial” conformal h D n > 0- the standard spectrum with h D 0 assignable to
massless particles excluded—and “non-trivial” h D 1=4 C iy=2. There is also
a pole at h D 1.
Both the non-trivial pole with real part hR D 1=4 and the pole h D 1
correspond to tachyons. I have earlier proposed conformal confinement meaning
that the total conformal weight for the state is real. If so, one obtains for a
conformally confined two-particle states corresponding to conjugate non-trivial
zeros in minimal situation hR D 1=2 assignable to N-S representation.
In p-adic mass calculations ground state conformal weight must be 5=2
[34]. The negative fermion ground state weight could explain why the ground
state conformal weight must be tachyonic 5=2. With the required five tensor
factors one would indeed obtain this with minimal conformal confinement. In
fact, arbitrarily large tachyonic conformal weight is possible but physical state
should always have conformal weights h > 0.
3. h D 0 is not possible for generators, which reminds of Higgs mechanism
for which the naive ground states correspond to tachyonic Higgs. h D 0
conformally confined massless states are necessarily composites obtained by
applying the generators of Kac-Moody algebra or super-symplectic algebra to
the ground state. This is the case according to p-adic mass calculations [34],
and would suggest that the negative ground state conformal weight can be
associated with super-symplectic algebra and the remaining contribution comes
from ordinary super-conformal generators. Hadronic masses, whose origin is
poorly understood, could come from super-symplectic degrees of freedom. There
is no need for p-adic thermodynamics in super-symplectic degrees of freedom.
A General Formula for the Zeros of Zeta from NTU
Dyson’s comment about Fourier transform of Riemann Zeta [1] (http://tinyurl.com/

hjbfsuv) is interesting from the point of NTU for Riemann zeta.
1. The numerical calculation of Fourier transform for the imaginary parts iy of zeros
s D 1=2 C iy of zeta shows that it is concentrated at discrete set of frequencies
coming as log.pn /, p prime. This translates to the statement that the zeros of
zeta form a 1-dimensional quasicrystal, a discrete structure Fourier spectrum by
definition is also discrete (this of course holds for ordinary crystals as a special
case). Also the logarithms of powers of primes would form a quasicrystal, which
is very interesting from the point of view of p-adic length scale hypothesis.
Primes label the “energies” of elementary fermions and bosons in arithmetic
number theory, whose repeated second quantization gives rise to the hierarchy
of infinite primes [46]. The energies for general states are logarithms of integers.
310 M. Pitkänen
2. Powers pn label the points of quasicrystal defined by points log.pn / and Riemann
zeta has interpretation as partition function for boson case with this spectrum.
Could pn label also the points of the dual lattice defined by iy.
3. The existence of Fourier transform for points log.pni / for any vector ya in class
iy
C.p/ of zeros labelled by p requires pi a to be a root of unity inside C.p/. This
could define the sense in which zeros of zeta are universal. This condition also
guarantees that the factor n1=2iy appearing in zeta at critical line are number
theoretically universal (p1=2 is problematic for Qp : the problem might be solved
by eliminating from p-adic analog of zeta the factor 1 ps ).
(a) One obtains for the pair .pi ; sa / the condition log.pi /ya D qia 2, where qia
is a rational number. Dividing the conditions for .i; a/ and .j; a/ gives
q =qja
pi D pj ia
for every zero sa so that the ratios qia =qja do not depend on sa . From this one
N
easily deduce pMi D pj , where M and N are integers so that one ends up with
a contradiction.
(b) Dividing the conditions for .i; a/ and .i; b/ one obtains
ya qia
D
yb qib
so that the ratios qia =qib do not depend on pi . The ratios of the imaginary parts
of zeta would be therefore rational number which is very strong prediction
and zeros could be mapped by scaling ya =y1 where y1 is the zero which
smallest imaginary part to rationals.
(c) The impossible consistency conditions for .i; a/ and .j; a/ can be avoided
if each prime and its powers correspond to its own subset of zeros and
these subsets of zeros are disjoint: one would have infinite union of
sub-quasicrystals labelled by primes and each p-adic number field would
correspond to its own subset of zeros: this might be seen as an abstract analog
for the decomposition of rational to powers of primes. This decomposition
would be natural if for ordinary complex numbers the contribution in the
complement of this set to the Fourier transform vanishes. The conditions
.i; a/and .i; b/ require now that the ratios of zeros are rationals only in the
subset associated with pi .
For the general option the Fourier transform can be delta function for x D
log.pk / and the set fya .p/g contains Np zeros. The following argument inspires the
conjecture that for each p there is an infinite number Np of zeros ya .p/ in class C.p/
satisfying
r.p/
piya .p/ D u.p/ D e m.p/ i2 ;
where u.p/ is a root of unity that is ya .p/ D 2.m.a/ C r.p//=log.p/ and forming a
subset of a lattice with a lattice constant y0 D 2=log.p/, which itself need not be a
zero.
In terms of stationary phase approximation the zeros ya .p/ associated with p
would have constant stationary phase whereas for ya .pi ¤ p/ the phase piya .pi / would
fail to be stationary. The phase eixy would be non-stationary also for x ¤ log.pk / as
function of y.
1. Assume that for x D qlog.p/, where q not a rational, the phases eixy fail to be
roots of unity and are random implying the vanishing/smallness of F.x/ .
2. Assume that for a given p all powers piy for y … fya .p/g fail to be roots of
unity and are also random so that the contribution of the set y … fya .p/g to F.p/
vanishes/is small.
3. For x D log.pk=m / the Fourier transform should vanish or be small for m ¤
1 (rational roots of primes) and give a non-vanishing contribution for m D 1.
One has
P M.a;p/
F.x D log.pk=m / D 1aN.p/ ek mN.p/ i2 u.p/ ;
r.p/
u.p/ D e m.p/ i2 :
Obviously one can always choose N.a; p/ D N.p/.
4. For the simplest option N.p/ D 1 one would obtain delta function distribution
for x D log.pk /. The sum of the phases associated with ya .p/ and ya .p/ from
the half axes of the critical line would give
r.p/
F.x D log.pn // / X.pn / 2cos.n 2/ :
m.p/
The sign of F would vary.
5. For x D log.pk=m / the value of Fourier transform is expected to be small by
interference effects if M.a; p/ is random integer, and negligible as compared with
the value at x D log.pk /. This option is highly attractive. For N.p/ > 1 and
M.a; p/ a random integer also F.x D log.pk / is small by interference effects.
Hence it seems that this option is the most natural one.
6. The rational r.p/=m.p/ would characterize given prime (one can require that r.p/
and m.p/ have no common divisors). F.x/ is non-vanishing for all powers x D
log.pn / for m.p/ odd. For p D 2, also m.2/ D 2 allows to have jX.2n /j D 2.
An interesting ad hoc ansatz is m.p/ D p or ps.p/ . One has periodicity in n with
period m.p/ that is logarithmic wave. This periodicity serves as a test and in
principle allows to deduce the value of r.p/=m.p/ from the Fourier transform.
What could one conclude from the data (http://tinyurl.com/hjbfsuv)?
1. The first graph gives jF.x D log.pk /j and second graph displays a zoomed up part
of jF.x D log.pk /j for small powers of primes in the range Œ2; 19. For the first
graph the eighth peak (p D 11) is the largest one but in the zoomed graphs this
is not the case. Hence something is wrong or the graphs correspond to different
approximations suggesting that one should not take them too seriously.
312 M. Pitkänen
In any case, the modulus is not constant as function of pk . For small values of
k
p the envelope of the curve decreases and seems to approach constant for large
values of pk (one has x < 15 (e15 ' 3:3 106 ).
2. According to the first graph jF.x/j decreases for x D klog.p/ < 8, is largest for
small primes, and remains below a fixed maximum for 8 < x < 15. According
to the second graph the amplitude decreases for powers of a given prime (say
p D 2). Clearly, the small primes and their powers have much larger jF.x/j than
large primes.
There are many possible reasons for this behavior. Most plausible reason is that
the sums involved converge slowly and the approximation used is not good. The
inclusion of only 104 zeros would show the positions of peaks but would not allow
reliable estimate for their intensities.
1. The distribution of zeros could be such that for small primes and their powers
the number of zeros is large in the set of 104 zeros considered. This would be the
case if the distribution of zeros ya .p/ is fractal and gets “thinner” with p so that
the number of contributing zeros scales down with p as a power of p, say 1=p, as
suggested by the envelope in the first figure.
2. The infinite sum, which should vanish, converges only very slowly to zero.
k
P F.p ;k p1 / of zeros not belonging to the class p1k ¤ p
Consider the contribution
k
to F.x D log.p // D pi F.p ; pi /, which includes also pi D p. F.p ; pi /,
p ¤ p1 should vanish in exact calculation.
(a) By the proposed hypothesis this contribution reads as
P h i
r.p1 /
F.p; p1 / D a cos X.pk ; p1 /.M.a; p1 / C m.p 1/
/2/ :
log.pk /
X.pk ; p1 / D log.p1 /
:
Here a labels the zeros associated with p1 . If pk is “approximately divisible”

by p1 in other words, pk ' np1 , the sum over finite number of terms gives
a large contribution since interference effects are small, and a large number
of terms are needed to give a nearly vanishing contribution suggested by the
non-stationarity of the phase. This happens in several situations.
(b) The number .x/ of primes smaller than x goes asymptotically like .x/ '
x=log.x/ and prime density approximately like 1=log.x/ 1=log.x/2 so that
the problem is worst for the small primes. The problematic situation is
encountered most often for powers pk of small primes p near larger prime
and primes p (also large) near a power of small prime (the envelope of jF.x/j
seems to become constant above x
103 ).
(c) The worst situation is encountered for p D 2 and p1 D 2k 1—a Mersenne
k
prime and p1 D 22 C 1, k 4—Fermat prime. For .p; p1 / D .2k ; Mk /
one encounters X.2k ; Mk / D .log.2k /=log.2k 1/ factor very near to
unity for large Mersennes primes. For .p; p1 / D .Mk ; 2/ one encounters
X.Mk ; 2/ D .log.2k 1/=log.2/ ' k. Examples of Mersennes and Fermats
are .3; 2/; .5; 2/; .7; 2/; .17; 2/; .31; 2/; .127; 2/; .257; 2/; ::. Powers 2k , k D
2; 3; 4; 5; 7; 8; :: are also problematic.
(d) Also twin primes are problematic since in this case one has factor X.p D
1 C2/
p1 C 2; p1 / D log.p
log.p1 /
. The region of small primes contains many twin
prime pairs: (3,5), (5,7), (11,13), (17,19), (29,31),. . . .
These observations suggest that the problems might be understood as resulting
from including too small number of zeros.
3. The predicted periodicity of the distribution with respect to the exponent k of pk is
not consistent with the graph for small values of prime unless the periodic m.p/
for small primes is large enough. The above-mentioned effects can quite well
mask the periodicity. If the first graph is taken at face value for small primes,
r.p/=m.p/ is near zero, and m.p/ is so large that the periodicity does not become
manifest for small primes. For p D 2 this would require m.2/ > 21 since the
largest power 2n ' e15 corresponds to n
21.
To summarize, the prediction is that for zeros of zeta should divide into disjoint
classes fya .p/g labelled by primes such that within the class labelled by p one has
piya .p/ D e.r.p/=m.p//i2 so that has ya .p/ D ŒM.a; p/ C r.p/=m.p//2=log.p/.
More Precise View About Zeros of Zeta
There is a very interesting blog post by Mumford (http://tinyurl.com/zemw27o),

which leads to much more precise formulation of the idea and improved view about
the Fourier transform hypothesis: the Fourier transform or its generalization must be
defined for all zeros, not only the non-trivial ones and trivial zeros give a background
term allowing to understand better the properties of the Fourier transform.
Mumford essentially begins from Riemann’s “explicit formula” in von Man-
goldt’s form.
XX X 1
log.p/ıpn .x/ D 1 xsk 1 ;
p n1 k
x.x2 1/
where p denotes prime and sk a non-trivial zero of zeta. The left-hand side represents
the distribution associated with powers of primes. The right-hand side contains sum
over cosines
P
X cos.log.x/yk /
xsk 1 D 2 k ;
k
x1=2
where yk is the imaginary part of non-trivial zero. Apart from the factor x1=2 this is
just the Fourier transform over the distribution of zeros.
There is also a slowly varying term 1 x.x211/ , which has interpretation as the
analog of the Fourier transform term but sum over trivial zeros of zeta at s D 2n,
n > 0. The entire expression is analogous to a “Fourier transform” over the
distribution of all zeros. Quasicrystal is replaced with union on 1-D quasicrystals.
314 M. Pitkänen
Therefore the distribution for powers of primes is expressible as “Fourier

transform” over the distribution of both trivial and non-trivial zeros rather than only
non-trivial zeros as suggested by numerical data to which Dyson [1] referred to
(http://tinyurl.com/hjbfsuv). Trivial zeros give a slowly varying background term
large for small values of argument x (poles at x D 0 and x D 1—note that also
p D 0 and p D 1 appear effectively as primes) so that the peaks of the distribution
are higher for small primes.
The question was how can one obtain this kind of delta function distribution
concentrated on powers of primes from a sum over terms cos.log.x/yk / appearing
in the Fourier transform of the distribution of zeros.
Consider x D pn . One must get a constructive interference. Stationary phase
approximation is in terms of which physicist thinks. The argument was that a
destructive interference occurs for given x D pn for those zeros for which the cosine
does not correspond to a real part of root of unity as one sums over such yk : random
phase approximation gives more or less zero. To get something non-trivial yk must
be proportional to 2 n.yk /=log.p/ in class C.p/ to which yk belongs. If the number
of these yk :s in C.p/ is infinite, one obtains delta function in good approximation by
destructive interference for other values of argument x.
The guess that the number of zeros in C.p/ is infinite is encouraged by the
behaviors of the densities of primes one hand and zeros of zeta on the other hand.
The number of primes smaller than real number x goes like
x
.x/ D #.primes < x/
log.x/
in the sense of distribution. The number of zeros along critical line goes like
t
#.zeros < t/ D .t=2/ log. /
2
in the same sense. If the real axis and critical line have same metric measure, then
one can say that the number of zeros in interval T per number of primes in interval
T behaves roughly like
#.zeros < T/ T log.T/

D log. /
#.primes < T/ 2 2
so that at the limit of T ! 1 the number of zeros associated with given prime is
infinite. This assumption of course makes the argument a poor man’s argument only.
Possible Relevance for TGD
What this speculative picture from the point of view of TGD?

1. A possible formulation for NTU for the poles of fermionic Riemann zeta
F D .s/=.2s/ could be as a condition that is that the exponents pksa .p/=2 D
pk=4 pikya .p/=2 exist in a number theoretically universal manner for the zeros sa .p/
for given p-adic prime p and for some subset of integers k. If the proposed
conditions hold true, exponent reduces pk=4 ek.r.p=m.p/i2 requiring that k is a
multiple of 4. The number of the non-trivial generating elements of super-
symplectic algebra in the monomial creating physical state would be a multiple
of 4. These monomials would have real part of conformal weight 1. Conformal
confinement suggests that these monomials are products of pairs of generators
for which imaginary parts cancel.
2. Quasicrystal property might have an application to TGD. The functions of light-
like radial coordinate appearing in the generators of super-symplectic algebra
could be of form rs , s zero of zeta or rather, its imaginary part. The eigenstate
property with respect to the radial scaling rd=dr is natural by radial conformal
invariance.
The idea that arithmetic QFT assignable to infinite primes is behind the
scenes in turn suggests light-like momenta assignable to the radial coordinate
have energies with the dual spectrum log.pn /. This is also suggested by the
interpretation of as square root of thermodynamical partition function for boson
gas with momentum log.p/ and analogous interpretation of F .
The two spectra would be associated with radial scalings and with light-like
translations of light-cone boundary respecting the direction and light-likeness
of the light-like radial vector. log.pn / spectrum would be associated with light-
like momenta whereas p-adic mass scales would characterize states with thermal
mass. Note that generalization of p-adic length scale hypothesis raises the scales
defined by pn to a special physical position: this might relate to ideal structure of
adeles.
3. Finite measurement resolution suggests that the approximations of Fourier trans-
forms over the distribution of zeros taking into account only a finite number of
zeros might have a physical meaning. This might provide additional understand
about the origins of generalized p-adic length scale hypothesis stating that primes
p ' pk1 , p1 small prime—say Mersenne primes—have a special physical role.
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23. Pitkänen, M.: About nature of time. In: TGD Inspired Theory of Consciousness. In online
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30. Pitkänen, M.: Does Riemann zeta code for generic coupling constant evolution? In:
Towards M-Matrix. In online book. Available at: http://tgdtheory.fi/public_html/tgdquantum/
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31. Pitkänen, M.: Does TGD predict the spectrum of Planck constants? In: Hyper-Finite
Factors and Dark Matter Hierarchy. In online book. Available at: http://tgdtheory.fi/public_
html/neuplanck/neuplanck.html#Planck (2006)
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34. Pitkänen, M.: Massless states and particle massivation. In: p-Adic Physics. In online book.
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35. Pitkänen, M.: Negentropy maximization principle. In: TGD Inspired Theory of Consciousness.
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37. Pitkänen, M.: New particle physics predicted by TGD: part II. In: p-Adic Physics. In online
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38. Pitkänen, M.: Overall view about TGD from particle physics perspective. In: p-Adic
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Generalized Number Theory. In online book. Available at: http://tgdtheory.fi/public_html/
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41. Pitkänen, M.: Quantum antenna hypothesis. In: Quantum Hardware of Living Matter. In online
book. Available at: http://tgdtheory.fi/public_html/bioware/bioware.html#tubuc (2006)
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53. Pitkänen, M.: WCW spinor structure. In: Quantum Physics as Infinite-Dimensional Geome-
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54. Pitkänen, M.: Construction of quantum theory: more about matrices. In: Towards M-
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55. Pitkänen, M.: Quantum mind, magnetic body, and biological body. In: TGD Based View About
Living Matter and Remote Mental Interactions. In online book. Available at: http://tgdtheory.
fi/public_html/tgdlian/tgdlian.html#lianPB (2012)
56. Pitkänen, M.: SUSY in TGD Universe. In: p-Adic Physics. In online book. Available at: http://
tgdtheory.fi/public_html/padphys/padphys.html#susychap (2012)
57. Pitkänen, M.: TGD based view about classical fields in relation to consciousness theory and
quantum biology. In: TGD and EEG. In online book. Available at: http://tgdtheory.fi/public_
html/tgdeeg/tgdeeg.html#maxtgdc (2012)
58. Pitkänen, M.: Are dark photons behind biophotons. In: TGD Based View About Living Matter
and Remote Mental Interactions. In online book. Available at: http://tgdtheory.fi/public_html/
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59. Pitkänen, M.: Comments on the recent experiments by the group of Michael Persinger. In:
TGD Based View About Living Matter and Remote Mental Interactions. In online book.
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62. Pitkänen, M.: Criticality and dark matter. In: Hyper-Finite Factors and Dark Matter
Hierarchy. In online book. Available at: http://tgdtheory.fi/public_html/neuplanck/neuplanck.
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63. Pitkänen, M.: More about TGD inspired cosmology. In: Physics in Many-Sheeted Space-
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cosmomore (2014)
64. Pitkänen, M.: Quantum gravity, dark matter, and prebiotic evolution. In: Genes and
Memes. In online book. Available at: http://tgdtheory.fi/public_html/genememe/genememe.
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65. Pitkänen, M.: Recent view about Kähler geometry and spin structure of WCW . In: Quantum
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66. Pitkänen, M.: Unified number theoretical vision. In: TGD as a Generalized Number
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68. Pitkänen, M.: Can One Apply Occam’s Razor as a General Purpose Debunking Argument
to TGD? In online book.Available at: http://tgdtheory.fi/public_html/tgdquantum/tgdquantum.
html#simplicity (2016)
69. Pitkänen, M.: From Principles to Diagrams. In online book.Available at: http://tgdtheory.fi/
public_html/tgdquantum/tgdquantum.html#diagrams (2016)
70. Pitkänen, M.: How the Hierarchy of Planck Constants Might Relate to the Almost Vacuum
Degeneracy for Twistor Lift of TGD? Available at: http://tgdtheory.fi/public_html/tgdquantum/
tgdquantum.html#hgrtwistor (2016)
Articles Related to TGD
71. Pitkänen, M.: Geometric Theory of Harmony. Available at: http://tgdtheory.fi/public_html/

articles/harmonytheory.pdf (2014)
72. Pitkänen, M.: Could One Realize Number Theoretical Universality for Functional Integral?
Available at: http://tgdtheory.fi/public_html/articles/ntu.pdf (2015)
73. Pitkänen, M.: Positivity of N = 4 Scattering Amplitudes from Number Theoretical Universality.
Available at: http://tgdtheory.fi/public_html/articles/positivity.pdf (2015)
74. Pitkänen, M.: About Minimal Surface Extremals of Kähler Action. Available at: http://
tgdtheory.fi/public_html/articles/minimalkahler.pdf (2016)
75. Pitkänen, M.: Combinatorial Hierarchy: Two Decades Later. Available at: http://tgdtheory.fi/
public_html/articles/CH.pdf (2016)
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tgdtheory.fi/public_html/articles/graviconst.pdf (2017)
Nash Limit Cycles: A Game-Theoretical
Analysis of Cultural Integration in America
Bourama Toni
Abstract To be and to become an American: past, present, and future. We analyze

the dynamics of the socio-cultural evolution of America as a player in a 1-
agent game, integrating multiple immigrant-based cultural identities: American, in
continuous random cross-cultural interactions with one another, assign a probability
to each of the American ten core values which we recall, thereby defining at every
instant a population state as a vector of probabilities. Adapting a methodology
from Evolutionary Game Theory (replicator-like in human context), we uncover
all possible dynamical game scenarios, to include Nash Equilibria, Eventual Nash
Equilibria, Nash Limit Cycles, and Isochrons, a state of self-sustained oscillations
in decision-making and where individual preferences evolve with the same constant
phase. (Social Isochrons). We conjecture a game scenario for America stability
and prosperity as the co-existence of asymptotically stable community Nash
Equilibria based on the respective cultural identities, around a Nash Limit Cycle
inside-attractive and outside-repulsive, together with a national Nash Equilibrium,
asymptotically stable, around a Nash Limit Cycle inside-repulsive while outside-
attractive, all in the interior of a 9-simplex, convex compact subset of the R10
Euclidean space. However, socio-cultural structures being highly hierarchical, such
an analysis should be extended to the much richer non-Archimedean/p-adic simplex.
Keywords Game theory • Evolution matrix game • Nash Equilibrium • Stabil-

ity • Limit cycles • American core values • Culture integration
B. Toni ()
Department of Mathematics & Economics, Virginia State University, 1 Hayden Drive, Petersburg,
VA 23806, USA

322 B. Toni
1 Overview
Game theory,1 a branch of mathematics, is concerned with the modeling and

analysis of strategic rational interaction between multiple decision-making entities
called players whose actions should result in the best possible consequences or
outcomes according to their preferences [8, 19, 25]. Game refers to any interactive
situation where benefits and costs are shared and depend on all players with a
fundamental premise that all players are rational decision-makers. A player could
be any decision-making entity such as an automaton, a machine, a program, a
person or an animal, a living cell or a molecule. Players have possibly conflicting
or common objectives, with a clearly quantifiable utility or payoff. The strategies
or objectives may be tightly coupled, or may allow a probability distribution for
a random selection. The solution concept or equilibrium refers to a balance of
players’ strategies in such a way that no player has a motive to change unilaterally.
The equilibrium is strong if it does not allow any group deviation, and it is Pareto
efficient2 if there is no other outcome to make all players better off. The rationality
assumption indeed forces the appearance of an equilibrium solution.
An intuitive explanation of the concept of Nash equilibrium could be traced
back to Augustin Antoine Cournot in his Recherches into the Principles of the
Theory of Wealth in 1838 in which one could find as well an evolutionary or
dynamic idea of the best response correspondence. Picking on Cournot works
Francis Ysidro Edgeworth in his Mathematical Psychics derived the concept of
competitive equilibria in a two-players economy. Then Emile Borel, in Algèbre et
calcul des probabilités published in Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences,
vol. 185 (1927), dealt with mixed strategies, probability distributions leading to
stable game.
However, the modern analysis is accepted to have been initiated by von Neumann
and Morgenstern [25] in their book Theory of Games and Economic Behavior,
drawing from which Nash [19, 20] provides us with the modern methodological
framework.
Games are classified into noncooperative and cooperative game, distinguished
along whether decisions are made jointly or not for strategies. The study of multiple
equilibria, notably the Nash equilibrium, is part of noncooperative game theory. In
a cooperative game, one analyzes how presumably strictly rational/selfish players
could benefit from alliance by reaching bargaining agreements. The game could
also be termed static or dynamic in reference to its evolution over time.
1
Game theory is the theme of the 2001 Best Picture and Best Director, Beautiful Mind, featuring
Russell Crowe playing John Nash, the nerdy Princeton student who’s life and dating experience led
him to the Nash Equilibrium solution concept that ultimately ended in a 1994 Noble Price Award
in Economics. The underlying ideas of game theory transpired throughout history from the Bible
Talmud, the works of Descartes and Sun Tzu to the writings of Darwin. A very hot topic today,
game theory is used for Stock Markets, Portfolios, Military War Games, Bridge games, Hunting
Party, Marketing, and Politics.
2
Vilfredo Pareto, Italian mathematician, defines the efficiency as “A situation where there is no
way to rearrange things to make at least one person better off without making anyone else worse
off.”
Nash Limit Cycles: A Game-Theoretical Analysis of Cultural Integration in America 323
Some instances of games may be described by admissible mechanisms for

coordination to ensure emergence of desirable collective behavior with respect to
a given objective. For example, the commuting time to get home from work depends
not only on the chosen route but also on decisions taken by other drivers. A solution
concept or a Nash Equilibrium (NE): in traffic everyone is driving on the right. No
single driver (rational) has an interest in driving on the left.
Classical applications of game theory were in Economics, Behavioral Sciences
and Biology. Most recent ones are related to networked systems as reflected in
online advertisement on the internet, information evolution, belief propagation in
social networks; deployment of distributed passive and active sonars for underwater
sensor field design. Game can be used indeed to model the interactions taking place
in a network, with the network nodes, largely interdependent, acting as players
competing or forming coalition to maximize their quality of service. For instance,
in the field of Signal Processing for communication networks one may design a
game to address issues such as data security, spectrum sensing in cognitive radio,
multimedia resource management, and image segmentation.
As the science of strategy, game theory has all the features of a mathematical
construct. That is, it has a precise set of concepts and assumptions, many funda-
mental theorems, and many real-life applications allowing a mathematical analysis
of human and social behavior. At its core is the rational choice assumption; but
here rationality seems concerned with pursuit of happiness by decision-makers not
necessarily altruist. A game has typically three dominant mathematical forms (1)
Normal Form or Strategic Form Game (SFG), (2) Extensive Form Game (EFG), (3)
Coalition Form Game (CFG) dealing with options for subsets of players. The SFG
consists of players making the relevant decisions with the strategies available, the
payoffs are the rewards contingent upon the actions of all the players in the game.
The EFG places the emphasis on the timing of the decisions to be made, as well as
the information available, and is representable by a decision or game tree. See more
details in [8, 12, 13, 26]. In passing the so-called zero-sum game not of interest here
is a game in which the gain of one player is balanced by the loss of the other with
gains and losses summing up to zero.
The notion of Rationality is a fundamental assumption in game theory. That
is, every player’s motivation is to maximize the payoff selfishly. Here our game
is at the interfaces of Strategic Form Games and Evolutionary Social Games
or Population Games to model strategic interactions between a large number
of individual players/agents, with a finite number of strategies/actions/values,
randomly pairwise interacting with continuous payoffs/utilities. Our players adapt
strategies by trial-and-error processes, by learning over time that some strategies
work better than others: successful strategies reflected in “successful individuals” in
the society at large spread by various means including imitation, “natural selection,”
learning. The population is therefore stratified in communities delineated by class,
ethnicity, religion, national origin, cultural identities, etc. in strategic cross-cultural
interactions with a finite number n of “survival strategies” based upon some clearly
defined core values. Payoffs/utilities depend on own choices, selfish or altruist, a
personal degree of rationality, as well as on the distribution of others’ strategies and
also the distribution of information pertaining to the core values.
324 B. Toni
Fig. 1 Towards Nash Limit Cycles, July 2013
Most importantly our current focus in this work is on America as a single

player and the American social dynamics with respect to cultural integration and
assimilation of immigrants in particular. We propose a game-theoretical analysis
of the evolution dynamics of the American society as a whole to uncover and
understanding the underlying social currents and to predict its future stability
and prosperity, and also to offset the potential of radicalism or social instabilities
challenging a smooth complete successful cultural integration.
Early on in July 2013 we were fortunate to discuss with the late John Nash
himself, (see picture enclosed), this game-theoretical approach to America cultural
evolution. His inputs were valuable to us then, as they are today, and we dedicate
this work and what it is worth to his memory and his everlasting contributions to
the understanding of human economic, social, and behavior evolution. It has been a
privilege to get to know John Nash. His genuine kindness and keen show of interest
in my game-theoretical work and the STEAM-H series is fondly remembered: he
kindly autographed my first two early books (Fig. 1).
In the next section, Section 2, we present the ten American core values as
defined and proposed by behavioral scientists. (See [5].) These are values a foreign
visitor could observe in America as they fit most American and stand in sharp
contrast to the values commonly held in other countries. Section 3 introduces the
basic tenets of game theory along with some Dynamical Systems preliminaries. In
Section 4 we discuss and describe evolutionary game as it applied to America as
single player game, presenting as well subgames in relation to the subpopulations
in America; The section exposes also various game scenarios for America with a
conjectured scenario for stability and progress for the society. Section 5 concludes
with perspectives for future research, in particular to extend the mathematical
analysis into the much richer p-adic and non-Archimedean simplex to fully account
for all the hierarchical “nuances” in human preferences and behaviors.
2 America Core Values and Culture
Our premise is that culture3 consists of preference distribution along with equilib-
rium behavior distribution, but also individuals in any given culture are multidi-
mensional. Immigration has been a major driving and defining factor of American
culture. The behavior and choices of immigrants are influenced by many factors,
e.g., home country traditions, in interaction with other American, while the prefer-
ences and equilibrium behaviors are shaped by socialization and self-persuasion and
vary continuously, impacted by cross-cultural contacts, leading as a result, to some
type of cultural hybridization. Discrepancies between the ideal and actual choices
increase with time and fuel discontent. One would like to make choices in agreement
with personal preferences, but the gains and payoffs are dependent upon the degree
of choice coordination. The interactions, while seemingly random, are enhanced by
factors such as common language, shared symbols and meanings, communication
rules, down to culinary habits, family size.
America, as a social entity, has been experiencing rapidly changing demograph-
ics, with varying cultural norms and values. An American culture distinctly emerged
as a compromise, a modus vivendi, and modus operandi out of multiple early
immigrant cultures, behaviors, and preferences. These cross-cultural interactions
generate a single hybrid culture, with its own peculiar language and rules of laws.
The basic beliefs, assumptions, and values by which most American live could
be comprehensively described by some ten core values deeply ingrained in most
American [15].
1. Individualism and Privacy. .A1 / W Each person is seen as unique, special, and
independent. Such belief put a premium on individual initiative, expression,
orientation, and values privacy. Other cultures emphasize group orientation,
conformity as a way to societal harmony. American believe they control their
own destiny. Other cultures’ focus is on extended family, and its corollary of
loyalty and responsibility to family, with age given status and respect.
2. Equality/Egalitarianism. .A2 / W Each person expects to be treat equally, with
a minimum sense of hierarchy, leading to a directness in relations with others,
informal sense of self and space. One by-product is to allow the challenging
of authority as opposed to respect for authority and social order at all cost
3
Some view culture as a vehicle for providing generally accepted solutions to problems. Others
define it as part of the knowledge owned by a substantial segment of a group but not necessarily
by the general population.
326 B. Toni
prevalent in other cultures. Gender equity rather than different roles for men and
women. In other countries people seem to draw a sense of security and certainty
from Class and Authority, Rank and Status, considering it reassuring to know,
from birth, who you are and where you fit in the complex social system.
3. Materialism. .A3 / W Each person enjoys the right to be “well off” and to
“pursuit material happiness.” People are often judged by their possessions. An
undesirable by-product is the well-documented American Greed. It is a higher
priority to obtain, maintain, and protect material objects rather than developing
and enjoying interpersonal relationships, for instance.
4. Science and Technology. .A4 / W This value is seen as the driving force
for changes and the primary source of goods. Scientific and technological
approaches are highly valued, and lead to a problem-solving focus, with a
mental process and learning style that are linear, logical, and sequential.
5. Progress and Change. .A5 / W This leads to a great national optimism and
the so-called “Manifest Destiny”: nothing is impossible and greatness is ours,
as opposed to just accepting life’s difficulties. Other societies value stability,
tradition, continuity, and rich and ancient heritage, seeing change as disruptive
and potentially destructive.
6. Work and Leisure. .A6 / W This refers to a strong work ethic, and work for its
intrinsic values and as the basis of recognition and power. Idleness is seen as a
threat to society while leisure should be a reward for hard work and individual
achievement. In other cultures, work is seen as a necessity of life, and rewards
are based on seniority and relationships.
7. Competition. .A7 / W That is, the “Be always First” mentality, encouraging an
aggressive and competitive nature. It has led to Free Enterprise as an economic
system, in the belief that competition fosters rapid progress. Cooperation is
instead promoted in other cultures.
8. Mobility. .A8 / W This refers to a vertical social, economic, and physical
mobility, in a society with people on the move to better self.
9. Volunteerism. .A9 / W Philanthropy is highly valued as a personal choice not
a communal expectation, involving associations or denominations rather than
kin-groups as in other cultures.
10. Action and Achievement Oriented. .A10 / W That is, a practical mind-set
with emphasis on getting things done, a focus of function and pragmatism,
and a tendency to be brief and business-like through an explicit and direct
communication style, with emphasis on content and meaning found in the
choice of words. In other cultures the emphasis is on context, meaning is
found around the words, and communication is implicit and indirect. Formal
handshakes rather than hugs and bows! Dress for success rather than as a sign
of position, wealth, prestige, or religious rules.
These core values are perceived sometimes by individuals from other cultural
identities, at least during an initial period, with a negative and derogatory conno-
tation. However, a requirement for a complete cultural integration in America is for
newcomers to be familiarized as quickly and efficient as possible with these values.
We consider the cultural evolution strategies to be associated with these ten core
values, and define a probability distribution for each strategy Ai ; i D 1; : : : ; 10:
We are interested in determining the conditions for social stability and progress in
providing a mathematical framework to understand the American social dynamics.
Our analysis could also help clarify the challenges of the two most common
social objectives of multiculturalism and social integration. The former, aiming at
preserving the multiplicity of existing cultures, has been consistently set in policies
in countries such as Canada, while the latter appears to be the preference for many
others countries including America and seeks to favor interactions across boundaries
of class, ethnicity, religion, and national origin. Social conflicts (friction and even
violence) result in both cases, in particular when immigrant lifestyles are perceived
to threaten these core American values.
Our approach will help understand how groups differ in their resistance to
cultural integration, as well as the necessity of cultural adaptations/adjustments in
America and the consequences of immigration. Indeed in reference to the ten values,
individuals optimal contributions to a so-called public good in modern economics
are tightly dependent on their interactions with others, and require oftentimes
behavioral adjustments, e.g., speaking one language at home and another at work.
Cultural and social integration is accelerated by the need to interact efficiently with
individuals belonging to other cultures or holding different core values with varied
probabilities. It is believed that an integrated society results in economic efficiency,
increased productivity, and a fair distribution of income. Such a belief partially
justifies Civil Rights Laws and Anti-discrimination Statutes in the United States.
Our work amounts indeed to the study of the dynamics of cultural integration in
America with respect to ten American core values defining who we are as American,
proposing a game-theoretical approach both as a modeling and a design tool. We
first next describe the basics of the theory.
3 Basics of Game Theory
3.1 Strategic Form Games
When all players in a game act simultaneously and without knowledge of others’
actions, the game model is called a strategic form game we denote SFG [8, 12, 13].
Definition 3.1. A strategic form game is described by a triplet G D<
P; .Si /i2In ; .ui /i2In >; where In D f1; : : : ; ng; and with
1. P is a finite set of the n players PiD1;:::;n
2. Si is the non-empty
Q set of pure strategies or available actions for player Pi
3. ui W S D Si2P ! R is the utility or payoff function for player Pi
4. The vector s D .s1 ; : : : ; sn / denotes the strategy/ action profile or outcome
328 B. Toni
5. We denote by si D .s1 ; : : : ; si1 ; siC1 ; : : : ; sn / the vector of strategies taken

other players except player Pi : That is, s D .si ; si /: And accordingly
by all Q
Si D j¤i Sj describes all action profiles for all players except for Pi :
Note that we use the terms action and strategy interchangeably, as well as utility
and payoff.
Remark 3.2. 1. In SFG each player is interested only in action profiles s that
maximize its own utility function ui .s/:
2. Every player Pi can control only its strategy Si :
Definition 3.3. A pure strategy/action or value ˛ 2 Si is said to be (strictly)
dominated by a strategy ˇ 2 Si , 8i D 1; : : : ; n denoted by ˛ < ˇ when
ui .˛; si / < ui .ˇ; si /:
Remark 3.4. Dominated strategies/actions/profiles are rationally unjustifiable.
However, removing them in a given game may lead to the emergence of other
dominated strategies in the subgame, which results inductively in the so-called
iteratively dominated strategies. Iteratively undominated strategies survive all
rounds of elimination by dominance, resulting sometimes in instances of games
called dominance solvable where the undominated strategies form a singleton
[7, 8].
Most of the time games cannot be solved by removing dominated strategies.
We then refer to the fundamental solution concept that is needed to capture the
steady state of play with each player acting optimally given a “conjecture” about
the behavior of other players. It is the Nash Equilibrium of the game to characterize
strategy profiles resilient to unilateral deviations. It is akin to a compromise in a
game where every player endeavors to maximize its own selfish payoff. Formally
Definition 3.5. A strategy profile s D .s1 ; : : : ; sn / D .si ; si / is a Nash
Equilibrium (NE) if
ui .s / D ui .si ; si / ui .si ; si /; 8si 2 Si : (1)
Remark 3.6. 1. The Nash Equilibrium must be strategically stable to unilateral

deviations: No player can unilaterally profitably deviate. It is strong if it is stable
to group deviations, as to mitigate mutation and the impact of mutant players.
2. The Nash Equilibrium exists for a broad class of games as presented below.
3. A NE may result from repeated interactions, even in a game with partial infor-
mation and primitive decision-making as in the Harper’s 33 Ducks Experiment
[10].
In the botanic garden of Cambridge University, UK, the biologist David Harper
experimented with a flock of 33 ducks and 2 bread tossers, 20 m apart feeding
the ducks at regular intervals. Tosser 1 (the least profitable site) has a frequency
of supply of 12 pieces of bread per minute whereas Tosser 2 (the most profitable
site) has a frequency of 24 pieces per minute. After about a minute, the number of
ducks at the least profitable site stabilizes around 11, with thus 22 ducks at the most
profitable site, which indicates a Nash equilibrium has been reached: Switching
unilaterally to another site for a duck would result in getting less food. Indeed the
amount of food a duck gets does not depend on its choice but also on others’ choice.
During a transient period, behaving as a typical optimizer most of the ducks rushed
to the most profitable site, for some to realize they could get more food at the least
profitable site, and therefore switched site. After switching a few times the ducks
stick to a given choice. Repeated interactions have led to a Nash Equilibrium in a
game where the entities, the duck, could hardly qualify as rational players. Such a
process has been termed tâtonnement.
3.2 Computing Nash Equilibrium
The Nash Equilibrium may computed through a so-called Best Response correspon-
dence as follows.
Definition 3.7. For every si 2 Si the best response of player Pi is given
Bi .si / D fsi 2 Si ui .si ; si / ui .s0i ; si /; 8s0i 2 Si g (2)
Therefore a strategy profile s is a Nash Equilibrium

Q if its components satisfy
si2 Bi .si /; or if and only if s 2 B.s / D i Bi .si /: That is, Nash equilibria
are intersection points of the best responses or fixed points of the best response
correspondence.
Remark 3.8. Nash in [19, 20] characterizes his equilibrium concept using
Brouwer–Kakutani fixed-points theorems, based on topological-geometrical
assumptions: compactness of the sets of strategies and the continuity of the payoff
functions. That is, every compact continuous game has at least one mixed Nash
equilibrium. Moreover
Theorem 3.9 (Nash [19]). Every finite game has at least a Nash equilibrium
This result certainly yields a very attractive solution concept, but with no
presumption of efficiency, as seen below in the classic Prisoner’s Dilemma. The
claim follows from the Kakutani’s fixed point theorem, a generalization of the
Brouwer’s fixed point theorem. We here recall both. The proofs are readily available
in the fixed point theorems literature [3, 16, 17].
Theorem 3.10 (Brouwer’s Fixed Point Theorem). 4 Every continuous self-
mapping of a convex and compact subset of an n-dimensional Euclidean space
has at least one fixed point.
4
First studied by the French mathematician Poincaré and Picard in relation to differential equations,
the general case has been proved by Jacques Hadamard and Jan Brouwer who allegedly derived it
from the observation of motion in a cup of coffee upon stirring to dissolve a lump of sugar.
330 B. Toni
That is, let f be a continuous mapping: U Rn ! U Rn with U convex and

compact. Therefore there exists x 2 U such that f .x / D x : This is an existence,
non-constructive result, with no indication as to how to find the fixed point. An
5 n
example of a convex and compact subset could be the closed unit
n
Pnballs2 in R ; i.e.,
set of points x D .x1 ; : : : ; xn / 2 R that satisfy the inequality iD1 xi 1: Note
also that the theorem is the Schauder fixed point theorem replacing Euclidean space
by Banach space in the above statement. Proof of the theorem could be achieved
by various methods, to include: Proof using the notion of degree of a continuous
mapping; proof using Homology; proof using oriented area; proof using Stokes’
theorem; proof using the Hex game; as well as the Hirsch’s proof; The combinatorial
proof is closer to our study.
Remark 3.11 (Combinatorial Proof). Let f be aP continuous self-mappingP on the unit
n nC1 n
simplex
P ; i.e., the set fx 2 R ; xi 0j x
iD0 i D 1g: Then i xi D 1 D
n
i .f .x// i ; 8x 2 : By the Pigeonhole principle, for every such x, there is an index
j D 0; : : : ; x such that .f .x//j xj : By Sperner’s lemma, there must a point x 2 n
such that 8j; .f .x //j .x /j : Therefore f .x / D x from the equality of the sums
of the coordinates.
Brouwer’s fixed point theorem was generalized further by Kakutani. Consider a
non-empty subset K Rn with the Euclidean norm, and the associated power set
2K : Define a set-valued mapping f W K ! 2K ; such that f .x/ is a non-empty subset
f .x/ K: Now a point x 2 K is called a fixed point if x 2 f .x /:
Definition 3.12. The set-valued mapping f is upper semi-continuous in x 2 K; if
for every sequence .xk /k2N in K with xk ! x and every sequence .yk /k2N in K with
yk 2 f .xk / for all k 2 N and yk ! y we have y 2 f .x/:
Note that upper semi-continuity amounts to continuity for a point-map. The function
f is also said to have a closed graph.
Theorem 3.13 (Kakutani’s Fixed Point Theorem). For K Rn compact convex
subset and f upper semi-continuous on K;, the mapping f then has a fixed point in
the above sense, i.e., there is some x 2 K such that x 2 f .x /:
Obviously Kakutani’s theorem implies the Brouwer’s fixed point theorem. It was
used by John Nash for his equilibrium concept in game theory, and subsequently it
has many applications in game theory and economics. It is also used to prove the
minimax theorem in zero-sum games as in the original work by Kakutani.6
5
The shape of the unit ball depends on the chosen norm in the metric space: it is the usual round
ball with the usual Euclidean norm; but it has “corners” with the taxicab norm (squared shape) and
with max norm (diamond shape) similar to Œ1; 1n :
6
It is said as an anecdote that a puzzled Kakutani once asked an attendee to his talk what is
Kakutani’s fixed point theorem.
3.3 Classic Examples
Example 3.14 (Prisoner’s Dilemma [9, 13, 20, 25]). Following the story discussed
by Melcin Dresher, Meriil Flood, and Albert Tucker, two criminal suspects in
separate Police custody are offered a deal: If both testify (strategy D of Defection)
they get a sentence reduction of 1 year; if both do not testify (strategy C of
Cooperation), their sentence is reduced by 3 years for lack of hard evidence. If
one testifies (strategy D) against the other who does not (strategy C), the sentence is
reduced by 5 years. The game has therefore the payoff matrix
0 1
CD
A D @C 3 0 A (3)
D5 1
With a lower payoff, C (cooperation) is a strategy dominated by strategy D

(defection). The unique Nash Equilibrium is at .D; D/ but a higher payoff is obtained
at .C; C/: That is, the players are better off at playing C; Such a Nash equilibrium is
said to be Pareto inefficient.
Another example is the game with cyclic behavior.
Example 3.15 (Rock-Scissors-Paper [8, 13, 21, 23, 25]). Simultaneously each
player displays a sign of Rock (R: simple fist), Scissors (S: fingers in V sign) or
Paper (P: flat hand) with the rule: rock crushes scissors, scissors cut paper, and
paper wraps rock. Such a game does not have a typical NE, but in repeated plays one
ends up selecting as the best strategy randomly mixed strategies (mixed NE) with
probability 1=3: This game was often used to experiment human social evolutionary
behaviors [13, 18, 19].
Remark 3.16 (Prize of Anarchy). A Pareto efficient point sp is such that there exists
no other strategy profile s satisfying ui .s/ ui .sp / and ui .s/ > ui .sp / for some
i D 1; : : : ; n.
A Pareto efficient Nash Equilibrium is highly desirable in decision-making. A
measure of efficiency of the so-called Prize of Anarchy (PoA) defined by
P
maxS i2N ui .s/
PoA D P (4)
minNE i2N ui .s/
So the closer the PoA is to 1, the higher the efficiency of the Nash Equilibrium. One
way of improving the efficiency of Nash Equilibrium in a game design is to keep
the Nash equilibrium and transform the game into a game with different structure
such as supermodular game; potential game; repeated game; stochastic game, and
Bayesian game. See more details in [1, 6–8].
332 B. Toni
3.4 Dynamical Preliminaries
From the work of Poincaré the mathematical concept of a dynamical system is an

outgrowth of the qualitative theory of differential equations: Given a metric space
< X; d > and an additive semigroup7 I R containing 0; a flow or dynamical
system on X is determined by a continuous mapping
ˆWXI !X (5)
satisfying the identity property
ˆ.x; 0/ D s; (6)
as well as the semigroup property
ˆ.ˆ.s; t/; s/ D ˆ.x; t C s/: (7)
That is, the states of the system, when the time t evolves in the real semigroup I; are
elements of the metric space X: Here we consider an Archimedean metric with the
triangle inequality, i.e.,
d.x; z/ d.x; y/ C d.y; z/; 8x; ; y; z 2 X: (8)
In the case where the space X is endowed with an ultrametric d with a strong or
ultrametric inequality replacing the triangle inequality, i.e.,
(.x; z/ max.d.x; y/; d.y; z//; (9)
the dynamical system is non-Archimedean, as in the class of the so-called p-adic

dynamics.
Letting I D N0 D f0; 1; 2; : : :g leads to time-discrete dynamical system, whereas
the time-continuous dynamical system requires I D R or R0 D ft 2 Rjt 0g:
The curve x .:/ W R ! R such that x .t/ D .x; t/ defines the orbit or trajectory
of x under the flow , simply denoted sometimes x.t/: Note that orbit or trajectory
through x 2 X is therefore described by the point set
R .x/ D fy D ˆ.x; t/jt 2 Rg D [t2R fˆ.x; t/g: (10)
The flow thus induces a vector field X on X given by
X .x/ WD xP .0/ 2 Tx X (11)
7
A semigroup is an algebraic structure endowed with an associative closed binary operation.
where xP .0/ is the initial velocity of x.t/ with Tx X denoting the tangent space to X at
x: By the fundamental theorem on flows, x.t/ is the unique solution to the first order
dynamical system
xP D X .x.t//; t 2 R: (12)
By a recursive formula the nth order dynamical systems takes the form
x.n/ D X n : (13)
corresponding to a flow on the phase space D [x;disjoint .Tx X/n1 representing all
possible states of the system, with X called the configuration space of the system.
The asymptotic behavior of the first order system is determined by defining the
!.resp:˛/-limit set for every x 2 X as
!.x/ D lim .x/ Dfy 2 Xjy D lim ˆ.x; tn /; for a sequence .tn /n0 R0 with tn ! 1g
! n!1
D \s2R fˆ.x; t//N W t > sg

(14)
Note that the omega (alpha) limit set is closed and invariant; for X compact, it is
non-empty, compact, and connected.
Definition 3.17. 1. A point x0 2 X is a rest point or an equilibrium point of the
flow ˆ if ˆ.x0 ; t/ D x0 ; 8t 2 R:
2. Define the orbit mapping or movement through x 2 X as the mapping
.:/ D ˆx .:/ W t ! ˆ.x; t/: (15)
ˆx is periodic if there is some p > 0 with ˆ.x; t C T/ D ˆ.x; t/; 8t 2 R: The

number T is the period of the movement.
3. The equilibrium point x0 is stable if
8" > 0; 9ı D ı."/j d.x; y/ ı H) d.x; ˆ.y; t// "; 8t 0: (16)
4. The point x0 is asymptotically stable if it is stable and 9ı0 > 0; such that
limt!1 ˆ.y; t/ D x; for all y 2 X with d.x; y/ ı0 :
Stability is also investigated using the classic method of Lyapunov. Given an
autonomous system
xP D f .x/ (17)
where f 2 C 1 .U; Rn /; U Rn open and connected. The direct Lyapunov method

gives sufficient conditions for stability and asymptotic stability as follows [3, 16].
334 B. Toni
Definition 3.18. A Lyapunov function for the system is any function V 2 C 1 .X/
such that
P
V.x/ D rV.x/:f .x/ 0 x 2 X; (18)
where r denotes the gradient vector.

Proposition 3.19. A rest point x0 is stable if there exists a Lyapunov function V that
is positive definite. That is,
V.x0 / D 0; V.x/ > 0; 8x 2 X; x ¤ x0 : (19)
If in addition
P 0 / D dV .x0 / D 0
V.x
dt (20)
P
V.x/ < 0; x ¤ x0
then x0 is asymptotically stable.

Example 3.20 (Linear System). Consider a linear system
xP D Ax; x 2 Rn ; (21)
where A is a real n n matrix. Assume that A is nonsingular with x D 0 the

only rest point, and that all the eigenvalues of A have negative real parts. Take C
an arbitrary symmetric and positive definite matrix to define the positive definite
symmetric matrix
Z 1
T
BD etA CetA dt: (22)
0
The function
V.x/ D xT Bx (23)
is a positive definite Lyapunov with respect to x D 0; which is therefore an

asymptotically stable rest point.
In general, (see also in [3, 16, 17])
Proposition 3.21. If the autonomous system above has a rest point x0 such that the
@fi
corresponding Jacobian matrix . @x j
.x0 //1i;jn has only eigenvalues with negative
real parts, then x0 is asymptotically stable.
3.4.1 Special Dynamics
Limit Cycles are isolated periodic orbits, forward or backward limit cycles of
neighboring trajectories; they model self-sustained oscillations in the phase space
of the dynamical system. They appear in an attempt to detect stable cyclic behavior.
The main bifurcation route towards periodicity remains the Hopf Bifurcation, and
for a one-parameter family of continuous-time systems the non-degenerate Hopf
bifurcation is the only generic bifurcation in which a limit cycle emerges and
disappears. See [3, 17]. Given the planar parameter-dependent system
xP D f .x; ˛/; x 2 R2 ; ˛ 2 R; f smooth and analytic; (24)
with the Jacobian eigenvalues at the fixed point x D 0;
1;2 D .˛/ ˙ i!.˛/; (25)
with
.˛/ < 0; for ˛ < 0; .0/ D 0; .˛/ > 0; for ˛ > 0; (26)
we have
Theorem 3.22 ( [17]). Assume the genericity conditions8 hold, i.e.,
1.
@.˛/
Œ ˛D0 ¤ 0; .Transversality/ (27)
@˛
2.
l1 .0/ ¤ 0; .Nondegeneracy/ (28)
where l1 .0/ is the first Lyapunov coefficient.

then the system undergoes an Andronov–Hopf bifurcation at ˛ D 0:
That is, either the stable focus equilibrium x at .˛/ < 0; for ˛ < 0; and l1 .0/ < 0
becomes unstable for ˛ > 0 and surrounded by a stable limit cycle (Supercritical,
soft or non-catastrophic Hopf ), or for l1 .0/ > 0; surrounded, when ˛ < 0; by an
unstable limit cycle, shrinking and disappearing as ˛ crosses the critical value 0
(subcritical, sharp, or catastrophic Hopf.)
8
Genericity conditions ensure the existence of smooth invertible coordinate transformation depend-
ing smoothly on parameters together with parameter changes and (possibly) time reparametriza-
tions reducing the system to the normal form.
336 B. Toni
The existence of limit cycles can be also detected using the Poincaré–Bendixon
theorem together with the Dulac criterion, based on trajectories trapping regions.
This has been used by Hofbauer and Sigmund for some 3-strategy games such as the
classical game of cyclical competition, Rock-Scissor-Paper. All Hopf bifurcations
were found to be degenerate, i.e., l1 .0/ D 0 [11–14, 23].
4 Evolutionary Games
Evolutionary game theory [2, 12–14, 18, 23, 24, 26] is concerned with strategic
interactions in large populations of players, where changes over time in behavior are
driven by factors such as natural selection, “pursuit of happiness,” and economical
success of the individuals. Maynard Smith [18] in a series of pioneering papers
adapted methods of traditional game theory to the context of biological natural
selection, to explain, for instance, the existence of ritualized animal conflicts.
4.1 Matrix Games
Consider a two-player game with mixed strategies defined on two simplices as

m
X
X D fx D .x1 ; : : : ; xm / 2 Rm j xi 0; xi D 1g
iD1
(29)
n
X
Y D fy D .y1 ; : : : ; yn / 2 Rn j xi 0; yi D 1g
iD1
Define the payoff functions on X Y by
ˆ1 .x; y/ D xT Ay
(30)
ˆ2 .x; y/ D xT By;
where A and B are m n-matrices.

Definition 4.1. The point p D .x ; y / 2 X Y is called a Nash equilibrium if
xT Ay xT Ay 8x 2 X

(31)
xT By xT By 8y 2 Y
Remark 4.2. The game is symmetric for X D Y and A D BT : The Nash equilibrium
is determined accordingly. If x D y , then the conditions for equilibrium are
equivalent to
xT Ax xT Ax ; 8x 2 X: (32)
The two players are thus identical, with only symmetric pairs .x ; y / being of
interests [16].
4.2 Evolution Matrix Game
Consider a game where the single player is represented by a population whose

individuals have n mixed strategies for interaction with each other, leading to a
probability distribution.
Let si 2 Œ0; 1 R; be the probability for strategic value Ai to be chosen. The
vector of probabilities or frequencies s D .s1 ; : : : ; sn / 2 Œ0; 1n Rn describes a
state of the population as well as a behavioral
P strategy profile, with the components
si satisfying the probability constraint i si D 1: The state vector S lies on the (n-1)
simplex space of strategies
X
D fs D .s1 ; : : : ; sn / 2 Rn j 0 si 1; si D 1g (33)
i
compact and convex spanned by the set of vectors ei of the standard basis
ei D .0; : : : ; 0; 1i ; 0; : : : ; 0/; i D 1; : : : ; n: (34)
However, our evolution game here is played by the American society as a single
player whose individuals dispose of a finite number of strategies, ten core values,
in their “pursuit of happiness.” Immigrants strive to integrate such a population
with actions and strategies based on these values. The ultimate outcome is the
stability and prosperity of America. We study the evolution dynamics over time in
terms of time-continuous dynamical models. Similar models have been introduced
earlier by Taylor and Jonker [23] as the Replicator Dynamics with application in
biological, genetic, and chemical systems where organisms, genes, and molecules
evolve over time through replication. In [12–14, 23, 26–28] Hofbauer et al. and
Zeeman studied 3-strategy games under the replicator dynamics to conclude on the
occurrence of only “simple” dynamical behaviors such as sinks, sources, centers,
and saddles. Many interesting results were obtained using analytical and numerical
tools from non-linear dynamical system theory with respect to changes in the payoff
and behavioral parameters.
The strategies are given by the ten American core values described above. Let
pi 2 Œ0; 1; i D 1; : : : ; 10 be the probability for the core value Ai to be chosen by
American at any given moment. Therefore the state of population is determined by
the vector of probabilities
338 B. Toni
10
X
p D .p1 ; : : : ; p10 /; pi D 1: (35)
iD1
This forms the space of population states in the form of a 9-simplex9 ; that is
10
X
10 10
D fp D .p1 ; : : : ; p10 / 2 Œ0; 1 R j pi D 1g: (36)
iD1
Remark 4.3. 1. Pure populations states are given by the corners vectors of the
standard Euclidean basis ei D .0; : : : ; 0; 1i ; 0; : : : ; 0/; i D 1; : : : ; 10: The
interpretation is that in such a state all American choose the single core value
Ai with a probability pi giving any other value a zero probability. These states
are also called homogeneous. For instance, American choose to value only
Individualism disregarding the other nine core values. No doubt such a state
would be of concern.
2. Note that the probability si for the core strategic value Ai changes with respect to
payoffs by learning, copying, inheriting, etc. And in turn payoffs are function of
the probabilities yielding a feedback loop dynamic. The difference hi .s/ has been
identified in certain “game dynamics” with a relative increase of the frequency
[23, 24].
3. Strategies with higher payoffs reproduce faster. Consequently individuals have a
tendency to vary the probability assigned to a core value based on some perceived
relative advantage.
4. Subscribing to competing strategic values lead to the emergence of mutant
subgroups, with the by-products of the appearance of a variety of life forms,
beliefs, cultures, languages, practices, or techniques.
5. The standard population is a mixed state of a probability vector p: That is,
each core value has been given a probability pi 2 Œ0; 1 by each American in
interaction with others. The value of the probability pi depends upon personal
preferences and behaviors, and certainly influenced by cultural identities, social
class, upbringing, etc. The resulting behavior is therefore stochastic: playing the
core value Ai with probability pi :
6. In contrast to other types of dynamics such as Replicator, Replicator-Mutator, or
Logit Dynamics, [12, 13] any kind of revision protocol is described by changes
in the values of the probability assigned to each core value, not by switching
of strategy. Successful strategies are represented by “successful individuals” and
could be learned (imitated), possibly inherited.
9
Simplex generalizes the concept of triangle in arbitrary dimension, with an n-simplex being the
convex hull of its (n + 1) vertices.
7. We consider the American society has stratified in communities or clusters

based on cultural identities and ethnicity, which greatly impact the probabilities
assigned to the core values.
The interaction between an Ai value individual and an Aj value individual result
in a payoff also called reward or utility denoted by aij 2 R: Therefore all the payoffs
form the evolution payoff matrix
A D .aij /1i;j10 (37)
defining the game as an evolution matrix game. According to the context, the real
entries of this 10 10 matrix could be assumed to satisfy various properties of
matrices. That is, the matrix A could be symmetric, i.e., A D AT I skew-symmetric,
A D AT I cyclic symmetric (Toeplitz circulant with indices counted cyclically
modulo n); or a banded matrix (sparse with nonzero entries confined to a diagonal
band).
Accordingly we define a payoff or utility function u D .u1 ; : : : ; u10 / W
Œ0; 110 ! R10 ; also called the payoff vector field.
Definition 4.4. 1. Given a population state determined by the probability vector
p D .p1 ; : : : ; p10 / 2 ; the expected payoff of an Ai American is defined as
10
X
ui .p/ D ei ApT D aij pj D .Ap/i : (38)
jD1
The payoff functions ui are continuous linear functions.

2. The average payoff/utility in the population state p is given by
X
uN .p/ D pApT D pi Apj : (39)
1i;j10
3. We denote by
hi .p/ D ui .p/ uN .p/; (40)
that is, the excess payoff between the individual expected payoff and the average
payoff in the population state actually impacts the frequency and the probability
value of a core value.
Note that the sign of excess payoff hi .p/ for the core value Ai in the population
state p determines its variation in frequency as well as its corresponding probability.
The standard or regular population state p is a mixed state in which each core value
receives a nonzero probability, that is, pi 2 .0; 1/: We denote for a general n the
support of a state p by
supp.p/ D fi 2 f1; : : : ; ngjpi > 0g (41)

340 B. Toni
We now define the equilibrium of such a population game, which amounts to

a national cultural and norm compromise in America, an agreed upon modus
vivendi/operandi.
Definition 4.5. A population state p D .p1 ; : : : ; pn / 2 is called a Nash
Equilibrium, denoted NE, if
uN .p / D p ApT pApT ; 8p 2 : (42)
Equivalently we have
uN .p / D p Ap D maxiD1;:::;n ui .p /

(43)
ui .p / D ui .pi ; pi / u. pi ; pi /
where again
ui .pi ; pi / D ui .p1 ; : : : ; pi1 ; pi ; piC1 ; : : : ; pn /; 8pi 2 i D Œ0; 1:
Remark 4.6 (Interpretation). In the Nash Equilibrium state p the unilateral change
of the probability of a single core value does not lead to a higher payoff. Under the
rationality assumption of the game one would expect such a state to be maintained.
That is not in general the case because individuals do not always behave rationally.
Deviations are expected dictated by changes in preferences, and the stability of the
Nash Equilibrium state p is not guaranteed. We are therefore interested in dynamic
conditions that could ensure the evolutionary stability of that equilibrium as defined
next.
Definition 4.7 (Evolutionary Stability). A Nash Equilibrium state p 2 is
evolutionarily stable if
uN .p / D p Ap D p0 ApT for some p0 2 ; p0 ¤ p (44)
implies
uN .p0 / D p0 Ap0 < p ApT0 : (45)
That is, if the same payoff of the NE state p could be achieved in some other
state p0 ; then this other state cannot be an NE state. Conditions are needed to
characterize dynamically both states, necessary and/or sufficient conditions. First
we note
Proposition 4.8. Let p 2 be an NE state with support supp.p /. Then we get
ui .p / D uN .p / 8i 2 supp.p / (46)

In an NE state, the individual expected payoff is the same as the average in the state
for the nonzero probabilities making the NE state.
Proof. From the definition of NE, for i 2 supp.p /, and
ui .p / uN .p / D maxi ui .p /:
Hence the claim. t

u
As indicated above the payoff functions ui are continuous linear functions on the
9-simplex ; a convex compact subset of R10 : This ensures
Lemma 4.9. 8p 2 ; 9Qpi 2 i D Œ0; 1; such that
ui .Qpi ; pi / ui .pi ; pi / j 8pi 2 i (47)
This in turn leads to a constructive proof of the well-known Nash’s theorem we

recall below. First we define a continuous self-mapping f on the simplex.
f D .f1 ; : : : ; fn / W ! f .p / D pQ D .fi .p // D .Qpi /; (48)
with pQ i determined as below. The mapping f is continuous on the compact convex

set . Therefore by Brouwer–Kakutani’s fixed point theorem, there is at least a
fixed point p ; which is proved to be the Nash Equilibrium state of the population
game. Note first that for such a mapping one can construct the following sequence
.pk /k0 ; by performing an iteration: take a value p0 2 and construct
pkC1 D f .pk / D pkC1 .p0 /; k 2 N0 : (49)
Such a sequence converges to the fixed point p given by p D f .p /: Along the
same lines as Nash’s original proof, the fixed point p 2 is shown to be a Nash
Equilibrium as defined above. That is,
Theorem 4.10 (Existence of an NE State). Under the above conditions, the
population game admits a Nash Equilibrium state p 2 :
Proof. We here outline the proof as an adaptation of the Nash’s proof by now readily
available in the game theory literature [18–20]. The NE state p is indeed the fixed
point of the above function f whose existence is ensured by the fixed point theorems.
We recall, denoting In D f1; : : : ; ng;
uN .p / D p ApT D maxiD1;:::;n ui .p /; (50)
where ui .p / D ei ApT : Now define for i D 1; : : : ; n and p 2
hQ i D maxi2In .0; hi .s//

pi C hQ i (51)
fi .p/ D pQ i D P :
1 C njD1 hQ j .p/
342 B. Toni
This leads to a continuous self-mapping on given by f D .f1 ; : : : ; fn /; which has

at least a Brouwer–Kakutani fixed point p 2 ; i.e., f .p / D p : This implies
hQ i .p / D 0; 8i D 1; : : : ; n:
Therefore
uN .p / D maxi2In ui .p /: (52)
Thus p is an NE. Hence the claim. t

u
Remark 4.11. One could interpret this result as though the rationality assumption
is forcing the game into an NE state, raising the question of determining conditions
under which the NE state is evolutionarily stable.
If there exists an integer r such that for a point pQ 2 we have f r .Qp/ D p
(fixed point), where f is the constructed continuous mapping on the simplex. We
say that the point pQ is an Eventual Nash Equilibrium. The co-existence of Nash
Equilibria alongside Eventual Nash Equilibria is indeed an interesting feature for
some dynamical systems, and should be investigated. That is, a non-equilibrium
state may go to a Nash Equilibrium state in a finite time.
4.2.1 America Evolution Dynamics
The population game as described above is so far in a static form. Individuals as

rational decision-makers to reach greater success in America adapt their strategies
over time by varying the probabilities assigned to each core value for a more efficient
distribution of their preferences and behaviors. Indeed strategies with higher
payoff/rewards spread quickly in the society leading to cultural norms through, e.g.,
learning, copying/imitating. Payoffs depend on the frequencies/probabilities of the
core value in the society, which themselves change according to the payoffs/rewards,
resulting in a feedback loop dynamic characterizing the evolution of the American
society [21, 23]. We therefore introduce a dynamic in the game to account for the
changes over time of the probability distribution.
The per capita growth rate of the time-continuous dependent probability pi .t/ is
the logarithm derivative
d.logpi .t// pP i
D (53)
dt pi
determined by the difference between the expected payoff to the core value Ai and
the average payoff to the population state, leading to the time-continuous dynamical
system .A /
pP i .t/
D hi .p/ D ui .p/ uN .p/; (54)
pi
or equivalently
pP i .t/ D pi .ui .p/ uN .p// D pi ..Ap/i pAPT / D gi .p/; (A )
Remark 4.12. 1. This is a system of differential equations for i D 1; : : : ; n

with n D 10 in our context. It appears in various areas such as population
genetics, chemical networks, and is famously known as the replicator dynamics10
introduced by Taylor and Jonker [24] and coined as such by Schuster and
Sigmund [12–14, 23].P
2. Under the constraint 10 iD1 D 1 the system of equations actually reduces to 9
differential equations we analyze on a 9-simplex.
3. Moreover adding a constant to a column entries of the payoff matrix A does not
change the equations and its dynamic properties. One may then set the diagonal
entries to zeros, or set the last row of A to zero in analyzing the dynamics. Such
simplifications are indeed undertaken in practice.
Q
4. The well-defined power product V.p/ D i p˛i i satisfies
X
VP D V ˛i Œ.Ap/i pApT : (55)
5. The frequency of a core value in the society as given by the probability increases
when it has above average utility/payoff. Individuals have limited and localized
knowledge of the whole system, according to the distribution of information.
Some core values could become extinct as time goes to infinity. Indeed whenever
a core value Ai is recursively strongly dominated as defined above, it will not
survive the America Evolution equation .A /. That is, for the assigned probability
pi , we have limt!1 pi .t/ D 0: The corresponding core value therefore goes
extinct. This process might explain the steady variation of cultural values and
norms [1, 7, 9, 22].
6. Another outcome is that, if for a core value Ai ; there is no Ai player in the
society at one point in time, then it can never appear in the future. Therefore
the population states given by pi D 1; and pj D 0; for j ¤ i; are fixed points of
the dynamic.
7. Finally stochastic effects are not considered here in our evolution equation; they
can lead to the elimination of core values in subpopulations.
Fundamentally we have
Proposition 4.13. The mean average payoff or utility of a population state
increases along any trajectory of the evolution equation .A /; giving by the equation
n
X
uPN D 2 pi .ui .p/ uN /2 : (56)
iD1
10
A replicator is an entity with the means to make accurate copies of itself. It can be a gene, an
organism, a belief, a technique, a convention, a cultural norm.
344 B. Toni
It is similar to a result by the biologist Fisher with respect to Natural

Selection [8].
Proof. Recall
n
X n
X
ui .p/ aij pj ; uN D pi ui D pApT : (57)
jD1 iD1
Therefore
X n
X
uPN D 2 pj aij pP i D 2 pi .ui uN /2 : (58)
iD1
t
u
We analyze the system on the unit 9-simplex subset of R10 ; and the state space
of the vectors of probabilities. It is actually a cubic polynomial dynamic, whose
class has been extensively investigated. We denoted P D int. / the interior of the
simplex given by the set
P WD int. / D fp D .p1 ; : : : ; pn /j pi > 0 8i D 1; : : : ; ng:

(59)
The boundary faces are denoted by @ and defined as
@ .J/ D fp 2 W pi D 0; 8i 2 Jg; (60)
where J is any nontrivial subset of f1; : : : ; ng:

P
Proposition 4.14. The hyperplanes pi D 1 and xi D 0 are invariant
P
Proof. Differentiating the constraint pi D 1 yields
P
d. pi / X X
D pP i D papT . pi /pApT D 0: (61)
dt
Thus the invariance of the hyperplane. Likewise we obtain the invariance of the
simplex faces. u
t
Our purpose is to describe the long term behavior of such a dynamical system.
Proposition 4.15. The rest points of the evolution equation are the Nash Equilibria
of the game.
Proof. The rest points are the zeros of g.p/ D .gi .p// D 0: That is, points p 2
such that .Ap/i D pApT ; for all i 2 supp.x/: Thus an interior rest point is a solution
of the system of linear equations
.Ap/1 D .Ap/2 D : : : D .Ap/n : (62)

By definition a Nash Equilibrium p is an interior solution of such system. Thus an

NE is an interior rest point. t
u
Rest points of the evolution equation .A / or replicator dynamics in biological
context and Nash equilibria are closely related as in the so-called Folk Theorem of
Evolutionary Game Theory [12–14, 23, 24, 26].
Theorem 4.16. 1. If p is a Nash Equilibrium, then it is a rest point for .A /
2. If p is an evolutionarily stable NE, then it is asymptotically stable for .A /;
globally if p is interior.
3. If the rest point pO is stable, then it is a Nash Equilibrium
4. Every interior rest point pO 2 P is a Nash Equilibrium
5. If a rest point pO for .A / is also the forward limit point of an interior orbit x.t/ of
.A /; i.e., x.t/ 2 P D int. /, then pO is a Nash Equilibrium.
Remark 4.17. The converse is not true in the Folk Theorem of Evolutionary Game
Theory.
For a boundary rest point pO the difference hi .Op/ D .AOp/i pO AOpT is also an
eigenvalue pO for the Jacobian J.Op/ with an eigenvector transversal to the face
pO i D 0: That entails
Lemma 4.18. A rest point pO for the evolution equation .A / is a Nash Equilibrium
if and only if its transversal eigenvalues are nonpositive.
Consequently one derives the existence of Nash Equilibria for the evolution
dynamics .A /: That is,
Theorem 4.19. Every population game or subgame has at least one Nash Equilib-
rium
Following [13] consider indeed the perturbation A" of the evolution equation
.A / following (Hofbauer)
pP i .t/ D gi .p/ C ".1 npi /

(63)
D pi ..Ap/i pApT / C ".1 npi /
P
for small " > 0: The perturbed equation A" again satisfies i pP i D 0 on with a
P Thus there is at least one
flow on the boundary @ directed towards the interior :
rest point pO ."/in the interior leading to
"
hi .Op."// n" D <0 (64)
pO i ."/
Therefore any accumulation point p of pO ."/ as " ! 0 is an NE. Consequently there

is only odd number of regular Nash Equilibria, i.e., with nonsingular Jacobian (see
also [12, 13, 23].
346 B. Toni
Remark 4.20 (Interpretation). For the evolution of America with respect to the ten
core values, there is always at least one Nash Equilibrium, Pareto efficient or not. It
is therefore important to study the conditions of its stability and efficiency. Moreover
the American society been stratified according to communities preferences and
behaviors there are several communities subgames reflected in cultural differences.
These subgames are determined by the number nc of core values receiving nonzero
probabilities. For instance, a community might settle on the three core values of
Individualism, Freedom, and Mobility which receive a nonzero probability while
giving a zero probability to the remaining core values. The subgame played by
such a community has at least a Nash Equilibrium. It is therefore interesting to
analyze the relationship between the local community Nash Equilibrium NEc and
the National Nash Equilibrium NEA :
We are therefore interesting in the overall dynamics of the national population
game for the entire American society as well as in the dynamics of the community
subgame as it relates to the overall evolution of America. This indeed amounts to
uncover all possible dynamics on a 9-simplex embedded into the ten-dimensional
Euclidean/Archimedean11 metric space R10 : Such a metric space has its own
intrinsic limitations to handle efficiently the inherent complexity of the America
social evolution. This prompts the need and search of a better and richer space,
possibly a non-Archimedean space such as the p-adic spaces and their extension to
Berkovich spaces.
Another important question is the following: These ten American core values
are currently present in the America society ensuring the status of the country as
a powerful and rich society. Are these values permanent and resistant to shocks of
any nature and size, random or otherwise? It amounts to the notion of permanence
for the replicator dynamics which we adapt to our context preferring the term self-
sustained.
Definition 4.21. The evolution equation .A / is self-sustained if 9 a compact set
K int. / such that 8x 2 int. / 9 a real time T such that p.t/ 2 K 8t > T:
In other words all the core values ultimately probabilistically settle in a compact set
in the interior of the 9-simplex where all the probabilities are nonzero; they become
in a sense the “laws of the land” or ingrained social norms further defining what is
meant to be an American. Following [13, 23] we have
Theorem 4.22. If the evolution equation .A / is self-sustained, then it has a unique
P which is therefore the unique national Nash Equilibrium
rest p in the interior
NEA .
11
Archimedes of Syracuse is an ancient Greek geometer and physicist. An algebraic structure is
Archimedean when, given any two nonzero elements, neither is infinitesimal with respect to the
other. That is, for x and y positive elements for a linearly ordered group, x is infinitesimal with
respect to y if 8n 2 N; nx D x C C x < y:
Moreover along each interior orbit p.t/ the time averages converge to p
Z T
1
aN i WD pi .t/dt ! pi ; (65)
T 0
as T ! 1; and i D 1; : : : ; n:
The system is said to be ergodic. Consequently
Remark 4.23. If an interior orbit p.t/ has a boundary !-limit point the time average
need not converge. And every orbit converges to the boundary @ in the absence of
an interior rest point.
Consequently we also have
Theorem 4.24. Assume that 9 an interior point p such that
pAqT > qAqT ; for all rest points q 2 int. /:
As for the self-sustainability of the system, one is also interested in conditions

for the existing NE to be an evolutionarily stable state ESS, resistant to deviations
individual or groups as well as resistant to “mutation.” Recall an NE p D
.p1 ; : : : ; pn / 2 is an ESS if
p ApT > pApT (66)
for all p ¤ p in some neighborhood of p ; with the inequalityQholding for all p 2

if p is an interior point. Now define the function V.p/ D i p˛i i as some power
product. Such a function acts as a local strict Lyapunov function for the evolution
equation for ˛i D pi : That is,
Y p
V.p / D pi i (67)
i
satisfies
P / > 0:
V.p (68)
In particular an ESS is asymptotically stable for the evolution dynamic, globally

stable when it is an interior point.
Now recall our evolution equation applied to individuals with the cognitive
capacities to imitate and to learn, not with only inherited programmed behaviors as
for animals [1, 4, 21]. Therefore one should expect the emergence of subpopulations
in America with selective core values forming communities and playing a subgame
with a local Nash equilibrium NEc which could be strategically stable with a well-
defined basin of attraction possibly bounded by a limit cycle we term Nash Limit
Cycle. We next analyze the dynamics of these subgames.
348 B. Toni
4.3 Dynamics of Subgames
Immigration has always been a driving force for the American cultural dynamics
generating a diversity of well-defined cultural identities, resulting sometimes in
cultural enclaves in contrast to the cultural integration efforts, e.g., New York,
Chinatown, or the many Little Italys.
4.3.1 Communities Subgames in Two Dimensions
We consider here communities in America playing a subgame consisting of

selecting only two American core values with nonzero probabilities and assigning
a zero probability to the remaining values. For instance, take a community which
values the most Individualism and Materialism, in reaction to an original cultural
background that emphasizes uniformism and discourages the pursuit of material
happiness. We analyze both the internal dynamics of such a community and its
contribution to the overall national social equilibrium.
We take therefore the number 2 D nc < n D 10; with the 2-component vectors of
probability p D .p1 ; p2 / 2 1 ; the 1-simplex D Œ0; 1: Then one may set p2 D 1p1 :
The resulting evolution subequation is rewritten with q D p1 for simplicity
qP D q.1 q/..Aq/1 .Aq/2 /; on Œ0; 1; (69)
which can also be rewritten under the invariance modulo addition of constants to
column entries
qP D q.1 q/.a C bq/; on Œ0; 1; (70)
The rest points are given by

1. q D 0; i.e., p D .0; 1/;
2. q D 1; i.e., p D .1; 0/;
3. p such that .Ap/1 D .Ap/2 /; or a C bp D 0:
The linear stability analysis leads to the following:
1. In addition to the fixed points q D 0 and q D 1 there is an interior equilibrium
point p ; 0 < p < 1; if and only if 0 < a < b or 0 < a < b:
2. If we have such an interior equilibrium p ; it is asymptotically stable if and only
if b < 0; i.e., 0 < a < b: Then both the other equilibria are unstable. This
interior equilibrium, globally stable, is the unique NE; this could be interpreted
as the stable co-existence of the two core values.
3. On the other hand, if there exists an interior equilibrium that is unstable the two
values given by x D 0; and x D 1 are also NE and both attracting. That is a
bistability case of the two values.
4. In the absence of an interior equilibrium one of the probabilities converges to 0,

and the corresponding core value is dominated by the other.
Therefore we note that the NE p D .p1 ; p2 / is either unstable or an evolutionary
focus where all trajectories p.t/ close around the equilibrium, and the time average
of the probability p.t/ around an orbit is the equilibrium position, making the system
into an ergodic system.
4.3.2 Communities Subgames in Three Dimensions
Here we look at a three-dimensional subgame corresponding to a community in

America selecting only three core values with a nonzero probability. One particular
interesting scenario is when such a community is playing a game similar to the
3-D rock-scissors-paper (RSP) ordering the selected core values in a dominated
structure [13]. For instance, the community takes a first core value dominated by a
second one in the absence of the third one, and likewise second one dominated by
the third one, which is, in turn, dominated by the first one [13]. The payoff matrix
could be normalized to
0 1
0 a2 a3
A D @ a4 0 a5 A (71)
a6 a7 0
yielding
1. There is a unique NE and it is located in the interior. It has been proved in [26, 27]
that for det.A/ > 0 or equivalently p ApT > 0; p is globally asymptotically
stable.
2. For det.A/ D 0 all orbits are interior closed centered at p : That is the classic
equilibrium of center type.
3. For det.A/ < 0 all interior orbits converge to the boundary @ : That is, the !-
limit set of an interior point p 2 int. / is the heteroclinic cycle of the three
corners saddle points ei :
Remark 4.25. Zeeman has classified all possible phase portraits of the n D 3
evolution dynamics to 33 generic phase portraits (up to flow reversal), proving as
well the absence of isolated periodic orbits, i.e., no limit cycles [26–28]. One could
interpret this as follows: in the subpopulation selecting three core values, there is no
self-sustained oscillations in the community evolution.
4.3.3 Communities Subgames in Higher Dimensions
Consider communities in America defined by at least n D 4 core values with

nonzero probability. The probability constraint leads to a three-dimensional system
350 B. Toni
of evolution equations. Some particular examples display periodic and chaotic

attractors. One such case corresponds to the well-known three-dimensional Lotka–
Volterra equations [5, 11, 13]
X
xP D xi .ri C cij xj /; i D 1; 2; 3: (72)
j
There exists the possibility of a continua of periodic orbits evolving into many
coexisting limit cycles. Indeed Hofbauer proved in [13] that the n-dimensional
Lotka–Volterra equation admits stable limit cycles if and only if n 3:
4.4 Game-Theoretic Evolution Scenarios for America
America evolution dynamics is determined by the time evolution of the system of

nine differential equations we studied on a 9-simplex. The game has a national
Nash Equilibrium akin to a national modus vivendi and modus operandi informed
by the ten American core values to which all immigrants have to subscribe. The
immigration flow has generated a diversity of cultural identities with cross-cultural
interactions converging to what an American is. The game-theoretical model ensures
the emergence of a Nash equilibrium, in the interior of the simplex. Conditions could
be realized for a globally asymptotically stable equilibrium, evolutionarily stable,
possibly with every American assigning a nonzero probability to each of the ten
core values.
The existence of multiple communities stratifies the American society. They are
delineated by the number of core values they select with a nonzero probability. This
leads to the occurrence of subgames within the national game, with the emergence
of local Nash Equilibria. The co-existence of these local Nash Equilibria NEc
along the national Nash Equilibrium NEA is by now a fact of the American social
dynamics. The dynamical relationships between these equilibria create conditions
of stability/instability, progress/stagnation, or worse radicalism and unrest. Various
social scenarios are possible based on the mathematical game-theoretical models.
4.4.1 Absence of Local Nash Equilibria
In principle America does not seek to promote multiculturalism understood as

the co-existence of multiple cultural identities along the core culture that has
emerged from the early immigrants that settle America as a distinct cultural entity.
Cultural integration has been a continuing challenging process even though cultural
diversity has been perceived by some as a basic source of prosperity. Following
a complete cultural integration, there exists a unique national Nash Equilibrium
NEA , evolutionarily stable, i.e., a globally asymptotically stable equilibrium point of
the evolution dynamics in the interior on the 9-simplex. That is, the corresponding
Fig. 2 NEA asymptotically

stable with inside-repulsive
and outside-attractive
heteroclinic boundary
population state features nonzero probabilities. Social stability is thus ensured and
the core values remain ingrained in the social fabric for the greater good of the
American society. This process generates the national Nash Limit Cycle, semi-
stable and connecting the boundary pure population state equilibria described by the
nine corners of the 9-simplex. It accounts for the sustained oscillations in decision-
making. Such a scenario is represented by Fig. 2.
The national equilibrium NEA is asymptotically stable (ESS) and is the !-limit
point of all trajectories inside the simplex. Of course one may assume circumstances
in which the NEA is unstable becoming the ˛-limit point of trajectories converging
to the boundary. This amounts to culturally uncertain times, with the potential of
generating attractive local community equilibria NEc :
4.4.2 Co-existence of Multiple Local Nash Equilibria
In reality a complete cultural integration is an extremely long process, in particular

with a continuous flow of immigrants from diverse cultural identities. Therefore
communities continue to exist within America subscribing to the ten core values
with varied probabilities oftentimes assigning zero probability to some of these
values, not necessarily due to the so-called bounded rationality but due to the
distribution of information and the interpretation of these values.
Consequently there exist multiple subgames with their own Nash Equilibria and
Eventual Nash Equilibria, possibly locally evolutionarily stable, locally asymptoti-
cally stable equilibrium points denoted (AS), with a basin of attraction in the interior
of the 9-simplex. The local equilibria could be also unstable, or surrounded by limit
cycles stable or unstable we call Nash Limit Cycles which also account for sustained
352 B. Toni
Fig. 3 Asymptotically stable

NEA in semi-stable Nash
Limit Cycle with unstable
NEc
Fig. 4 Unstable NEc with

asymptotically stable NEA W
conducive to cultural
integration
oscillations in decision-making with respect to the core values. This scenario is

represented in various forms using the notations: NLC for Nash Limit Cycle, NEA
for national Nash Equilibrium, NEc for local community Nash Equilibrium (Figs. 3
and 4).
Remark 4.26. One should envision the possibility of a strong local Nash Equilib-
rium, asymptotically stable with a forward extending basin of attraction, possibly
stemming from a distorted interpretation of the American core values, or purposely
selecting only a small number of these values with nonzero probability. Such a game
scenario, as in Fig. 5, could breed indeed radicalism understood as a negative or
steadily decreasing contribution to the national Nash Equilibrium. It could pose a
serious threat to the society (Fig. 6).
Fig. 5 Unstable Nash Limit

Cycle around asymptotically
stable NEA with semi-stable
Nash Limit Cycle around
asymptotically stable NEc W
challenging scenario for
cultural integration with
potential for social instability
Fig. 6 Unstable Nash Limit

Cycle around asymptotically
stable NEc with stable Nash
Limit Cycle around unstable
NEA W conducive to cultural
integration with possibly
transient period of sustained
oscillations in
decision-making with respect
to the ten core values
Remark 4.27 (Conjecture). The interesting question is to investigate conditions

for a stable, prosperous, and forward looking American society. We conjecture
the following game scenario: the co-existence of an asymptotically semi-stable
(ESS) national Nash Equilibrium NEA surrounding by a stable Nash Limit Cycle
(population state with sustained oscillations in decision-making towards equilib-
rium, repulsive on the inside towards the NEA but attractive on the outside) and
multiple communities Nash Equilibria NEc unstable (individuals in process of
adjusting preferences and behaviors) surrounded by a semi-unstable Nash Limit
Cycle (directing neighboring trajectories to converge to the national Nash Limit
Cycle while attractive on the inside). See Fig. 7.
354 B. Toni
Fig. 7 Conjectured Game

Scenario: semi-stable Nash
Limit Cycle on
asymptotically stable NEA
and unstable Nash Limit
Cycle on unstable NEc W
Double Transient oscillatory
period for cultural identities
adjustment to the American
ten core values with
ultimately most converging
asymptotically to the national
Nash Equilibrium NEA
Fig. 8 Improved
Conjectured Game Scenario:
Asymptotically Stable NEA
and semi-stable
outside-repulsive and
inside-attractive Nash Limit
Cycle around unstable NEc W
Transient oscillatory period
around community cultural
preferences and behaviors for
cultural identities adjustment
to the American ten core
values with ultimately most
converging asymptotically to
the national Nash
Equilibrium NEA
The scenario could be greatly improved into the more realistic and conducive for
cultural integration and assimilation of diverse cultural identities into the American
social fabric. See Fig. 8.
We also note the existence of what we call Nash Isochrons to describe these
groups of individuals associated with trajectories evolving with the same phase as
the Nash Limit Cycles.
The challenge is twofold: first a mathematical framework in terms of designing
a game with these desirable dynamical features. Second a social and cultural design
through possibly social laws and incentives to practically realize such a scenario.
5 Concluding Remarks
Game theory, a modeling tool, could also be seen as a design tool, in particular in
the context of our study. Policies could help design admissible utility or payoffs in
the continuous interactions of the individuals so that the resulting game or subgame
possesses the desirable properties to enforce and sustain the evolution of the ten core
values. Adaptation rules could also be designed to lead to the desirable nation-wide
behavior. The Nash Limit Cycles around the local Nash Equilibria should be all
unstable surrounding asymptotically stable local equilibria. Trajectories outside the
narrow basin of attraction converge to the national Nash Equilibrium. Individuals
in a given community hold a given set of preferences and behaviors but subscribe
positively to the national set of core values. Of course these preferences mostly
driven by behavioral compromises produce inter and intra-personal stresses. Most
individuals maintain two types of equilibrium behavior, one for their communities
where there are expected to fit in, and the other for the greater society in which
they do not want to experience their original cultural lifestyles being negatively
stigmatized. It is expected that such a process of socialization could be distorted
whenever publicly expressed preferences with respect to the ten American core
values come at odd with privately held preferences from one’s cultural background.
However through these cross-cultural interactions, an American culture emerges
hybrid in its components. (See also [1, 4, 9, 21, 22].)
We have proposed a dynamic theoretical framework based on individual choice
to understand and predict the evolution of America. We intend to uncover the full
spectrum of dynamical possibilities in a 9-simplex, in particular for dimensions
4 n 10: The results could be extended to other societies holding less than
ten core values. Future work will also involve a type of revision protocol for the
core values. Though our evolution equation appears replicator-like dynamics in
biological context, one could also design an evolution game with different dynamics
such as best reply-like dynamics, the logit-like dynamics, or Brown–Nash–von
Neumann-like dynamics. See more details in [8, 12–14, 23, 24, 26]. Note that in
our model we recognize neither replication nor mutation nor “switching” of values.
The dynamical possibilities are driven only by the variation of the probabilities each
individual assigns to the core values in their random interactions with others.
Now in order to account rigorously for all the “nuances” in decisions and
selections of the core values, such as the distinction between negligible and zero
probability one should consider p-adic probability. Individuals, recent immigrants
or otherwise, do not actually assign zero probability, rather negligible probability.
Moreover the selection of these ten core values presumes some hierarchy structure
among these values, best described in the non-Archimedean/p-adic context.
356 B. Toni
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2. Balkenborg, D., Schlag, K.: Evolutionarily stable sets. Int. J. Game Theory 29, 571–595 (2000)
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7. Fisher, R.A.: On the dominance ratio. Proc. R. Soc. Edinb. 42, 321–341 (1922)
8. Fudenberg, D., Tirole, J.: Game Theory. MIT Press, Cambridge (1991)
9. Gilboa, I., Matsui, A.: Social stability and equilibrium. Econometrica 59, 859–867 (1991)
10. Harper, D.G.: Competitive foraging in mallards: “Ideal free” ducks. Anim. Behav. 30(2),
575–584 (1982)
11. Hofbauer, J.: On the occurrence of limit cycles in the Lotka-Volterra differential equation.
J. Nonlinear Anal. 5, 1003–1007 (1981)
12. Hofbauer, J., Sigmund, K.: Evolutionary Games and Replicator Dynamics. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, Cambridge (1998)
13. Hofbauer, J., Sigmund, K.: Evolutionary game dynamics. Bull. Am. Math. Soc. 40, 479–519
(2003)
14. Hofbauer, J., Schuster, P., Sigmund, K.: A note on evolutionary stable strategies and game
dynamics. J. Theor. Biol. 81, 609–612 (1979)
15. IBR: American Ten Core Values. https://www.andrews.edu/~tidwell/bsad560/USValues.html
16. Krabs, W., Pickl, S.: Dynamical Systems, Stability, Controllability and Chaotic Behavior.
Springer, Berlin (2010)
17. Kuznetsov, Y.: Elements of Applied Bifurcation Theory. Springer, Berlin (1998)
18. Maynard Smith, J.: Evolution and the Theory of Games. Cambridge University Press,
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19. Nash, J.: Equilibrium points in n-person games. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 36, 48–49
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23. Schuster, P., Sigmund, K.: Replicator dynamics. J. Theor. Biol. 100, 533–538 (1983)
24. Taylor, P.D., Jonker, L.B.: Evolutionary stable strategies and game dynamics. Math. Biosci. 40,
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Index
A E
Abelian group, 19, 34–36, 39, 43, 48, 78, 83, Equational variety, 96, 99, 101, 108
85, 86, 100, 110, 112, 274 Equilateral triangle, 66, 69–72
Adelic physics, 241–315 Evolution matrix game, 337–347
Algebraic curve, 97, 99, 101, 103, 104,
108–111, 116, 120, 122
American core values, 324, 327, 337, 346, 348, F
350, 352 Flex, 2, 19, 21, 22, 28, 29, 34, 37, 38, 49,
54, 55, 57–59, 64, 65, 68, 70, 75–80,
82–88, 96
B
Barriers options, 222, 223, 232, 234–236
G
Game theory, 321–355
C Groupoid, 2, 76, 83
Cannabinoids, 125, 126, 128–130, 132, 134
Clustering, 145–148, 150–153, 271, 339
Clustering algorithm, 144, 146–147, 150, 152 H
Cognitive function, 133 Hypercommutative, 3, 69, 95–104, 107–122
Conic, 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 11, 18, 39, 40, 50, 51, Hypercommutative groupoid, 49, 54, 85–87,
61, 97–98, 104, 108–109, 114, 116, 89
122
Convection in porous media, 190
Cubic curve, 2, 3, 6, 8, 10, 20, 21, 23, 25–27, I
29, 31, 34, 36, 39, 46, 47, 49, 50, Image analysis, 152, 163–164
52–55, 57–61, 63–70, 72–84, 86, 92, Image segmentation, 143–153, 323
93, 96–99, 101, 108–116 Imaging, 126–128, 157, 171
Culture integration, 321–355 Immune function, 125, 128, 129, 132, 134
Cytokine, 128–130 Intersections of algebraic curves, 108, 111,
120, 122
Invariant expressions, 95–104, 107–122
D Invariant measures, 189–218
Domain decomposition, 223, 225–229, 236 Inversion, 12, 18, 109, 110, 112, 115, 116, 229

Mathematics & Health, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-55612-3
358 Index
L Primes, 73, 144, 150, 155–165, 254, 260, 268,

Laplace transform, 223, 229, 232, 234 272, 275–279, 281, 287, 288, 290–297,
Limit cycles, 321–355 301, 308–315
Logical combinatorial approach,
169–187
S
Space-time, 243–258, 262–268, 270, 276,
M 280–285, 287–290, 296, 299–301,
Marijuana, 123–135 306–308
Medical pattern recognition, 186 Spectral methods, 144, 223, 225, 226
Stability, 225, 301, 324–327, 333, 337, 340,
346, 348, 350, 351
N Stochastic infinite Darcy–Prandtl number
Nash equilibrium (NE), 322, 323, 328–331, model, 189–218
336, 340–342, 345–347, 350, Stochastic partial differential equations, 197
352–355 Supercyclic curves, 108–112, 115, 116, 120,
122
Supervised classification, 172–174, 184, 185
P
P-adic fields, 162, 276, 307
P-adicization, 242, 279–297 T
P-adic metric, 143–153 Topological Geometrodynamics (TGD),
Planck constants, 254, 259–267, 285, 242–268, 270, 273, 275–277, 280, 283,
290, 306 285, 287–296, 298, 299, 304, 306, 308,
Plane algebraic curve, 110–112 314–315
Polygon, 1–40 Triple system, 1–40, 43–94, 110, 111

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STEAM-H: Science, Technology, Engineering, Agriculture,

Mathematics & Health

Bourama Toni Editor

New Trends and

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15560

New Trends and Advanced

ISSN 2520-193X ISSN 2520-1948 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017943497

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The multidisciplinary STEAM-H series (Science, Technology, Engineering, Agri-

Petersburg, VA, USA Bourama Toni

Perfect Polygons and Geometric Triple Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Pricing Barrier Options Using Integral Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Clive Callender College of Medicine, Howard University Hospital, Washington,

Rana D. Parshad Department of Mathematics, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY,

Raymond R. Fletcher III

Abstract A perfect n-gon is an abstraction of a regular n-gon when regarded in the

Keywords Polygon • Cubic curve • Conic • Triple system • Flex

R.R. Fletcher III ()

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1

Fig. 1 The hypercommutative axiom: (a*b)*(c*d)D(a*c)*(b*d)Dx

is a consequence of A2. The following properties, also found in [3], are

2 The Special Perfect Hexagon

Fig. 2 The special perfect hexagon

Theorem 1 A perfect hexagon P D (0,1,2,3,4,5) with [X0 , X3 , 0, 3] can be

Xq+t ((k-1)/k,1) s+t-q(1,1)

Xs+t (0,0) s+t-q (j/(j-1),0)

Fig. 3 Coordinatization used to show uniqueness of special perfect hexagon

Fig. 4 Perfect hexagon

[4,5,X3 ]. This is easily accomplished by applying the Theorem of Pappus to the

4 The Cubic Envelope

We begin this section straightaway with our Main Theorem.

(3) The hexagon F D (0,-s,sC1,1,-s-1,sC2) consists of six distinct points all of

on j, we have that Q lies on j also. Then Q D j \ [3,-1] D X2 , and thus [1,1,X2 ].

5 Cyclic Perfect Polygons

Fig. 6 The center of a cyclic perfect polygon

Fig. 7 Points U, Z are inverses wrt w

(A,D,E,B,C,F), (A,C,E,B,D,F) imply [J,K,P], [P,L,J], [P,M,K], and [R,L,K],

Fig. 9 Collinearity of P,Q,R

Proof Let E0 D [F,P]\¨. By Lemma 9 we have [R,P,Q0 ] where Q0 D [E0 , E0 ]\[A,B]

Fig. 11 Perfect octagon is inverse of regular octagon

6 Perfect Polygons with Irreducible Cubic Envelope

In this section we include some basic properties of perfect polygons with an

Proof Consider: Xs *Xt D (p*(s-p))*(0*t) D (p*0)*((s-p)*t) D Xp *Xq . Thus all

In Fig. 12 we illustrate a perfect hexagon along with a translate which is a (Z6, 0)

Fig. 12 Perfect hexagon obtained as translate of (Z6 ,0) triple system

Fig. 13 (Z18 ,0) triple system 16

Fig. 14 (Z15 ,0) triple system 13

Similarly q*T D W iff q 2 V. Consequently q*T is a triple system on ” with base

Fig. 15 Perfect octagon on Type IV cubic

Fig. 16 Perfect octagon:

When the number n of vertices of a geometric triple system on a Type IV cubic is

Fig. 18 Twin split (Z10 ,0) triple systems

Fig. 19 (Z2 Z10 , (0,0)) triple system

that q lies in one of the four sets Q, M, W, W0 . Of course, if q 2T D Q[W, then

8 Closed Perfect Polygons

We have previously defined a closed perfect polygon P as a perfect polygon whose

Fig. 1 The hypercommutative axiom: (ab)(cd)D(ac)(bd)Dx

Proof Consider: Xs Xt D (p(s-p))(0t) D (p0)((s-p)t) D Xp Xq . Thus all

Similarly qT D W iff q 2 V. Consequently qT is a triple system on ” with base

Fig. 6 (ab)(cd) D (ac)(bd) D x

have a b D a b. We have k D Œ1; k C 1 [ Œ2; k C 2 by definition and