GENDER AND SOCIETY

Chapter 1: Society

Meaning and Nature of Society

● groupings of individuals, which is characterized by common interest and may have

distinctive culture and institutions. It is definitely an organized group of people
associated together for religious, benevolent, cultural, scientific, political, patriotic, or
other purposes to obtain a common goal.
● Human beings are inherently and essentially social creatures, with the desire and need
to be close contact with other and the environment.
● Conflict within and between societies has always been the perennial feature of human
history but still, all societies strive to maintain harmony

In Psychology

Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways. This is illustrated during
the famous Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961).

Individuals that are observed are called models. In society, children are surrounded by many
influential models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within
their peer group and teachers at school. These models provide examples of behavior to observe
and imitate, e.g., masculine and feminine, pro and anti-social, etc.

Types of Society
Gerhard Lenski
Differentiated societies based on their level of technology, communication, and economy

1. Hunters dnd Gatherers - Hunter-gatherer societies demonstrate the strongest

dependence on the environment of the various types of preindustrial societies. As the
basic structure of human society until about 10,000–12,000 years ago, these groups
were based around kinship or tribes. Hunter-gatherers relied on their surroundings for
survival—they hunted wild animals and foraged for uncultivated plants for food. When
resources became scarce, the group moved to a new area to find sustenance, meaning
they were nomadic.
2. Simple Agricultural - They are semi-sedentary (or semi-settled), which means they do
not move around as often as hunter/gatherers and they engage in small-scale farming
and the use of simple hand tools.
3. Industrial - In agricultural societies, they have larger populations of people, are sedentary
(which means completely settled) and use improved technology like fertilizer and
irrigation systems for large-scale farming.
4. Advance Agricultural - As societies developed more advanced technologies and
underwent industrialization, more surplus was created, increasing the potential for social
inequality.

Morton H. Fried
system of classification of society

● Hunter-gatherer band, which are generally egalitarian (unrestricted/free)

● Tribal society, in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige.
● Chiefdoms, stratified structures led by chieftains.
● Civilization, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.

Margaret Mead

1. Band

● Simplest form of human society

● consists of a small kinship group and is often no larger than an extended family
or small clan.
● customs are transmitted orally
● formal social institution are few or non-existential

2. Clan

● a group of people united by kinship and decent, which is perceived descent from
a common ancestor.
● came from one or list of ancestors that symbolizes the unity of their clan.
● This ancestors can be non-human.
 3. Tribe

● social groups that existed before the development of states and they are also
outside of states
● They can be understood based on their linkage to a specific state or territory.
● tribal leader

4. Ethnic Group

● a human population whose members identified with each other, usually on the
basis of a presumed common genealogy or linage.
● United by common cultural, behavioral, linguistic, or religional practices.

5. Chiefdom

● community led by an individual known as chief

● more complex than a tribe and less complex than a state or a civilization
● According to Robert Carneiro, it is "an autonomous political unit compromising a
number of villages or communities under the permanent control of a paramount
chief".
● unstable form of social organization
● pervasive inequality of people and centralization pf authority.

6. State

o a political association with effective dominion over a geographical area.

o Usually includes the set of institutions that claims the authority to make the rules
that govern the people of the society in that territory
o According to Max Weber, it is a "monopoly on the legitimate use of physical
forces within the given territory.

Society in Various Perspectives

1. Evolutionary - It is presumed that thousand of years ago, people lived in

isolation and their only problem were the basic necessities to live such as
food, water and shelter. They have no companion nor friends and their
existence us a mere survival.
Soon after, families emerged and people become dependent on
each other for survival and subsistence. In order to live, they found certain
roles to fulfill and to accomplish. The family group lived together in a
nomadic life, occupying one place after the other to nurture their needs
and wants.
2. Political - A system was established as necessary measure for their
protection. Leaders were selected and social norms were imposed, upon
which division of roles, and responsibilities were assigned.With that,
certain rules and norms of conduct were respected and upheld while
social hierarchies were modeled as well.
Politics is an inevitable activity of people which is also intertwined
with other social systems. Thus, it is from which the government is
established to provide control mechanisms necessary for a peaceful and
progressing living. After all, human is really a political being in nature.
3. Economical - People on the other hand are undeniably, must produce to
address and sustain essential needs of the now and next generation. This
is to provide means and ways to sustains man's basic and material needs
to live. Hence, the acceleration for production is imperative to answer the
increasing demand of human in society.
 Chapter 2

Gender

Meaning and Nature of Gender

According to the World Health Organization, Gender refers to the characteristics of

women, men, girls and boys that are socially constructed. This includes norms, behaviours and
roles associated with being a woman, man, girl or boy, as well as relationships with each other.
As a social construct, gender varies from society to society and can change over time.

Sociology of Gender

The sociology of gender examines how society influences our understanding and
perception of differences between masculinity (what society deems appropriate behavior for a
man) and femininity (what society deems appropriate behavior for a woman).
We examine how this, in turn, influences identity and social practices. We pay special focus on
the power relationships that follow from the established gender order in a given society, as well
as how this changes over time.
Sex and gender do not always align. Cis-gender describes people whose biological
body they were born into matches their personal gender identity.
Transgender people are individuals whom one’s biological sex does not align with their
gender identity and will undergo a gender transition that may involve changing their dress and
self-presentation (such as a name change). Transgender people may undergo hormone therapy
to facilitate this process, but not all transgender people will undertake surgery.
Intersexuality describes variations on sex definitions related to ambiguous genitalia,
gonads, sex organs, chromosomes or hormones. Transgender and intersexuality are gender
categories, not sexualities. Transgender and intersexual people have varied sexual practices,
attractions and identities as do cis-gender people.
People can also be gender queer, by either drawing on several gender positions or
otherwise not identifying with any specific gender (nonbinary); or they may move across
genders (gender fluid); or they may reject gender categories altogether (agender). The third
gender is often used by social scientists to describe cultures that accept non-binary gender
positions

Sexuality

It is about sexual attraction, sexual practices and identity. Just as sex and gender don’t
always align, neither does gender and sexuality. People can identify along a wide spectrum of
sexualities from heterosexual, to gay or lesbian, to bisexual, to queer, and so on.

Asexuality is a term used when individuals do not feel sexual attraction. Some
asexual people might still form romantic relationships without sexual contact.
 Regardless of sexual experience, sexual desire and behaviours can change over time,
and sexual identities may or may not shift as a result.
Gender and sexuality are not just personal identities; they are social identities. They
arise from our relationships to other people, and they depend upon social interaction and social
recognition. As such, they influence how we understand ourselves in relation to others.
Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation refers to each person's capacity for profound emotional, affectional
and sexual attraction to, and intimate and sexual relations with individuals of a different gender
of the same gender or more than one gender.
Forms of Sexual Orientations
Homosexual - refers to a person who is emotionally, physically, and sexually attracted to those
of the same sex/gender.

Heterosexual - refers to a person who is emotionally, physically, and sexually attracted to those
of the opposite sex/gender.

Bisexual - refers to a person who is emotionally, physically, and sexually attracted to people of
more than one sex and/or gender, not necessarily at the same time, not necessarily in the same
way, and not necessarily to the same degree.

Pansexual - refers to a person who is capable emotionally, physically, and sexually attracted to
anyone regardless of their biological sex and gender identity.

Asexual - refers to a person who is not physically and sexually attracted to anyone but has the
same emotional needs as everybody.

Gender Expression

It is the external manifestation of person's gender identity, expressed through one's

name, pronouns, clothing, voice and body characteristics.

Masculine - A person who has qualities and characteristics which are traditionally
associated with a man.

Feminine - A person who has qualities and characteristics which are traditionally
associated with a woman.

Gender Neutral - A person whose qualities and characteristics differ from those which
are traditionally associated with a man or a woman .

Androgynous - A person whose qualities and characteristics are combination of those

traditionally associated with a man or a woman.

Gender Socialization
 ● it is the process of learning the social expectation and attitudes associated with one's
sex.
● it is the process of teaching members of society how to behave according to gender
expectations, or gender roles.
● Gender socialization occurs through such diverse means as parental attitudes, school,
how peers interact with each other, and mass media.
● Sometimes gender roles lead to inequality: for example, women's social roles were more
restricted regarding politics and puts pressure on men to think they need to have a
strong physique, hide their emotions, and act in an aggressively dominant way.

Agents of Gender Socialization (McSorley, 2014)

As children, we develop gender-related beliefs and expectations through our observation

of and interaction with the people around us. An "agent" of gender socialization is any
person or group that plays a role in the childhood gender socialization process.

The Four Primary agents of Gender Socialization

1. Parents/Family - Upon birth of the child, parents orient the children with different
expectations relatives to their sex.
Ex. A son may be advised to engage in play fighting and wrestling with their father while
mothers enjoins her daughter in cooking, and doing other house chores and even
shopping.
2. Teachers - Teachers and school administrators model gender roles and sometimes
demonstrate gender stereotypes by treating their male and female students in different
ways.
Ex. Separating students by gender in the classroom seating arrangement or assigning
students with tasks defferently depending on their gender.
3. Peers - Peers interaction also contribute to gender socialization. Through their
interaction with their peers, they learn what their peer expect of them as boy or girl.
4. Media - Media including movies, TY, social media flatforms and books teaches children
about what it means to be a boy or a girl. Media conveys information about the role of
gender in people's lives and can reinforce gender stereotypes.
Ex. animated films sometimes portrays a female character as someone who is beautiful
but a passive heroine and a male character as a strong hero.

Other agents of Gender Socialization

5. Church/Religion - Church/Religion is also a powerful social institution that shape gender

identity in society. There are sacred spaces where only men are allowed to enter and not
for women. There are norms defined by which only men can perform certain duties or
obligations pertaining to religious activities.
 6. Gender Socialization throughout Life - Gender socialization is a lifelong process. The
beliefs about gender that we acquire in childhood can affect us throughout our lives. The
impact of this socialization can be big, small, or somewhere in the middle.

Gender Stereotypes

Gender stereotypes are generalization about the roles believed as exclusive to each
gender. They are generally neither positive nor negative, they are simply inaccurate
generalization of the male and female attributes.
 Chapter 3

GENDER AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCT

Social Construct

Social construct of gender comes out from the general school of though entitled Social
Constructionism.

Social Constructionism states that meaning and knowledge are socially created. Social
constructionists believe that things that are generally viewed as natural or normal in society,
such as understandings of gender, race, class, and disability, are socially constructed, and
consequently aren’t an accurate reflection of reality.

Social Construct of Gender

The gender is social construct becomes especially apparent when compared how men
and women behave in their respective cultures, how in some cultures and societies, and hence
other genders exist too.
In Western industrialized nations like U.S., they tend to think of masculinity and
femininity in dichotomous terms, viewing men and women as distinctly different and opposites.
Other cultures, however, challenge this assumption and have more progressive views of being
masculine and feminine.\
o From infancy, individuals are socialized by their family, educators, religious
leaders, peer groups, and the wider community, who teacher them on what to
expect from them in terms of appearance and behaviour based on whether they
code them as a boy or a girl.
o Media and popular culture plays an important roles in teaching us gender.
o One result of gender socialization is the formation of gender identity, which is a
definition of oneself as a man or woman. Gender Identity shapes how we think
about others and our selves and also influences our behavior.
o Gender identity has an especially strong effect on how we dress and present
ourselves and what we want our bodies to look like, as measure by normative
standards.
o GENDER NORMS – socially acceptable ways of acting out gender.
Sociological Theories of Gender
Functionalism perspective
● During the mid-twentieth century, functionalist theorists argued that men filled
instrumental roles in society while women filled expressive roles, which worked to benefit
the society.
● They viewed a gendered division of labor as important and necessary for the smooth
functioning of modern society.
 ● Our socialization into prescribed roles drives gender inequality by encouraging men and
women to make different choices about family and work
● For example, the functionalist theory sees wages inequality as the result of choices
women make, assuming they choose family roles that compete with their work roles,
which renders them less valuable employees from the managerial standpoint.
● Functionalism believes that gender as a social construct becomes significant in an
institution because it serves a vital role in the functioning of society.
Functionalism Theory
● Originated from the work of Emile Durkheim
● Views society in a macro level
● the different parts of society are primarily composed of social institutions, each designed
to fill different needs
Symbolic Interaction Theory / symbolic interactionism
● George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) and Max Weber (1864-1920).
● Views society in micro-level
● This perspective relies on the symbolic meaning that people develop and rely upon in
the process of social interaction which includes how people act as manifestations of their
perceived gender.

Conflict theory
● Carl Marx
● Focus on how gender and assumptions and biases about gender differences lead to the
empowerment of men, oppression of women, and the structural inequality of women
relative to men.
● Society is a struggle for dominance among social groups like woman vs man, that
compete for resources.
● Social problems are created when dominant groups exploit or oppress subordinate
groups
Friedrich Engels
● German sociologist
● Suggests that the same owner-worker relationship seen in the labor force is also seen in
the household, with women assuming the role of the proletariat or the workers.

Feminist Theory
● Is a type of conflict theory that examines the inequalities in gender-related issues.
● Patriarchal perspective and arrangements are widespread and taken for granted. As a
result, women’s view point tends to be silenced or marginalized to the point of being
discredited or considered valid.
Gender as social institution

● Academe politics and church that has affected fundamental human relations and
interaction across these social structures.

These social institutions consist of people who have come together for a common
purpose.
● These institutions are a part of the social order of society and they govern behavior and
expectations of individuals. Thus, the persons are banded together for common purpose
having rights, privileges, liabilities, goals, or objectives district and independent from
those of individual members.
● Social institutions have been created by man from social relationships in society to meet
such basic needs as stability, law and order and clearly defined roles of authority and
decision making. Every institution is dependent upon certain recognized and established
set of rules, traditions and usage. These usage and rules may be given the name of
institutions. These are the forms of procedure which are recognized and accepted by the
society and govern the relations between individuals and groups.
 CHAPTER 4
GENDER AND FAMILY

INTRODUCTION

● “ the family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to
protection by society and the state.” –(Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article
16)
● According to Silverstein and Auerbach (2003) the definition of the post-modern family
is a “two or more people who are in a relationship created by birth, marriage or
choice.”

GENDER IN THE FAMILY

For over 25 years, researchers have focused on gender as an important dimension of

family relationships. The nature of that focus has changed significantly, however. Early research
highlighted gender as an independent variable, which is, as a way to explain differences
between women and men in marital satisfaction., power in decision making, and so forth.
Gender was viewed as an unchangeable and inflexible given. It was assumed that family life
was inherently different for women and men. This approach was consistent with a focus on
gender roles in families-differential obligations of women and men believed to incur,
appropriately, because of their gender and their socialization into adulthood. In other words,
women and men were seen in certain behaviors and occupying specific roles because they
were female or male (Osmond & Thorne, 1993; Thompson, 1993; and West & Zimmerman,
1987).

NATURE AND NOTION OF FAMILY

● Family is the most important universal institution.

● It is the core of the social structure and fundamental unit of the society.
● In general, it is consists of father, mother and children.
● A family is a primary group, hence everyone is a member of this primary group.
● History of human being is the history of family.
● At birth child is only a biological being, their needs are fulfilled by the family.
● Right from the birth to death, the family exerts a constant influence on the child,
generally, gender-based.
● For a family or a society to exist, reproductive usage or sexual relationship is very
necessary.

Needs to form a family:

● 1. Reproductive urge
● 2. Biological needs
● 3. Economic provision

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

 Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier
model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. From the bottom
of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological (food and clothing), safety (job security),
love and belonging needs (friendship), esteem, and self-actualization. Needs lower down in the
hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up.

1. Physiological needs
- these are biological requirements for human survival, e.g. air, food,
drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep.

If these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot function
optimally. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important as
all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met.
2. Safety needs
- once an individual’s physiological needs are satisfied, the needs for
security and safety become salient. People want to experience order,
predictability and control in their lives. These needs can be fulfilled by the
family and society (e.g. police, schools, business and medical care).
 For example, emotional security, financial security (e.g.
employment, social welfare), law and order, freedom from fear, social
stability, property, health and wellbeing (e.g. safety against accidents and
injury).
3. Love and belongingness needs
- after physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the third level of
human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness.
Belongingness, refers to a human emotional need for interpersonal
relationships, affiliating, connectedness, and being part of a group.

Examples of belongingness needs include friendship, intimacy,

trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection, and love.
4. Esteem needs
- are the fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy and include self-worth,
accomplishement and respect. Maslow classified esteem needs into two
categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery,
independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others
(e.g., status, prestige).

Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most

important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or
dignity.
5. Self-actualization needs
are the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy, and refer to the realization of
a person's potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak
experiences. Maslow (1943) describes this level as the desire to
accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be.
Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very specifically.
For example, one individual may have a strong desire to become an ideal
parent. In another, the desire may be expressed economically,
academically or athletically. For others, it may be expressed creatively, in
paintings, pictures, or inventions.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY – (GENERAL)

1. Sex relationship should be healthy-present between husband and wife. Or making

relationship breaks, then the family slowly breaks according to Mac Iver.

2. It provides care to children like economic needs. Emotional basis i.e. family is based on
emotion. If this is absent, the family breaks.

3. A system of Nomenclature i.e. according to Anderson, there are two kinds of family and both
these gives importance to Nomenclature. This means that the children relates to the family
name.

4. A single household for a well-organized family.

5. Durable association of husband and wife according to Anderson & Nimkoff.

6. Husband and wife with or without children.

FAMILY FOR SAME SEX PARENTS

• Same-Sex Family - A same-sex family is a homosexual couple living together with

children.

• A family is a unit where adults care for children with love. The term ‘rainbow family’
refers to a family with parents of the same sex bringing up a child, or an LGBTQ+
parented family.

• Rainbow families, like all families, come in all shapes and sizes. They include same-sex
families and gender-diverse families. That might be 2 mums or 2 dads. It might mean a
single gay, lesbian or transgender parent. It might mean there are surrogates and donors
involved.

NATURE OF FAMILY (distinctive characteristics)

1. Universality - Family is found in each stage of society and everywhere. There is no

society without family. There is not a single man who does not belong to one or other
kind of family. –Anderson n.d.

2. Emotional Basis - There should be an emotional relationship – love, affection,

sympathy, and co-operation. If there is no such basis the family breaks up.

3. Formative Influence - Each family has a certain form: Orientation and Procreations
(Mac Iver). If you are a member of one family, you inherit your parents’ characteristics.
Frand stated that :In adulthood, man has the characteristic of parents:. In pro you give
birth to children and they are influenced by your personality.

4. Limited in Size - Family is limited in size in comparison to other group. Joint family is
large whereas nuclear family is small.

5. Nuclear Position in the Society - According to Charles Cooley, “family is primary group
and is the fundamental unit of society (the network of social relationship we call society)”.
It is the primary cell of the society. Society is an aggregation of families.

6. Sense of Responsibility - The function of the family is to provide economic needs of

the children. It is the responsibility of the parents to look after the children of the family.
At the time of crisis people are ready to dies for their country but for their family they are
always ready to protect the family’s prestige etc.

7. Social Control - Family is a mechanism of social control. When one is small, he does
not know what’s wrong or right. If you follow good you are praised otherwise you are
punished. This makes you think that you must relate to the good and when you grow up
you relate to the good of society.
 8. Permanent and Temporary in Nature - Family is an institution as well as association.
As an institution, family is permanent because it’s found everywhere and at every stage
of history. As association, family is close kin group (when the child has his own family he
separates from the original & so temporary) that consists of father, mother and children.
Generally, the children make their own family but the family disintegrates in case of
divorce or death of parent.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE IN GENDERED FAMILY

Functionalism - Émile Durkheim

Believes that traditional family as a natural unit exists to maintain social order and is
mutually beneficial to all. It is then perceived that family controls behavior among its
members appropriate to one's sexuality and/or gender and ensure this is bound to be
socially acceptable and parents can strictly impose respective functions on their children.

Marxism - Karl Marx

Marxist feminist believes that the nuclear family is believed to benefit the powerful (ruling
class) at the expense of working class while women's domestic labor enables the future
workforce to be reared at little cost to the patriarchal capitalist state. Men and women are
socialized into gender specific roles that exist to confirm and uphold male power and superiority
in the family.

GENDER ROLES IN THE FAMILY

● Generally in Europe, men in the family especially with those with better financial gain for
family sustenance are more likely to dominate women socially, financially and physically.
● Historically, those living in the traditional nuclear family are favored to reinforcing
gendered roles within the family i.e. man as breadwinner and woman as mother and
housewife.
● Girls and boys are socialized into gendered roles from birth through television and
books, clothes and hobbies, language and school.
● Research suggests that across all family types, Father treat their children in a much
more gendered way. – Gross, 2015

While many people throughout the Western world live in traditional nuclear families there
is a discrepancy as to the benefactors of such an arrangement i.e. men fare better in
marriage than women do. Recent evidence however suggests that men are more vulnerable
to mental and physical illness in response to isolation and reparation after
marital/relationship breakdown. (Pantazis & Ruspini, 2006)

● Women do the majority of domestic labor and childcare regardless of work outside
the home, although men’s contribution is increasing.
● Research indicates that whilst women’s health deteriorates through marriage, men’s
improves.
● Married woman are even poorer than single women and lone parents (mainly
women) are poorer still.
● Men’s role as parent is viewed as inferior,
● Women are still subjected to an increased rate of domestic violence through
marriage despite recent legislation, and
● Little if any recognition has been given to lesbian and gay men who may or may not
want children but who until recently (2005) have had no legal support or protection in
their respective societies. Homosexuality is still illegal in over seventy countries and
punishable by imprisonment or execution. (Survey Report on Indicators of Gender
Equality, Kaunas, 2016)
GENDER ROLES IN THE FAMILY
● Gender role in the family therefore is a set of norms that compel family members the
types of behaviors which are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or
desirable for people based on their actual or perceived sex or sexuality.
● Gender roles are usually centered on conception of femininity and masculinity,
although there are exceptions and variations (Alters & Schiff, 2009)
● The term Gender Role was first Coined by John Money in 1955.

GENDER STEREOTYPES IN THE FAMILY

Parents and their children are immersed in a social and cultural environment that
produces and perpetuates gender stereotypes which they may eventually introduce in
the family such as the choice in clothing, toys to play with, and television shows while
friends and extended family members as well will all communicate messages, explicitly
and implicitly, about what is considered “appropriate” for mother, father, father, daughter
and son in their family. – Witts, 1997

Ex.

Father should shoulder most of financial obligations and to take charge of most
manual household chores, and the disciplining authority, while the mother as the
financial keeper, most compassionate, and always in close assistance to the husband,
while children undertake the auxiliary roles on the basis of their gender and age.