EASA Module 4 – Electronic Fundamentals

Servomechanisms
 Servomechanisms
OBJECTIVE M4.3a: SERVOMECHANISMS

The Student is able to:

• Describe the basic characteristics and functions of a

servomechanism.
• Explain the following terms regarding servo systems
Open and closed loops
Feedback
Follow-up
Analogue Transducer
• Explain the advantages of closed loop control compared with open
loop control.
 Servomechanisms
OBJECTIVE M4.3a: SERVOMECHANISMS

The Student is able to:

• Explain the basic principles of operation and use of the following

servomechanism components:
Resolvers
Differential synchros
Control and torque synchros
Control transformers
Inductance and Capacitance transmitters.
• Recognise and draw ATA100 symbols for synchros.
 Servomechanisms
Synchronous Data Transmission

• Synchronous data transmission systems are designed to

indicate the position of a component or control surface that
cannot be directly observed.

• The systems fall into one of two categories;

1. DC systems called 'Desynn Systems'

2. AC systems which are generally grouped under the

heading of 'Synchro Systems'.
 Servomechanisms
Synchronous Data Transmission

• Both a.c. and d.c. systems comprise two main components;

1. A transmitting element.

2. A receiving element.

• The two being interconnected by wiring that provides the

signal path.

• The word 'synchronous' means 'happening at the same time',

which infers that when the transmitter is moved, the receiving
element, normally an indicator, will follow that movement
instantly.
 Servomechanisms
Desynn System

• There are a variety of different types of Desynn systems

available:

1. Basic Desynn - Generally operated by a rotary motion, however

linear versions are also found. The conversion from linear to rotary
motion being achieved by a push rod and gear wheel.

2. Micro Desynn - Designed to magnify the small movement obtained

by such items as pressure measuring devices. They are operated
by linear motion.

3. Slab Desynn - Designed to overcome signally errors inherent in the

basic Desynn system. In the vast majority of instances the errors in
the basic Desynn could be considered insignificant.
 Servomechanisms
Basic Desynn

• In the basic Desynn system the transmitter comprises an

endless resistance wound on a circular former.

• This arrangement being referred to as a 'Toroidal

Resistance'.

• Equally spaced at 120 intervals around the resistor are 3

tapping's.

• It is to these that the signal wires are connected.

• Running on the resistor are two wiper arm type contacts that
are spaced apart by 180 and insulated from one another, it
is to these that system power is applied.
 Servomechanisms
Basic Desynn

• The indicator comprises a two pole permanent magnet rotor.

• Which is pivoted to rotate inside a soft iron stator.

• The pointer being attached to the spindle.

• The stator carries three star connected windings that are

connected to the three wires coming from the tapping’s of the
transmitter.
 Servomechanisms
Basic Desynn
28V
Supply

Toroid
Resistance
Magnetized
Rotor
Stator
Windings

Wiper
Arms

Indicator Transmitter
 Servomechanisms
Basic Desynn
Operation

• When dc power, is applied to the wiper arms of the

transmitter, current will enter the positive wiper arm and
divide to flow in both directions, left and right, around the
torroidal resistor.

• Both halves of the resistor have the same resistance,

therefore the current in each path will be equal.
 Servomechanisms
Basic Desynn
Operation
28V

9.3V 9.3V
0V

+28V DC

Transmitter Receiver
 Servomechanisms
Basic Desynn
Operation
9.3V

9.3V 28V

+28V DC

Transmitter Receiver
 Servomechanisms
Basic Desynn
Operation
9.3V

28V 9.3V

+28V DC

Transmitter Receiver
 Servomechanisms
Basic Desynn
Operation

+28V DC

Transmitter Receiver
 Servomechanisms
Basic Desynn
Operation

+28V DC

Transmitter Receiver
 Servomechanisms
Fail Safe Devices

• A problem with the Desynn is that should the d.c. power to the
system fail, the pointer will remain in its last position.

• This is not a satisfactory situation, the instrument should 'fail

safe‘.

• That is it should respond in such a way that the fault will be

identified.

• This is achieved by fitting a small permanent magnet in the

indicator.
 Servomechanisms
Fail Safe Devices

• Under normal operation, the field of the permanent magnet is

weak in comparison to the fields produced by the coils and
therefore has no effect.

• When power is removed, the small permanent magnet attracts

the permanent magnet rotor, moving the pointer off scale.
 Servomechanisms
Slab Desynn

• If the voltages at the 3 tapping's of the transmitter of a basic

Desynn are measured, as the wiper arms are rotated 360, it
will be seen that they produce a triangular waveform as
opposed to a sinewave.
28V

0V
0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

• This results in the pointer of the indicator not following the

transmitter exactly.

• In most instances the difference is insignificant, however there

may be certain circumstances where it cannot be overlooked.
 Servomechanisms
Slab Desynn

• The solution is to use a modified Desynn transmitter called a

'slab Desynn'.

• In a slab Desynn, the resistor is wound on a slab former and

has the power supply connected to it, whilst the wiper arms
now provide the output to the receiver, there being 3 wiper
arms each displaced from the next by 120.

• The output from this device is a sinewave.

• It can be connected to the same type of indicator and operates

in the same way as the basic Desynn.
 Servomechanisms
Slab Desynn

To Indicator
Stator Windings
Brushes

28V DC Contact
Pivot Point

Slab
Resistor
Contact Drive from
Mechanical Element
 Servomechanisms
Synchro Systems
• Synchro's, as Desynn's, are electromagnetic devices used to
transmit positional data electrically from one position to
another.
• They have an advantage over Desynn's in that they can also
be used to compute the sum of two rotations or the difference
in angle between them.
• Servo systems, which will be examined in the next section,
employ synchros in conjunction with an amplifier and a
controlling motor to provide to provide an automatic control
mechanism.
• They are used in applications requiring output torque's greater
than those which can be produced by a synchro.
 Servomechanisms
Synchro Types
• Synchro types may be classified as follows:
1. Torque Transmitter.
2. Torque Receiver.
3. Control Transmitter.
4. Control Transformer.
5. Torque Differential Receiver.
6. Torque Differential Transmitter.
7. Control Differential Transmitter
8. Resolver.
 Servomechanisms
Torque Synchro

• Torque synchros operate on the motor principle.

• A primary winding is wound onto a rotor and is rotated with

respect to a fixed stator winding.

• The size and phase of the output voltage is dependent on the

direction and angular displacement between the primary and
secondary windings.

• The torque synchro comprises two electrically similar units:

1. The Transmitter (TX).

2. The Receiver (TR).

 Servomechanisms
Torque Synchro

TX S1 S1 TR

R1 R1

R2 R2

S3 S2 S3 S2

Input Output
Shaft Shaft
AC
Supply
 Servomechanisms
Torque Synchro

• The TX and TR are interconnected by transmission lines.

• The TX and TR have very similar construction.

• Each has a rotor carrying a single winding concentrically

mounted in a stator of three windings, the axes of which are
120° apart.

• The rotors of both TX and TR synchros are energized from

the ac supply and produce an alternating flux which links with
their corresponding stators S1, S2 and S3.

• This process is the normal transformer action, with the rotors

corresponding to the transformer primary winding and the
stators to the secondary windings.
 Servomechanisms
Torque Synchro

Rotor Field
TX S1 S1 TR

Stator Field
R1 R1

R2 R2

S3 S2 S3 S2

Input Output
Shaft Shaft
AC
Supply
 Servomechanisms
Torque Synchro

• Consider the case when the two rotors are not aligned.

• The three voltages induced in each of the two sets of stator

windings are different.

• Currents therefore flow between the two stators and a torque

is produced in each synchro which is directed in such a way
that the two rotors must align themselves.
 Servomechanisms
Torque Synchro

TX S1 S1 TR

R1 R1

R2 R2

S3 S2 S3 S2

Input Output
Shaft Shaft
AC
Supply
 Servomechanisms
Torque Synchro

TX S1 Rotor Field S1 TR

Stator Field
R1 R1

Current Flow
R2 R2

S3 S2 S3 S2

20° Clockwise

Input Output
Shaft Shaft
AC
Supply
 Servomechanisms
Torque Synchro

TX S1 Rotor Field S1 TR

Stator Field
R1 R1

R2 R2

S3 S2 S3 S2

20° Clockwise 20° Clockwise

Input Output
Shaft Shaft
AC
Supply
 Servomechanisms
Torque Synchro

• Normally, the TX rotor position is controlled by the input shaft,

while the TR rotor is free to turn, so it is the one which aligns
itself with the TX rotor.

• In this way, any movement of the TX rotor due to movement of

the input shaft is repeated synchronously by movement of the
receiver rotor.

S1 S1
R1 S2 S2 R1
R2
TX TR R2
S3 S3

Circuit Symbol Circuit Symbol

 Servomechanisms
Torque Synchro

Bearing

Shell
Shaft

Stator Coils
Windings
Soft Iron
Core

Leads to
Slip Rings

Slip
Rings
Lower
End Cap Stator Rotor
Leads Leads
Stator Rotor Complete
Assembly
Servomechanisms
 Servomechanisms
Torque Synchro
S1 S1
R1 R1
S2 S2
R2 TX S3 S3
TR R2

Aircraft Flap FLAP

POSITION
INDICATOR

0°
10°
15°
20°
30°
 Servomechanisms
Control Synchro

• The basic control synchro system has two units; a Synchro

Control Transmitter (CX) and a Synchro Control Transformer
(CT).

S1 S1
R1 S2 S2 R1
R2
CX CT R2
S3 S3

Circuit Symbol Circuit Symbol

 Servomechanisms
Control Synchro

Principle of Operation

• The CX synchro is similar to that used in the torque synchro

system.

• The control transformer, operating on the transformer

principle, has a stator with high impedance coils to limit the
alternating currents through the coils.

• Further differences in the CT are that the rotor winding has

its coils wound so that no torque is produced between it and
the stator magnetic fields and the rotor is not energized by
the supply voltage applied to the rotor of the control synchro.
 Servomechanisms
Control Synchro

Rotor Field
CX S1 S1 CT

Stator Field
R1
AC
Supply
R2

S3 S2 S3 S2

Output Servo Error

Input Shaft Motor Signal
Shaft
 Servomechanisms
Control Synchro

Principle of Operation

• The CT rotor acts as an inductive winding for determining the

phase and magnitude of error signal voltages.

• The signals, after amplification, are fed to a two-phase motor,

which is mechanically coupled to the CT rotor.

• A control synchro system is at electrical zero when the rotor

of the CT is at 90° with respect to the CX rotor.
 Servomechanisms
Control Synchro

Rotor Field
CX S1 S1 CT

Stator Field
R1
AC
Supply
R2

S3 S2 S3 S2

Output Servo No Error

Input Shaft Motor Signal
Shaft
 Servomechanisms
Control Synchro

• If the input shaft is rotated and the CX rotor is disturbed,

voltages are induced in the CX stator and currents flow down
the transmission lines to the stator windings S1, S2 and S3 of
the CT.
• A magnetic flux is produced, depending on the amount of
displacement of the CX rotor and the orientation of its
displacement.
• This flux links with the rotor of CT, inducing a voltage into it,
again depending on the amount, or rate of displacement, and
its orientation.
 Servomechanisms
Control Synchro

• The voltage, or error voltage, representing the electrical

difference between the rotors of CX and CT, is then amplified
and passed to the control phase of a two-phase motor.
• The ac reference phase supply is fixed.
• The motor now rotates.
• As it rotates, the motor drives the rotor of CT in such a
direction as to reduce the error voltage to zero and the new
position is reached.
• By using the error signal amplified by a servo amplifier, a
servomotor can be driven to move a control surface.
 Servomechanisms
Control Synchro

CX S1 S1 CT

R1
AC
Supply
R2

S3 S2 S3 S2

Output Servo No Error

Input Shaft Motor Signal
Shaft
 Servomechanisms
Control Synchro

CX Rotor Field CT
S1 S1

Voltage Induced
Stator Field in Rotor
R1 (Error Signal)
AC
Supply
R2

S3 S2 S3 S2

20° Clockwise

Output Servo No Error

Input Shaft Motor Signal
Shaft
 Servomechanisms
Control Synchro

CX Rotor Field CT
S1 S1

Stator Field
R1
AC
Supply
R2

S3 S2 S3 S2

20° Clockwise

Output Servo Error

Input Shaft Motor Signal
Shaft
 Servomechanisms
Control Synchro

CX Rotor Field CT
S1 S1

Stator Field
R1
AC
Supply
R2

S3 S2 S3 S2

Output Servo Error

Input Shaft Motor Signal
Shaft
20° Clockwise
 Servomechanisms
Control Synchro

• The direction the motor rotates depends on the phase of the

error signal.

CX Rotor Clockwise Rotation

Applied Voltage Voltage In-phase

Anti-clockwise Rotation Two-phase Motor

Voltage Out-of-phase Reference Phase
 Servomechanisms
Differential Synchro

• There are two types of differential synchro system:

1. Torque.

2. Control.
 Servomechanisms
Differential Synchro

• In each, a special type of synchro is inserted between the

synchros of the basic torque or control systems.

• It is called a ‘Differential Synchro’ and differs from the basic

synchros in that it has a three-phase stator and rotor.

• In a torque differential system it is abbreviated to TDX and in

a control differential system, CDX.

• The inclusion of this synchro between a torque transmitter

and receiver or control transmitter and transformer permits an
additional input to be algebraically added to, or subtracted
from, the system.
 Servomechanisms
Differential Synchro
Stator
S1 S3

R1 R3

S1
R1
R2 S2
R3 R2 Rotor
S3

Can be either TDX, TDR, CDX or CDT

S2
 Servomechanisms
Differential Synchro
Stator
Assembly

Stator
Connections

Rotor
Assembly

Skew cut to enable

Stator
smooth turning
Windings

Rotor
Coils
 Servomechanisms
Torque Differential Synchro

TX S1 TDX S1 S1 TR

R1 R1
R1

R2 R3 R2 R2

S2 S2 S2
S3 S3 S3

30° Clockwise
AC
Supply
Input Input Output
One Two
 Servomechanisms
Torque Differential Synchro

TX S1 TDX S1 S1 TR

R1 R1
R1

R2 R3 R2 R2

S2 S2 S2
S3 S3 S3

30° Clockwise
AC
Supply
Input Input Output
One Two
 Servomechanisms
Torque Differential Synchro

TX S1 TDX S1 S1 TR

R1 R1
R1

R2 R3 R2 R2

S2 S2 S2
S3 S3 S3

30° Clockwise 30° Clockwise

AC
Supply
Input Input Output
One Two
 Servomechanisms
Torque Differential Synchro

TX S1 TDX S1 S1 TR

R1 R1
R1

R2 R3 R2 R2

S2 S2 S2
S3 S3 S3

60° Clockwise
AC
Supply
Input Input Output
One Two
 Servomechanisms
Torque Differential Synchro

TX S1 TDX S1 S1 TR

R1 R1

R2 R2

S2 S2 S2
S3 S3 S3

60° Clockwise
AC
Supply
Input Input Output
One Two
 Servomechanisms
Torque Differential Synchro

TX S1 TDX S1 S1 TR

R1 R1

R2 R2

S2 S2 S2
S3 S3 S3

60° Clockwise 60° Counter

Clockwise
AC
Supply
Input Input Output
One Two
 Servomechanisms
Torque Differential Synchro

TX S1 TDX S1 S1 TR

R1 R1
R1

R2 R3 R2 R2

S2 S2 S2
S3 S3 S3

60° Clockwise 15° Clockwise

AC
Supply
Input Input Output
One Two
 Servomechanisms
Torque Differential Synchro

TX S1 TDX S1 S1 TR

R1 R1

R2 R2

S2 S2 S2
S3 S3 S3

60° Clockwise 15° Clockwise

AC
Supply
Input Input Output
One Two
 Servomechanisms
Torque Differential Synchro

TX S1 TDX S1 S1 TR

R1 R1

R2 R2

S2 S2 S2
S3 S3 S3

60° Clockwise 15° Clockwise 45° Clockwise

AC
Supply
Input Input Output
One Two
 Servomechanisms
Control Differential Synchro

TX S1 TDX S1 S1 TR

R1 R1
R1

R2 R3 R2 R2

S2 S2 S2
S3 S3 S3

AC Output Servo Error

Motor Signal
Supply Shaft
Input Input
One Two
 Servomechanisms
• Resolver Synchro

• This type of synchro is used to convert voltages, which

represent the Cartesian co-ordinates of a point, into Polar
co-ordinates and vice versa.

Polar and Cartesian Co-ordinates

• A vector, representing an alternating voltage, can be defined

in terms of ‘r’ and the angle it makes with the X-axis: angle
(θ).

• These are the polar co-ordinates of the vector written as r/θ.

 Servomechanisms
Polar and Cartesian Co-ordinates Point
B
X Axis

Polar Co-ordinates = R/

Cartesian Co-ordinates X = R Cos 

Cartesian Co-ordinates Y = R Sin 

Y Axis
θ
Point
A
 Servomechanisms
Resolver Synchro Operation

• The resolver synchro consists of a stator and rotor, each

having two windings arranged in phase quadrature.

S1

R1
R3 R4 S4

S3
R2

S2
Input Shaft
 Servomechanisms
Resolver Synchro Operation

• The resolver synchro consists of a stator and rotor, each

having two windings arranged in phase quadrature.

Rotor Stator
R1 S1

R2 S2

Circuit Symbol

R3 R4 S3 S4
 Servomechanisms
Resolver Synchro Operation

• The resolver synchro consists of a stator and rotor, each

having two windings arranged in phase quadrature.

S4 S2

S3 R3

S1
RX R1

R4 R2

Circuit Symbol
 Servomechanisms
Resolver Synchro Operation
Rotor Angle () = 0°
R1 S1

Flux
100V a.c.

Flux
I/P O/P 2
Representing r
Cos 

R2 S2
O/P 1 = r Sin  O/P 2 = r Cos 
Flux

Sin 0° = 0 S3 S4 Cos 0° = 1

Therefore O/P 1 = 0V Therefore O/P 2 = 100V

O/P 1
Sin 
 Servomechanisms
Resolver Synchro Operation
Rotor Angle () = 45°
S1


100V a.c. O/P 2
Representing r
I/P
Cos 

S2
O/P 1 = r Sin  O/P 2 = r Cos 

Sin 45° = 0.707 S3 S4 Cos 45° = 0.707

Therefore O/P 70.7V Therefore O/P 2 = 70.7V

O/P 1
Sin 
 Servomechanisms
Resolver Synchro Operation
Rotor Angle () = 90°
S1


R2

R1
100V a.c.
Representing r
I/P Flux Flux O/P 2
Cos 

S2
O/P 1 = r Sin  O/P 2 = r Cos 
Flux
Sin 90° = 1 S3 S4 Cos 90° = 0

Therefore O/P 100V Therefore O/P 2 = 0V

O/P 1
Sin 
 Servomechanisms
Conversion from Polar to Cartesian Co-ordinates

• For this purpose, one of the resolver coils is short-circuited,

say R3 R4.

• The other, R1 R2, has an alternating voltage applied to it.

• The magnitude of this voltage (r) and the angle () through
which both rotor coils are turned, represent the polar co-
ordinates r/.
 Servomechanisms
Conversion from Polar to Cartesian Co-ordinates

Rotor Flux Stator

R1 S1
Max
Volts
R2 S2

r COS 
Zero
Volts

90º 180º 270º 360º


R3 R4 S3 S4

r SIN 
 Servomechanisms
Conversion from Polar to Cartesian Co-ordinates

Rotor Stator
R1 S1

R2 S2

r COS 

R3 R4 S3 S4

r SIN 
Input = 0°
 Servomechanisms
Conversion from Polar to Cartesian Co-ordinates

Rotor Stator
R1 S1

R2 S2

r COS 

R3 R4 S3 S4

r SIN 
Input = 0°
 Servomechanisms
Conversion from Polar to Cartesian Co-ordinates

Rotor Stator
R1 S1

R2 S2

r COS 

R3 R4 S3 S4

r SIN 
Input = 0°
 Servomechanisms
Conversion from Cartesian to Polar Co-ordinates

• In this arrangement, there are two voltage inputs and these

represent the Cartesian co-ordinates.

• They are VX = r cos and VY = r sin .

• VX is input to S1 S2.

• VY is input to S3 S4.

• The two together develop an alternating magnetic flux

representing the Cartesian co-ordinates in the stator.
 Servomechanisms
Conversion from Cartesian to Polar Co-ordinates

• R1 R2 is connected to an amplifier, which drives the output

load and the rotor in such a direction as to null the rotor and
stop the motor.

• R3 R4 has a voltage induced in it dependent on the value of

the alternating flux.

• Its value may be calculated using Pythagoras' Theorem

VY² + VX² .
 Servomechanisms
Conversion from Cartesian to Polar Co-ordinates

R1
S1

S2
R2 SM

VX = r COS 

To Load
S3 S4 R3 R4  
VY = r SIN 
VY 2 + VX2
 Servomechanisms
Synchro System Faults

• A loss of supply to the TR rotor will result in Low Torque

operation with possible 180 error.

• A loss of supply to the TX rotor will result in no operation of

the synchro.

• An open circuit on one stator line will result in the receiver

oscillating between 2 points approximately 75 apart.

• A short circuit between 2 stator lines will result in the receiver

being displaced by 0, 60, 120, 180, 240 or 300 and
movement in 180 steps.
 Servomechanisms
Synchro System Faults
Cross Connections Fault Symptoms

Receiver indicates 120 and rotates in opposite

S1 and S2 Reversed.
direction to transmitter.

Receiver indicates 240 and rotates in opposite

S2 and S3 Reversed.
direction to transmitter.

Receiver indicates correctly but rotates in opposite

S1 and S3 Reversed
direction to transmitter.

Receiver indicated 180 error but rotates in same

R1 and R2 Reversed
direction as the transmitter.

R1 and R2 Reversed and S1 and S2 Reversed

Receiver indicates 60 error and rotates in opposite
or
direction to transmitter.
R1 and R2 Reversed and S2 and S3 Reversed

Receiver indicates 180 error and rotates in opposite

R1 and R2 Reversed and S1 and S3 Reversed
direction to transmitter.
 Servomechanisms
Servomechanisms
• Servomechanisms are a type of automatic control system.
• The action of the output in slavishly following the demands of
the input gives the system its name.
• Servus is the Latin name for slave.
• Human operators are incapable of providing the degree of
precision necessary to operate complex machines requiring
fast and accurate control.
• They are also limited in the amount of power they can apply to
a load.
• Servomechanisms provide the precise control and power that
humans are unable to provide.
 Servomechanisms
Servomechanisms
• Servomechanisms, or Servo’s possess the following
properties:

1. They are error activated.

2. They have power amplification.

3. They contain moving parts.

4. They are automatic in operation.

 Servomechanisms
Servomechanisms
Categories of Servo Systems

• Servomechanisms can be classified according to two main

categories:

1. Open Loop Systems.

2. Closed Loop Systems.

 Servomechanisms
Open Loop System

• In this system, an input is applied and an output obtained.

Demand
Input Demand
Transducer Amp
Signal

Response

Motor Load
 Servomechanisms
Open Loop System

• A characteristic of the open-loop controller is that it does not

use feedback to determine if its output has achieved the
desired goal of the input.

• This means that the system does not observe the output of
the processes that it is controlling.

• In order to ensure that the output achieves the desired goal

Positional Feedback is used.

• When feedback is used the system is termed a “Closed Loop

System”.
 Servomechanisms
Closed Loop System

• An output Position Transducer has been added to the

servomotor and this feeds back any difference between input
demand and output to an error detector.

• The error detector outputs an error signal to the amplifier to

make any positional corrections necessary at the servo motor
and thus the load (or rudder) is positioned as demanded.
 Servomechanisms
Closed Loop System
Demand Error Response
Detector
Input Error Servo
Amp Load
Transducer Signal Motor

Response

Position Output
Position
Feedback Transducer
 Servomechanisms
Closed Loop System

• If for example the pilot wanted to move the rudder 25°.

• A 25° demand is made at the rudder bar by the Pilot.

• This is converted to a voltage at the transducer.

• For this example let us say +5 volts.

 Servomechanisms
Closed Loop System
SPEED BRAKE
ACTUATOR

POS TRANDUCERS
6 - PITCH Error
Detector
6 - ROLL
4 - YAW Amp
4 - AIRBRAKE

Hydraulic Activates the Hydraulic Actuator

Rudder Pedal Input Pressure

(Demand 25° left deflection)

Hydraulic
Return

Output
Position
Transducer
 Servomechanisms
Closed Loop System
SPEED BRAKE
ACTUATOR

POS TRANDUCERS
6 - PITCH Error
Detector
6 - ROLL
+5V +5V
4 - YAW Amp
4 - AIRBRAKE
0V

Rudder Pedal Input

(Demand 25° left deflection)

Output
Position
Transducer
 Servomechanisms
Closed Loop System
SPEED BRAKE
ACTUATOR

POS TRANDUCERS
6 - PITCH Error
Detector
6 - ROLL
+5V +4V
+5V
4 - YAW Amp
4 - AIRBRAKE
-1V
0V

Hydraulic Activates the Hydraulic Actuator

Rudder Pedal Input Pressure

(Demand 25° left deflection)

As the rudder
moves a transducer
on the rudder shaft Hydraulic
generates a Return
feedback voltage

Output
Position
Transducer Rudder Position = 5°
 Servomechanisms
Closed Loop System
Once the rudder has
SPEED BRAKE reached its desired
ACTUATOR position then the error
signal will be zero

POS TRANDUCERS
6 - PITCH Error
Detector
6 - ROLL
+5V 0V
+4V
4 - YAW Amp
4 - AIRBRAKE
-5V
-1V

Hydraulic Activates the Hydraulic Actuator

Rudder Pedal Input Pressure

(Demand 25° left deflection)

Hydraulic
Return

Output
Position
Transducer Rudder Position = 25°
 Servomechanisms
Closed Loop System
SPEED BRAKE
ACTUATOR

POS TRANDUCERS
6 - PITCH Error
Detector
6 - ROLL
+5V
0V -5V
0V
4 - YAW Amp
4 - AIRBRAKE
-5V
0V

Hydraulic Activates the Hydraulic Actuator

Rudder Pedal Input Return

(Demand 0° Central Position)

Hydraulic
Pressure

Output
Position
Transducer Rudder Position = 0°
25°
 Servomechanisms
Closed Loop System
SPEED BRAKE
ACTUATOR

POS TRANDUCERS
6 - PITCH Error
Detector
6 - ROLL
0V 0V
4 - YAW Amp
4 - AIRBRAKE
0V

Activates the Hydraulic Actuator

Output
Position
Transducer
 Servomechanisms
Follow Up

• If in our example; if the rudder were to be displaced from its

demanded position, an error signal occurs.

• In the way described, there is a feedback signal and the

system returns to its demanded position.

• This process is called 'Follow Up'.

 Servomechanisms
Types of Servo

• There are two main classes of servomechanism;

1. Remote Position Control (RPC) servos.

2. Velocity Control Servos (velodynes).

RPC Servos

• These are used to control the angular, or linear position of a

load.

• A typical example of the use of a RPC servo is the control of

the direction in which a radar scanner is pointing.
 Servomechanisms
Types of Servo
Velodynes

• These are used to control the speed of a load.

• In this case, the speed of the driving motor is made

proportional to the input demand (usually a voltage).

• A typical example of the use of a velodyne is the control of a

radar scanner, which is required to rotate with a constant
angular velocity.

• It may be necessary to change the velocity of rotation from

time to time and the velodyne must be capable of doing this
and maintaining the new velocity set by the input demand.
 Servomechanisms
Positional Feedback

• Positional feedback is obtained from transducers positioned

at the output.

• The feedback element, or transducer, converts the output

shaft angle into a signal suitable for operating the error
detector.

• In this case a voltage signal.

• The simplest form of element is a R-pot, or a helical

potentiometer similar to that used as a control element.

• In practice, helical potentiometers are used since they give

360° coverage, which a R-pot cannot provide.
 Servomechanisms
Positional Feedback
Demand

Control
Error
Element
Detector Servo
Amp
Motor

Response

Load

Positional Feedback
Feedback Element
 Servomechanisms
Positional Feedback
Resistive (R) Pot

Ei
i
Proportional
to i

E
(Volts)
 Servomechanisms
Positional Feedback
Helical Potentiometer

+Ve
E

Proportional
Ei
to i

i
• In ac systems, other components are used to provide
positional feedback.
• Synchros are employed in some servomechanisms.
 Servomechanisms
Rotary Variable Differential Transducer (RVDT)

• The RVDT is an inductance transmitter having a primary

stator coil, an iron rotor coil and two secondary stator coils.

Primary Coil L3

Note: The secondary coils are wound in

opposition to each other. Input
Therefore they have opposite phase voltages
induced.

L1 L2
Output
Voltage

Secondary Coil Secondary Coil

 Servomechanisms
Rotary Variable Differential Transducer (RVDT)
Primary
Magnetic
Flux
L3

Input

L1 L2

Zero Volts
 Servomechanisms
Rotary Variable Differential Transducer (RVDT)
Primary
Magnetic
Flux
L3

Input

L1 L2
 Servomechanisms
Rotary Variable Differential Transducer (RVDT)
Primary
Magnetic
Flux
L3

Input

L1 L2
 Servomechanisms
Rotary Variable Differential Transducer (RVDT)
Alternate Construction

Output

Reference
AC
 Servomechanisms
Rotary Variable Differential Transducer (RVDT)
Alternate Construction
 Servomechanisms
Rotary Variable Differential Transducer (RVDT)
Alternate Construction
 Servomechanisms
Rotary Variable Differential Transducer (RVDT)
Alternate Construction
 Servomechanisms
Rotary Variable Differential Transducer (RVDT)

RVDT for No 2
Throttle Position

RVDT for No 1
Throttle Position
 Servomechanisms
The Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)

• Linear variable differential transforms (LVDT's) are used to

produce an electrical signal proportional to a linear
movement.

• LVDT's consists of a moveable iron core that is mounted

inside three windings wound on a coil former.

• The centre winding is the excitation winding and is connected

to an a.c. reference voltage.

• The two outer windings are connected in series opposition

and provide the output.
 Servomechanisms
The Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)

Output

Linear
Movement

Reference AC
 Servomechanisms
The Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)

Zero
 Servomechanisms
The Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)
 Servomechanisms
The Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)
 Servomechanisms
The Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)
 Servomechanisms
Types of Input
• There are three possible types of inputs to a servo, these are:
1. Step Input.
2. Ramp Input.
3. Accelerating Input.
Step Input
• This type of input can be achieved by switching off the servo
power, moving the input shaft and then re-applying power.
• The response of a servo system to this type of input reveals a
great deal of information about the servo system.
• It is therefore used as a test signal.
 Servomechanisms
Types of Input

Ramp Input

• This type of input is created when the input shaft is suddenly

rotated at a constant angular velocity.

• The units would be radians / second.

• The diagram shows an example of a ramp Input.

• Servo systems are subjected to this type of input during

normal operation.
 Servomechanisms
Types of Input

Accelerating Input

• An accelerating function is created when the input shaft is

rotated with a constant acceleration.

• The units would be radians / second2.

• Systems are subject to this type of input during normal

operation.
 Servomechanisms
Types of Input

Step Input Ramp Input Accelerating

Input
 Servomechanisms
System Response

• How well a servomechanism responds to a particular change

in input signal, in terms of transient response and overshoot,
is a measure of its overall performance.

• Any servomechanism will take a finite time to start to move

and also to settle down at a new position.

• The 'Settling Time' is defined as the time taken to approach a

final steady state within specific limits.

• Unless special precautions are taken a servomechanism will

oscillate.
 Servomechanisms
System Response

• When the output response reaches the required value, the

load has acquired considerable momentum and consequently
overshoots.

• The error now increases in the opposite sense and a reverse-

torque is applied which brings the load to rest and then
accelerates it back in the opposite direction where it again
overshoots the desired position.

• This process can continue indefinitely if the frictional losses in

the system are negligible, and system would oscillate
continuously.

• This is called 'hunting'. To avoid oscillation and subsequent

hunting, some form of damping is required.
 Servomechanisms
System Response

Output
Demand Step Input
I
Time
Setting Time Steady
Y State
Overshoot X Z
Output
Response

O Time

X = Output response reaches the required value.

The load has acquired considerable momentum and consequently overshoots.
The error now increases in the opposite sense and a reverse-torque is applied
which brings the load to rest at point Y.
It then accelerates it back in the opposite direction where it again overshoots
the desired position, at point Z.
This process can continue indefinitely if the frictional losses in the system are
negligible, and system would oscillate continuously, this is called 'hunting'.
 Servomechanisms
System Response

Output
Demand Step Input
I
Time
Setting Time Steady
Y State
Overshoot X Z
Output
Response

O Time

Error
Signal
I - O Time
X Z
Y
 Servomechanisms
Damping

• Different amounts of damping produces different response curves.

1. Underdamped - When overshoots and transient oscillations are observed at

the output of a system the servomechanism is said to be underdamped.

2. Critically Damped - When the system responds to an error in such a way

that the output moves to the required position at the fastest possible rate
without producing overshoots it is said to be critically damped.

This is a theoretical position and provides the division between underdamping

and over-damping.

3. Over-Damped - When no overshoots are produced, but a time lag is

introduced into the system, the servomechanism is said to be over-damped.

• In practice, servo systems are designed to be slightly underdamped in

order to reduce response delays.

• This degree of damping is often called 'Ideal Damping'.

 Servomechanisms
Damping

Underdamped Required
Damping

Output
Position
O Step
Input Over-Damped

I Critical
Damping

Time
 Servomechanisms
Damping

• There are frictional forces inherent in a servo system, which

provide damping.

• These are;

1. Coulomb Friction

2. Viscous Friction.

• Another friction present when the servo is at rest is Stiction.

 Servomechanisms
Stiction

• Stiction is present in the system when it is at rest.

• This initial friction must be overcome in order for the system to

move.

• Once moving, stiction falls to zero.

• The name stiction comes from Static Friction.

 Servomechanisms
Coulomb Friction
• Coulomb Friction is a constant force independent of speed
and is demonstrated by the rubbing friction between two
plates.
• The number of overshoots in the system using Coulomb
friction is proportional to the size of the initial error, the larger
the error the greater the number of overshoots.
• It will be noted that the response curve of the system using
Coulomb Friction brings the system to a steady state but that
a positional error is present.
• For this reason Coulomb Friction is not used in practical
systems, and although always present in the form of inherent
friction, good system design keeps it to a minimum.
 Servomechanisms
Coulomb Friction

Underdamped Steady state

or position
error

Output
Position
O Step
Input Coulomb
I Friction
Damping

Time
 Servomechanisms
Viscous Friction
• Viscous Friction is proportional to velocity and provides
satisfactory damping for servo systems.
• When the velocity of the system is zero, viscous friction is
zero, and therefore it will not cause a position error.
• If the system moves more rapidly, the viscous friction will
increase, as necessary to provide the additional damping
required.
• The oscillations of the system are damped out, but a constant
error is produced.
• This error is called 'Velocity Lag'.
• The amount of Velocity Lag is proportional to the amount of
viscous damping.
 Servomechanisms
Viscous Friction
Velocity
lag

Required
Position

Output
Position
O

Actual
Position

Time
 Servomechanisms
Efficiency of Output Damping

• Both Coulomb and Viscous damping have the great

disadvantage of being applied to the output of systems.

• This requires large amounts of energy to control high power

outputs.

• This inevitably generates heat, which entails the provision of

complex cooling systems.

• It is more efficient to apply damping to the input of the system,

where power levels are much lower.

• A simple and commonly used method of providing damping at

the input is to use Negative Velocity Feedback (NVFB).
 Servomechanisms
Velocity Feedback Damping

Control Error Servo

Amp
Element Detector Motor

Demand

Load

Velocity Tacho
Feedback Gen

Positional Feedback
Feedback Element
 Servomechanisms
Velocity Feedback Damping

• In servomechanisms, velocity feedback is achieved by using

a Tacho-Generator (TG) driven by the output shaft of the
system.

• A Tacho-Generator is a small electrical generator, which is

either A.C or D.C. operated.

• The great advantage of this type of feedback is that amount of

voltage fed back to the system, and therefore the amount of
damping, can be controlled by using a simple potentiometer.
 Servomechanisms
Velocity Feedback Curves

Input I
Demand Step Input
No
Overshoot

Output
Shaft O
Response

Error
Signal
E = (I - O)

Output From
Tacho-Generator

Load
Accelerating
Net Input To
Power Amp

Load
Decelerating
 Servomechanisms
Velocity Control Servomechanisms

• In some applications it is the rotational speed of a shaft and

not its position that must be controlled.

• The input demand signal is used to control the angular

velocity of the output shaft and not its position.

• To make the speed of the driving motor exactly proportional

to the input demand a servomechanism is essential.

• If a servomechanism were not used the speed of the output

motor would vary with changes in the supply voltage or any
changes of the friction in the motor or its load.

• Note that there is no position feedback.

 Servomechanisms
Velocity Control Servomechanisms

• Movement of the speed control potentiometer produces a

voltage proportional to the demanded speed.

• The Tacho-Generator provides a voltage proportional to the

angular velocity of the output shaft.

• If there is a difference between these two signals an error

voltage will be fed to the amplifier.

• The output of the amplifier will accelerate or decelerate the

motor until the output of the Tacho-Generator produces a
voltage exactly equal to the input demand voltage and the
motor will run at the demanded speed.
 Servomechanisms
Velocity Control Servomechanisms
Input
Shaft

Demand

Voltage proportional
to the demand
speed & direction Response
Error
Signal

Voltage Amp M TG Output

Shaft
Speed Control
Potentiometer

Velocity Feedback Voltage

 Servomechanisms
Residual Error

• Because of inherent frictional and damping losses, some

torque is always required to turn the motor and load at a
constant speed.

• Therefore a difference between the input demand and the

actual speed will always be present.

• By using high gain in the amplifier this difference can be kept

very low.
 Servomechanisms
Velocity Lag

• A Rate Servo using velocity feedback is just as prone to

velocity lag as a RPC Servo.

• But as it is only the speed and not the actual position of the
output that is measured, it may be ignored.
 Servomechanisms
Tacho-Generators

• Tacho-Generators provide the velocity feedback for servo

systems.

• A Tacho-Generator normally utilises the drag cup principle

and will always produce a voltage with the same frequency as
the supply voltage.

• With the drag cup stationary no voltage is induced in the

secondary winding as it is placed at right angles to the
primary winding and the output is zero.
 Servomechanisms
Drag Cup Tacho-Generator

AC Primary
Supply Windings

Drag
Cup

Secondary
Windings

Output
 Servomechanisms
Drag Cup Tacho-Generator

Primary
Field

Secondary
Field
Axes of
Primary &
Secondary
Field

No
Currents Output
circulating in
the drag cup
 Servomechanisms
Drag Cup Tacho-Generator

Primary
Field

Drag Cup Axes of

Rotated Secondary
Secondary
Field
Field

Output
 Servomechanisms
E & I Bar Transducer

• The E & I bar transducer is so called because of the shape of

its component parts.

• A winding on the centre limb of the E bar carries an AC

excitation supply.

• Secondary coils are connected in series opposition.

• With the I bar in the centre position equal flux will flow in the
outer limbs of the E bar.

• The voltages induced in the two secondary coils will be equal

and opposite and will therefore cancel out and there will be no
output signal.
 Servomechanisms
E & I Bar Transducer

• If the I bar is displaced from the central position, more flux will
flow in the limb of the E bar with the smaller air gap and less
flux will flow in the limb with the larger air gap.

• The induced voltages in the two windings will no longer cancel

out and an output voltage will be produced.
 Servomechanisms
E & I Bar Transducer
Secondary
Coil

Primary
Coil

AC
Reference

Secondary
Coil

Output
 Servomechanisms
E & I Bar Transducer

Primary
Coil

Zero
 Servomechanisms
E & I Bar Transducer

Primary
Coil
 Servomechanisms
E & I Bar Transducer

Primary
Coil
 Servomechanisms
E & I Bar Transducer

I Bar pick-off moves As altitude increases the

proportional amount capsule expands
Chaser Motor moves the I
Bar pick-off which
reduces the signal to zero

Evacuated
Capsule
Output
Shaft Rotation

Motor

Chaser
Excitation Motor

Pick-off signal is Chaser Motor

amplified rotates in the
correct direction
 Servomechanisms
Inductive Type Transducers

• Inductive type transducers use the principles associated with

inductance.

• Inductance is generally used in one of two ways in aircraft

transducers.

• Firstly a changing magnetic field is used as the transducer

output.

• Secondly by using changes in flux density to control a.c.

current flow.
 Servomechanisms
Inductive Type Transducers
Target

Permanent Magnet
Rotational Shaft
whose RPM is to
be measured

Output
Coil
 Servomechanisms
Inductive Type Transducers

Steady
Magnetic
Flux

Rotational Shaft
Stationary

Zero
 Servomechanisms
Inductive Type Transducers

Increase of
Magnetic
Flux

Smaller Air Gap

Less Reluctance
 Servomechanisms
Inductive Type Transducers

Decrease
of Magnetic
Flux

Larger Air Gap

More Reluctance
 Servomechanisms
Inductive Type Transducers
 Servomechanisms
Inductive Type Transducers
 Servomechanisms
Inductive Type Transducers
 Servomechanisms
Inductive Type Transducers
 Servomechanisms
AC Current Control

• When a.c. current flows in an inductor, the continually

changing flux produces a continually changing back emf that
opposes the current flow.

• This opposition to current flow is called inductive reactance,

and is dependent on the value of inductance of the coil.

• The inductance of the coil can be changed by changing the

coil material, or by placing a piece of steel adjacent to it.

• Placing a piece of steel near the coil increases its inductance,

which in turn increases the inductive reactance of the coil.
 Servomechanisms
AC Current Control

• Increasing the inductive reactance reduces the a.c. current

flow in the coil.

• Which can be detected and used to provide a signal to

indicate when the steel is in close proximity to the coil or
sensor.

• This form of transducer is used in proximity sensing systems

such as those used to sense the position of the landing gear
on an aircraft.
 Servomechanisms
AC Current Control Magnetic Field
(Metal Sensing Region)

Induction Coil
(Generates Changing
Magnetic Field)

+
DC Oscillator
Supply (Generates AC)
- Current
DC Detector
Output
Steel Target
 Servomechanisms
Practical Servo Systems

+10v
Compares the Potential
Difference between both Current
potentiometer wipers Limiting
Resistor

Amplifier Motor Load

I O
Motor armature
Presence of the carries current
field produces a continuously
motor torque

0v
 Servomechanisms
Practical Servo Systems

+10v

Detects a Current
difference in the PD Field produces CW Limiting
of the two wipers motor torque Resistor

Amplifier Motor Load

I
O

0v
 Servomechanisms
Practical Servo Systems

+10v

No Potential
Current
Difference detected No Field Limiting
Generated Resistor

Amplifier Motor Load

Motor
Stops

0v
 Servomechanisms
Practical Servo Systems

LOAD

O
i
2 PHASE
Amplifier MOTOR

Motor Reference Phase

 Servomechanisms
Practical Servo Systems

LOAD

30°

2 PHASE
Zero Amplifier MOTOR

Motor Reference Phase

 Servomechanisms
Practical Servo Systems

LOAD

30°

2 PHASE
Amplifier MOTOR

Motor Reference Phase

 Servomechanisms
Practical Servo Systems

LOAD

30°

2 PHASE
Amplifier MOTOR

Motor Reference Phase

 Servomechanisms
Practical Servo Systems

LOAD

O
30°

2 PHASE
Amplifier MOTOR

Motor Reference Phase

 Servomechanisms
Practical Servo Systems

LOAD

O
30°

2 PHASE
Amplifier MOTOR

Motor Reference Phase

 Servomechanisms
Practical Servo Systems

LOAD

2 PHASE
Amplifier MOTOR

Motor Reference Phase

Any Questions?