Chapter 5

Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation
2. SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
2.1 Introduction
Application of water to the cropped land can be done in different forms in addition to the
natural rainfall. It can be applied through surface irrigation methods that deliver water
through channels with aid of gravity action. The other application pattern may be through
pressurized irrigation which delivers water under high pressure to the point of interest.
With this respect either a power supply system or an optimum elevation difference
between the critical points to create suitable head for the water to flow is required. Water
sources, Energy sources (Gravity, Mechanical, Internal combustion) and distribution
network (pipe or canal) are basic irrigation components.
Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying water to the surface of the soil in the form of a
spray, which is similar to natural rainfall. This method of irrigation was started at about
1900. The first agricultural sprinkler systems were an outgrowth of city lawn sprinkling.
Before 1920 sprinkling was limited to tree crops, nurseries and orchards. Most of these
systems were stationary overhead perforated pipe installations or stationary over tree
systems with rotating sprinklers. These systems were expensive to install but often fairly
inexpensive to operate. Portable sprinkler systems developed with the introduction of
light weight steel pipe and quick couplers in the early 1930`s, resulted in reduction of
equipment cost and increased number of sprinkler installation. The number of sprinkler
installations has increased rapidly since 1950 owing to the development of more efficient
sprinklers, light weight aluminum pipe, more efficient pumps, and to the wide spread
distribution of low cost electrical power and fuels for internal combustion engines.
Sprinklers have been used on all soil types and on lands of widely different topography
and slopes and for many crops.
Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping. It is then sprayed

into the air through sprinklers so that it breaks up into small water drops which fall to the
ground. The pump supply system, sprinklers and operating conditions must be designed
to enable a uniform application of water.
Sprinkler systems are used to irrigate crops to increase crop production as are all
irrigation systems. However, sprinkler systems may also have other uses; some of them
are unique to this type of water application device. Sprinkler systems may be used for
disposal of municipal, industrial and agricultural wastes. It is used to lightly wet the soil
surface after seeding to improve germination. Fertilizers may be applied to a crop
through a sprinkler system if the uniformity of the application system is sufficient.
Sprinkler systems may also be used for frost protection under adverse weather condition
which bud freezing may bring serious economic damage to a crop. When such systems
are use for frost protection, the bud is covered with a thin layer of frozen water.
Sprinkler Irrigation System in Ethiopia
In Ethiopia Sprinkler Irrigation is practiced to a limited extent for growing horticultural

crops around Ziway, in Tanabeles irrigation project and for development of 6000 ha
irrigated sugarcane plantation for Fincha sugar factory. Now a days it has been
becoming the major component in supplementing the natural rainfall for food and
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Lecture supporting materials By Negash Wagesho 2009
industrial raw material production and for production of market based agricultural
products, such as flower farms owned by private sectors.
Considering prospects of sprinkler irrigation systems development in Ethiopia, few of the

conditions which favour the development or which calls for the system are:
1. The undulating topography of wide arable areas of the country,

2. Marginal soils of peripheral regions of the country , shallow soils with low water
holding capacity and which prevent proper leveling for effective surface irrigation
methods, land having steep slopes and easily erodable soils , irrigation streams
too small to distribute water efficiently by surface methods in arid and semi- arid
areas of the nation which otherwise are suitable for large scale commercial
production
3. Growing hydropower generation, etc
The major bottlenecks were:

1. No or little domestic production of system components- pumps, quick couplers,
light weight pipes, hose etc. Almost all components are imported.
2. Individual farmers can not afford the installation costs.
3. Poor infrastructure and marketing which could support production of paying
perishable crops and vegetables for export and domestic consumption.
4. Lack of skilled manpower for project identification, planning, design and
implementation.
2.2 Adaptability of Sprinkler Irrigation

Some of the conditions which favor sprinkler irrigation are as follows.
 Soils too porous for good distribution by surface methods.
 Shallow soils the topography of which prevents proper leveling for surface
irrigation methods.
 Land having steep slopes and easily erodable soils.
 Irrigation stream too small to distribute water efficiently by surface irrigation.
 Undulating land too costly too level sufficiently for good surface irrigation.
 Land needs to be brought in to top production quality. Sprinkler systems can be
designed and installed quickly.
 Soils with low water holding capacities and shallow rooted crops which require
frequent irrigation.
 Automation and mechanization are practical.
 Labour available for irrigation is either not experienced in surface methods of
irrigation or is unreliable, good surface irrigation requires trained reliable labour.
 Higher application efficiency can be achieved by properly designed and
operated systems.
For optimum crop growth sprinkler irrigation is suitable under the following conditions.
Suitable crops
Sprinkler irrigation is suited for most row, field and tree crops and water can be sprayed
over or under the crop canopy. However, large sprinklers are not recommended for
irrigation of delicate crops such as lettuce because the large water drops produced by
the sprinklers may damage the crop.
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Suitable slopes
Sprinkler irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope, whether uniform or undulating.

The lateral pipes supplying water to the sprinklers should always be laid out along the
land contour whenever possible. This will minimize the pressure changes at the
sprinklers and provide a uniform irrigation.
Suitable soils
Sprinklers are best suited to sandy soils with high infiltration rates although they are
adaptable to most soils. The average application rate from the sprinklers (in mm/hour) is
always chosen to be less than the basic infiltration rate of the soil so that surface
ponding and runoff can be avoided.
Sprinklers are not suitable for soils which easily form a crust. If sprinkler irrigation is the
only method available, then light fine sprays should be used. The larger sprinklers
producing larger water droplets are to be avoided.
Suitable irrigation water
A good clean supply of water, free of suspended sediments, is required to avoid

problems of sprinkler nozzle blockage and spoiling the crop by coating it with sediment.
Other uses of Sprinkler irrigation
Sprinkler systems have several secondary agricultural uses which are important in
addition to the primary use for distributing irrigation water to be stored in the soil. Light
frequent irrigations so easily managed by using sprinklers, are helpful in many situations,
such as, shallow rooted crops, germination of new plants, control of soil temperature and
humidity.
The other uses of sprinkler irrigation are:
 Frost protection
 Application of fertilizers , pesticides and soil amendments
 Crop cooling
Sprinkler Irrigation versus Surface irrigation

When comparing sprinkler and surface methods of irrigation, the following points should
be considered:
Sprinkler systems can be designed so that less interference with cultivation
and other farming operations occurs and less land is taken out of production
than with surface methods.
Frequent and small depth of water can readily be applied by sprinkler
systems.
Higher water application efficiency can normally be obtained by sprinkler
irrigation.
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For areas requiring in frequent irrigation, sprinkler irrigation can be provided

at a lower capital investment per acre of land irrigated than can surface
irrigation.
Water measurement is easier with sprinkler than with surface methods.
Whenever water can be delivered to the field under gravity irrigation,
sprinkler irrigation is particularly attractive.
When domestic and Irrigation water come from the same source, a common
distribution line can be frequently used.
Limitations of sprinkler Irrigation:
 Wind distorts sprinkler pattern and causes uneven distribution of water

 Ripened soft fruits may be affected by spraying water.
 Water must be clean and free of sand, debris and large amount of dissolved
salts.
 High initial investment as compared to surface irrigation.
 High power requirements
 Fine textured soils with slow infiltration rate can not be irrigated efficiently in hot
windy areas.
 In areas of high temperature and high wind velocity, considerable evaporation
losses of water may take place.
2.3 Types of sprinklers and Sprinkler systems
Various types of sprinkler systems have been developed in response to economic and
labour conditions, topographic conditions, special water application needs and the
availability of water and land resources. Sustained development of sprinkler system
began in the Pacific Northwest of the United States where land and water resources
were available for irrigation along with low cost hydroelectric power. Several types of
sprinkler irrigation systems will be introduced here in with.
Based on the arrangement for spraying irrigation water sprinklers may be classified
as fixed nozzles attached to the pipe, perforated pipe, and rotating sprinklers.
Fixed Nozzle: Parallel pipes are installed at about 15 meters apart and supported on
rows of posts. Water is discharged at right angles perpendicularly from the pipe line. The
entire 15 m width between pipe lines may be irrigated by turning the pipes through about
135°.
Perforated sprinkler: Generally application rates exceeding 20 mm/hr for this system
and pressure heads less than 25m, often as low as 7m . They do not cover a very wide
strip.
Rotating sprinklers: Extensively used due to its ability to apply water at a slower rate.
It uses relatively large nozzle openings which are favorable in water containing silt and
debris since less stoppage of sprinklers is experienced. Application rates less than 2
mm/hr are possible with sprinklers (advantageous for soils with low infiltration rates).
Pressure heads vary from 20m to 70m for large units.
Classification based on the method of developing pressure:
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 Pump powered system

 Gravity sprinkler system
 Hybrid systems (Pumps + Gravity)
Classification based on portability and make-up of units:
Sprinkler system may be classified broadly as conventional systems (Periodic move

and fixed systems) and mobile sprinkler machines (periodic move and continuous
move system.
1. Conventional system ( Periodic move and fixed systems)
Different types under this group based on portability and mobility of the different
components are indicated.
 Permanent system
 Solid set system
 Portable system
 Hand move (semi portable system)
Permanent System: Fully permanent systems consist of permanently laid mains, sub
mains, laterals and stationary water sources with pumping plant. mains, sub mains and
laterals are usually buried below plough depth. Sprinklers are permanently located in
each riser, thus to irrigate the field sprinklers only need to be cycled on and off. These
systems are suited for automation of the system usng moisture sensing devices.
Generally good for perennial crops and ideal for fertilizer and chemical applications.
Hand move sprinkler (Semi- portable system): The original sprinkler systems were
hand move types. The water source and the pumping plants are fixed and the mains and
sub mains are usually buried or laid on the surface with valve outlets at various spacings
for the portable laterals, which are aluminium tubing with quick couplers with risers and
sprinklers portable (Periodic).This system is the basis from which all the mechanized
systems were evolved. These systems are placed in the field with the pipe lines which
deliver water to the sprinkler nozzles running parallel to the cropped rows. The sprinkler
nozzles rotate such that each nozzle wets in a circular pattern. The uniformity of
application comes from the over lapping of these circular patterns both along the
sprinkler line and between successive positions of the lines.
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Fig. Lay out of Hand move sprinkler System @ position -1
Solid-set system: This is similar to the hand move type except for the pipe lines are left
in a fixed position for the entire growing season. Because there are no lines to be
moved, the entire field must be covered by application patterns of the overlapping
sprinkler nozzles.
Portable system: It has a portable mainlines and laterals and a portable pumping plant.
Here all system components can be moved periodically from one field to another
including pumping unit. This system is commonly used in supplemental irrigation system.
Comparatively, the initial investment on this type of sprinkler system is not high but the
labor cost is more.
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2. Mobile sprinkler machines

These are self propelled machines or which are external power unit , designed
mobile with all required system components to irrigate larger area. In these
systems labour requirement is very less. How ever mechanical break down is
more likely. Therefore it is advisable to allow some reserve capacity (time) and
use that same system capacity as for conventional system.
 Side roll system
 Self propelled gun travelers - Big Gun sprinkler
 Center pivot system
 Linear move system
 Boom sprinkler system
Side-roll system: It is made up of a series of aluminum wheels which serve to elevate

the sprinkler line. This type of system essentially evolved out of a labor shortage to move
the hand-move lines.
An entire length of side- roll line is moved by a small derive motor installed in the center
of the line. After the line has finished irrigation in one position in the field, the motor is
turned on to move it into position for the next irrigation. The elevated distribution line
serves as an axle about which the wheels rotate.
Center pivot system: This is a further development in labour-saving sprinkler system.

The water source for this system, whether a well or buried pipeline, is located at the
center of the field and delivers water to the pivot arm. The pivot arm is rotated by
hydraulic or electric derive motors connected to the wheels at the intermittent towers.
The rotation of the pivot arm results in the pattern of circular irrigated areas. Specially
designed linear move system is adopted to irrigate the corners of irrigable land left
unirrigated with the center pivot system.
Linear move system: requires the source of water to be available all along one edge of
the field. This is accomplished either by an open canal or by using buried mainline which
is coupled to the linear move at different locations down the field by a flexible hose. The
water supply system is more complex for a linear-move system than a center pivot
because the distribution system delivers water along the entire length of one side of the
field instead of only at the center.
Big Gun system: Gun traveler sprinkler is a high capacity sprinkler fed with water
through a flexible hose; it is mounted on self- propelled chassis and travels along a
straight line while watering. It has a single large diameter nozzle which sprays large
volumes of water reaching 40 – 120 m3/hr in a circular pattern. The nozzle is connected
to a flexible hose which is pulled along a straight line so a strip of field is irrigated on one
pass.
Boom sprinkler System: This system is carried by a trailer and can be folded during
transportation.
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Pressure heads
Sprinkler systems operate under a wide range of pressure heads from 3.5m to over
70m. The desirable pressure head depends up on power costs, area to be covered, type
of sprinkler used, sprinkler spacing and crop being irrigated.
Water for all sprinkler systems must be pressurized, whether a high pressure (830 to
1035 kpa) for the big gun system, moderate pressure (275 to 485 kpa) for the impact
sprinklers or relatively low pressure (105 to 210 Kpa) for rotating nozzles. There fore,
pressurized water source, whether developed by the gravitational head available from an
elevated water source or the output pressure of a pump, is an integral part of any
sprinkler system.
Sprinklers in the low pressure head range have small areas of coverage and relatively
high sprinkling rates for the recommended spacing of the sprinklers. Their use is
confined to soils whose infiltration rate exceeds 12 mm/hr during irrigation.
Medium pressure head sprinklers cover larger areas and have a wide range of
precipitation rates and water drops are well broken up.
High pressure head sprinklers cover large areas, and precipitation rates for
recommended spacing are higher than for the medium pressures. Distribution patterns
are usually good but are easily disrupted by winds because of high water trajectories.
They have high application rate (> 20 mm/hr).
2.4 Sprinkler System Components
A typical sprinkler irrigation system consists of the following components:
 Pressure generating units(Pump unit)

 Water carrier units (Mainlines , sub mainlines, Laterals)
 water delivery units (riser pipes and Sprinklers)
 Quality improvement sub units ( Screens , Desilting basins)
 Ancillary units ( Fertilizer and other chemical applicator)
The pump unit is usually a centrifugal pump which takes water from the source and
provides adequate pressure for delivery into the pipe system.
Mainline: a line between the source of pressurized water and the point at which water is
delivered to the field is the next component. Generally the mainline is buried or above-
ground pipeline. In the linear move system the mainline can be an open channel and
requires a pressurizing device, pump.
Lateral line: This comes out of the mainline to deliver water to the sprinkler nozzles.
The position of the lateral may be permanent, as in a solid set, or moveable as in the
hand move and side- roll systems. The spacing between the successive positions of the
lateral along the mainline spacing and is designated as Sm.
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The distance between sprinkler nozzles along a lateral is termed as the lateral spacing
and designated as Sl.
To get a uniform rate of water application, the nozzle size, nozzle spacing or both are
varied along the length of the pivot arm.
The spray area which is wet by each sprinkler nozzle at a particular operating pressure
is designated as the wetted diameter, DW. The wetted diameters are overlapped along
the lateral to promote a more uniform distribution of water application.
A common problem with sprinkler irrigation is the large labour force needed to move the
pipes and sprinklers around the field. In some places such labour may not be available
and may also be costly. To overcome this problem many mobile systems have been
developed such as the hose reel rain gun and the centre pivot.
Fertilizer applicator:
Soluble chemical fertilizers can be injected in to the sprinkler system; the fertilizer is
easily placed at the desired depth in a soluble and readily available form to plants, with
out any danger of being leached away. The two operations, irrigation and fertilizer
application, are done simultaneously thus saving the labour required for fertilizer
application.
Fertilizer can be introduced in to the system either through the suction side of the pump
via a pipe and regulated by a valve, another pipe is connected from the discharge side of
the pump to the fertilizer container for the required water supply in the tank or a venture
fixed in the mainline creates a differential pressure and allows the fertilizer solution to
flow in the main water line. In some designs the applicator could have separate injection
pump.
Introducing fertilizers through the suction side of the pump via the pipe is simpler but
pump impellers are likely to be corroded due to the fertilizer solution, unless the
impellers are made of corrosion resistant materials. When applying the fertilizer through
the sprinkler system, it is desirable to operate the system long enough with out turning
on fertilizer injector valve, to wet the soil and the plant foliage. The ratio of water to
fertilizer by weight is about 30:1 and timed to be injected with in half an hour. After
injection the system has to operate for about 20- 30 minutes to flush it out from toxic
effects of the fertilizer solution.
The Quantity of fertilizer to be injected is calculated for the area according to the
recommended rate of fertilizer application in kilograms per hectare, using the formula,
S l * S m * N s * Pn * W f
WF 
10,000
Where: W F = Amount of fertilizer per setting , Kg.

Sl = Distance between sprinklers , m
Sm = Distance between laterals , m
Ns = Number of sprinklers
Pn = Number of positions a given sprinkler can serve ( In solid set system)
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W f = recommended fertilizer dose, Kg /ha
Desilting basin (Settlement Reaches):
Desilting basins may be required to trap and or suspended silts when the water comes
from streams, open ditches or well water having silt. Some times desilting basins and
debris screen are built as a combination structure. Desilting basin should be large
enough to provide protection for at least one full day.
Debris screen:
Debris screen are usually needed when surface water is used as the source of irrigation.
The function of screens is to keep the system free of trash that might plug the sprinkles
nozzles. Screens should be fine enough to catch weed seeds and other small particles.
Two or more screens, of progressively finer mesh, can be used when heavy loads of
debris are expected. The accumulated trash must be removed from the screens before
water flow to the pump becomes restricted.
Booster pumps:
Booster pumps are used when additional pressure is required in some particular place of
the already pressurized system. They could be used to provide adequate pressure for
small areas that lie at elevation considerably above the principal area to be irrigated, to
derive the turbine in a hose reel of self-propelled gun travellers. The use of booster
pumps under such conditions removes the need to carry high pressures from the main
pumping plant for relatively small fraction of the total pressure that is needed on high
pressure or discharge area.
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Fig. Definition sketch for components of sprinkler system
2.5 Operating Sprinkler System
The main objective of a sprinkler system is to apply water as uniformly as possible to fill
the root zone of the crop with water.
Wetting patterns
The wetting pattern from a single rotary sprinkler is not very uniform. Normally the area
wetted is circular (see top view). The heaviest wetting is close to the sprinkler (see side
view). For good uniformity several sprinklers must be operated close together so that
their patterns overlap. For good uniformity the overlap should be at least 65% of the
wetted diameter. This determines the maximum spacing between sprinklers.
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Figure --- Wetting pattern for a single sprinkler (TOP VIEW)
Wetted Depth
Figure --- Wetting pattern for a single sprinkler (SIDE VIEW)
The uniformity of sprinkler applications can be affected by wind and water pressure.
Spray from sprinklers is easily blown about by even a gentle breeze and this can
seriously reduce uniformity. To reduce the effects of wind the sprinklers can be
positioned more closely together.
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Figure…. Overlapping wetting pattern.
Sprinklers will only work well at the right operating pressure recommended by the
manufacturer. If the pressure is above or below this then the distribution will be affected.
The most common problem is when the pressure is too low. This happens when pumps
and pipes wear. Friction increases and so pressure at the sprinkler reduces. The result
is that the water jet does not break up and all the water tends to fall in one area towards
the outside of the wetted circle. If the pressure is too high then the distribution will also
be poor. A fine spray develops which falls close to the sprinkler.
Application rate
This is the average rate at which water is sprayed onto the crops and is measured in
mm/hour. The application rate depends on the size of sprinkler nozzles, the operating
pressure and the distance between sprinklers. When selecting a sprinkler system it is
important to make sure that the average application rate is less than the basic infiltration
rate of the soil. In this way all the water applied will be readily absorbed by the soil and
there should be no runoff.
Sprinkler drop sizes
As water sprays from a sprinkler it breaks up into small drops between 0.5 and 4.0 mm
in size. The small drops fall close to the sprinkler where as the larger ones fall close to
the edge of the wetted circle. Large drops can damage delicate crops and soils and so in
such conditions it is best to use the smaller sprinklers.
Drop size is also controlled by pressure and nozzle size. When the pressure is low,
drops tend to be much larger as the water jet does not break up easily. So to avoid crop
and soil damage use small diameter nozzles operating at or above the normal
recommended operating pressure.
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2.6 Design of sprinkler systems
2.6.1 General
A sprinkler irrigation system, to suit the conditions of a particular site, is especially
designed in order to achieve high efficiencies in technical performance and economy. A
complete farm sprinkler system planned exclusively for a given area of farm unit on
which sprinkling will be the primary method of water application. Planning for complete
systems includes considerations of crops and crop rotations used, water quality, and the
soil found in the specific area, possible considerations for future expansions etc. The
step-by –step procedure in the planning and design of a sprinkler irrigation system is
enumerated below.
Inventory of available resources and operating conditions
At the project identification and preliminary planning stage a comprehensive inventory of

available resource is made on physical resources, this include: collecting information on
soils, topography, water supply, source of power, crops and farm operation schedules.
For promising areas, soil survey (scale 1:10,000 or bigger) are undertaken to delineate
the extent and distribution of soil types, together with their chemical and physical
characteristics particularly water-related properties such as soil depth, water holding
capacity, infiltration rate, permeability and drainage, erosion and salinity hazards.
Evaluation of climate would include temperature, humidity, wind sunshine duration or
radiation, evaporation, rainfall, occurrence of night frost, and others; on which crop
selection and crop water needs will be based. Criteria on production potential under
irrigation must justify development not only from agronomic, technical and economy but
also from a sociological point of view. Knowledge of present farming systems including
among others farm equipment use, social amenities (feature or facility of a place that
make life easy or pleasant), credit facilities and farming incentives, will therefore be
required in selecting a development plan. Infrastructure and human resources in the
area have to be evaluated including communication, markets, population, labour and
employment, and power source.
Topographic map of the area
It is essential that a map of the area concerned is prepared and drawn to scale with
sufficient accuracy to show all dimensions so that length of main and laterals can be
scaled there from. It should be a contour map or, at least, should show all relevant
elevations in the fields to be irrigated. It should be possible to generate information
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generally needed like direction of land slope to locate laterals and mains, changes in
elevations along lateral-line settings, to design a system that controls between irrigated
areas and the water source. The elevation differences, together with friction losses in the
mains and laterals and the pressure requirements of the sprinklers, determine the
pressure that must be developed by the pump.
If slopes are gentle and fairly uniform, checking the elevation at a few points along the
side of the field, at control points along possible mainline locations, and at water source
is enough.
Water supply – source availability and dependability
It is important that an irrigation system of sufficient size (capacity) is available to meet

the maximum demand of crops. The quantity available should also meet the seasonal
and annual requirements of the crops and the area to be irrigated. The water should be
chemically suitable for irrigating the crops and soils of the area. It should not have any
corrosive effect on the equipment. The water should be relatively clean and free of
suspended impurities so that the sprinkler lines and nozzles are not clogged
Climatic Condition
The consumptive use of a crop depends upon the climatic parameters such as
temperature, radiation intensity duration, humidity and wind velocity. Sprinkler system is
designed for the daily peak rate of consumptive use of the crops irrigated. For example,
a peak demand in the range of 2 to 10 mm depth per day is equivalent to a continuous
flow of 0.23 to 1.16 lt/sec/ha.
Power source
The source of power to operate the pump is to be known in advance. Electric power is
most convenient when the pump is stationary. Electric pumping sets are cheaper in
initial cost and maintenance cost. Portable diesel pumping sets are the most suitable
and practical for fully portable sprinkler systems.
Based on the knowledge of available resources, the choice of the production system
under irrigation must be made some important parameters are:
Crop Selection: Here, in addition to water available, climate and soils, the preference of
the farmer, labour requirements and markets among others must be considered. These
are otherr site-specific conditions such as limited water available restricting high water-
consuming crops. Unsuitable soils for some crop limited labour for highly intensified
production and processing, and area wide marketing constraints. The cropping pattern
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may need to be adjusted to the available water supply over time, to avoid peak
requirements of various crops occurring simultaneously.
Water Supply level:
An acceptable level of supply, of irrigation norm, must be selected based on a certain
probability that water needed for a selected cropping pattern and cropping intensity will
be meet to each portion of the growing season. Of particular importance are periods
when water shortages have a pronounced effect on yields or germination (critical periods
for soil water stress of crop flowering, vegetative growth, head formation and/of
enlargement etc). A detailed evaluation of water supply available and water demands
over time is therefore required.
Given a certain supply, in turn cropping pattern may need to be adjusted to avoid peak
requirements of various crops occurring simultaneously. This must include consideration
of dormancy periods, shifting of sawing dates, transplantation practices, shortening of
growing seasons, and others. Knowledge of the crop response to water during the
different growing stages will greatly assist in reducing the risk of possible crop failure or
yield depression due to periods of limited water supply.
2.6.2 Sprinkler characteristics

When we design sprinkler system we should know different characteristics of sprinklers.
The actual selection of the sprinkler is based largely up on design information furnished
by manufacturers of the equipment. The essential parameters are sprinkler discharge,
distance of through, application rate and distribution pattern together with application
uniformity and efficiency.
1. Discharge of Sprinkler nozzle (q)

Sprinkler nozzle discharge is a function of nozzle size and pressure available. It may be
computed from the following orifice flow formula derived by Torricelli.
q  ca 2 gh
where,
q = nozzle discharge, m3/s
a = cross sectional area nozzle, orifice, m2
h = pressure head at the nozzle, m
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/sec2
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c = coefficient of discharge which is a function friction and contraction

losses ( It varies from 0.75 to 0.98) depending on the shape of the
nozzle , c = 0.95 to 0.96 for good nozzles.
2. Distance of throw
Diameter of through governs spacing between sprinklers or laterals. It has direct
relationship with the operating pressure.The radius of wetted area covered by the
sprinkler may be estimated by the following formula suggested by Canvazza.
R = 1.35 dh
Where R = radius of wetted area covered by the sprinkler, m
d = diameter of nozzle, m
h = pressure head at the nozzle, m.
Maximum coverage is attained when the jet emerges from the sprinkler at an angle of
30o to 32o above the horizontal. Most rotating sprinklers are standardized at 30o.
The design of sprinkler system is aimed at replacing the water used by the plant during
the peek period of the growing season to avoid crop stress. The required depth of
application is dependent up on the peak period evapotranspiration rate, the water
holding capacity of the root system and the management allowed depletion.
In addition to meeting the crop water requirement, the sprinkler system must be
designed in balance with the intake rate of the soil. Sprinkler systems are normally
designed to avoid all run off from the irrigated field. The intake rate of the soil relative to
sprinkler application must therefore be measured and the sprinkler application rate
chosen accordingly. The sprinkler application rate will depend on the nozzle size,
operating pressure, and spacing of sprinklers.
The maximum reasonable uniformity of application is required to minimize losses due to

deep percolation. The uniformity of application will partially depend on the velocity of the
prevailing wind during sprinkler operation and sprinkler spacing. It will also depend on
pressure variations along the sprinkler line. Pressure variations will be influenced by the
system design criteria, topography and pump selection. The final design must balance
the physical and biological requirements of the system with a reasonable economic cost
and convenience for the cultivator.
2.6.3 Uniformity of application
Pressure effects
Uniformity of application depends on matching operating pressure with the selected
sprinkler nozzle diameter, wind effects and sprinkler spacing. If the pressure is too low,
the water stream is not adequately broken up and a donut-shaped application pattern
results. If the pressure at the nozzle is too high, the stream is broken up in to excessively
small droplets and the water doesn’t carry to the extent of the design wetted diameter.
Excessive amounts of water are instead deposited in the vicinity of the nozzle.
With proper operating pressure an application pattern close to triangular shape (in cross
sectional view) is produced by most sprinkler nozzles. When this pattern is overlapped
with the nearby sprinklers, a fairly uniform application pattern can be attained.
18
Figure… Effects of system operating pressure on sprinkler distribution pattern.
Wind effects prevailing wind condition can have a tremendous effect on the application
pattern of a sprinkler system. Consistent high velocity winds can in fact rule out the
effective use of sprinkler irrigation or limit operations to times of relatively low winds such
as night
Uniformity coefficient
A measurable index of the degree of uniformity obtainable for any size sprinkler
operating under given conditions has been adopted and is known as the uniformity
coefficient (Cu). The uniformity coefficient is affected by the pressure nozzle size
19
relations, sprinkler spacing, and wind conditions. The coefficient is estimated from field
observations.
1. Christiansen’s Uniformity coefficient
CuC = (1 -
x i x
) * 100
nx
where xi = depth caught in can i, mm
x = mean depth caught in mm
n = no of sample
If Cu = 100, absolutely uniform obtained from overlapping sprinklers where as the
water application is less uniform with the lower coefficients. However , Cu of about
85% is satisfactory.
2. Hawaiian Sugar planters Formula
s
UcH = 1  2  
  x
Where UcH = Hawaiian Sugar planters association coefficient, fraction
S =standard deviation of depth caught, mm
The standard procedure for making a uniformity test for a single sprinkler involves
setting up a square grid with a minimum of 80 collectors with in the wetted diameter. The
minimum collector diameter is 80 mm. The sprinkler to be tested is placed at the center
of the grid, that is , midway between four adjacent collectors at a height of 0.6 m above
the average elevation of the tops of the four nearest collectors. Nozzle pressure, flow
rate, and speed of rotation must be accurately measured.
Example:
Determine the Christiansen’s uniformity coefficient from the following data obtained
from a field test on a square plot bounded by four sprinklers.
* 8.9 7.6 6.6 *

8.1 7.6 9.9 10.2 8.3
8.9 9.1 9.1 9.4 8.9
9.4 7.9 9.1 8.6 9.1
* 7.9 6.6 6.8 *
Note : * indicates sprinkler positions
Solutions:
Mean of observations: 178/21 = 8.48
Calculate the numerical deviations from the mean for each observations and sum
up.
Thus x i  x = 17.76
 17.76 
Cu = 100* 1   = 90.03 %
 21 * 8.48 
Tips: The data on uniformity coefficient are useful as a basis for selecting the
combination of spacing, discharge, nozzle size and operating pressure
to obtain high irrigation efficiency.
20
2.6.4 Adequacy of application
Concept of adequacy:
The net irrigation requirement at a given time is equal to the crop water requirement
since the last irrigation minus the amount of precipitation which infiltrated in to the
soil profile – that is effective precipitation. No sprinkler system is perfectly uniform;
some parts of the field receive greater depths of applied water than others due to
superposition of sprinklers.
The concept of adequacy addresses the question of what portion of the field received
the net irrigation requirement. A portion of the field received an amount equal or
greater than the net irrigation requirement is said to be adequately irrigated and the
remaining portion is under irrigated. Any depth of applied water equal to more than
the net irrigation requirement goes to deep percolation. If 25 % of the field receives
at least the net depth of irrigation, then the field is said to have an adequacy level of
25 percent. The relationship between adequacy and uniformity determines the
amount of deep percolation for sprinkler irrigation.
2.6.5 Losses in a sprinkler system
In calculating the capacity of sprinkler installation, it is essential to know the losses

occurring during sprinkling. In practice these can be done for a particular soil, climate
and sprinkling method.
1. Wind drift and evaporation losses: These losses are influenced by the same
factors affecting the evaporation of the crops .Viz, the radiation, wind velocity,
temperature and relative humidity of the air. The size of droplets is also
important. More water evaporates as the size of the droplets is smaller. The size
of the droplets is determined by the size of the nozzles and the pressure. Wind
drift and evaporation losses are less than 5 % when irrigating crop with full
vegetative canopy in low winds. More commonly, wind drift and evaporation
losses range between 5 and 10 percent. However, under very sever conditions,
they can be considerably great.
2. Interception: When sprinkling is stopped the crop is still wet. The water
remaining on the crop after sprinkling is called interception water. The
interception in a grass crop is approximately 2mm; these may be some what
more in tall crops. The interception should not be considered as a loss, because
a wet crop has a lower transpiration. Transpiration by the crop may be greatly
reduced during application but will be compensated by increased evaporation
from wet leaves and soil surface. The combined effect do not greatly exceed the
predicted ETo
3. Percolation losses: larger losses than the preceding section is observed as a
result of the irregular distribution of water. The distribution depends on the quality
of the sprinklers , their spacing , pressure ,application rate and especially the
wind velocity. An increase in wind velocity of 1 m/s will decrease the uniformity
coefficient about 4%.
The distribution pattern of the sprinkler is different in each subsequent sprinkling
because of a different wind direction & velocity and positions of sprinklers. Irregular
distribution of water is also caused by pressure losses in the lateral , resulting in the
pressure head as well as the discharge of the first sprinkler is greater than that of
21
the end sprinkler. The discharge ratio is equal to the square root of the pressure
ratio.
q1 h1

qn hn
It is essential to keep variation in pressure at a practical minimum level. In a good
design this variation should not exceed 20% of the average operating pressure and
h1 is maximally 1.2hn.
4. Other losses: Such as fringe losses, leakage losses ( 1%)
The equation to estimate vapour pressure deficit is given by Trimmer ( 1987) as

 17.27T 
es  ea  0.61exp  1  RH 
 T  237.3 
Where es  ea = vapour pressure deficit , KPa
T = air temperature, OC
RH = Relative humidity in fraction
The final equation for evaporation and wind drift is given by

Ls  1.98D
0.72
 0.22es  ea 
0.63
 3.6 *10 4 h
1.16
 0.14U  
0.7 4.2
Where ,
Ls = evaporation and wind drift , percent
D = nozzle diameter , mm
H = nozzle operating pressure, Kpa
U = wind velocity , m/s
The combined efficiency is the volume of water stored in the root zone compared to the
volume delivered to the application devices. The application devices for the sprinkler
system are the sprinkler nozzles. The combined efficiency must account for both deep
percolation and evaporation and wind drift.
Ec = 1  Ld 1  Ls 
Where Ec = combined application and distribution pattern efficiency, fraction
Ld = Deep percolation, fraction
Ls = evaporation and wind drift, fraction.
2.6.6 Components of system Design
Application Rates
The application rate to the soil surface must therefore be less than the intake rate of
the soil. The lower limit of the application rate must take in to account that there will
be safe evaporation and wind drift of water from the nozzle. Thus, the discharge rate
of the nozzle should be high enough that adequate water remains after evaporation
and wind drift to enable a reasonable amount of water to be infiltrated in to the root
zone.
The gross application rate,
360 * q
dg=
S l .S m
22
where dg = gross application rate , cm/h

q = nozzle discharge l/s
Sl = lateral spacing, m
Sm= mainline spacing, m
Part of the gross application will go to evaporation and wind drift and the remainder will
be applied to the soil surface.
The net application rate,

da= dg (1-Ls)
where da= net application rate

Ls= evaporation and wind drift, fraction
23
Where H = Water Distribution Coefficient, fraction

E = Water Storage Coefficient, fraction
24
25
Sprinkler nozzle discharge is a function of nozzle diameter, model and operating

pressure.
q = KP0.5
where q=nozzle discharge , l/s
p= nozzle operating pressure
k = non linear proportionality constant dependent on nozzle model and diameter.
Manufacturers of sprinkler nozzles have contributed to proper design procedures by
developing tables of nozzles characteristics for various nozzle models. These tables
indicate the nozzle discharge and wetted diameter as a function of the operating
pressure for different sprinkler models and nozzle diameters.
26
27
Irrigation interval
The key parameter to the design irrigation interval is the total allowable depletion, TAD.
TAD=TAM*MAD*Dr
Where TAM = total allowable moisture mm/m

MAD =management allowed depletion, fraction
Dr = depth of active root zone
TAM= FC-CEW
where FC= field capacity, mm/m
CEW=crop extractable water, mm/m
Guidelines for the total available moisture
Light sandy soil, AM = 80mm/m

Medium loam soil, AM=140mm/m
Heavy clay soil, AM=200mm/m
Guidelines for management allowed depletion:
High value- shallow rooted crop----MAD=33%

Medium value – Medium rooted crop—MAD = 50%
Low value- deep rooted crop-----MAD =67%
The time between successive irrigations, the irrigation interval, is given by
TAD
Ti=
ETcrop
Where Ti = irr. interval, day
ETcrp= peak CWR, mm/d
28
Sprinkler Nozzle selection criteria
The equation q= KP0.5 indicates that there is a relationship between nozzle operating
pressure and discharge. A nozzle operating at a low pressure will have reduced
operating costs compared to one at higher pressure. However the lower pressure nozzle
will have a smaller wetted diameter and lower discharge rate. Single nozzle sprinklers
tend to perform better in high wind conditions than double nozzle sprinklers. In other
than high wind conditions, double nozzle sprinklers generally have a higher uniformity
coefficient than single nozzle system.
The nozzle selection process is one of balancing the operating characteristics of the
nozzles with the physical requirements of the irrigation system. The nozzle discharge
has to be high enough to meet the required gross application rate. The net application
rate must be less than intake rate of the soil.
Nozzle selection is always a trial-and-error procedure in which previous experience is
helpful in making decisions regarding nozzle diameter, operating pressure, and sprinkler
spacing.
29
30
Practical Example
31
32
33
System capacity
The capacity of the system is the continuous flow rate required to irrigate the specified
area within the selected operating schedule. It may be estimated as a function of the
gross irrigation requirement, area, and operating schedule as follows.
2.778 i g .A
Q=
N op.TOP
Where Q= continuous flow rate required, l/s
ig= gross irrigation requirement, mm
A= total irrigated area, ha
Nop= number of days of operation per irrigation interval, d
Top= hours of operation per day, h/d
The required number of sprinklers can be estimated by dividing the system capacity by
design discharge for the nozzle selected. This is given by
Q
n=
q
Where n= number of sprinkler
q= design discharge per nozzle
The final solution for the number of sprinklers will be decided based on the lateral and
mainline spacing. The lay out of the laterals and mainline will determine the actual
number of sprinklers. The number of nozzles to be operated simultaneously times the
design discharge per nozzle will determine the final system capacity.
Distribution (pipeline) system Design and Lay out
Introduction:
The water to the sprinkler system is conducted through pipelines from the source, where
the pressure is applied, to the fields. On these fields the water is sprayed by means of
sprinklers. The lines to the fields are called mainline or sub-mainline. On the field
hydrants are placed in the mainline, the sprinkler lines/laterals can be connected to the
hydrants. The movement of water in the sprinkler pipes is governed by energy.
As water moves a substantial part of the energy is lost because of the friction between
water and the pipes, fittings, tanks etc through which it passes. These friction losses
occurring in the pipe network should stay with in the limits to assure proper operation of
sprinklers.
The purpose of pipeline and sprinkler system design is to properly calculate frictional
energy losses so as to move the design flow through the system, by conserving energy
at some points and by burning it off (through friction) at other points. This is
accomplished by a thorough understanding of the water demand , a detailed survey of
the local topography , a careful selection of the pipe and pump sizes and a strategic lay
out of the whole system.
34
Pipeline Hydraulics
Head:
In Hydraulic practice, rather than always having to calculate the water pressure it is
much easier to simply use the equivalent height of the water column. For example 4.3
kg/cm2 is equal to 43 meters of water column. In technical terms this water column is
called the head. The head represents the gravitational energy contained in the stationary
water. The head in an irrigation system is composed of many heads, Viz; static head,
pressure head, velocity head, and friction head.
1. Static or elevation or datum head: is the head due to elevation difference
(vertical distances) between two water surfaces and is not affected by variations
in the horizontal direction.
2. Pressure / peizometric head: is the head due to the height of the water column
above that point.
3. Velocity head: is the energy required to accelerate water at a point from rest.
The velocity head in an irrigation system is very small because velocity seldom
greater than 2.5m/s.
4. Friction head: is the energy required for the water to flow between two points
overcoming friction .For a given sprinkler the operating pressure requirement is
fixed. The static head which is a function of the topography is also fixed. What we
need is the friction loss.
I- Static Equilibrium (Water at rest)
Water pressure at any particular point is directly related to the vertical distance of that
point to the free water surface and is not affected by variations in the horizontal direction.
In a pipeline where no water is flowing, the system is termed as being in static
equilibrium. The level of water is called static water level (SWL) and the pressure is
termed as static head. As long as no water is flowing, there is no energy lost to friction
and the static level is perfectly horizontal.
II- Dynamic Equilibrium (Moving water)
If there is a flow of water through a pipeline and as a result of friction loss in the pipe
line, the water pressure or dynamic head in the pipe will be less than the static head.
This head in moving water is called Dynamic head. More friction loss will occur as more
water flow through the pipe.
Hydraulic Grade line:

The Hydraulic grade line (HGL) represents the energy level as a result of friction losses
in the pipeline. For any constant flow through a pipe, there is a specific and constant
HGL. The vertical distance from the pipeline to the HGL is a measure of pressure head
(i.e. energy) and the difference between the HGL and SWL represents the head lost due
to friction, hf.
The HGL any pipeline’s outlet is called the residual head and represents the excess
water pressure over the atmospheric pressure. The residual pressure at the nozzle
outlet in sprinkler system is called the operating pressure.
35
Lateral System Design
The equation q = kp0.5 indicates that nozzle discharge is a function of the square root of
the nozzle operating pressure. Previous relationships for uniformity, gross application
rate, and net application rate all assumed that each nozzle was discharging at same flow
rate.
In all but the rarest conditions, it is not possible to have the same operating pressure
available for every nozzle on a lateral. The concept of lateral design is therefore based
on limiting pressure differences along a lateral so the variation of nozzle discharge is
with in acceptable range.
The usual criterion applied for the design of laterals is that the difference in nozzle
discharge along a single lateral is less than ±10%. To accomplish this goal, the
difference in nozzle operating pressure is typically constrained to a variation of less than
± 20% along the lateral.
The procedure for lateral design requires that a balance be developed between the
length of the lateral, the head loss due to friction in the lateral, and the change in
elevation head due to topographic effects.
These factors are kept in balance so the pressure variation between the two critical
sprinklers on a lateral is limited to ±20 %
The governing equation for the maximum allowable head loss due to friction between the
 H a   H e
two critical sprinklers is given by HL  ………….(1)

Where
HL = maximum allowable head loss due to friction, m/m
 = maximum allowable pressure difference, fraction
Ha = nozzle design pressure expressed as head, m
He = increase in elevation in direction of water flow between the two critical
Sprinklers, m
 = distance between the two critical sprinkler, m
Note : He is negative for downhill sloping laterals.
Example- 1 A trial configuration of a hand- move sprinkler system has a lateral running
down slope form a mainline along a constant grade of 0.005m/m. the design operating
pressure of the nozzle is 310 kpa. the trial length of the lateral results in a distance of
400m between the first and the last sprinkler. Compute the maximum allowable head
loss to friction as m/m.
P 310 *103 Pa
Soln
Ha   31.61m
g 103 kg 3 * 9.81m 2
m s
- since the elevation decreases along the lateral, the increase in elevation is –ve
He = -s*  = -0.005 m/m * 400m = 2.0m
- Setting the allowable pressure difference between the critical sprinklers equal to
20%.
0.2 * 31.61m   2.0m
Hc = = 0.021m/m
400m
36
- The allowable head loss due to friction computed in the above manner must be
compared with the actual head-loss in the lateral.
HL-ac = F. HL-P …………………………………………(2)
Where HL-ac = actual head loss due to friction, m/m

F = Friction factor to account for decrease in flow along the lateral.
HL-P = equivalent head loss due to friction = hf/L
Friction Head loss

Any convenient friction head loss formula (Analytical or Graphical method) may be
applied to compute the equivalent head loss for a through-flow pipe.
1. Darcy –Weisbach Equation:

This equation states the actual head loss, (hf) as a function of the pipe diameter,
roughness, length of the pipe and flow velocity and is given as:
L V2
hf = f. ……………………………………………………. (3)
D 2g
where hf = head loss due to friction ,m
f = friction factor, which among others, dependent on the viscosity of the
fluid and the roughness of the inside of the pipe, dimensionless
L = length of pipe or tubing over which head loss is evaluated, m
D = Diameter of piping or tubing, m
V2
= velocity head of flow, m
2g
Q Q
V  , substituting in equation (3) above, gives
A 1 D 2
4
8 f LQ 2 1
hf  , therefore, hf  Q 2  5  L , Doubling the diameter of the pipe
g D
2 5
D
reduce hf by 32.
hf
The dimensionless friction factor, f which is given by the equation f 
 L  V 
2
  
 D  2 g 
is estimated using equations or Moody Diagram. From the Moody diagram it is evidient
that the friction factor is a linear function of Reynold’s number and in laminar flow and a
nonlinear function of the Reynold’s number in partially turbulent flow or transition zone.
In fully turbulent flow, the friction factor is constant regardless of the value of the
Reynold’s number. A flow regime can not be maintained in the unstable or critical zone
in a field installation. This zone of flow regime is not important in design situations other
than the fact that it is to be avoided because the flow is unstable.
64
f= , for laminar flow
Re
37
The friction factor, f for turbulent flow can be estimated using the Colebrook‘s equation.
 
1  2.51 
 2 log  D   …………………………………………….(4)
f  3.7 Re f 


VD
Where Re = , Reynold’s Number, dimensionless

 = wall roughness of the pipe,m
 =Kinematic Viscosity of the fluid, m2/s
2. Hazen – William’s equation

Many empirical formulas are used for pipe flow analysis in engineering practice.
These formulas have been obtained from experiments on flow of water under
turbulent conditions. Use of such formulas for flow of other liquids is therefore not
likely to give reliable results. The Hazen- Williams formula is typical of such formula
and is probably the most widely used. The formula is written as:
1.852
Q
KL 
hf = C  …………………………………………………(5)
D 4.87
Where: hf =friction loss expressed as head, m
K = conversion constant = 1.22*1010
L = length f pipe, m
Q = Volumetric flow rate, l/s
C = Hazen – William friction coefficient (C= 135 for aluminum pipes)
D = Pipe diameter, mm
In order to use Hazen William’s formula, however one must know the value of the
roughness coefficient C to be used. The following table gives typical values of the
roughness coefficient.
Pipe material Hazen William coefficient
Plastic 150
Asbestos Cement 140
Galvanized steel 135
Aluminum 130
Steel (New) 135
Cast iron coated 130
Cast iron (old ,moderate corrosion, 30yrs age) 100
hf
HL-p = , when expressed per unit length.
L
The Christiansen friction factor, F, for the first sprinkler at distance Sl from the
mainline:
1 1 m 1
F =   …………………………………..(6)
m  1 2N 6N 2
Where N = Number of sprinklers along the lateral
38
m = exponent on velocity related term in friction headloss formula

= 1.852 , for Hazen- William equation
= 2.0 , for Darcy Weisbach equation
Sl
If the first sprinkler is at distance from the main line then,
2
2N  1 m 1
F=    …………………………………………….(7)
2N  1 m 1 6N 2 
Example 2- Determine the required pipe diameter to maintain actual head loss with in
the allowable limit for conditions indicated in example -1 . The sprinkler spacing s =
12m and the first sprinkler is at a distance Sl from the mainline. The design discharge
per nozzle is 0.315 l/s
Solution: Compute the number of sprinklers on the lateral and volumetric flow rate.
L 400m
N= =  33
Sl 12m
Q = N (q) = 33 ( 0.315 l/s ) = 10.395 l/s
Assuming (C= 135) , set up the Hazen- William equation for as a function of pipe
diameter.
Head loss per unit length,
1.852
 l
 10.395 
1.852 1.22 * 1010  s
Q  135 
K   
H L-P =
hf
=
C  =   =
1.057 *108
4.87
L D 4.87 D D 4.87
Compute the F – factor for the case where the first sprinkler is at a distance Sl from
the mainline.
1 1 m 1 1 1 1.852  1
F =   =   = 0.366
m  1 2N 6N 2
1.852  1 2(33) 6(33) 2
The results for the through-flow pipe friction head loss and actual lateral head loss as a
function of a range of available inside pipe diameter is indicated in the following solution.
Diameter ( mm) HL-P ( m/m) HL-ac (m/m)
50.8 0.521 0.1907

76.2 0.072 0.0264
101.6 0.018 0.0068
127.0 0.006 0.0022
The maximum allowable head loss from example – 1 is 0.021 m/m , based on 20 %
pressure variation , Dmin. = 101.6 mm.
Check flow velocity at the entrance to the lateral. (Vmax < 1.5 m/s)
39
m
10.395 * 10 3
Q s = 1.282 m/s < 1.5 m/s .Thus, the Velocity constraint is met.
V= = 2
A  0.1016m 
 * 
 4 
Determination of maximum number of laterals operating
Simultaneously.
To determine the total discharge and pressure head on sub-mains and mains we need
to know the total number of laterals that will operate simultaneously. To this effect we
need to know the pressure and discharge requirement at the head of each lateral,
<water requirement, irrigation cycle, number of daily irrigation, operating hours, spacing
between laterals etc.
The following example better explain the procedure.
Example: Installation is required for a level field in which three crops are to be
grown for three successive years. Data for soil and crops are given as
follows.
Soil : Field capacity (FC) = 25%

Permanent wilting point (PWP)= 15%
Bulk Density (  b ) = 1.2
Crop:
Crop type Root zone(m) Daily consumptive Management allowed
use (mm/day) depletion (MAD) %
A 1.2 6 80
B 0.6 6 60
C 0.9 6 70
Efficiency of the system is 70%.Adopt 1.2m spacing between laterals along the 360m
sub-main placed in the centre of the field. The water is available for 18 hours per day.
The selected sprinkler has the following operating characteristics.
Sprinkler discharge , qs = 1.7 m3/hr
Operating pressure , hs = 20m
Sprinkler application rate, I = 11.8 mm/hr
Required: 1. maximum number of laterals required to operate the system
2. Total number of lateral settings, settings per day, Number of
laterals that should operate simultaneously.
Solution:
Design for a crop A
 Net crop water requirement, dnet =  b (FC-PWP) *Drz*MAD
= (0.25- 0.15)+1.2*1.2*0.8 = 115 mm
readily .available.depth d net 115mm
 Computed Irrigation interval= = =
daily .consumptive.use CU 6mm / days
= 19days
Taking the number of days free of irrigation for other operation as 4 days, the maximum
net time for an irrigation cycle is
TN max = 19-4 = 15 days
40
d net 115mm
 Gross water requirement , dgross=   164mm
efficiency 0.7
 Duration of application, required daily operating hours for a given set
d gross 164mm
t=   14hrs
sprinkler.applicatio n.rate 11.8mm / hr
available.daily .operating .hhours
 Number of application per day , Nappl =
required .operating .hours. for .a.setting
18hrs
=  1.3  1
14hrs
This implies we can do only one operation per day.
 Total number of lateral settings
length .of .submain 360m
Nlat = * field .sides  * 2  60
lateral .spacing 12m
 Number of laterals required daily
total .number.of .lateral .settings 60
Nlat. daily =   4laterals / day
design. int erval 15
 Number of laterals operating simultaneously
required .daily .settings 4
Nsimult =   4 laterals
No.of .applicatio n. per.day 1
Applying similar procedure to crops B and C, the results are summarized as
follows.
crops NWR,mm T(days) TN.max GWR t Nappl N lat. daily Nsimult
A 115 19 15 164 4 1 4* 4
B 43.2 7 5 61.7 5 3 12 4
C 75.6 11 8 108 9 2 7 4
Note: A selected free day for other operations is 3 days for crop C and only 2 days for
crop B. This is subjective. Here this is made purposefully so that we could operate 4
laterals simultaneously, no matter which crop is grown. This decreases the management
complications.
Mainline System Design
Design procedures and friction calculations for mainline are worked similar to that of
pipeline system.
Pressure required at mainline entrance to laterals

Adequate pressure must be available at mainline take-out for the lateral to provide the
correct operating pressure for the selected nozzle. The pressure required must also
account for elevation changes along the lateral and the height of the connecting riser
between the lateral line and the sprinkler nozzle.
The pressure requirement at the mainline entrance to the lateral is calculated by the
following equation.
Hm = Ha + [0.75( Hf +He) + Hr ]*9.807 ,KPa
41
Where: Hm = required entrance pressure at the mainline, KPa

Ha = Design nozzle operating pressure , KPa
Hf = Total friction head loss in the lateral , m
He = Increase in elevation of lateral from inlet to position of critical
sprinkler, m
0.75 = factor to produce the average operating pressure near the mid
point of the lateral
Hr = Height of the sprinkler riser, m
The critical sprinkler is that with the minimum operating pressure. It is normally the last
sprinkler on the lateral unless there is a point of maximum elevation between the inlet
and the end of the lateral or the down hill slope is significant relative to the friction head
loss gradient. Minimum sprinkler riser heights are required to produce uniform flow
conditions at the nozzle and to clear the crop canopy.
Example 3: Determine the required entrance pressure at the mainline to serve the
lateral in example 1 and 2 . Nozzle operating pressure is 310 KPa. The line is to be laid
on the ground surface. Assume riser height is 1m to clear the crop canopy.
Solution: compute actual friction head loss in the lateral using results of the previous
example ( lateral diameter, D = 101.6 mm).
Hf = Hl-ac (L) = 0.0066m/m * 400m = 2.640 m
Considering an increase in elevation head of -2.0m ( given), required entrance pressure
will be:
Hm = Ha + [0.75(Hf +He) + Hr ]*9.807

=310KPa + [0.75(2.640m-2.0m) +1m]*9.807 = 324 KPa
This is the required pressure in the mainline at the point of the lateral take-out.
Critical Pressure Requirement On mainline

The pressure required at any point of interest on the mainline is the sum of the following
quantities.
a) Pressure required at the next point on the mainline in direction of flow.
b) Friction head loss between the point of interest and the next point on the
mainline.
c) Increase in elevation head between point of interest and the next point on the
mainline.
d) Increase in velocity head between point of interest and the next point on the
mainline.
This relationship is expressed by the following equation in which the point of interest is
designated as i and the next point in the direction of flow is designated as n .
Hi = Hn + hf-in + He-in + Hv-in
Where: Hi = pressure head required at point i , m

Hn = Pressure head required at point n , m
hf-in = Friction headloss from point i to n , m
He-in = increase in elevation head from point i to n , m
Hv-in = increase in velocity head from point i to n , m
Vi 2
The velocity head , Hv-in = where V – in m/s
2g
42
The velocity head are usually very small and can be neglected with out loss of accuracy.
The calculation of the head required at any point i requires the calculation of the
pressure required at the next point n. Therefore pressure calculations are started at the
end of the line and worked back towards the pump. The critical point on the mainline is
the point with the highest pressure requirement taking in to account all pressure losses
starting from the pump. The pump must deliver adequate head at the critical point for the
proper operation of the system.
The pressure head required at the pump is equal to the sum of the following
components.
a) Pressure head required at the critical point in the mainline.
b) Total friction head loss from the pump to the critical point in the mainline.
c) Elevation head from the water source to the critical point in the mainline.
d) Friction head loss from the pumping water level to the centerline of the pump.
e) Velocity head at the critical point in the mainline.
The summation of these quantities equals the total dynamic head requirement of the
pump. The total dynamic head required must theoretically be calculated for each
point in the mainline, and the point with the highest requirement is the critical point.
In equation form the total dynamic head,
Vi 2
TDHi = Hi + hf-pi + He-si +Hf-s +
2g
Where : TDH = Total dynamic head required for point i , m
hf-pi = Friction headloss from pump to point i , m
He-si = increase in elevation from source to point i , m
Hf –s = friction headloss on suction side of pump , m
The pump must be able to produce the maximum calculated total dynamic head at the
design flow rate to develop the required pressure distribution in the main line. If the
pressure required at the critical point in the mainline is adequate all other points in the
mainline with lower pressure requirements will have sufficient pressure.
In some cases development of adequate pressure at the critical point will produce
exceedingly high pressure at other points in the distribution system. These high
pressures could cause excessively high discharges in sprinkler laterals connected at
these points. There are two correction procedures for this condition.
1. Installing pressure regulators at the lateral take-outs from the
mainline.
2. adjusting the opening of the hydrant valve at the inlet to achieve
the same effect.
The regulators or valve adjustments maintain the pressure at the inlet to the lateral at the
level computed above (pressure requirement at the entrance).This is the normal method
of correction for high pressure in parts of the mainline on small or moderate size
irrigation systems.
In more extensive systems, it may be advisable to produce the advisable pressure at the
critical points in stages. This is done by installing a booster pumps at intermediate
locations in the mainline to produce the proper pressure head at the critical point. Use of
booster pumps avoids the cost of producing high pressure in certain sections of the pipe
line only to have it controlled by a pressure regulator.
General Example:
A distribution system is to be designed for a sprinkler system on which five laterals will
be operated simultaneously. Each lateral is to have 30 nozzles with 0.360 L/s discharge
43
per nozzle. The required pressure on the mainline at the inlet to each lateral is 393 KPa.
The elevation of each point on the line and distance between points are given in the
following table.
point Elevation
(m) Distance between
points(m)
pump 48.41
A 47.55 36.58
B 48.46 18.29
C 48.77 18.29
D 47.85 18.29
E 47.24 18.29
The mainline is made of 20.32 cm inside diameter aluminum pipe with a Hazen-Williams
C factor of 144. The friction loss and elevation head from the water surface to the
centerline of the pump is +0.333m. Laterals are to operate on points A through E
simultaneously. Determine the critical pressure point in the mainline and the total
dynamic head requirement of the pump.
Solution: see separate sheet.
44

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Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 2 : Sprinkler Irrigation

Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping. It is then sprayed

Sprinkler Irrigation System in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia Sprinkler Irrigation is practiced to a limited extent for growing horticultural

Considering prospects of sprinkler irrigation systems development in Ethiopia, few of the

1. The undulating topography of wide arable areas of the country,

The major bottlenecks were:

2.2 Adaptability of Sprinkler Irrigation

Sprinkler irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope, whether uniform or undulating.

Suitable irrigation water

A good clean supply of water, free of suspended sediments, is required to avoid

Other uses of Sprinkler irrigation

The other uses of sprinkler irrigation are:

Sprinkler Irrigation versus Surface irrigation

For areas requiring in frequent irrigation, sprinkler irrigation can be provided

Limitations of sprinkler Irrigation:

 Wind distorts sprinkler pattern and causes uneven distribution of water

2.3 Types of sprinklers and Sprinkler systems

Classification based on the method of developing pressure:

 Pump powered system

Classification based on portability and make-up of units:

Sprinkler system may be classified broadly as conventional systems (Periodic move

Fig. Lay out of Hand move sprinkler System @ position -1

2. Mobile sprinkler machines

Side-roll system: It is made up of a series of aluminum wheels which serve to elevate

Center pivot system: This is a further development in labour-saving sprinkler system.

2.4 Sprinkler System Components

A typical sprinkler irrigation system consists of the following components:

 Pressure generating units(Pump unit)

Where: W F = Amount of fertilizer per setting , Kg.

W f = recommended fertilizer dose, Kg /ha

Desilting basin (Settlement Reaches):

Fig. Definition sketch for components of sprinkler system

2.5 Operating Sprinkler System

Figure --- Wetting pattern for a single sprinkler (TOP VIEW)

Figure --- Wetting pattern for a single sprinkler (SIDE VIEW)

Figure…. Overlapping wetting pattern.

Sprinkler drop sizes

2.6 Design of sprinkler systems

At the project identification and preliminary planning stage a comprehensive inventory of

It is important that an irrigation system of sufficient size (capacity) is available to meet

2.6.2 Sprinkler characteristics

1. Discharge of Sprinkler nozzle (q)

c = coefficient of discharge which is a function friction and contraction

The maximum reasonable uniformity of application is required to minimize losses due to

2.6.3 Uniformity of application

Figure… Effects of system operating pressure on sprinkler distribution pattern.

* 8.9 7.6 6.6 *

2.6.4 Adequacy of application

2.6.5 Losses in a sprinkler system

In calculating the capacity of sprinkler installation, it is essential to know the losses

The equation to estimate vapour pressure deficit is given by Trimmer ( 1987) as

2.6.6 Components of system Design

where dg = gross application rate , cm/h

The net application rate,

where da= net application rate

Where H = Water Distribution Coefficient, fraction

Sprinkler nozzle discharge is a function of nozzle diameter, model and operating

Where TAM = total allowable moisture mm/m