Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering (2020) 45:9639–9650

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-020-04876-x

RESEARCH ARTICLE - MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Simulation and Experimental Studies on Arc Efficiency and Mechanical

Characterization for GTA-Welded Ti–6Al–4V Sheets
A. Karpagaraj1 · N. Rajesh Kumar1 · K. Sankaranarayanasamy2 · N. Siva Shanmugam3 · Muralimohan Cheepu4

Received: 6 May 2020 / Accepted: 13 August 2020 / Published online: 26 August 2020
© King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals 2020

Abstract
Gas tungsten arc (GTA) welding process is the best choice for joining Ti–6Al–4V (grade 5) material, with economical cost.
To support the above aim, two simulation works are studied in this research. First work focuses on the simulation of GTA
welding process. The second work focuses on the simulation of the tensile and cupping test. Initially, GTA welding parameters
such as welding current (115–135 A) and welding speed (250–450 mm/min) are taken for conducting bead on plate (BoP)
trials. From these BoP trails, bead profiles are measured to build a moving heat source model in COMSOL. The arc efficiency
(η) is focused on this welding simulation. Using Abaqus software, tensile and cupping test analysis is performed to predict
the fracture location and elongation. The bead profile at arc efficiency of 60% showed a better match with the experimental
work. By implementing the temperature distribution analysis, the bright silver colour bead is achieved in experimental work.
The butt joint showed comparable strength (95.9%) to the base metal; also the simulation error is not exceeded by 10%. The
crack location predicted from the numerical study highly coincides with the experimental work for the cupping test.

Keywords Ti–6Al–4V · Arc efficiency · Numerical simulation · Bead profile · Tensile test · Cupping test

1 Introduction gas tungsten arc (GTA) welding are developed to join the
titanium alloy [1, 2]. Also, all these welding processes can
Ti–6Al–4V is widely used in aerospace, chemical industries cause thermal stress and distortion to the weldments due
and biomaterials component productions. It has following to the unavoidable weld thermal cycle [1, 3, 4]. This is an
excellent properties like corrosive resistance, high strength- inevitable bottleneck in most of the welding process. Among
to-weight ratio due to its low density, excellent fracture these welding processes, GTA welding is economical and
toughness, fatigue strength and weldability. As the use of low-cost joining process. Another advantage of this process
titanium alloy increased, various welding processes such as is it can handle a variety of materials from ferrous and non-
electron beam (EB) welding, laser beam (LB) welding and ferrous including titanium family [5, 6].
Titanium materials absorb such elements namely hydro-
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article gen, oxygen and nitrogen present in the environment at a
(https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-020-04876-x) contains temperature above 400 °C [7]. So, the GTA welding process
supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. needed extra care to avoid contamination in the titanium-
welded joints. If it is not, above-mentioned gases will be
B A. Karpagaraj
absorbed during the welding process by titanium materials.
[email protected]
This will result in the occurrence of colours on the welded
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of surfaces. These welded specimens were rejected after the
Technology, Patna, Bihar 800 005, India visual inspection (concerning the colour) because it was con-
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of taminated by atmospheric gases [8].
Technology, Puducherry, Karaikal, Tamil Nadu 609 609, India Titanium is an expensive material, so it is necessary to
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of reduce the material wastage. Many researchers developed
Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu 620 various mathematical model and numerical analysis for GTA
015, India
welding process. Computing the bead profile for the GTA
4 Department of Materials System Engineering, Pukyong welding process, Goldak double ellipsoidal moving heat
National University, Busan 48547, Republic of Korea

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source model was widely used. Thermal history and bead Table 1 GTA welding parameters
profile were predicted accurately by using this model for Name of the Starting value End value
GTA welding process [9]. By using this bead geometry and parameters
thermal history, the effective shielding (post-flow and pre-
Variable parameters
flow) was identified for titanium material [10].
Welding current, I 115 135
Apart from thermal history and bead profile predictions,
(A)
few researchers numerically performed the mechanical tests
Welding speed, S 250 450
to investigate the behaviour of welded joints. Karpagaraj et al. (mm/min)
performed a three-point bending test to study the spring back Constant parameters
effect of the welded joint. For conducting the three-point Arc length (mm)  Post-flow of argon Arc length (mm) 
bending test, the weld metal properties and bead geome- 3 (l/min)  27 3
try were obtained from experimental work. Abaqus/Explicit Electrode diameter Pre-flow of argon Electrode diameter
software was used for numerical analysis. It was found that (mm)  2.4 (l/min)  10 (mm)  2.4
experimental and numerical analysis highly coincided with
each other [11]. Carlos Garcia-Garino performed the finite
element simulation for the tensile test. It was reported that
experimental and numerical results were compared with of mechanical properties, Abaqus/Explicit software was used
each other [12]. The previously published works showed [11]. Initially, the tensile test simulation was conducted and
the accuracy of simulation results with experimental work. verified against the experimental results. After getting the sat-
For conducting the tensile test simulation, a damage mate- isfactory results from tensile test simulation, cupping test was
rial model was required to initiate the fracture and failure performed. The load and fracture locations were analysed in
of the material. Johnson–Cook (J–C) damage model was numerical simulation, and it was compared with experimen-
implemented to initiate the fracture of the material during tal work.
the tensile test as it reaches its failure strain [13]. With refer-
ence to this literature, a finite element tool was used for this
research work in connection with the analysis of mechanical
characterization for the joints. 2 Materials and Methods
Ductility is one of the significant mechanical property
needed for thin sheets. This property can easily relate to its 2.1 Materials
formability behaviour. Li et al. [14] performed the standard
Erichsen test to predict the formability through experimen- The rolled sheets of grade 5 known as Ti–6Al–4V (α + β)
tal analysis for Ti–6Al–4V sheets. It was found that ductile alloy with 2 mm thickness were selected for this study. In
failure occurred only in quasi-static conditions. Winowiecka Ti–6Al–4V alloy, aluminium acts as α-stabilizing agent and
studied the drawability of grade 2 and grade 5 joints by vanadium acts as β-stabilizing agent. The presence of these
making tailor-welded blank. The analysis was performed in alloying elements increases the strength of Ti–6Al–4V.
experimental as well as numerical simulation. It was found
that holding force can affect material behaviours [15]. These
factors were considered for this current work to reduce the 2.2 Welding Method
errors.
From the existing literature, it was found that modelling All the welding trials on Ti-6Al–4V sheets were performed
the GTA welding process, the double ellipsoidal heat source using “FRONIUS MAGIC WAVE 4000” GTA welding
can compute accurate results [16, 17]. Most of the GTA weld- equipment with water-cooled torch head (refer Fig. 1). A
ing process was focused on studying the effect of parameters separate numerical control (NC) unit was employed for con-
like welding current, speed, arc length, etc. [18, 19]. But only trolling the welding speed. Throughout the operations, an
a few investigators were worked with arc efficiency for this electrode diameter of 2.4 mm and the shielding medium
GTA welding process [20]. Another hand-limited paper was of 99.99% pure argon were maintained. Square butt joint
discussed about formability of the weld joints along with (without air gap) configurations were prepared for the GTA
simulations [21–23]. In this research, the arc efficiency was welding process. The selected parameters used for this work
correlated with the bead profiles and its importance was dis- are listed in Table 1. Before joining, sheets were cleaned by
cussed. The temperature profile obtained from the simulation wire brush and acetone at room temperature (25 °C). Work-
work was used to predict the shielding area for titanium mate- pieces were correctly clamped in the fixture to avoid the
rials. This will help to overcome the drawback of the GTA distortion. The overall research scheme for this study was
welding process with titanium welding. For the simulation shown in supporting Fig. 1.

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Fig. 2 Schematic representation of Goldak double ellipsoidal heat

source model [16]

Erichsen cupping test was conducted by a punch diameter

of 25 mm and die of 30 mm diameter. According to the ASTM
E 643-84 standard, the workpiece was cut into the size of
70 mm × 70 mm by using wire cut EDM. The cupping test
was carried out by moving the punch at a constant speed of
10 mm/min. This test was conducted on the face side and
root of the joint until a crack appears on the workpiece.

2.4 Simulation Methods

In this research, two different software packages were used

Fig. 1 Schematic representation of custom-made shielding gas fixture
arrangement for welding Ti–6Al–4V sheets for two different studies. First COMSOL package was used
to develop the moving heat source from the details obtained
from the BoP trails.
2.3 Characterization Methods The schematic diagram of double ellipsoidal heat source
model with all its notations is shown in Fig. 2. The informa-
Specimens of the bead on plate trails and butt joints were tion from the bead profile such as width, depth of penetration,
etched with a mixture of 92% H2 O + 6% HNO3 + 2% HF by length of the front and rear tail of ellipsoids were noted.
using swap method. Micrographs of etched specimens were To build the moving heat source model accurately, these
captured (Welding Expert System, Struers, Austria) with the details were fed to the Goldak double ellipsoidal parame-
magnification range of 20 ×–240 ×. An optical microscope ters in COMSOL. The same assumptions were taken as like
was used for obtaining micrographs of the welded joints. The the previous paper [10]. But the properties of the material
mechanical behaviour of the parent metal and welded spec- used for this study were Ti–6Al–4V alloy. The simplified
imens was assessed by tensile test and bending test (Tinos general 3D heat conduction equation and Goldak parameters
Olsen universal testing machine with 50 kN load cell) at a were expressed by the following equation.
strain rate of 1 mm/min at laboratory environment. From the If the moving heat source has ξ , Y, Z as a coordinate means,
joints, the longitudinal and transverse tensile test specimens the location of the heat source on the system will write as ξ 
are prepared according to ASTM E 8-04. The stress–strain x − ut. In this model, qf and qr were merged to form the mov-
relationship (yields, ultimate strengths and elongation) were ing double ellipsoidal heat source for GTA welding process
obtained from these tests. The fractured surface of the ten- [16, 17]. The listed parameters shown in Table 2 play a sig-
sile test specimen was observed under a scanning electron nificant role in controlling and modifying the weld pool size.
microscope (SEM) (Hitachi S3000 N) to identify the mode The above-mentioned equations and their parameters were
of failure. used for simulating the GTA welding process in COMSOL.

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Table 2 Heat transfer analysis

equations and their notations Title Expression Reference
 ∂T     
∂ ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂T
Three-dimensional heat ∂ x kx ∂ x + ∂y ky ∂y + ∂z k z ∂z + Q  ρC ∂t [10]
conduction equation √      
e −3x /a e −3y /b e −3z /cf
6 3 f√fQ 2 2 2 2 2 2
The front ellipsoid heat qf  abcf π π
source √      
e −3x /a e −3y /b e −3z /cr
6 3 f√rQ 2 2 2 2 2 2
The rear ellipsoid heat qr  abcr π π
source
Heat input Q  ηVI/S
The notation and their details are mentioned in Supporting Information Table 1

Fig. 3 ASTM models used for

a–c tensile test and d–f cupping
test

2.5 Modelling and Pre-processing of Tensile Test in Fig. 3. For getting the weld metal property, a longitudinal
and Cupping Test tensile test was performed from the 2-mm butt joint. For the
tensile and cupping teat analysis, this longitudinal tensile test
Abaqus software was used for the second part of this study result was used for the welded portion. Based on the exper-
which was focusing on the finite element analysis of the ten- imental butt joint macrograph, the weld portion was created
sile and cupping test. These studies were performed for 2-mm in the simulation model [14].
joints as well as their base metal. The model for the tensile For the simulation of tensile test (base metal and weld’s
and cupping test was created according to the ASTM stan- joints), dynamic explicit analysis was performed by using
dard as mentioned earlier in the characterization methods. commercial Abaqus software. A damage material model was
The detailed diagram with all necessary dimensions is shown needed to initiate the fracture at the failure strain of the

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Table 3 Tensile test analysis

equations and notations (J–C Title Expression References
  pl n   
model)
1 + C ln ε̄˙ pl /ε̄˙ 0
pl
J–C model represents σ̄  A + B ε̄ [24, 25]
the von Mises flow  ∗m
1−T
stress  
D  Σ ε̄pl /ε̄˙ D
pl
Damage parameter (D)
   
ε̄ D  D1 + D2 exp(−D3 η) 1 + D4 ln ε̄˙ pl /ε̄˙ 0 1 + D5 T ∗
pl
Equivalent plastic strain
at the onset of damage
Homologous T ∗  (T − Troom )/(Tmelt − Troom )
temperature
The notation and their details are mentioned in Supporting Information Table 2

material. J–C damage model was implemented to initiate the less heat input (161 W). This trial was taken for compar-
fracture at failure strain during the tensile test simulation. J–C ing the simulated profile with experimental work. The BoP
material model mathematically represented by the equations plate created in COMSOL environment with different mesh
as given in Table 3 [24]. The J–C model represents the von arrangement as shown in Supporting Information Fig. 2.
Mises flow stress σ̄ as a function of the equivalent plastic Around the welding source path, an extra finer mesh was
strain ε̄pl , equivalent plastic strain rate ε̄˙ pl and temperature generated for maximizing the accuracy in results [2]. In the
T. Failure of material will occur when damage parameter (D) initial case, the arc efficiency is taken as 100% and slowly
reaches to the value equal to 1. reduced until the simulated bead profile was matched with
For tensile test simulation, one end of the tensile test model experimental results.
restricted to all degree of freedom (DOF) (U X  U Y  U Z The bead profile for various efficiency (η  100–60%)
 URX  URY  URZ  0). The displacement was given to along with its heat input is shown in Fig. 4. For the presented
the other end of the tensile test specimen in the Y -direction profile, the maximum temperature (T max ) was identified from
[26]. the simulation. At 50% efficiency, the T max was quite below
In cupping test, finite element analysis was carryout out on to its melting point (T melting of Ti–6Al–4V is 1660 °C). The
the face and root outsides as mentioned in characterization experimental weld bead profile was compared with each sim-
method. For performing the cupping test analysis, a rigid ulated profile. At 60% efficiency, both bead profiles were
sphere (punch) of 25 mm diameter was created in Abaqus. closely matching with each other. For the efficiency of 60%,
A die was designed with inner and outer diameter of 30 mm the heat input for the remaining trials was calculated as listed
and 50 mm, respectively. For making the perfect design as in Table 4. The reasons for getting the low arc efficiency
like experimental set-up, chamfer radius of 2 mm was made from our work was discussed with existing literature as fol-
at the punch entrance. After the creation of punch, die and lows. Haelsig et al. were used new calorimetric measurement
workpieces, the alignment of these three objects were made. system to measure the arc efficiency for GTA welding pro-
Surface-to-surface interaction was formed between a punch cess. The arc efficiency range for GTA welding process was
to the workpiece and die to the workpiece. For the boundary identified as η  68–79% [27]. Arul and Sellamuthu calcu-
conditions, all the DOF of the die was restricted; for the lated the arc efficiency using net heat flux to the input power.
sphere, the displacement was allowed only in Y -direction. It was identified that the arc efficiency was in the range of
Next, the dynamic explicit analysis was performed, and the 70–80% for GTA welding process [28]. However, the above
test was conducted up to the occurrence of fracture in the researchers were agreed that the arc efficiency of the GTA
samples. welding process depends on specific parameters like shield-
ing gas flow rate, arc length and tip angle of the electrode
[27–29]. But later studies figured out that arc efficiency was
dropped up to 52% [30]. Stenbacka [31] placed the arc effi-
3 Result and Discussion ciency correlation with most of the published research works.
It was clear that the arc efficiency for titanium was not yet
3.1 Fixing the Arc Efficiency discovered. It was highlighted that the calorimetric method
has a broader range of error. So the finding of arc efficiency
As mentioned in the previous topic, the bead profile from the from this research work cannot be compared with the existing
experimental BoP trials was examined. Nine trials were con- literature. Unlike other methods, the chance for error in this
ducted by varying the process parameters. The heat input was current method was very less. Therefore, the arc efficiency
calculated from the equation as mentioned in Table 2. From predicted from this work was considered for further move.
Table 4, the combination of 115 A and 7.5 mm/s produced

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Table 4 BoP trials and HIP with

efficiency (η) 100% and 60% Sl. no. Welding current, I (A) Welding speed, S (mm/s) Heat input, Q (W)

η (100%) η (60%)

1 115 4.1 294.51 176.70

2 115 5.8 208.19 124.91
3* 115 7.5 161 96.6
4 125 4.1 320.12 192.07
5 125 5.8 226.29 135.77
6 125 7.5 175 105
7 135 4.1 345.73 207.43
8 135 5.8 244.39 146.63
9 135 7.5 189 113.4

Fig. 4 Bead profile for different

arc efficiency for the trial 3

3.2 Temperature Distribution perature distribution caused by the moving heat source was
recorded (Fig. 5). For studying the temperature distribution,
Butt joint configuration was made in COMSOL for conduct- the workpiece was divided by a constant interval of 3 mm
ing the GTA welding simulation. The moving heat source from the weld centre. Studying this temperature distribution
generated enough heat to fuse the thickness of 2-mm sheet was very important for Ti–6Al–4V alloy. Because using these
for making defect-free joints. From this simulation, the tem- lines, the effective area needs to be covered while welding

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Fig. 5 Temperature distribution

for 2-mm joints

can easily identify. Thus it can eliminate the contamination

and help to make quality weld [10]. At the centre, the peak
temperature for 2-mm joint T max is 2627 °C. At the distance
of 12 mm from the weld centre, the temperature distribu-
tion was less than 400 °C. The temperature history obtained
from these lines also discovers the post-flow time needed for
quality weld with a bright silver colour. These simulation
results were noted and used for the experimental work while
making butt joint for 2-mm-thick sheets. Also, the preheat-
ing effect caused by the heat source on the welding direction
was studied carefully from the simulation results.

3.3 Comparison of Butt Joints

The titanium workpieces were cleaned just before the weld-

ing operation. At the same time, precautions were taken with
respect to the results obtained from the simulation (Fig. 5).
For identifying the bead width, the temperature above the
melting point of the Ti–6Al–4V was taken. Besides, the arc
efficiency fixed at the beginning of this study also helped Fig. 6 Experimental bead geometry and comparison of weld profile
to predict the bead profile accurately. With the help of this
research work, the simulated bead profile was adequately
studied. After the welding process, the experimental and sim- 3.4 Tensile Test
ulated profiles were compared for further investigation. Both
results agreed with each other. The shielding arrangements Tensile tests were conducted three times, and the average
were specially made for the fabrication of 2-mm butt joints. value was taken. The tensile strength of 2-mm-thick base
Using this arrangement, the successful joints with bright sil- metal was attained as 1001 MPa with 11.6% elongation.
ver colour were achieved and it is shown in Fig. 6. Obtaining The high strength and elongations obtained by the parent
this bright silver colour was needed because the colouriza- metal were due to the unique structure present in the matrix.
tion portion was indirectly indicating that the brittleness was Compared to the base metal strength the 2-mm butt joint
increased due to the presence of oxygen, hydrogen, etc., at the showed 95.9% joint efficiency (refer Table 5). Similar kind of
titanium joints [7]. It was expected that bright silver colour joint efficiency drops was also absorbed in Ti–6Al–4V alloy
bead joint obtained from the experimental work could show with GTA welding process [32]. The reason for this strength
excellent elongation as like its base metal. For this identifi- reduction was the presence of undesired phase, grains size
cation, it is necessary to conduct a tensile test on these joints. variations and reduction in area at the joint portion (existence
of the defects—undercut, porosity and lack of penetration)

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Table 5 Tensile test results for 2-mm-thick sheets

S. no Description Maximum load (MPa) Elongation (%) Fracture location Distance from the centre Joint efficiency (%)
(mm)

Experimental result
1 Base metal 1001 11.6 Base metal 9.5 100
2 Welded joint 960 10.5 Base metal 14 95.9
Analysis result from ABAQUS
3 Base metal 1077 12.5 Base metal 10.2 100
4 Welded joint 980 10.9 Base metal 14.8 91
Error percentage of experimental result and results from ABAQUS
5 Base metal 7.5 7.75 – 7.36 –
6 Weld metal 2.08 3.8 – 5.7 –

[2, 33]. From the above reasons, the presence of phases and nification, larger size secondary dimples were identified at
grain size variations depended on the welding process. Par- the joints as shown in Fig. 7b. From the SEM fractography,
ticularly for GTA welding process, higher heat input and slow ductile mode of failure was identified in joint portion and
cooling rate encourage the coarse grain and Widmanstatten base metal obtained from the tensile test.
phase. The strength reduction due to these heat inputs was But in this research, defect-free bright silver colour surface
unable to skip. Next choice was focusing the other defects was produced. As a result of these reasons, the joint portion
undercut, porosity and lack of penetration with GTA weld- withstands against the applied loads. All the failures occurred
ing process. In GTA welding process if the heat input was in the base metal, and it was located within the gauge length
too low, it melts the base metal at surface level and produces of the specimen.
a lack of penetration. This lack of penetration reduces the After intensely analysing the tensile test results, necessary
tensile strength of the joints. If the heat input was extraordi- data were extracted for conducting the simulation in Abaqus.
nary, it provides undercut and metal run out (burn through) The modelled tensile test samples with constraints are shown
in the fusion zone [2]. From the simulation, the bead profile in supporting Fig. 3a. Similar to the real-time experimental
was predicted and it was perfectly matched with experimental loading condition, the bottom side was fixed. The moving
work. So a defect-free, i.e. full penetration joint was produced head and load were given to the top side of the specimen.
in Ti–6Al–4V alloy sheets. Caiazzo et al. [34] reported that Before moving to the next step, meshing was generated.
failure occurred at the joint portion in titanium weldment due For creating the mesh for welded joints, two portions were
to the oxidation present at the root side. made as shown in Supporting Information Fig. 3b, c. The
But in this current study, Fig. 6 shows that defect-free meshed model for base metal and weld joints was created.
uniform bead with the bright silver colour surface was fabri- At the joint portion, the extremely fine mesh was generated
cated. Because of the careful selections of all the parameters, as represented in Supporting Information Fig. 3c. Except for
the joint efficiency over 95% was reached with adequate this portion, the fine mesh was generated and applied to the
elongation. For in-depth analysis, the fracture portions were rest of the area. An eight-node linear brick, reduced inte-
extracted from the samples and it was engaged with to next gration, hourglass control (C3D8R) element type was used
level studies. [35]. Under this condition, the tensile test was conducted. The
The tensile property of the base metal was tested, and the fracture portion was compared with experimental work. The
fracture surface was analysed using SEM. The SEM images fractured locations were observed from the simulation work
obtained from the fractured surface of the base metal are as shown in Supporting Information Fig. 4. It was revealed
shown in Fig. 7. The image represents that more dimples were that the location and fracture mode were similar to the exper-
presented at the fractured location. These dimples describe imental results. This behaviour was expected, because in the
that the base metal had experienced a ductile mode of fail- previous section the bead profile was studied with the help of
ure. Figure 7a shows the appearance of fine dimples at the temperature distribution and arc efficiency. The bead profile
fractured surface of the base metal. These dimples were rel- was closely matched with experimental results. This helped
atively uniform in size. Finer dimple was an indication of when a similar weld profile was modelled for the tensile test
remarkable strength and ductility of base metal under tensile and cupping test analysis. The experimental and analysed
test. The fractography (Fig. 7b) obtained at the joints reveal results are summarized in Table 5.
similar to that of its base metal. However, the size of these In experimental work, welded joints were fractured at a
dimples was different from the base metal. At higher mag- location of 14 mm away from its weld centre. In simulation

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Fig. 7 Fractography of tensile

test specimens a base metal and
b butt joint

Fig. 8 a Welded sample after the fracture, comparison of fractured samples, b, c weld joint and d, e base metal

work, the welded joints were broken at 14.8 mm far from was used. The meshed model for sphere punch, die, base
its weld centre. For base metal simulation, fracture occurred metal and for weld joints were shown in Fig. 9. Unlike the
at 10.2 mm away from the centre, and it was close to its tensile test, cupping test was a little bit different. Because
experimental results as shown in Fig. 8. The error percentages in tensile test load will be applied to the specimen till the
for the fracture location were not exceeding by 10%. fracture. But in cupping test once the first fracture appeared
or initiated, the test will be stopped. After that specimen will
3.5 Cupping Test be unloaded from the machine. Similarly, in simulation also
the same phenomena were followed, i.e. after the initiation
The error percentage and fracture locations of tensile test sim- of the fracture the punch was returned to its original position.
ulations were analysed before conducting the cupping test. The fractures occurred at the base metal through experi-
Cupping test simulation for base metal and weld joints (face mental and simulation results were compared (refer Fig. 10).
out and root out) was performed in Abaqus. The constrains The deformation shape produced by experiment and simula-
were made exactly similar to the experimental set-up for the tion was also looking similar. Face out and root out samples
simulation studies (Supporting Information Fig. 5-a). were tested by experimental and numerical methods. Experi-
Die and punch were modelled with coarse mesh. For the mentally, the load carried out by face out sample was 16.5 kN
weld joints, the fine mesh was given to the weld portion and and 15.3 kN for root out. Through simulation, it was 16.5 kN
coarse mesh was provided to rest of the part as shown in Sup- and 14.5 kN, which was close to its experimental values. It
porting Information Fig. 5-b [36]. An eight-node linear brick, was noticed that for the face out and root out samples the
reduced integration, hourglass control (C3D8R) element type error was not exceeding the deviation by 10% [38]. The frac-

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Fig. 9 Cupping test set-up

created in ABAQUS
environment

Fig. 10 Comparison of base metal, root side and face side results a–c simulated and d–f experimental results

ture was initiated at the weld zone for the face out and root where the crack was initiated and how it was propagated to
out samples. The reason is, if the weld zone was ridiculously the rest of the area.
small the fracture would occur at a base metal [37]. But gen-
erally, the bead profile of GTA welding process was wider
(refer Fig. 3). Due to this, the fracture occurred at the welded 4 Conclusion
portion as shown in Fig. 10. It was difficult to implement
the intermetallic properties (hardening effect) in the simula- A finite element analysis and experimental analysis of GTA
tion. Due to these two reasons, the fracture appeared in the welding process were performed. For the numerical analysis,
simulation was slightly deviated as compared to experimen- Goldak’s double ellipsoidal heat source model was applied to
tal work. But there was one advantage with simulation, i.e. predict the BoP and temperature distribution along the weld
once the fracture initiation appeared, it was possible to stop line. For predicting the mechanical strength through numeri-
the simulation at that step. This can give extra detail about cal simulation, a finite element analysis of tensile and cupping
test was performed by Abaqus. The simulation results have

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a good agreement with experimental results. The following Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 88, 75–88 (2017). https://doi.org/10.
conclusions were made from the research. 1007/s00170-016-8764-4
3. Li, J.; Guan, Q.; Shi, Y.; Guo, D.; Du, Y.; Sun, Y.: Studies on char-
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