Strength of Materials Stresses In Beams

CHAPTER 4
STRESSES IN BEAMS
3.1 Introduction
Beams are structural members that are subjected to loads (forces or moments) whose vectors
are perpendicular to the axis of the member. Structures such as the beams shown in Fig. 3.1 are
called planar structures because they lie in a single plane. If all loads act in that same plane,
and if all deflections (shown by the dashed lines) occur in that plane, then that plane is called
the plane of bending. Therefore all forces must have their vectors in the plane of the figure and
all couples must have their moment vectors perpendicular to the plane of the figure.

Fig. 3.1: Examples of beams.

3.2 Types Of Beams, Loads And Reactions
Beams are usually subjected to two types of forces; external forces and internal forces. The aim
of this chapter is to study the internal forces (and stresses) in beams. But first, we have to
understand external forces (already covered in Engineering Mechanics and is repeated here).

3.2.1 External Forces (Loads and Reactions)

External forces are the actions of other bodies on the structure. External forces can be
classified as loads (applied forces) and reactions (reaction forces).
I) Loads
Loads have a tendency to move the structure and are usually known in the analysis. Different
types of loads that act on beams are illustrated in Fig. 3.2 below.
 When a load is applied over a very small area it may be idealized as a concentrated
load, which is a single force. Examples are the loads P1, P2, P3, and P4 in the figure.
 When a load is spread along the axis of a beam, it is represented as a distributed load.
Distributed loads are measured by their intensity, which is expressed in units of force
per unit length (N/m or KN/m). A uniformly distributed load has constant intensity q
along its length as shown in Fig. 3.2a. A linearly varying load has an intensity that
changes with distance along the axis; example, the linearly varying load of Fig. 3.2b
has an intensity that varies linearly from q1 to q2.
 Another kind of load is a couple, illustrated by the couple of moment M1 in Fig. 3.2c.

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Fig. 3.2: Types of beams: (a) simple beam, (b) cantilever beam, & (c) beam with an overhang.

II) Reactions
Reactions are the forces exerted by supports on the structure and have a tendency to prevent its
motion and keep it in equilibrium. The reactions are usually unknown and they have to be
determined during analysis.
The common types of supports used in beams are;
 Pin support: prevents translation both horizontally and vertically but allows rotation;
hence, at a pin support a force reaction with both horizontal and vertical components
may exist.
 Roller support: prevents translation in the vertical direction; hence at a roller support a
force reaction with a vertical component may exist
 Fixed support: prevents translation both horizontally and vertically and it also prevents
rotation. Therefore, at a fixed support, in addition to a force reaction with both
horizontal and vertical components, a moment reaction may exist.

3.2.2 Types Of Beams

Beams are usually described by the manner in which they are supported. For instance, a beam
with a pin support at one end and a roller support at the other end as shown in Fig. 3.2a is
called a simply supported beam or a simple beam.
The beam shown in Fig. 3.2b, which is fixed at one end and free at the other, is called a
cantilever beam. At the fixed support the beam can neither translate nor rotate, whereas at the
free end it may do both.
The beam shown in Fig. 3.2c is called a beam with an overhang. It is simply supported at
points A and B but it also projects (extends) beyond the support at B. The overhanging segment
BC is similar to a cantilever beam except that the beam axis may rotate at point B.
In Figure 3.2, the reactions are indicated by slashes across the arrows in order to distinguish
them from loads.
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3.3 Shear Forces And Bending Moments

When a beam is loaded by forces or couples, stresses and strains are created throughout the
interior of the beam. To determine these stresses and strains, we first must find the internal
forces and internal couples that act on cross sections of the beam.
As an illustration of how these internal quantities are found, consider a cantilever beam AB
loaded by a force P at its free end (Fig. 3.3a). We cut through the beam at a cross section mn
located at distance x from the free end and isolate the left-hand part of the beam as a free body
(Fig. 3.3b). The free body is held in equilibrium by the force P and by the stresses that act over
the cut cross section. These stresses represent the action of the right-hand part of the beam on
the left-hand part. The resultant of the stresses acting on the cross section can be reduced to a
shear force V and a bending moment M (Fig. 3.3b). Because the load P is transverse to the
axis of the beam, no axial force exists at the cross section.

Fig. 3.3: Shear force V and bending moment M in a beam.

Shear forces and bending moments, like axial forces in bars and internal torques in shafts, are
the resultants of stresses distributed over the cross section. Therefore, these quantities are
known collectively as stress resultants. The shear forces and bending moments can be
calculated from equations of equilibrium. For the cantilever beam of Fig. 3.3, we use the free-
body diagram of Fig. 3.3b. Summing forces in the vertical direction and also taking moments
about the cut section, we get;
ΣFy = 0 P-V = 0 ⇒ V = P (3.1)
ΣM = 0 M-Px = 0 ⇒ M = Px
Sign Conventions:- The algebraic sign of a shear force and a bending moment is determined
by how it deforms the material on which it acts. In the case of a beam, a positive shear force
acts clockwise against the material (Figs. 3.3b and c) and a negative shear force acts
counterclockwise against the material. Also, a positive bending moment compresses the upper
part of the beam (Figs. 3.3b and c) and a negative bending moment compresses the lower part.

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To make these conventions clear, both positive and negative shear forces and bending
moments are shown in Fig. 3.4. The forces and moments are shown acting on an element of a
beam cut out between two cross sections that are a small distance apart.

Fig. 3.4: Sign conventions for shear force V and bending moment M.
The deformations of an element caused by both positive and negative shear forces and bending
moments are sketched in Fig. 3.5.

Fig. 3.5: Deformations of a beam element caused by (a) shear forces, and (b) bending moments

3.4 Relationships Between Loads, Shear Forces, And Bending Moments

Relationships between loads, shear forces, and bending moments in beams are quite useful
when investigating the shear forces and bending moments throughout the entire length of a
beam, and especially when constructing shear-force and bending-moment diagrams.
To obtain these relationships, consider an element of a beam cut out between two cross
sections that are distance dx apart (Fig. 3.6). The load acting on the top surface of the element
may be a distributed load, a concentrated load, or a couple, as shown in Figs. 3.6a, b, and c,
respectively. The sign conventions for these loads are:
Distributed loads and concentrated loads are positive when they act downward on the beam
and negative when they act upward. A couple acting as a load on a beam is positive when it is
counterclockwise and negative when it is clockwise.
Note that in Fig. 3.6, all loads, shear forces and bending moments are shown in their positive
directions.

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Fig. 3.6: Relationships between loads, shear forces, and bending moments.
I) Distributed loads
For a distributed load of intensity q, as shown in Fig. 3.6a, equilibrium of forces in the vertical
direction gives;

[ΣFy =0 ] V − qdx -(V + dV) = 0 ⇒

dV
dx
= −q (3.2)

Some useful relations that can be seen from Eqn. 3.2 are;
 If there is no distributed load on a segment of the beam (if q = 0), then dV/dx = 0 and
the shear force is constant in that part of the beam.
 If the distributed load is uniform along part of the beam (q = constant), then dV/dx is
also constant and the shear force varies linearly in that part of the beam.
 The change in shear force between two points along the axis of the beam is equal to the
negative of resultant of the distributed load acting between those points (which is the
area of the loading diagram).
Let us now consider the moment equilibrium of the beam element shown in Fig. 3.6a.
Summing moments about an axis at the left-hand side of the element (and discarding products
of differentials because they are negligible compared to the other terms) we obtain;
 dx 
[ΣM = 0 ] - M - qdx  - (V + dV)dx + M + dM = 0 ⇒
dM
=V (3.3)
 2  dx
Some useful relations that can be seen from Eqn. 3.3 are;
 The rate of change of the bending moment at any point on the axis of a beam is equal to
the shear force at that same point.
 If the shear force is zero in a region of the beam, then the bending moment is constant
in that same region.
 The change in bending moment between two points along the axis of the beam is equal
to the area of the shear force diagram between those two points.

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II) Concentrated loads

Now let us consider a concentrated load P acting on the beam element as shown in Fig. 3.6b.
From equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction of Fig. 3.6b, we get;
[ΣFy =0 ] V - P - (V + V1 ) = 0 ⇒ V1 = − P (3.4)

This equation shows that;

 An abrupt change in the shear force occurs at a point where a concentrated load acts.
 As we pass from left to right through the point where a concentrated load acts, the
shear force decreases by an amount equal to the magnitude of the downward load P.
From equilibrium of moments about the left-hand face of the element in Fig. 3.6b, we get;
 dx   dx 
[ΣM = 0 ] - M - P  - (V + V1 )dx + M + M 1 = 0 ⇒ M 1 = P  + Vdx + V1dx (3.5)
 2   2 
Since the length dx of the element is infinitesimally small, we see from this equation that the
increment M1 in the bending moment is also infinitesimally small. Thus, the bending moment
does not change as we pass through the point of application of a concentrated load.
Even though the bending moment M does not change at a concentrated load, its rate of change
dM/dx undergoes an abrupt change. Therefore, at the point of application of a concentrated
load P, the rate of change of the bending moment, dM/dx, decreases abruptly by an amount
equal to P.
III) Couple loads
Finally consider a load in the form of a couple Mo acting on the beam element as shown in Fig.
3.6c. From equilibrium of the element in the vertical direction we obtain V1 = 0, which shows
that the shear force does not change at the point of application of a couple.
Equilibrium of moments about the left-hand side of the element (and disregarding terms that
contain differentials because they are negligible compared to the finite terms), we get;
[ΣM = 0 ] - M + M o - (V + V1 )dx + M + M 1 = 0 ⇒ M 1 = −M o (3.6)

This equation shows that the bending moment decreases by Mo as we move from left to right
through the point of application of a couple. Thus, the bending moment changes abruptly at the
point of application of a couple.

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3.5 Shear-Force And Bending-Moment Diagrams

To design a beam, we need to know how the shear forces and bending moments vary along the
length of the beam and specially we need to know the maximum and minimum values of these
quantities. This information is usually provided by graphs in which the shear force and bending
moment are plotted as ordinates and the distance x along the axis of the beam is plotted as the
abscissa. Such graphs are called shear-force and bending-moment diagrams.
To understand how these diagrams are constructed, we will see three basic loading conditions;
a single concentrated load, a uniform load, and several concentrated loads.
A) Single Concentrated Load
Consider a simple beam AB supporting a concentrated load P as shown below (Fig. 3.7a).

Fig. 3.7: Free body diagrams for a simple beam with a concentrated load.
Considering the entire free body diagram of the beam, the reactions of the beam are;
Pb Pa
RA = RB = (3.7a, b)
L L
Next, cut the beam to the left of the load P and at distance x from the support at A. Then draw a
free-body diagram of the left-hand part of the beam (Fig. 3.7b). From the equations of
equilibrium for this free body, the shear force and bending moment at distance x from the left
support are;

V = RA =
Pb
M = RA x =
Pbx
(0 < x < a ) (3.8a, b)
L L
Note that Eq. 3.8a and b are valid only for the part of the beam to the left of the load P.
Next, cut through the beam to the right of the load P and again draw a free-body diagram of the
left-hand part of the beam (Fig. 3.7c). From the equations of equilibrium for this free body, we
obtain the following expressions for the shear force and bending moment:

V = RA − P =
Pb
-P = −
Pa
(a < x < L ) (3.9a)
L L

M = RA x − P( x − a ) =
Pbx
− P( x − a ) =
Pa
(L−x) (a < x < L ) (3.9b)
L L
Note that Eq. 3.9a and b are valid only for the part of the beam to the right of the load P.
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The equations for the shear forces and bending moments (Eqs. 3.8a, b and 3.9a, b) are plotted
below the sketches of the beam. Figure 3.8b is the shear-force diagram and Fig. 3.8c is the
bending-moment diagram.
Certain characteristics of the shear-force and bending
moment diagrams (Figs. 3.8b and c) are;
 In the regions 0 < x < a and a < x < L, the slope of the
shear-force diagram is zero (dV/dx = 0) and the slope of
the bending moment diagram is equal to V (dM/dx = V).
 At the point of application of the load P there is an
abrupt change in the shear-force diagram (equal to the
magnitude of the load P) and a corresponding change in
the slope of the bending-moment diagram.
 For a simple beam with a single concentrated load, the
maximum shear force occurs at the support which is
nearest to the concentrated load and the maximum
bending moment occurs at the concentrated load itself
(Mmax = Pab/L).

Fig. 3.8: Shear-force & bending moment for a simple beam with a concentrated load.
B) Uniform Load
Consider a simple beam supporting a uniformly distributed load q as shown in Fig. 3.9a below.
From the equations of equilibrium for the entire free body diagram of the beam, the reactions
of the beam are;

[ΣM B = 0 ] ⇒ RA =
qL
2
[ ]
and ΣFy = 0 ⇒ RB =
qL
2
(3.10)

Next, cutting the beam at distance x from the support at A, and applying the equations of
equilibrium for this free body, the shear force and bending moment at a distance x from the
left-hand end are;
qL
V = RA − qx = − qx (3.11a)
2

 x  qLx qx
2
M = RA x − qx  = − (3.11b)
2 2 2
Note that Eqn. 3.11a and b are valid throughout the length of the beam.

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The equations for the shear forces and bending moments (Eqs. 3.11a and b) are plotted as
shear-force and bending moment diagrams as shown in Figs. 3.9b and c, respectively.

Certain characteristics of the shear-force and bending moment

diagrams are;
 The shear-force diagram is an inclined straight line and
the slope of the line is -q.
 The maximum shear force occurs at the supports (at x =
0 and x = L) and its magnitude is equal to the reactions
(Vmax = qL/2)
 The bending-moment diagram is a parabolic curve that is
symmetric about the midpoint of the beam and the
maximum value of the bending moment occurs at the
midpoint of the beam where both dM/dx and the shear
force V are equal to zero. Hence, substituting x = L/2
into Eq. 3.11b, Mmax = qL2/8.
Fig. 3.9: Shear-force and bendingmoment diagrams for a simple beam with a uniform load.
C) Several Concentrated Loads
If several concentrated loads act on a simple beam as shown in Fig. 3.10a below, expressions
for the shear forces and bending moments may be determined for each segment of the beam
between the points of load application.
Again using free-body diagrams of the left-hand part of the beam and measuring the distance x
from end A, we obtain the following equations for the first segment of the beam:
V = RA M = RA x (0 < x < a1 ) (3.12a, b)
For the second segment, we get
V = RA − P1 M = RA x − P1(x − a1 ) (a1 < x < a2 ) (3.13a, b)
For the third segment of the beam, it is advantageous to consider the right-hand part of the
beam rather than the left, because fewer loads act on the corresponding free body. Hence, we
obtain
V = − RB + P3 M = RB(L − x) − P3(L − b3 − x) (a2 < x < a3 ) (3.14a, b)

Finally, for the fourth segment of the beam, we obtain

V = − RB M = RB(L − x) (a3 < x < L) (3.15a, b)

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Equations 3.12 through 3.15 can be used to construct the shear-force and bending-moment
diagrams (Figs. 3.10b and c).

Certain characteristics of the shear-force and bending moment

diagrams are;
 The shear force is constant in each segment of the beam
and changes abruptly at every load point, with the amount
of each change being equal to the load.
 The bending moment in each segment is a linear function
of x, and therefore the corresponding part of the bending-
moment diagram is an inclined straight line.
 The maximum bending moment in a beam having only
concentrated loads must occur under one of the loads or at
a reaction.

Fig. 3.10: SF and BM diagrams for a simple beam with several concentrated loads.

3.6 Normal Stresses In Beams Under Pure Bending

So far we have seen how the loads acting on a beam create internal actions in the form of shear
forces and bending moments. In this section we will see the stresses and strains associated
with those shear forces and bending moments. When analyzing beams, it is often necessary to
distinguish between pure bending and nonuniform bending. Pure bending refers to flexure of
abeam under a constant bending moment. Therefore, pure bending occurs only in regions of a
beam where the shear force is zero (because V = dM/dx). In contrast, nonuniform bending
refers to flexure in the presence of shear forces, which means that the bending moment changes
as we move along the axis of the beam.
As an example of pure bending, consider the simple beam
shown in Fig. 3.11a which is loaded by two couples M1.
These loads produce a constant bending moment M = M1
throughout the length of the beam, as shown by the
bending moment diagram in Fig. 3.11b. Note that the shear
force V is zero at all cross sections of the beam.
Fig. 3.11: A simple beam in pure bending.
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Strength of Materials Stresses In Beams

The symmetrically loaded simple beam of Fig. 3.12a is an

example of a beam that is partly in pure bending and partly in
nonuniform bending, as seen from the shear-force and
bending-moment diagrams (Figs. 3.12b and c). The central
region of the beam is in pure bending because the shear force
is zero and the bending moment is constant. The parts of the
beam near the ends are in nonuniform bending because shear
forces are present and the bending moments vary.

Fig. 3.12: Simple beam with central region in pure bending

and end regions in nonuniform bending.
In the following two sections we will investigate the strains and stresses in beams subjected
only to pure bending. Fortunately, we can often use the results obtained for pure bending even
when shear forces are present.

3.6.1 Curvature of a Beam

When loads are applied to a beam, its longitudinal axis is deformed into a curve. The resulting
strains and stresses in the beam are directly related to the curvature of the deflection curve.
To illustrate the concept of curvature, consider a cantilever beam subjected to a load P acting at
the free end as shown in Fig. 3.13a. The deflection curve
of this beam is shown in Fig. 3.13b. For purposes of
analysis, we identify two points m1 and m2 on the
deflection curve. Point m1 is selected at an arbitrary
distance x from the y axis and point m2 is located a small
distance ds further along the curve. At each of these points
we draw a line normal to the tangent to the deflection
curve. These normals intersect at point O’, which is the
center of curvature of the deflection curve. Because most
beams have very small deflections and nearly flat
deflection curves, point O’ is usually located much farther
from the beam than is indicated in the figure.
Fig. 3.13: Curvature of a beam.

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The distance m1O’ from the curve to the center of curvature is called the radius of curvature ρ
(Greek letter rho), and the curvature κ (Greek letter kappa) is defined as the reciprocal of the
radius of curvature. Thus,
1
κ= (3.16)
ρ
Curvature is a measure of how sharply a beam is bent. If the load on a beam is small, the beam
will be nearly straight, the radius of curvature will be very large, and the curvature will be very
small. If the load is increased, the amount of bending will increase; the radius of curvature will
become smaller, and the curvature will become larger.
From the geometry of triangle O'm1m2 (Fig. 3.13b) we obtain;
ρ dθ = ds (3.17)
Combining Eq. 3.16 and 3.17;
1 dθ
κ= = (3.18)
ρ ds
The deflections of a beam are usually very small compared to its length which means that the
deflection curve is nearly flat. Consequently, the distance ds along the curve may be set equal
to its horizontal projection dx (see Fig. 3.13b). Therefore Eq. 3.18 curvature becomes;
1 dθ
κ= = (3.19)
ρ dx
The curvature at a particular point on the axis of a beam depends upon the bending moment at
that point and upon the properties of the beam itself (shape of cross section and type of
material). Therefore, if the beam is prismatic and the material is homogeneous, the curvature
will vary only with the bending moment. Consequently, a beam in pure bending will have
constant curvature and a beam in nonuniform bending will have varying curvature.

The sign convention for curvature depends upon the orientation of the
coordinate axes. If the x axis is positive to the right and the y axis is
positive upward, as shown in Fig. 3.14, then the curvature is positive
when the beam is bent concave upward and the center of curvature is
above the beam. Conversely, the curvature is negative when the beam is
bent concave downward and the center of curvature is below the beam.

Fig. 3.14: Sign convention for curvature.

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3.6.2 Longitudinal Strains in Beams

The longitudinal strains in a beam can be found by analyzing the curvature of the beam and the
associated deformations. For this purpose, let us consider a portion AB of a beam in pure
bending subjected to positive bending moments M (Fig. 3.15a). We assume that the beam
initially has a straight longitudinal axis (the x axis in the figure) and that its cross section is
symmetric about the y axis, as shown in Fig. 3.15b.
Under the action of the bending moments, the beam deflects in the xy plane (the plane of
bending) and its longitudinal axis is bent into a circular curve (curve ss in Fig. 3.15c). The
beam is bent concave upward, which is positive curvature.

Fig. 3.15: Deformations of a beam in pure bending a) side view, b) section, (c) deformed beam.
Cross sections of the beam, such as sections mn and pq in Fig. 3.15a, remain plane and normal
to the longitudinal axis (Fig. 3.15c). The fact that cross sections of a beam in pure bending
remain plane is so fundamental to beam theory that it is often called an assumption. However,
we could also call it a theorem, because it can be proved rigorously using only rational
arguments based upon symmetry.
Because of the bending deformations shown in Fig. 3.15c, cross sections mn and pq rotate with
respect to each other about axes perpendicular to the xy plane. Longitudinal lines on the lower
part of the beam are elongated, whereas those on the upper part are shortened. Thus, the lower
part of the beam is in tension and the upper part is in compression. Somewhere between the top

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and bottom of the beam is a surface in which longitudinal lines do not change in length. This
surface, indicated by the dashed line ss in Figs. 3.15a and c, is called the neutral surface of the
beam. Its intersection with any cross-sectional plane is called the neutral axis of the cross
section; for instance, the z axis is the neutral axis for the cross section of Fig. 3.15b.
The planes containing cross sections mn and pq in the deformed beam (Fig. 3.15c) intersect in
a line through the center of curvature O’. The angle between these planes is denoted dθ, and
the distance from O’ to the neutral surface ss is the radius of curvature ρ. The initial distance dx
between the two planes is unchanged at the neutral surface, hence ρdθ = dx. However, all other
longitudinal lines between the two planes either lengthen or shorten, thereby creating normal
strains εx.
To evaluate these normal strains, consider a typical longitudinal line ef located within the beam
between planes mn and pq (Fig. 3.15a). We identify line ef by its distance y from the neutral
surface in the initially straight beam. Thus, we are now assuming that the x axis lies along the
neutral surface of the undeformed beam. Of course, when the beam deflects, the neutral surface
moves with the beam, but the x axis remains fixed in position. Nevertheless, the longitudinal
line ef in the deflected beam (Fig. 3.15c) is still located at the same distance y from the neutral
surface. Thus, the length L1 of line ef after bending takes place is;
y
L1 = ( ρ − y )dθ = dx − dx (3.20)
ρ
Since the original length of line ef is dx, it follows that its elongation is L1 - dx, or – ydx/ρ. The
corresponding longitudinal strain is equal to the elongation divided by the initial length dx;
therefore, the strain curvature relation is;
y
εx = − = −κy (3.21)
ρ
Equation (3.21) for the normal strains in a beam was derived solely from the geometry of the
deformed beam (i.e. the properties of the material did not enter into the discussion). Therefore,
the strains in a beam in pure bending vary linearly with distance from the neutral surface
regardless of the shape of the stress-strain curve of the material.
The longitudinal strains in a beam are accompanied by transverse strains (that is, normal
strains in the y and z directions) because of the effects of Poisson’s ratio. However, there are no
accompanying transverse stresses because beams are free to deform laterally. This stress
condition is analogous to that of a prismatic bar in tension or compression, and therefore
longitudinal elements in a beam in pure bending are in a state of uniaxial stress.

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3.7 Flexural Stress In Linearly Elastic Beams

In the preceding section we investigated the longitudinal strains εx in a beam in pure bending
Since longitudinal elements of a beam are subjected only to tension or compression, we can
use the stress-strain curve for the material to determine the stresses from the strains. Since the
x direction is longitudinal (Fig. 3.15a), we use the symbol σx to denote these stresses.
Assuming the material obeys Hooke’s law, we get the uniaxial stress-strain equation as;
Ey
σ x = Eε x = − = − Eκy (3.22)
ρ
This equation shows that the normal stresses acting on the cross section vary linearly with the
distance y from the neutral surface. This stress distribution is shown in Fig. 3.16a for the case
in which the bending moment M is positive and the beam bends with positive curvature.

Fig. 3.16: Normal stresses in a beam of linearly elastic material

When the curvature is positive, the stresses σx are negative (compression) above the neutral
surface and positive (tension) below it. To use Eq. 3.22, we must locate the neutral axis of the
cross section and obtain a relationship between the curvature and the bending moment. These
can be accomplished by determining the resultant of the stresses σx acting on the cross section.
The resultant of the normal stresses consists of two stress resultants. These are;
 A force acting in the x direction, and
 A bending couple acting about the z axis.
However, the axial force is zero when a beam is in pure bending. Therefore, we can write the
following equations of statics;
I) The resultant force in the x direction is equal to zero, and
II) The resultant moment is equal to the bending moment M.
The first equation gives the location of the neutral axis and the second gives the moment-
curvature relationship.

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Strength of Materials Stresses In Beams

I) Location of Neutral Axis

To obtain the first equation of statics, we consider an element of area dA in the cross section
(Fig. 3.16b). The element is located at distance y from the neutral axis. The force acting on the
element is equal to σxdA and is compressive when y is positive. Because there is no resultant
force acting on the cross section, the integral of σxdA over the area A of the entire cross section
will be zero; thus, the first equation of statics is

∫σ
A
x dA = − ∫ Eκy dA = 0 ⇒
A
∫ y dA = 0
A
(3.23)

This equation states that the first moment of the area of the cross section with respect to the z
axis, is zero. In other words, the z axis must pass through the centroid of the cross section.
Since the z axis is also the neutral axis, we have arrived at the following important conclusion:
The neutral axis passes through the centroid of the cross-sectional area when the material
follows Hooke’s law and there is no axial force acting on the cross section. Because the y axis
is an axis of symmetry of the cross section, it follows that the y axis is a principal axis. Since
the z axis is perpendicular to the y axis, it too is a principal axis. Thus, when a beam of linearly
elastic material is subjected to pure bending, the y and z axes are principal centroidal axes.
II) Moment-Curvature Relationship
The second equation of statics expresses the fact that the moment resultant of the normal
stresses σx acting over the cross section is equal to the bending moment M. The element of
force σxdA acting on the element of area dA produces an element of moment equal to σxydA.
This element of moment acts opposite in direction to the positive bending moment M as shown
in Fig. 3.16a. Therefore, the elemental moment is;

dM = −σ x ydA ⇒ M = − ∫ σ x ydA = ∫ κEy 2 dA = κE ∫ y 2 dA (3.24)

A A A

Since the integral in Eq. 3.24 is the moment of inertia, I, of the cross-sectional area with respect
to the z axis (that is, with respect to the neutral axis), we can rewrite the equation as:
M = κEI (3.25)
Equation 3.25 can now be rearranged to express the curvature in terms of the bending moment
in the beam:
1 M
κ= = (3.26)
ρ EI
Known as the moment-curvature equation, Eq. 3.26 shows that the curvature is directly
proportional to the bending moment M and inversely proportional to the quantity EI, which is
called the flexural rigidity of the beam.
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Strength of Materials Stresses In Beams

3.7.1 The Flexure Formula

Now that we have located the neutral axis and derived the moment-curvature relationship, we
can determine the stresses in terms of the bending moment. Substituting the expression for
curvature (Eq. 3.26) into the expression for the stress σx (Eq. 3.22), we get;
My
σx = − (3.27)
I
This equation is called the flexure formula. Stresses calculated from the flexure formula are
called bending stresses or flexural stresses. If the bending moment in the beam is positive, the
bending stresses will be positive (tension) over the part of the cross section where y is negative,
that is, over the lower part of the beam. The stresses in the upper part of the beam will be
negative (compression). If the bending moment is negative, the stresses will be reversed. These
relationships are shown in Fig. 3.17.

Fig. 3.17: Relationships between signs of bending moments and directions of normal stresses.

3.7.2 Maximum Stresses at a Cross Section

The maximum tensile and compressive bending stresses acting at any given cross section occur
at points located farthest from the neutral axis. Let us denote by c1 and c2 the distances from
the neutral axis to the extreme elements in the positive and negative y directions, respectively.
Then the corresponding maximum normal stresses σ1 and σ2 (from the flexure formula) are;
Mc1 M Mc2 M
σ1 = − =− σ2 = = (3.28a, b)
I S1 I S2

I I
Where, S1 = S2 = (3.29a, b)
c1 c2
The quantities S1 and S2 are known as the section moduli of the crosssectional area. Note that
the distances c1 and c2 to the top and bottom of the beam are always taken as positive
quantities.
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Strength of Materials Stresses In Beams

3.8 Design Of Beams For Flexure

When designing a beam to resist bending stresses, we usually begin by calculating the required
section modulus. For instance, if the beam has a doubly symmetric cross section and the
allowable stresses are the same for both tension and compression, we can calculate the required
modulus by dividing the maximum bending moment by the allowable bending stress for the
material. That is;
M max
S= (3.30)
σ all
If the cross section is not doubly symmetric, or if the allowable stresses are different for
tension and compression, we usually need to determine two required section moduli; one based
upon tension and the other based upon compression. Then we must provide a beam that
satisfies both criteria. To minimize weight and save material, we usually select a beam that has
the least cross- sectional area while still providing the required section moduli (and also
meeting any other design requirements that may be imposed).
Relative Efficiency of Various Beam Shapes
From the flexure formula, it can be seen that the bending stress at the neutral axis, when y = 0,
is zero and increases linearly outwards. This means that a large portion of the cross section
near the middle section is understressed.
Therefore the most efficient beam is one in which the material is located as far as practical
from the neutral axis. The farther a given amount of material is from the neutral axis, the larger
the section modulus becomes; and the larger the section modulus, the larger the bending
moment that can be resisted (for a given allowable stress).
As an illustration, consider a cross section in the form of a rectangle of width b and height h
as shown in Fig. 3.18a. The section modulus is;
bh 2 Ah
S= = = 0 .167 Ah (3.31)
6 6
where A denotes the cross-sectional area. This equation shows that a rectangular cross section
of given area becomes more efficient as the height h is increased (and the width b is decreased
to keep the area constant). Of course, there is a practical limit to the increase in height, because
the beam becomes laterally unstable when the ratio of height to width becomes too large.
Next, let us compare a solid circular cross section of diameter d (Fig. 3.18b) with a square
cross section of the same area. The side h of a square having the same area as the circle is h =
(d/2)√π. The corresponding section moduli are;

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Strength of Materials Stresses In Beams

h 3 πd 3 π πd 3 S square
S square = = S circle = = 0.0982 d 3 ⇒ = 1.18 (3.32)
6 48 32 S circle
This result shows that a beam of square cross section is more efficient in resisting bending than
is a circular beam of the same area. The reason, of course, is that a circle has a relatively larger
amount of material located near the neutral axis. This material is less highly stressed, and
therefore it does not contribute as much to the strength of the beam.

Fig. 3.18: Cross-sectional shapes of beams.

The ideal cross-sectional shape for a beam of given cross-sectional area A and height h would
be obtained by placing one-half of the area at a distance h/2 above the neutral axis and the
other half at distance h/2 below the neutral axis, as shown in Fig. 3.18c. For this ideal shape;
2
 A  h  Ah 2 I
I = 2   = S= = 0.5 Ah (3.33)
 2  2  4 0.5 h
These theoretical limits are approached in practice by wide-flange sections and I-sections,
which have most of their material in the flanges, at the greatest available distance from the
neutral axis (Fig. 3.18d). For standard wide-flange beams, the section modulus is
approximately, S ≈ 0.35Ah. which is less than the ideal but much larger than the section
modulus for a rectangular cross section of the same area and height.

3.9 Composite Beams

Beams that are fabricated of more than one material are called composite beams. Examples of
such beams include: reinforced concrete beams, steel-wood "sandwich" beams and bimetallic
beams.

Fig. 3.19: Examples of composite beams.

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Strength of Materials Stresses In Beams

In composite beams, since the material properties are not constant throughout the cross-section,
we must modify the analysis to accommodate the nonuniform material properties. To find the
bending stresses in a composite beam, a method known as the transformed-section method is
presented here.

3.9.1 Transformed-Section Method for Composite Beams

This method consists of transforming the cross section of a composite beam into an equivalent
cross section of an imaginary beam that is composed of only one material. This new cross
section is called the transformed section. Then the imaginary beam with the transformed
section is analyzed in the customary manner for a beam of one material. As a final step, the
stresses in the transformed beam are converted to those in the original beam.
If the transformed beam is to be equivalent to the original beam, its neutral axis must be
located in the same place and its moment-resisting capacity must be the same. To show how
these two requirements are met, consider a composite beam made of two materials (Fig. 3.20a).
The neutral axis of the cross section is obtained from;
E1 ∫ ydA + E2 ∫ ydA = 0 (3.34)
1 2

In this equation, the integrals represent the moments of ineria

of the two parts of the cross section with respect to the neutral
axis. Let us now introduce the notation;
E2
n= (3.35)
E1
where n is the modular ratio. With this notation, we can
rewrite Eq. (3.35) in the form;

∫ ydA + ∫ yndA = 0
1 2
(3.36)

Fig. 3.20: Transformation of composite beam.

Since Eqs. 3.34 and 3.36 are equivalent, hence the neutral axis is unchanged if the area of
material 2 is multiplied by the factor n. Therefore, we can create a new cross section consisting
of two parts: Area 1 with its dimensions unchanged, and Area 2 with its width multiplied by n.
This new cross section (transformed section) is shown in Fig. 3.20b for the case where E2 > E1
(and therefore n > 1). Its neutral axis is in the same position as the neutral axis of the original
beam. (Note that all dimensions perpendicular to the neutral axis remain the same.)

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Strength of Materials Stresses In Beams

Since the transformed beam consists of only one material, the normal stresses (or bending
stresses) can be found from the standard flexure formula. Thus, the normal stresses in the beam
transformed to material 1 are;
My
σ x1 = − (3.37)
IT
Where IT is the moment of inertia of the transformed section with respect to the neutral axis.
By substituting into this equation, we can calculate the stresses at any point in the transformed
beam. The stresses in the transformed beam match those in the original beam in the part of the
original beam consisting of material 1; however, in the part of the original beam consisting of
material 2, the stresses are different from those in the transformed beam.
Therefore the stresses in the transformed beam (Eq. 3.37) must be multiplied by the modular
ratio n to obtain the stresses in material 2 of the original beam. That is;
My
σ x2 = − n (3.38)
IT

3.10 Shear Stresses In Beams

When a beam is in pure bending, the only stress resultants are the bending moments and the
only stresses are the normal stresses acting on the cross sections. However, most beams are
subjected to loads that produce both bending moments and shear forces (nonuniform bending).
In these cases, both normal and shear stresses are developed in the beam. The normal stresses
are calculated from the flexure formula. The shear stresses are discussed in this section.
Let us consider a beam in nonuniform bending (Fig. 3.21a). We take two adjacent cross
sections mn and m1n1, that are distance dx apart, and consider the element mm1n1n. The
bending moment and shear force acting on the left-hand face of this element are M and V,
respectively. Since both the bending moment and shear force may change as we move along
the axis of the beam, the corresponding quantities on the right-hand face are denoted M+dM
and V+dV.
Next, isolate a subelement mm1p1p by passing a horizontal plane pp1 through element mm1n1n.
The plane pp1 is at distance y1 from the neutral surface of the beam. The subelement is shown
separately in Fig. 3.21c. Note that its top face is part of the upper surface of the beam and thus
is free from stress. Its bottom face is acted upon by the horizontal shear stresses τ existing at
this level in the beam. Its cross-sectional faces mp and m1p1 are acted upon by the bending
stresses σ1 and σ2, respectively, produced by the bending moments.

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Strength of Materials Stresses In Beams

Fig. 3.21: Shear stresses in a beam of rectangular cross section.

Now consider an element of area dA in the cross section at distance y from the neutral axis
(Fig. 3.21d). The total horizontal forces acting on this element over the area of face mp and
m1p1 of the subelement will be F1 and F2 respectively as shown in Fig. 3.21e. Which are;
My (M + dM)y
F1 = ∫ σ 1dA = ∫ dA F2 = ∫ σ 2 dA = ∫ dA (3.39)
I I
Note that this integration is performed over the area of the shaded part of the cross section
shown in Fig. 3.21d, that is, over the area of the cross section from y = y1 to y = h/2. Since the
subelement is in equilibrium, we can sum forces in the x direction and obtain;
dM
F3 = F2 − F1 =
I ∫ ydA (3.40)

If the shear stresses τ are uniformly distributed across the width b of the beam, F3 will be;
F3 =τ b dx (3.41)

Combining Eqs. 3.40 and 3.41 and solving for the shear stress τ, gives;
dM  1  V
τ=   ∫ ydA = ∫ ydA (3.42)
dx  Ib  Ib
The integral in this equation is the first moment of the cross-sectional area above the level at
which the shear stress τ is being evaluated and it is usually denoted by the symbol Q. Hence;
VQ
τ= (3.43)
Ib
This equation is known as the shear formula.
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Strength of Materials Stresses In Beams

3.10.1 Distribution of Shear Stresses in a Rectangular Beam

The distribution of shearing stresses in a rectangular section can be obtained by using the shear
formula as;
  h − y 
VQ V   h  1  V  h2 
τ= =  b − y1  y1 + 2
   =  − y12  (3.44)
Ib Ib   2  2  2I  4 
  
This equation shows that the shear stresses in a rectangular beam vary quadratically with the
distance y1 from the neutral axis as shown in Fig. 3.22b.

Fig. 3.22: Distribution of shear stresses in a beam of rectangular cross section.

The maximum value of the shear stress occurs at the neutral axis (y1 = 0) where the first
moment Q has its maximum value. Substituting y1 = 0 into Eq. 3.44, we get;
3V
τ max = (3.45)
2A
Where A = bh is the cross-sectional area of the beam. Thus, the maximum shear stress in a
beam of rectangular cross section is 50% larger than the average shear stress V/A. Note again
that the preceding equations for the shear stresses can be used to calculate either the vertical
shear stresses acting on the cross sections or the horizontal shear stresses acting between
horizontal layers of the beam.

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 TDS-II Examples on Chapter-3

EXAMPLE-1
A simply supported beam having a rectangular cross section is shown below. Determine;
(A) The maximum flexural stress in the beam.
(B) The maximum shear stress in the beam.

EXAMPLE-2
A cantilever beam with a rectangular cross section is shown below. The cross section has a
longitudinal hole drilled throughout its length. Determine;
(A) The maximum flexural stress in the beam.
(B) Redo problem-A, if there is no hole in the beam section.

EXAMPLE-3
For the overhang beam shown below, determine the maximum flexural stress and the maximum
shear stress in the beam if;
(A) It has a rectangular cross section as shown below.
(B) It has a T-section as shown below.

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 TDS-II Examples on Chapter-3

EXAMPLE-4
An overhang beam is shown below along with its cross section. The cross section of the beam is
rectangular with a height equal to 1.25 times the width (h = 1.25b). Design the cross section of
the beam, if the allowable flexural stress is 50MPa in tension, 80MPa in compression and the
allowable shear stress is 12MPa.

EXAMPLE-5
An overhang beam supporting two concentrated loads, P, of equal magnitude is shown below.
Determine the maximum value of the load P, if the allowable flexural stress is 75MPa in tension,
120MPa in compression and the allowable shear stress is 24MPa.

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Department of Civil Engineering