Ciencia de los materiales

Clase 25: Metales y aleaciones

ferrosas Iron Carbon
System

Heat treatment

Quenching, annealing,
Ferrous,
Alloying Tempering, normalizing,
elements Cast irons
etc.
Pure metals Alloys
Solution treatment,
Nonferrous,
precipitation hardening,
Stainless steels
aging, etc.

• Phase
Profesor: José Luis lázaro Plata Diagrams
• Microstructures
Email: [email protected]
Link del curso: https://uvirtual.ufpso.edu.co/course/view.php?id=1175
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1. Solidification
Pure metals
Nucleation and Growth

2. Phase Diagrams
Complete solid solution (Type I)
Eutectic diagram with no solid solution (Type II and Type III)
Intermetallic compound (Type IV)
Eutectoid and Peritectic reactions (Type V)
The Iron–Carbon System

3. Types of Metal Alloys

Ferrous alloys
Nonferrous alloys
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Metal alloys, by virtue of composition, are often grouped into

two classes: ferrous and nonferrous.

• Ferrous alloys, those in which iron is the principal

constituent, include steels and cast irons.

• The nonferrous ones—all alloys that are not iron based.

(AISI: 1020, 3140, 4340, 1040,

4140, 6150, 1050, 4150, 8650)

Figure 1. Metal alloys, by virtue of composition(Callister

& Rethwisch, 2010).
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Plain Carbon Steels
Low-Carbon Steels
- These generally contain less than about 0.25 wt% C and are unresponsive to heat treatments intended to form
martensite; strengthening is accomplished by cold work.
- Microstructures consist of ferrite and pearlite constituents.
- As a consequence, these alloys are relatively soft and weak but have outstanding ductility and toughness; in addition,
they are machinable, weldable, and, of all steels, are the least expensive to produce.

Medium-Carbon Steels
- The medium-carbon steels have carbon concentrations between about 0.25 and 0.60 wt%. These alloys may be heat-
treated by austenitizing, quenching, and then tempering to improve their mechanical properties.
- They are most often utilized in the tempered condition, having microstructures of tempered martensite.
Additions of chromium, nickel, and molybdenum improve the capacity of these alloys to be heat-treated, giving rise to a
variety of strength–ductility combinations.
- These heat-treated alloys are stronger than the low-carbon steels, but at a sacrifice of ductility and toughness.

High-Carbon Steels
- The high-carbon steels, normally having carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%, are the hardest, strongest, and
yet least ductile of the carbon steels.
- They are almost always used in a hardened and tempered condition and, as such, are especially wear resistant and
capable of holding a sharp cutting edge.
- The tool and die steels are high-carbon alloys, usually containing chromium, vanadium, tungsten, and molybdenum.
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Typical applications Low-Carbon Steels

Typical applications include automobile body components, structural shapes (I-beams, channel and angle
iron), and sheets that are used in pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin cans.

Medium-Carbon Steels
Applications include railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts, and other machine parts and high-strength
structural components calling for a combination of high strength, wear resistance, and toughness.

High-Carbon Steels
These steels are utilized as cutting tools and dies for forming and shaping materials, as well as in knives,
razors, hacksaw blades, springs, and high-strength wire.
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Low Alloy Steels
• Low alloy steels are iron–carbon alloys that contain additional alloying elements in amounts totaling less than about 5% by weight.
• Owing to these additions, low alloy steels have mechanical properties that are superior to those of the plain carbon steels for given applications.
• Superior properties usually mean higher strength, hardness, hot hardness, wear resistance, toughness, and more desirable combinations of these
properties. Heat treatment is often required to achieve these improved properties.
• Common alloying elements added to steel are chromium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, and vanadium, sometimes individually but usually in
combinations.

Chromium (Cr) improves strength, hardness, wear resistance, and hot hardness. It is one of the most effective alloying
ingredients for increasing hardenability. In significant proportions, Cr improves corrosion resistance.

Manganese (Mn) improves the strength and hardness of steel. When the steel is heat treated, hardenability is improved with
increased manganese. Because of these benefits, manganese is a widely used alloying ingredient in steel.

Molybdenum (Mo) increases toughness and hot hardness. It also improves hardenability and forms carbides for wear resistance.

Nickel (Ni) improves strength and toughness. It increases hardenability but not as much as some of the other alloying elements in
steel. In significant amounts it improves corrosion resistance.

Vanadium (V) inhibits grain growth during elevated temperature processing and heat treatment, which enhances strength and
toughness of steel. It also forms carbides that increase wear resistance.
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Stainless Steels
The stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of environments, especially the ambient
atmosphere. Their predominant alloying element is chromium; a concentration of at least 11 wt% Cr is
required. Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by nickel and molybdenum additions. Stainless steels are
divided into three classes on the basis of the predominant phase constituent of the microstructure martensitic,
ferritic, or austenitic.

Stainless steel grades

Grades give a hint as to the family of a particular stainless steel. The most common grades are:

• Austenitic stainless: 304, 302, 303, 310, 316, 317, 321, 347

• Ferritic stainless: 430, 444, 409, 430

• Martensitic stainless: 420, 431, 440, 416

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Stainless Steels
1. Austenitic stainless have a typical composition of around 18%Cr and 8% Ni and are the most corrosion resistant of the three
groups. Owing to this composition, they are sometimes identified as18-8 stainless. They are non magnetic and very ductile; but
they show significant work hardening. The nickel has the effect of enlarging the austenite region in the iron–carbon phase
diagram, making it stable at room temperature. Austenitic stainless steels are used to fabricate chemical and food processing
equipment, as well as machinery parts requiring high corrosion resistance.

Austenitic stainless steels have a face-

centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure and
are composed of iron, carbon, chromium,
and at least 8% nickel, (Callister &
Rethwisch, 2010).

AISI 316 Stainless steel, 316 is an austenitic stainless steel with a high chromium and nickel content.
Like most metals, it has a usable temperature range far higher than what’s required in food preparation,
(Callister & Rethwisch, 2010).
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Stainless Steels

2. Ferritic stainless have around 15% to 20% chromium, low carbon, and no nickel. This provides a ferrite phase at room
temperature. Ferritic stainless steels are magnetic and are less ductile and corrosion resistant than the austenitics. Parts made of
ferritic stainless range from kitchen utensils to jet engine components.

Ferritic stainless steels: They have a

body-centered-cubic (BCC) crystal
structure—the same as pure iron at
ambient temperature, (Callister &
Rethwisch, 2010).
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Stainless Steels

3. Martensitic stainless have a higher carbon content than ferritic stainlesses, thus permitting them to be strengthened by heat
treatment. They have as much as 18% Cr but no Ni. They are strong, hard, and fatigue resistant, but not generally as corrosion
resistant as the other two groups. Typical products include cutlery and surgical instruments.
Martensitic stainless steels have a body-
centered tetragonal (BCT) structure.
Like the ferritic BCC structure, BCT is
magnetic, (Callister & Rethwisch, 2010).
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Stainless Steels

Stainless
Corrosion resistant Mechanical properties Composition Crystal structure Grades Applications
Steels
They have a typical They are used to fabricate
Austenitic The most corrosion They are non magnetic and very Face-centered cubic 304, 302, 303, 310,
composition of around chemical and food processing
stainless resistant. ductile. (FCC). 316, 317, 321, 347.
18%Cr and 8% Ni. equipment.
They are less ductile Ferritic stainless steels are
They have around 15% to Parts made of ferritic stainless
Ferritic and corrosion magnetic and are less ductile and Body-centered-
20% chromium, low 430, 444, 409, 430. range from kitchen utensils to
stainless resistant than the corrosion resistant than the cubic (BCC).
carbon, and no nickel. jet engine components.
austenitics. austenitics.
Martensitic The less corrosion They are strong, hard, and fatigue They have as much as Body-centered Typical products include cutlery
420, 431, 440, 416.
stainless resistant. resistant. BCT is magnetic. 18% Cr but no Ni. tetragonal (BCT). and surgical instruments.
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The term cast iron refers to a family of ferrous alloys composed of iron, carbon (ranging from 2.11% to about 4.5%), and silicon (up to about 3.5%).
Cast irons are usually classified according to their solidification morphology from the eutectic temperature:

Ferrous

Cast Irons

Ductile Compacted
Gray iron White iron Malleable iron
(nodular) iron graphite iron

(ASTM A48) (ASTM A536) (ASTM A220)

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Recocido:

Calentado a 110°C
durante 1 hora y luego
enfriado en agua.

Ablandamiento del
material:

Antes del T: 92 HRB Maclas: La presencia de maclas es

atribuida a la deformación plástica y
Después del T: 71 HRB recristalización del materia

Nota: no confundir con Acero inoxidable AISI 304 (100x) con tratamiento térmico Acero inoxidable AISI 304 (400x) con tratamiento térmico
el recocido de los aceros Crecimiento (Fuente: Laboratorio) (Fuente: Laboratorio)
convencionales.
de grano
Dentro de los granos, cierto
contenido de carburo para obtener
la resistencia adecuada de este acero.

Austenita de diferentes tamaños de

grano y forma poligonal.

Acero inoxidable AISI 304 (100x) sin tratamiento térmico Acero inoxidable AISI 304 (400x) sin tratamiento térmico
(Fuente: Laboratorio) (Fuente: Laboratorio)
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Gray cast iron, or gray iron. The carbon and silicon contents of gray cast irons vary between 2.5 and 4.0 wt% and 1.0 and 3.0 wt%, respectively.
For most of these cast irons, the graphite exists in the form of flakes (similar to corn flakes), which are normally surrounded by an 𝛼-ferrite or
pearlite matrix.
• Because of these graphite flakes, a fractured surface takes on a gray appearance, hence its name.
• This capacity makes gray cast iron a suitable and commonly used material for constructing machine-tool bases and machinery structures.

Types of gray Ferritic.

cast iron
In ferritic gray iron (also known as fully gray iron), the structure consists of
graphite flakes in an alpha-ferrite matrix.

Pearlitic.
Hojuelas de Pearlitic gray iron has a structure of graphite in a matrix of pearlite, and
grafito although still brittle, it is stronger than fully gray iron.

Martensitic.
Martensitic gray iron is obtained by austenitizing a pearlitic gray iron and
then quenching it rapidly to produce a structure of graphite in a martensite
matrix; as a result, this cast iron is very hard.
Optical photomicrographs of compacted graphite iron: dark
graphite wormlike particles are embedded within an -ferrite
matrix. 100 X. (Callister & Rethwisch, 2010).
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Optical photomicrographs of compacted graphite iron: dark graphite wormlike particles are embedded within an -
ferrite matrix. 100 X. (Callister & Rethwisch, 2010).
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Ductile (Nodular) Iron.
• Graphite still forms, but as nodules or spherelike particles instead of flakes
• In the ductile-iron structure, graphite is in a nodular or spheroid form, which permits the
material to be somewhat ductile and shock resistant.
• The shape of graphite flakes can be changed into nodules (spheres), by small additions of
magnesium and/or cerium to the molten metal prior to pouring.
• Ductile iron can be made ferritic or pearlitic by heat treatment; it can also be heat treated to
obtain a structure of tempered martensite.

Figure 20. Optical photomicrographs of nodular (ductile) iron: the

dark graphite nodules are surrounded by an -ferrite matrix. 200 X
(Callister & Rethwisch, 2010).
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White Cast Iron.
• White cast iron is obtained either by cooling gray iron rapidly or by adjusting the
composition by keeping the carbon and silicon content low; it is also called white iron
because of the white crystalline appearance of the fracture surface.
• The white cast iron structure is very hard, wear resistant, and brittle, because of the
presence of large amounts of iron carbide (instead of graphite).

Optical photomicrographs of white iron: the light cementite

regions are surrounded by pearlite, which has the ferrite–
cementite layered structure. 400 X (Callister & Rethwisch,
2010).
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Malleable Iron.
• Malleable iron is obtained by annealing white cast iron in an atmosphere of carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide, at between 800°C and 900°C for up to several hours, depending on the size of the part.
• During this process, the cementite decomposes (dissociates) into iron and graphite. The graphite exists
as clusters or rosettes in a ferrite or pearlite matrix; consequently, malleable iron has a structure
similar to that of nodular iron.
• This structure promotes good ductility, strength, and shock resistance—hence, the term malleable.

Optical photomicrographs of malleable iron: dark

graphite rosettes (temper carbon) in an -ferrite matrix.
150 X. (Callister & Rethwisch, 2010).
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Optical photomicrographs of Cast Irons, (Callister & Rethwisch, 2010).

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ACTIVIDAD: ALEACIONES FERREAS

¿Cual es la diferencia entre aleación de fundición

dúctil y gris?
¿Qué materiales metálicos muestran una
microestructura de fundición gris, dúctil, blanca y
maleable?