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Policies ﬁrst, institutions second: Lessons from Estonias economic reforms
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DOI: 10.1080/1060586X.2015.1061739#abstract
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Policies first, institutions second:

lessons from Estonia’s economic
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Neil A. Abrams & M. Steven Fish
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Department of Political Science, University of California,
Berkeley, USA
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POST-SOVIET AFFAIRS, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1060586X.2015.1061739
Policies first, institutions second: lessons from Estonia’s

economic reforms
Neil A. Abrams and M. Steven Fish
Department of Political Science, University of California, Berkeley, USA
ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

It has become convention in recent years to treat the building of institutions Received 19 May 2015
as the centerpiece of successful economic reform. The case of Estonia Accepted 4 June 2015
challenges this view. Although effective economic institutions eventually KEYWORDS
arose, Estonia began its transition bereft of the institutions that supposedly
Estonia; institutions;
serve as the requisites of robust achievement. The institutions only emerged postcommunist economic
after an ideologically driven core of leaders implemented policies that laid reform; property rights;
the groundwork. In particular, the imposition of hard budget constraints corruption
sidelined political capitalists opposed to the rule of law by severing them
from the state subsidies, soft loans, and other privileges on which they
thrive. In the absence of a powerful class of political capitalists, Estonian
governments were free to forge and continually improve a collection of
institutions that sets the country apart among its postcommunist peers.
Good institutions are desirable but not necessary for policy reform, and they
are better seen as auspicious knock-on effects than as prime movers.
Introduction
Writings on economic transformation in developing countries, including those emerging from decades
of Soviet-style economic statism, often treat the building of institutions as the centerpiece of successful
economic reform. According to such thinking, in order for economic reforms to yield improvement
rather than disorder and opportunities for predation, a sound set of well-enforced rules is needed. Since
authoritative rules take time to develop, analysts who stress the critical importance of institutions often
counsel skepticism about radical, rapid policy reform.
Such institutionalism predominates in academic discussions. Its suppositions, however, have come
under challenge in light of important real-world cases. Some of the most successful cases of economic
takeoff in recent decades have occurred in countries that were bereft of the institutions that supposedly
serve as the requisites of robust achievement. There was little institutional infrastructure for a market
economy in China when Deng Xiaoping initiated his liberalization in 1978, and the explosive growth
that ensued continued for years before anything resembling strong institutions appeared. Deng knew
that he wanted China to escape poverty and that hard statism was yielding penury, but he could not
rely upon sophisticated rules, agencies, and personnel during the early years of the reforms. China has
since undertaken institutional reforms and innovations and produced a cadre of savvy technocrats.
But these desiderata emerged well after Deng’s sudden, dramatic turn to the market took place. The
institutions emerged from the policy reforms and their fruits, not vice versa (Fish, forthcoming).
CONTACT Neil A. Abrams [email protected]; M. Steven Fish [email protected]

© 2015 Taylor & Francis
2 N. A. ABRAMS AND M. S. FISH
The notion that getting the institutions right is the sine qua non of successful economic transition
nevertheless persists, not least among specialists on East Europe and the former USSR. Many blame
the economic disasters that befell the region during the 1990s on radical reforms taken in haste, before
the proper ensemble of institutions needed to secure property rights and guide the new economies’
management were in place (Amsden, Kochanowicz, and Taylor 1994; Cohen and Schwartz 1998; Johnson
2000; Roland 2000; IBRD and World Bank 2001; Florio 2002; Stiglitz 2002; Rodrik 2003, 2008; Herrera
2004; Schwartz 2006; Firestone 2008).
By institutions, most analysts mean formal rules, and we also adopt such a conception. “Institution” is
one of the most elastic concepts in social science, and has sometimes been distended to mean virtually
anything under the sun. While recognizing the contributions of authors who have recently developed
notions of “informal institutions” and of older generations of authors who sometimes treated political
parties and other organizations and state agencies as “institutions,” we follow John Carey in applying
the concept solely to what Carey calls “parchment institutions,” meaning formal rules, expressed as laws
or regulations (Carey 2000). Our definition is consistent with what is often used in rigorous mainstream
political science (Desposato and Scheiner 2008; Mahoney and Thelen 2010). It works well for the pur-
poses of our article. It is, after all, the absence or weakness of the proper rules needed to govern the
economy prior to major policy change that institutionalists blame for the corruption, predation, and
poor performance that have afflicted many economies in the postcommunist world and other regions.
If an institution refers to rules, a policy is a set of actions (or inaction) by the government in the
treatment of a public problem. This definition is consistent with the various ways scholars have defined
the term (Birkland 2015, 7–10). A policy may involve the creation of an institution, but need not do so.
Additionally, a policy can eventually become an institution to the extent that it gets codified into law.
Nevertheless, we maintain a strict analytic and conceptual distinction between institutions (rules) and
policies (actions).
Here we question the logic of the institutionalist approach. We do so on the basis of our analysis of
post-Soviet Estonia. Estonia began its economic transition with none of the economic institutions that
are often considered requisites of successful economic reform. But it did have a clique of new leaders
who were strongly committed to policies that neutralized resistance by corrupt business actors to the
creation of market-supporting institutions. The outcome in Estonia was a continual process of building,
simplifying, and improving rules, regulations, and the agencies that enforced them.
Two sets of policies proved critical. The first, begun even before the USSR’s demise, consisted of per-
sonnel replacements and the construction of state agencies that would provide an embryonic structure
for a new bureaucracy. But these measures would never have yielded effective institutions were it not
for the second policy: the imposition of hard budget constraints (HBCs) upon firms. HBCs helped forge
an economic arena in which political capitalists, meaning actors who make their fortunes by dint of
their political connections, remained relatively marginalized when compared to their status in other
postcommunist countries. The prominence of entrepreneurs rather than political capitalists in economic
life, in turn, subsequently helped create a political environment in which leaders could forge authentic,
effective institutions without being stymied or corrupted by formidable economic interests that thrived
on state subsidies, soft loans from state banks, special tax status, privileged market access, and other
favors afforded by proximity to political power.
By the late 1990s and beyond, sound rules for regulating property rights and market transactions
did emerge. Indeed, Estonia became and remains the leader in economic-institutional development
in the postcommunist region. Still, as in China, some simple, radical policy changes, launched by a
handful of committed reformers, predated and enabled the nascence of market-nurturing institutions.
The absence of good institutions did not impede or pervert successful reform, and good policies are
what made good institutions possible.
Thus, we find that good institutions for governing the economy are sooner the effects of good
policies than the causes of them. We further find that the adoption of good policies depends on the
presence in high political office of an ideologically committed cadre of leaders who are able and will-
ing thoroughly to see the policies through to the end. In our causal argument, politicians, by virtue of
POST-SOVIET AFFAIRS 3
Table 1. The degree with which HBCs were instituted by second year of transition (scale: 1.00–4.33).
Enterprise Pct. difference

Country restructuring Price liberalization Banking reform Average from Estonia
Estonia (1993) 3.00 4.33 3.00 3.44 –
Hungary (1991) 2.00 4.33 2.00 2.78 −20.0
Latvia (1993) 2.00 4.33 2.00 2.78 −20.0
Slovakia (1991) 2.00 4.00 2.00 2.67 −23.3
Czech Republic 2.00 4.00 2.00 2.67 −23.3
(1991)
Lithuania (1993) 2.00 4.00 2.00 2.67 −23.3
Poland (1991) 2.00 3.67 2.00 2.56 −26.6
Bulgaria (1992) 1.00 4.33 1.67 2.33 −33.3
Moldova (1993) 1.00 3.67 2.00 2.22 −36.6
Slovenia (1992) 1.00 3.67 2.00 2.22 −36.6
Croatia (1992) 1.00 4.00 1.00 2.00 −43.3
Macedonia (1992) 1.00 4.00 1.00 2.00 −43.3
Armenia (1993) 1.00 3.67 1.00 1.89 −46.6
Azerbaijan (1993) 1.00 3.67 1.00 1.89 −46.6
Georgia (1993) 1.00 3.67 1.00 1.89 −46.6
Kyrgyzstan (1993) 1.00 3.67 1.00 1.89 −46.6
Russia (1993) 1.00 3.67 1.00 1.89 −46.6
Serbia (1992) 1.00 3.67 1.00 1.89 −46.6

Albania (1992) 1.00 2.67 1.00 1.56 −56.7
Kazakhstan (1993) 1.00 2.67 1.00 1.56 −56.7
Romania (1991) 1.00 2.67 1.00 1.56 −56.7
Uzbekistan (1993) 1.00 2.67 1.00 1.56 −56.7
Belarus (1993) 1.00 2.33 1.00 1.44 −60.1
Mongolia (1991) 1.00 2.33 1.00 1.44 −60.1
Tajikistan (1993) 1.00 2.33 1.00 1.44 −60.1
Ukraine (1993) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 −73.4
Bosnia-Herzegovi- 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 −73.4
na (1993)
Turkmenistan 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 −73.4
(1993)
Source: EBRD transition indicators (available on EBRD website).
their commitment to a policy of HBCs, determine which types of economic actors will predominate
in the new economy, which in turn shapes the possibilities for the enactment and authenticity of the
institutions that govern the economy. The personnel and organizational policies helped lay the ground-
work for the new institutions but would never have borne fruit had HBCs not weakened resistance to
those institutions by political capitalists. We offer an actor-centered story in which the principles and
interests of people determine the quality of institutions, rather than vice versa. Good institutions are
desirable but not necessary for policy reform, and they are better seen as auspicious knock-on effects
than as prime movers.
At the onset of Estonia’s transition, the country was bereft of even the basic trappings of statehood,
and still more of the institutions associated with a well-functioning market economy. Until the late
1990s, Estonia endured a period of severe institutional flux. Broad areas of market-related law – not to
mention the capacity to enforce the law – remained inchoate at best. As elsewhere in the postcommunist
region and other countries during early capitalism, this circumstance created fertile ground for political
capitalism. But Estonian political leaders’ dedication quickly to imposing HBCs undermined the sorts
of economic actors who so often thwart the enactment of market-nurturing institutions or encourage
the adoption of Potemkin institutions that might look good to external donors but do not truly foster
the emergence of a vigorous, competitive market economy.
Hard budget constraints and the Estonian transformation

Political transition in Estonia took the form of wholesale replacement of the communist regime and
its agents. No formal negotiations with the ruling communists occurred. The process began with the
victory of the Popular Front of Estonia in the first fully free parliamentary elections, held in 1990 while
Table 2. Nonperforming loans as a percentage of all loans, 1991–2000.a
Country 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 1990s avg.
Estonia 7.0 3.5 2.4 2.0 2.1 4.0 2.9 1.3 3.2
Slovenia 13.8 9.3 10.1 10.0 9.5 9.3 9.3 10.2
Latvia 11.0 19.0 20.0 10.0 6.8 6.8 5.0 11.2
Hungary 11.0 21.0 29.6 20.2 12.1 9.0 6.6 7.9 4.4 3.1 12.5
Belarus 8.4 11.8 14.1 12.5 16.5 13.1 15.2 13.1
Croatia 12.2 12.9 11.2 8.2 12.6 20.6 19.8 13.9
Serbia & Montenegro 10.3 12.0 12.3 15.1 13.1 10.2 27.8 14.4
Bulgaria 40.0 6.7 6.8 12.5 15.2 13.0 11.8 17.5 10.9 14.9
Russia 12.3 13.4 12.1 30.9 28.1 16.1 18.8
Lithuania 27.0 17.3 32.2 28.3 12.5 11.9 10.8 20.0
Poland 17.0 27.0 36.4 34.0 23.9 14.7 11.5 11.8 14.9 16.8 20.8
Czech Republic 3.0 19.0 22.0 34.0 26.6 21.8 19.9 22.7 43.4 39.7 25.2
Romania 6.0 5.0 4.0 18.5 37.9 48.0 56.5 58.5 35.4 3.8 27.4
Slovakia 3.0 19.0 12.2 30.3 41.3 31.8 33.4 44.3 32.9 26.2 27.4
Moldova 31.0 36.0 45.5 26.0 32.0 29.3 20.6 31.5
Ukraine 34.6 34.2 32.5 33.8
Bosnia-Herzegovina 58.7 13.9 36.3
Albania 34.9 40.1 91.3 35.4 32.7 42.6 46.2
Macedonia 66.1 59.5 50.3 62.6 46.5 57.0
Sources: EBRD (1998–2005). Certain data not provided by EBRD, including 1993 data for Estonia and the Czech Republic, comes
from Scholtens (2000).
Nonperforming loan levels reflect latest available data. In some cases, data were not reported in the latest EBRD report; figures
a
instead come from the most recently available report in which data was actually provided.
Estonia was still part of the Soviet Union. After the breakup of the USSR, a transitional government was
appointed under Tiit Vähi. In the first post-Soviet elections, held in September 1992, a coalition led by
Mart Laar came to power. In these elections, the reform-communist Left Opportunity failed to make
the 5% threshold. Only 35% of the deputies in the 1992 parliament had previously belonged to the
Communist Party during the Soviet period and substantially fewer than that had been members of
the nomenklatura. The coalition government formed by Laar’s Pro Patria Party (Isamaaliit), the Estonian
National Independence Party, and the Moderates included only one minister with a background in the
communist party apparatus. Thus, by the autumn of its first full year of independence, the Estonian
government was under the full control of a revolutionary counterelite (Kionka 1992; Steen and Ruus
2002). Estonia’s new leaders espoused an ideology that viewed national sovereignty, regime change,
and radical economic transformation as mutually interdependent imperatives.
How, then, did Estonia’s early postcommunist governments lay the foundation for the permanent
marginalization of political capitalists, while so many other postcommunist governments, including
those in which a good deal of new blood came to top government positions, failed to do the same? The
answer is that the radical program of HBCs carried out by early Estonian governments (particularly Laar’s)
cut off the emerging class of political capitalists at the knees. These policies were highly unusual in the
postcommunist region; even in some countries that have been widely regarded as reform leaders, the
imposition of HBCs was half-hearted and took a back seat to other reform priorities. In Czechoslovakia
and, later, Slovakia, for example, persisting soft budget constraints (SBCs) enabled political capitalists
to amass great wealth and influence (Gould 2011, 76–89, 103–132).
Nothing of the sort would happen in Estonia. The speed and depth of its governments’ commitment
to HBCs is revealed in Table 1, which shows how far different postcommunist governments went in
hardening budget constraints as of the second year of the transition. The data are derived from the
EBRD’s Transition Indicators and take the average score on the three indicators that relate specifically
to HBCs (enterprise restructuring, price liberalization, and banking sector reform). Estonia emerges far
ahead of every other country.
According to the conventional view, a firm has an SBC if it can access external support to fill the gap
between its income and expenditures (Kornai 1979, 1992, 2001; Maskin and Xu 2001; Kornai, Maskin,
and Roland 2003). As such, under the standard definition only a loss-making firm can have an SBC. But
across the postcommunist world one can observe plenty of profitable business actors receiving outside
assistance. These companies benefit from the same kinds of state subsidies, special tax breaks, and soft
loans that provide SBCs to loss-makers. Often it is pointless to distinguish between external assistance
to loss-making and profitable companies; subsidies to a loss-making coal mine pass right into the
coffers of an oligarch-controlled firm that transacts on lopsided terms with the mine, or the state bails
out an insolvent bank that then proceeds to grant cheap loans to rent-seeking business elites. Each is
obviously an example of an actor taking advantage of an SBC.
Therefore, under our definition, any firm, whether loss-making or not, which receives artificial exter-
nal support not justified on grounds of economic rationality qualifies as having an SBC. If the firm can
access these benefits only through an arms-length transaction and at the market price, it has an HBC.
SBCs take the following forms: (1) state subsidies, which can include not only direct state transfers
to insolvent firms but also underpriced privatizations and overpriced state contracts to government
cronies; (2) soft taxation, or the granting of special exemptions from taxes and duties; (3) soft financ-
ing, or the issuing of debt or equity on artificially lenient terms; (4) indirect mechanisms of support,
meaning those that benefit the recipient only by first altering economic or political conditions in ways
the recipient can take advantage of (e.g. excessively complex regulations that insiders can evade at the
expense of outsiders); (5) soft trade credits among firms; and (6) wage arrears.
HBCs primarily involve policies: reining in state subsidies, special tax breaks, excessive bank lending,
soft trade credits, and wage arrears while simplifying regulations and rules that might artificially benefit
the politically connected. But in addition to policies, HBCs require the introduction of two key institu-
tions: sound banking supervision and a bankruptcy law. State bodies tasked with enforcing these rules
must likewise be established – namely a banking regulator and bankruptcy courts.
While HBCs do require certain institutions, the range of these institutions is limited to the realms of
banking and bankruptcy. Crucially, the restricted nature of HBC-related institutions contrasts sharply
with the all-encompassing framework proposed by some institutionalists, which encompasses
everything from effective courts and property-rights institutions to insurance schemes and rules for
enhancing transparency. These other institutions can eventually develop once HBCs have sidelined
political capitalists. Until then, however, the institutionalist aspiration to transplant West European-style
institutions onto early-capitalist societies will likely remain a pretty dream.
The SBC phenomenon is related to rent-seeking, defined as the pursuit of unearned income. But the
two concepts are hardly coterminous; while all SBCs are examples of rents, not all rents are examples
of SBCs. Rent-seeking is a much broader concept that includes activities that have nothing to do with
external support to firms in the form of state subsidies, soft taxation, and the other SBC instruments
noted above. Organized criminal protection rackets, bribe-taking by state officials, market corners,
pump-and-dump stock-market schemes, and selling snake oil all constitute rent-seeking but do not
provide SBCs.
It is difficult to identify structural factors that explain why Estonia’s leaders imposed rigorous HBCs
while their Czech and Slovak counterparts, for example, did not. Why did the Klaus government in the
Czech Republic remain so obsessed with its program of rapid privatization to the detriment of reining
in SBCs in the financial system (Gould 2011, 81–89) while the Laar government did not fall into this
trap? The reasons must at least partially come down to the particular ideological beliefs, priorities, and
commitments of Laar and his colleagues. Neither government slavishly followed the advice of Western
advisors (Arias-King 2003, 499–500; Appel 2004, 105–106). Nor did they passively respond to domestic
conditions. The Klaus government compromised on HBCs out of a desire to win the 1996 elections
(Gould 2011, 86–87), but that was a matter of choice; the Laar government was willing to sacrifice
political survival for the sake of the reforms’ success (Shapiro 1993). It bears note that Laar returned as
prime minister for a three-year stint in 1999–2002.
Estonian leaders were hardly aware of the full implications of their commitment to HBCs. For them,
a market economy required that firms could survive without state support, and this belief made HBCs a
central component of the government’s market reforms. It is highly unlikely that they explicitly intended
to use these policies to marginalize corrupt business actors who might otherwise sabotage the develop-
ment of sound property rights. But regardless of its intentions, the new government did rapidly harden
budget constraints, and the economy and polity reaped the benefits thereof.
In a dramatic departure from the practices of most other postcommunist countries, the Laar gov-
ernment actually shut down insolvent state banks. It subjected the remaining banks to an effective
regime of financial supervision. These policies prevented the out-of-control lending so common in other
postcommunist countries, including those that gained reputations as rapid reformers. The draconian
banking reform was launched in the summer of 1992. After Pro Patria assumed power in October of that
year, the government imposed a moratorium on lending by the three largest state banks. It then closed
down one of these and merged the other two. A fourth was closed later (EIU 1993a, 1993b). Most of
the smaller state banks, particularly those in trouble, were shut down or allowed to fail. As early as the
beginning of 1993, seven banks whose capital adequacy ratios did not meet the government’s strict
requirements had already seen their licenses revoked (EIU 1993a, 1993c). The central bank continually
raised minimum capital requirements for banks. It also maintained a temporary moratorium on the
issuance of new bank licenses, giving incipient financial regulatory agencies time to develop their capac-
ity to control the new banking sector (EIU 1993d). As a result, nonperforming loans rapidly became a
miniscule portion of all loans. As Table 2 shows, Estonia’s performance in this respect was exceptional.
The lending moratorium on the big state banks allowed new private ones to spring up in their place,
and effective regulatory supervision prevented excessive lending by the new banks. Through steady,
conservative management, the fledgling private banks’ balance sheets eventually came to exceed those
of the old state banks, which they proceeded to acquire and clean up. “Those new banks, of course,
immediately replaced the old employees who had no expertise in modern banking,” according to Aavo
Kokk, head of the Taxation Department in the Ministry of Finance in 1992–1993 and subsequently a
manager at the Estonian Savings Bank. “Generally the top management of the old banks were among
the first to leave” (Aavo Kokk, personal correspondence, 26 November 2008; EIU 1994c).
By mid-1994, a relatively strong and financially healthy banking sector had emerged (EIU 1994b,
1994c, 2007). The early adoption of a currency board to regulate the money supply under a fixed
exchange rate aided the process. Among its other accomplishments, the currency board ensured that
financially troubled banks could not rely on state-sponsored bailouts in the event of failure (Fleming,
Chu, and Bakker 1996, 8–9).
In addition to preventing excessive bank lending, the Laar government implemented an effective
policy of enterprise restructuring. The program’s centerpiece was a sound and well-enforced bankruptcy
law (EIU 1994a). As early as mid-1993, the Ministry of Economic Affairs started forcing many state-owned
enterprises into bankruptcy instead of bailing them out.
To their shock, many of the banks, who had assumed that credits to state owned enterprises would be honored
by the Government if the enterprises could not pay, discovered that they had to wait with other creditors for their
share of recovered assets,
according to a 1996 World Bank study (Fleming, Chu, and Bakker 1996, 20). Bankruptcies began increas-
ing on a large scale in 1994 (EIU 1994a). “The hard-budget constraint in the enterprise sector, combined
with the knowledge that bank bailouts would not be forthcoming, led to much more cautious lending
by most of the banks,” the World Bank study added (Fleming, Chu, and Bakker 1996, 20).
Successive governments also resisted the temptation to subsidize politically connected firms. With
a few notable exceptions, state companies in Estonia do not serve as cash cows for influential elites
like they do in other postcommunist countries, according to a source who prefers to remain anony-
mous (author’s interview with Respondent #1).1 Furthermore, by instituting a 26% flat tax in 1994, the
government deprived firms of the opportunity to receive politically engineered tax breaks (Nørgaard
and Johannsen 1999, 131–133). The Laar government rigidly adhered to its policy despite fierce (and
predictable) opposition from some political opponents (Lieven 1993, 359–360).
Thus, early Estonian governments not only refrained from propping up state banks but also refused
to provide special treatment to other state-owned enterprises. They thereby confounded the expecta-
tions of some economists who hold that privatization is a necessary condition for HBCs (Schmidt 1996;
Frydman et al. 2000; Roland 2000). If the Estonian experience is any guide, state as well as private firms
can face the wrath of market competition if the government is sufficiently committed to disciplining
them.
The fruits of HBCs: entrepreneurs, not political capitalists, prevail in the economic arena
The main result of the policy, for the purposes of our story, was to shape an economic arena that severely
limited opportunities for political capitalists. HBCs constrained opportunities for the government to
enrich politically connected firms with state funds.
In the absence of HBCs, Estonia likely would have given birth to the same type of political capitalism
and economic criminality that has prevailed in other postcommunist countries. Like elsewhere in the
region, organized crime flourished in Estonia in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Criminal groups prof-
ited by extorting protection money from the legal business sector. They also derived revenues from
illegal businesses and especially smuggling, which was particularly lucrative given Estonia’s position
as a seaport for Russian exports. But the criminals and former secret service officials who profited from
these schemes failed subsequently to dominate economic activity in Estonia, since they found them-
selves largely cut off from state assets (Lieven 1993, 325; Nørgaard and Johannsen 1999, 117–120), the
most lucrative source of illicit wealth in postcommunist countries. The stringent HBCs that Estonia’s
governments imposed in the early postcommunist setting robbed political capitalism of its lifeblood.
They enabled the emergence of a real market economy, dominated by entrepreneurs rather than actors
who rely primarily on connections to the state.
A handful of individuals with backgrounds in organized crime did manage to legalize their assets
and move into legitimate business in Estonia. Among these, according to an anonymous source, was
a prominent criminal figure from the early 1990s who went on to own a hotel and convention center
in suburban Tallinn (author’s interview with Respondent #2). Meelis Lao, another businessman alleged
to have past links to organized crime, has appeared on lists of the top-100 richest Estonians in recent
years (Marmei 2001; Hundimägi et al. 2009; Reiljan 2010).
A few people from the communist establishment also made it onto these lists. Rein Kaarepere, a
former member of the Soviet-era Council of Ministers, founded the Tartu Commercial Bank in 1988 with
the help of his Communist Party connections. It eventually failed and in 1993 was shut down by the
central bank. Kaarepere later joined Hansapank, where he was the lone ex-communist among the senior
management (Kokk, Vahter, and Vare 1997; author’s interview with Enno Tammer, November 5, 2008).
Still, the government’s policy created negligible opportunities for would-be political capitalists, and
relatively few made it to the top of the business elite. At the onset of the 1990s, four “families” emerged
at the top of the banking, real estate, and hotel sectors. These included the families of three ex-com-
munists: Bruno Saul, the former hardline Prime Minister; Olari Taal, who directed a large construction
company and later joined the Vähi government; and Uno Veering, another red director and a deputy
prime minister in the Vähi government. (The fourth family was made up of Canadian émigrés.) Much
of their wealth came from having bought up valuable real estate at low ruble-denominated prices and
profiting from the subsequent rise in value (Lieven 1993, 101). Except for Taal, however, none of them
remain on Äripäev’s list of the top-500 Estonians today. The SBCs that these actors relied upon in the
late communist period quickly dried up after independence.
Indeed, with a few notable exceptions, most former communist officials who tried their hand in
business did not rise to the top. According to Peeter Raidla, one of Estonia’s most knowledgeable
investigative journalists, “There are some examples of ‘red directors’ in business, but none managed
to take their businesses to the next level” (author’s interview with Peeter Raidla, November 17, 2008).
According to Aavo Kokk, “The younger people here are much smarter. And that’s why those from
the younger generation tend to be the ones among the very rich.” Former communist officials, Kokk
states, enjoyed advantages very early in the transition and privatized enterprises thanks to their inside
knowledge of how much the companies were worth. Still, Kokk adds, “not all of them were able to run
these companies well” (author’s interview with Aavo Kokk, October 14, 2008). And that is precisely the
point: In an environment of SBCs, such as commonly prevailed elsewhere in the region, running one’s
company well would not have mattered to the politically well-connected. But in Estonia, ex-communist
officials by and large had to deal with the same competitive conditions that other business owners faced.
Thus, individuals who made money by virtue of their business acumen rather than their political
connections assumed prominent places in Estonia’s postcommunist economy. We may consider these
people entrepreneurs rather than political capitalists. Viktor Levada established Levadia Metall and
turned it into the largest metal trader in Estonia, although it went bankrupt in 2011 (author’s interview
with Peeter Raidla, November 10, 2008; Hõbemägi 2011). Mati Polli, Peeter Mänd, and Kaido Jõeleht
built up Sylvester, a timber and paper producer, from modest beginnings and did so without relying on
political connections. They later cashed out to a Finnish investor (author’s interview with Sulev Vedler,
September 18, 2008; Riispapp 2013). Tiit Aava, who died prematurely in 2013, was a respected real estate
developer and construction magnate. In the 1990s he bought substantial tracts of real estate, and went
on to build high-quality, upscale homes on real estate that was rapidly appreciating in value. He was
known for cultivating political contacts, but these were not essential in his rise to riches (Tänavsuu 2013).
Vello Kunman reportedly made his first million running a vegetable farm while still a student. His
ticket to the top came in the 1995 privatization of Silikaat, a brick factory. Kunman moved the brick
production offsite and turned the premises into the country’s largest shopping center. He also made
successful investments in a stone quarry as well as farms. While he donates to political parties, political
connections do not appear to have played a role in his success (Kärmas 2008). Other businessper-
sons whom an anonymous source named as donors to political parties include Armin Karu and Jaan
Korpusov (author’s interview with respondent #3). But they constructed Olympic Entertainment Group,
their casino empire, from the ground up in the 1990s before establishing political contacts (Real Estate
2008; author’s interview with Sulev Vedler, September 18, 2008). Margus Reinsalu started his career
in the early 1990s as the CEO of Tallinn Taxopark, which he then privatized with his business partner
Mati Saar. He used some of the real estate owned by Tallinn Taxopark to build the Kristiine Shopping
Center. He then founded Kristiine Casino in 1996, which he later sold to Karu and Korpusov’s Olympic
Entertainment Group, his main competitor (mentioned above) (Reinsalu 2008; author’s correspondence
with Peeter Raidla, July 7, 2014).
Other examples abound. They include Igor Izraeljan, owner of Technomar & Adrem, a timber proces-
sor, and Hillar Teder, who developed a major hypermarket chain operating in Russia and other countries
around the region (Raidla 2004; author’s interview with Peeter Raidla, November 10, 2008; author’s
interview with Sulev Vedler, September 18, 2008).
To be sure, not all of Estonia’s entrepreneurs have kept their hands clean after acquiring wealth.
For example, Hans Luik, the builder of Ekspress Group, a media empire, has been accused by credible
sources of dubious practices. In 2008, articles appeared describing Luik’s apparent involvement in
loan-sharking operations (Hõbemägi 2008; Taimre 2008). While his reputation has been tainted, Luik,
like most members of Estonia’s economic elite, built his fortune without close association with the state
(author’s interview with Peeter Raidla, November 10, 2008).
While most of Estonia’s postcommunist economic leaders are Estonians, some immigrants have pros-
pered as well. Originally from Singapore, Sonny Aswani became an Estonian citizen in 1999. He made
a fortune in paper products and textiles after privatizing companies, some of which were bankrupt, in
the mid-1990s (Tänavsuu 2006). Peter Hunt, an Estonian raised in Sweden, came to Estonia in the mid-
1990s and began importing fabrics from Asia. He privatized a carpet factory that would serve as the
foundation of Wendre, a multinational textile producer that sells to chains such as Ikea, Carrefour, and
Desko. Political connections played no role in his success; he is a simple case of an entrepreneur who
succeeded by producing in large quantities and selling at low prices (Niitra 2010). Finnish-born Joakim
Johan Helenius moved to Estonia in the early 1990s and founded Hansa Investments in 1992. The firm,
since renamed Trigon Capital, has helped channel Scandinavian money into Estonian investments. There
is little evidence that political connections played a role in his success (Reimer 2005).
State from scratch: the construction of a bureaucracy

As Estonia’s new leaders marginalized political capitalists by instituting HBCs, they also undertook
personnel changes that would transform Estonia’s bureaucracy and help sustain the reforms. Above,
we noted some of the early changes in government that occurred at the time of independence. Here
we take a closer look at the way reformers reshaped state agencies and their personnel. Some of this
activity took place even before Moscow relinquished control over Estonia as the Soviet Union dissolved
at the end of 1991.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Estonia faced the same problems seen everywhere else in the
region. Private economic activity had already begun but the country did not have the institutions to
regulate it. Informal markets and criminal activity were flourishing. The economy was in tatters. Salaries
of state personnel were low, while professional civil servants versed in European-style governance and
jurisprudence could scarcely be found.
While Estonia did not have much in the way of a basis for market-supporting institutions, it made
up for this with a critical mass of leaders who were both dedicated to radical policy change and adept
at a kind of stealthy, insurgent state-building. Four people in particular played key roles in refashion-
ing state agencies: Edgar Savisaar, Jüri Raidla, Jaak Leimann, and Raivo Vare. Bureaucratic reform and
personnel replacement was complicated and took place in the fog of the slow-motion collapse of the
USSR. But these reformers and their colleagues managed to begin taking over the Estonian branch of
Gosplan, the master Soviet economic planning agency, beginning in 1988 and 1989. At the same time,
they worked to establish parallel ministries that would render Gosplan irrelevant and take on its func-
tions. They also created a State Chancellery, under Leimann’s direction, that helped coordinate efforts
to remold the bureaucracy in charge of the economy. The State Chancellery became, in Vare’s words,
an “incubator” for a broad range of brand new state agencies and the reorganization of existing ones
(author’s interview with Raivo Vare, November 18, 2008).
From 1989 onward, substantial changes in the state and its personnel began to unfold. Scores of
long-serving officials were dismissed under the guise of “reorganization” while a process of hiring new
ones was swiftly instituted. “So it was a kind of parallel process,” Vare recalls, involving “the creation of
new organizational positions, installing new people into these new positions, laying off some people
and bringing in new people” (author’s interview with Raivo Vare, November 18, 2008).
Some ministries were more malleable than others. The Ministry of Industry, in particular, put up
staunch opposition. Not until after independence could the reformers manage to supplant its conserv-
ative leadership, which enjoyed broad support from the managers of large state enterprises (author’s
interview with Raivo Vare, November 18, 2008). But the reformers were able to forge a new Ministry of
Economic Affairs, which formally came into existence at the end of 1989. It essentially put Gosplan out
of business and assumed many of its functions. Savisaar took control of the ministry in 1990. During that
year he also became prime minister following the victory of the Popular Front of Estonia in the USSR’s
republican-level elections. The Ministry of Economic Affairs worked with local experts who formed
proto-think tanks on economic policy. It nurtured the ideas and personnel that would come to guide
the economic administration of post-Soviet Estonia. Aavo Kokk recalls:
Savisaar started to use local think tanks to deliberately create a sort of theoretical framework for the future state.
Certain people would become interested in, say, taxes. They would get together and discuss taxation. So this is
where the new personnel came from. Most of my staff [in the Department of Taxation] had been a part of these
discussions. They were interested in taxation, and they were later employed by the Ministry of Finance. And so it
went. (Author’s interview with Aavo Kokk, October 14, 2008)
Another bureaucratic innovation was the creation of a Ministry of Transportation and Communication.
“This ministry was created from scratch,” Vare explains, “because during Soviet times, all of the transpor-
tation and communication systems were directly subordinated to Moscow … So this system was taken
over in less than two years.” The old Soviet ministry in charge of transportation and communication on
Estonian territory fought the new one until the abortive coup of August 1991, after which its leaders
departed for Moscow. Until that point, two separate ministries operated in parallel to one another
(author’s interview with Raivo Vare, November 18, 2008).
Initially the new ministry’s remit did not extend very far outside the building that housed it. Few if
any state enterprises recognized its authority, which had to be built from nothing. According to Vare,
the credit for this feat goes mostly to Tiit Vähi, its first minister (and later two-time prime minister).
Vare recalls:
[Vähi] was a crazy guy in those days. And he had a very strong personality. Once, he was sent over to take control
of northeast Estonia [where Russian-speakers are in a majority and pro-Soviet sympathizers were heavily concen-
trated] and he basically executed Estonian power there very mercilessly … He started to systematically press them
and fight against each and every one of these local kings. They were kings of their own transportation kingdoms
… and it was no easy task. It didn’t just happen in a single moment; it took a lot of effort and was very, very tricky.
But I have to acknowledge his particular personality as a contribution to the success of this effort.
The role of individual leaders was particularly important under conditions in which agencies were being
created from the ground up. Vare continues:
In this kind of embryo structure, we had to handpick people one by one. It wasn’t like we were reorganizing some-
thing that already existed, giving it additional functions, and then installing the right people … We thought out
what we had to do, we thought out what kind of structure might achieve it, and we started recruiting people. So
the structure was being created in parallel with the new people being hired … The same logic operated in other
ministries, except the Ministry of Industry, where the minister under the new government heavily defended the
present people and present structure. (Author’s interview with Raivo Vare, November 18, 2008)
Aside from economic affairs, and transportation and communication, another high-priority area was
finance. Previously, all tax collection had been under central control from Moscow and tax revenues
went straight there. The Estonian republic did not even have its own budget. But its early reform-
ers began to change that, establishing an independent budget and tax-collection system, which was
largely in place by 1990. “All that Laar [who became prime minister in the fall of 1992] had to do was
to provide that last push to make it all come together,” says Kokk. As the Soviet bureaucracy withered,
the proto-finance ministry helped preside over the introduction of an income tax and a VAT (author’s
interview with Aavo Kokk, October 14, 2008).
The people were as new as the agencies they were endeavoring to create. Kokk was 27 years old
when he arrived at the Finance Ministry, and he was among the older officials who served there.
In ’92, I was head of the Taxation Department in the Ministry of Finance. I had no tax background before that, and
none of the people in my department studied taxation at university … Now 90% of the people in this department
have a legal background. But we just had to build it up somehow. (Author’s interview with Aavo Kokk, October
14, 2008)
Certain agencies were slow to change, particularly the police, the prosecutors’ offices, and the courts.
In these spheres, one did not see the same process whereby new agencies were created from nothing
and operated in parallel with existing Soviet-era ones. Instead, independent Estonia would inherit its
police and judiciary whole from the Soviet system, and the agencies and rules governing them would
begin to change only after independence (author’s interview with Aavo Kokk, October 14, 2008). A
comprehensive vetting process implemented soon after the transition resulted in the dismissal of
personnel complicit in communist-era repression or who were otherwise corrupt or incompetent. The
process helped filter out the kinds of officials who might have served as patrons to budding political
capitalists. Still, the Soviet-era judicial system could not be transformed overnight, and it was completely
ill-prepared for the new market, according to Helve Särgava, a longtime judge. Criminal justice was
geared toward punishing assault, murder, and the theft of state property. Criminal prosecution in areas
such as tax evasion and regulatory violations had to be developed entirely de novo. It was not until
the late 1990s that judicial capacity finally caught up with the economic activities it was supposed to
police (author’s interview with Helve Särgava, November 6, 2008).
In the civil courts, too, substantial time was required to develop the rules needed to preside over
the new system of market exchange and the expertise needed to enforce those rules. In communist
times, civil justice focused exclusively on housing, family law, payment of damages, and work-related
disputes. Jurists lacked any experience in corporate litigation, copyright law, contract and bankruptcy
law, ownership disputes, and real estate law – the legal mainstays of a market economy. All of these
specializations are now part of the standard law school curriculum in Estonia. But during the 1990s
judges had to learn on the job and underwent a two-year retraining program. Post-Soviet Estonian law
borrowed heavily from German law, and German legal experts were brought in to assist in the training
of judges (author’s interview with Helve Särgava, November 6, 2008).
Developing corruption-fighting capacity also took time. The Security Police was established in 1991
but, according to its current director, Arnold Sinisalu, “corruption only became a big priority around 1996.
Before that point, there was no anti-corruption law” (author’s interview with Arnold Sinisalu, November
7, 2008). Indeed, according to a longtime prosecutor who prefers to remain anonymous, it was easy to
get away with economic crimes in the first half of the 1990s since there was no legal framework desig-
nating them crimes in the first place (author’s interview with respondent #4). A formal civil service code
establishing an independent and apolitical civil service was not adopted until 1995 (Grzymała-Busse
2007, 100), while the Public Service Act, mandating merit-based recruitment in the civil service, came
only in 1996 (Kasemets 2012, 37). Until then, the integrity of the civil service depended in large part on
the rectitude of its political masters. What is more, the youthful agents who the Security Police hired
lacked the expertise needed to investigate complex corruption cases; they would acquire it only with
time and experience (author’s interview with Arnold Sinisalu, November 7, 2008).
Fortunately for Estonia, its leaders had already established a precedent of recruiting civil servants on
merit even before independence. But once again, this was a case of actors taking the initiative to etch
new rules and norms onto a tabula rasa. At the same time, the degree of bureaucratic professionalism in
this period should not be overstated. “It has become obvious by the year 2000,” wrote one commentator
in 2001, “that the development of public administration is far behind the economic reforms initiated, and
it acts as a brake on continuing reforms, further stabilization and joining the European Union” (Randma
2001, 42). That author specifically cited the persistently low level of professionalism in the bureaucracy.
Sinisalu maintains that, because of low pay, corruption among civil servants was indeed a danger
during the early 1990s. “At the beginning of the post-independence period, the bribe was so big and
the salary so small that the officials had nothing to lose by taking it. Also, the prison terms were very
light” (author’s interview with Arnold Sinisalu, November 7, 2008). Specialized law enforcement organs
needed to deal effectively with such crimes did not yet exist. The creation of an independent State Audit
Office had to wait until 1995. The Financial Supervision Authority, although established in 1993, did
not become free from political control by the Finance Ministry until 1997 (Grzymała-Busse 2007, 100).
A Commercial Code requiring adherence to Western accounting standards was not adopted until 1995
(Nørgaard and Johannsen 1999, 137–143).
This state of affairs differed from that found in some East European countries. In Poland, for example,
agencies of monitoring and oversight already existed at the time of the communist regime’s demise.
The Supreme Audit Chamber (NIK) was established in 1977, the Ombudsman in 1987, and the Supreme
Administrative Court (the court that hears citizen complaints about official malfeasance) in 1980. To be
sure, they would acquire teeth only after communism fell (Grzymała-Busse 2007, 103). But at least they
existed prior to the demise of the old regime. In Estonia they did not.
The consensus among the civil servants and other legal professionals whom one of the authors
interviewed is that the enforcement capacity of Estonia’s state agencies really began to improve around
1998 and 1999. By that time, salaries had increased substantially. In the courts, a provision was adopted
granting judges life tenure with a retirement program, drawing many younger candidates into the
profession (author’s interview with Helve Särgava, November 6, 2008).
In sum, Estonia’s reformers started early in building state agencies capable of economic adminis-
tration. Most of the reformers themselves were very young and lacked any substantial experience in
government, business, or academia. Many state agencies had no Soviet-era precursors, and it took
the better part of a decade to produce a bureaucratic infrastructure that would be equal to the task of
implementing and monitoring Estonia’s new economic institutions, meaning the new rules that would
govern the economy. The reforms created new state agencies where none existed before, got rid of
old personnel who might have served as patrons to political capitalists, and established a pattern of
meritocratic recruitment for civil servants. The policies thereby endowed Estonia with the state capacity
necessary to make the new rules work.
It bears reiteration that the building of bureaucracy, and changes in personnel in the state agencies
responsible for implementing economic policy, were not sufficient conditions for the emergence of
robust economic institutions. The new state agencies may have been staffed by young idealists who
were committed to serious institutional reform, but if the experience of the postcommunist region
shows anything, it is that young idealists can readily be corrupted. The key was to ensure that the
economic predators with a vital interest in corrupting them remained on the sidelines. Had the Laar
government not steadfastly stuck to its policy of HBCs, a new class of political capitalists could have
arisen to place their allies back into state positions. This is precisely what happened in so many other
postcommunist countries and helps explain why property rights institutions remain weak throughout
the region.
Thus, while the sturdy new state agencies provided vehicles for the effective administration of the
new rules, the government’s early policy of HBCs created an economic sphere in which entrepreneurs
rather than political capitalists predominated, thereby enabling Estonia’s rulers to fashion new rules
without being corrupted and derailed by rent-seeking predators. The reformers’ commitments to imple-
menting HBCs and building a useable bureaucracy enabled Estonia to emerge during the late 1990s
and in the current century as the postcommunist leader in terms of the quality and effectiveness of its
economic institutions. Indeed, even though Estonia’s institutions were weak and unstable at the time
of their nascence, over time they have become remarkably efficient and authoritative.
The outcome: robust property rights institutions and low corruption

Estonia is indeed exceptional in the postcommunist region, where SBCs produced a class of politi-
cal capitalists who have systematically undermined efforts to build market-supporting institutions,
particularly in the sphere of property rights. In Estonia the comparative paucity of political capitalists
not only allowed effective property rights institutions to take root; it also cleared the way for steady
improvements in the integrity of these institutions over time.
For instance, in 2002 the Penal Code was markedly strengthened to allow for the effective prose-
cution of corruption-related crimes. At the same time, the 1999 Anti-Corruption Law, which dealt with
more specific offenses, remained a “mess,” as Mari-Liis Sööt, the top anti-corruption specialist at the
Ministry of Justice, put it. It was filled with vague provisions and loopholes, and the law’s definition of
who is and is not considered a public official was excessively restrictive, limiting the range of officials
subject to requirements on conflicts-of-interest and asset-declaration (interviews with Mari-Liis Sööt,
September 5, 2008 and April 4, 2014).
To solve these problems, in 2008 the Justice Ministry adopted a strict new Anti-Corruption Strategy.
The effort culminated in the passage of key amendments to the Anti-Corruption Act in 2012 to correct
its previous shortcomings. Sööt explains the key changes:
In the old law, the definition [of a public official] was vague, and there was a closed list of people to whom it applied
– the Legal Chancellor, the State Auditor, etc. This meant that if a new legal office was created which was not on the
list, the person appointed to the position was exempt from the rules. Now we no longer have a closed list. We have
an open definition; almost any legal person who makes decisions is considered a public official under the law. It
doesn’t even depend on whether you receive remuneration for your services; you are still a public official and you
have to comply with the rules. (Author’s interview with Mari-Liis Sööt, April 4, 2014)
Another flaw in the old law was that it gave the Justice Ministry sole responsibility for supervising
enforcement; other state agencies had no obligation to ensure their employees’ compliance. Says Sööt:
The aim of the new law is to decentralize corruption-prevention so that each state agency understands that anti-cor-
ruption activities are their own child and not just a child of the Justice Ministry; each agency must now take
responsibility for raising that child. (Author’s interview with Mari-Liis Sööt, April 4, 2014)
In 2013 the Justice Ministry issued a new Anti-Corruption Strategy that improves upon the 2008 ver-
sion. Most notably, it has shifted the ministry’s efforts away from simply responding to corruption and
towards prevention.
Instead of targeting corruption itself, we now orient our activities around priority ‘focus areas’. This way, we can
minimize opportunities for corruption by analyzing certain processes where, because of insufficient transparency,
corruption remains a danger. We can then reduce those opportunities by increasing transparency in those areas.
(Author’s interview with Mari-Liis Sööt, April 4, 2014)
Anti-money laundering (AML) law is another domain that has seen continual improvements over time.
As a tiny, politically stable country situated next door to an enormous and thoroughly criminalized
neighbor, Estonia faces higher money-laundering risks than the average EU member. Yet, unlike Latvia
and Cyprus, which face similar circumstances, Estonia has not turned into a hub for illicit Russian capital.
Why not? The answer lies in the institutions and their enforcement, which themselves arose thanks
to the early policies of Estonian governments. The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is an interna-
tional body devoted in part to fighting money laundering and the financing of terrorist networks. It
is made up largely of the advanced industrialized countries and does not include Estonia. But Estonia
has taken measures to adhere to FATF standards and has received positive evaluations for its efforts
from international bodies (MONEYVAL 2014). “We are currently evaluating our resources and capacity
for investigation,” says Veronika Mets, the senior AML specialist at the Ministry of Finance. She notes:
If you look at a map, we are right next to Russia; you can see we are already in a risky position. Yet our regulations
are much stricter than European rules and FATF standards, and the reason is that we acknowledge our risks to be
higher. If our laws weren’t as strict [as they are], our country might have become a center for enormous money
laundering, just like Cyprus.
As an example of Estonia’s more stringent rules, she cites the requirement that financial institutions meet
face-to-face with all first-time clients. “This rule has been criticized by firms that want to do business
here,” Mets notes, “but we believe we need additional safeguards” (author’s interview with Veronika
Mets, May 14, 2014).
Contrast Estonia with Latvia, which has become a hotbed for dirty money from Russia. In early 2014,
JP Morgan shut down its money-clearing services in Latvia after complaints from US regulators and
Global Witness, the nongovernmental watchdog (Eglitis 2014).
Estonia’s strides in AML law reveal just how far state-building has come. Estonian institutions have
become strong enough to withstand pressure from banks and foreign political capitalists who might
wish to turn the country into an offshore haven. In Latvia, by contrast, AML institutions are largely com-
pliant with international standards on paper but remain unenforced in practice (Bowen and Galeotti
2014).
Other examples abound of Estonian lawmakers strengthening laws and regulations as weaknesses
become apparent. Passed in 2000, the Public Information Act (available in English on the State Gazette
[Riigi Teataja] website) gives citizens wide access to official documentation and established a powerful
Data Protection Inspectorate to enforce the law. In 2012, parliament adopted a new Civil Service Act
(also available on the State Gazette website) that requires all vacant posts in the state administration to
be filled through open competition. Competition must be fair regardless of whether it is open to the
public or conducted internally, and the announcement of a competition must be distributed widely.
The law applies not only to new appointments but also to promotions. Transparency prevails in public
procurement as well. All notices for public tenders are published online in the State Public Procurement
Registry (SPPR), preventing the kinds of corrupt practices common in other postcommunist countries
(Kasemets 2012, 27).
The transparency of official documentation provides a boon to investigative journalists, whose access
to information further enhances official rectitude. Mihkel Kärmas, a leading Estonian muckraker, credits
the Public Information Act with helping him break many stories. Among these was an exposé on local
officials in the province of Pärnu who forged documents in order to steal land from unwitting pen-
sioners. He also notes that the land registry, business registry, most court decisions, and all municipal
council measures are freely available online (author’s interview with Mikhel Kärmas, October 22, 2008).
The fact that Estonian institutions encourage transparency is surely a good thing. But good insti-
tutions were an outcome, rather than the original cause, of a business environment in which political
capitalists were and remain marginalized. The rules matter now; they influence economic and political
behavior. But they never would have emerged and become durable and effective in the first place
had the Estonian government not previously imposed HBCs in the early and mid-1990s. That policy
Table 3. Political capitalists among the plutocratic elite.
Country Percentagea
Estonia 42.1–52.6
Poland 56.4–69.2
Slovakia 76.5–88.2
Ukraine 82.5–97.5
Source: Abrams (2014, 118).
a
Represents the percentage of the plutocratic elite comprised of political capitalists.
Table 4. Criminal corporate raiding.
Country # of alleged raiders Total # of plutocrats Alleged raiders, %

The plutocratic elite
Estonia 2–4 38 5.3–10.5
Poland 5–6 39 12.8–15.4
Ukraine 14–18 40 35.0–45.0
# of sectors with one raid (max. = 9)a

The non-plutocratic elite

Estonia 2
Poland 7
Ukraine 7
Source: Abrams (2014, 61–62).
a
Represents the number of economic sectors in which there has occurred at least one raid allegedly committed by a member of the
non-plutocratic elite.
fashioned an economic arena comparably free of economic predators and a political elite that was
subject to relatively little pressure from such predators.
Estonia’s economic institutions are far from perfect, and the country is certainly not corruption-free.
Problems remain in regulating the financing of political parties, among other areas (Sikk and Kangur
2008). Compared with other postcommunist countries as well as many other countries at its level of
income, however, Estonia is a standout. In Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index
(available online), which measures and ranks countries according to the probity of their public sectors,
Estonia consistently occupies first place in the postcommunist region and scores respectably even by
West European standards. In 2014, Estonia ranked 26th out of 175 countries in the world (in a tie with
France). By comparison, the Czech Republic ranked 53rd, Armenia 94th, and Russia 136th.
Estonia in comparative perspective

A comparison with other postcommunist countries brings the Estonian experience into sharp relief.
Ukraine never saw the takeover of power by Estonian-style revolutionaries bent on subjecting business
actors to HBCs. From the start, its political establishment was dominated by ex-communists. They were
not about to abandon their allies in state enterprises by cutting them off from soft loans and subsidies.
And SBCs proved quite profitable for the new business elite and their government cronies. Following
the introduction of a new currency in 1992, the central bank unleashed tides of easy money into the
economy. Preferential access to these funds went to the politically connected. Enterprises set up pocket
banks for the express purpose of obtaining soft financing from the central bank (Borish and Montes-
Negret 1998, 103–110). Connected firms could also obtain cheap loans from state-owned banks (Landy
1997, 15–16).
In addition, political capitalists allied with president Leonid Kuchma (1994–2004) established
companies that profited through one-sided transactions with state enterprises. By selling inputs
dear and buying the resulting output cheap, they received lucrative subsidies from the state com-
panies they controlled (State Groups 1999; Survey 1999). The most notable example occurred at
state gas monopoly Naftohaz Ukrainy. Businessmen such as Dmytro Firtash (allegedly linked to
international criminal mastermind Semyon Mogilevich) reportedly reaped vast fortunes by buying
Russian gas and selling it on to Naftohaz at higher prices, among other schemes (Global Witness
2006; Kuzio 2006).
Rigged privatizations at pennies on the dollar were another source of SBCs. In June 2004 a consor-
tium led by oligarchs Rinat Akhmetov and Viktor Pinchuk paid $800 million for steel giant Kryvorizhstal.
Just over a year later, in perhaps the only honest large privatization in Ukrainian history, a new gov-
ernment reversed the previous sale and resold it to ArcelorMittal for six times as much (Maskalevich
2004; Marone 2010).
The wide availability of SBCs rocketed political capitalists to the top of the economic elite. An exam-
ination of all individuals who appeared on published lists of the top-20 richest Ukrainians from 2007
to 2012 (hereafter referred to as the “plutocrats”)2 reveals that 83–98% allegedly gained their fortunes
with the help of political connections (Table 3). This compares to 42–53% of Estonia’s plutocrats (Abrams
2014, 117–118).
Since they thrive on rules that are weak, murky, and easily manipulated, political capitalists
ensured that effective economic institutions would never develop in Ukraine. If property rights
institutions are sound, they should be able to prevent criminal corporate raiding, or the illegal
expropriation of private businesses (Table 4).3 In Ukraine, 35–45% of plutocrats have allegedly
engaged in at least one raid, compared to 5–11% in Estonia. Raiding is just as frequent among
Ukraine’s non-plutocratic elite, or those who did not make the top-20 rankings. Non-plutocratic
raiding can be measured by the number of economic sectors in which there has occurred at least
one raid allegedly committed by a member of this stratum. The list of sectors comes from the
standard United Nations classification, which divides a given economy into 10 sectors (UN DESA
2008, 274). Of those, one4 was excluded from this analysis due to high and varying concentrations
of state ownership across countries. Of the nine remaining sectors, Abrams (2014, 62) found at least
one non-plutocratic raid in seven sectors in Ukraine but only two sectors in Estonia. That raiding is
highly prevalent in Ukraine is confirmed by other scholars (Markus 2015, 47–85) and leads to the
unavoidable conclusion that its property rights institutions have failed.
The fact that political capitalists have captured Ukraine’s state institutions would not exactly
shock most specialists. But they might be surprised to find that a similar situation prevails in Poland.
Western academics have consistently hailed Poland as the postcommunist exemplar in forging
sturdy, well-enforced property rights institutions (Glaeser, Johnson, and Shleifer 2001; Woodruff
2004; Easter 2012).
The reality is far different, as evidenced by the pervasiveness of criminal corporate raiding. At only
13–15% of plutocrats, alleged raiders in this cohort are far rarer than they are among Ukraine’s pluto-
crats. Yet both countries have seen non-plutocratic raiding in seven of nine sectors, compared to two in
Estonia (Table 4). Even this figure obscures the true scale of the problem. Pawel Rey and Lech Jeziorny
were business partners who found themselves illegally jailed and had their business bankrupted by
the authorities. They went on to establish an NGO that has uncovered over 2000 cases similar to theirs
(Cienski 2010; JohnFeffer.com, 22 January 2015 [accessed April 23, 2015]). Despite claims to the contrary
by Western specialists (Woodruff 2004; Easter 2012), illegal shareholders meetings and the bankrupt-
ing of takeover targets through false prosecutions and back-tax claims are commonplace in Poland
(Abrams 2014, 307–335).
What may confuse specialists about Polish capitalism is its respectable-looking veneer. In contrast to
Ukraine, state agencies like the Supreme Administrative Court and the Financial Supervision Authority
operate with a reasonable degree of professionalism. Nevertheless, the sheer number of raids, par-
ticularly among the non-plutocratic elite, belies the notion that property rights are secure. The fact
that certain state agencies are professional does not mean that they are effective. A handful of honest
state bodies are left to pick up the pieces in an environment where corrupt businesspeople regularly
conspire with prosecutors, police, tax officials, intelligence agents, and judges to expropriate businesses
(Abrams 2014, 307–335). In Estonia, would-be raiders run up against a wall of incorruptible judges and
civil servants whose help would be essential either to let the raid happen or make it happen. When
interviewed, Estonian officials depict a state administration that is virtually impervious to such corrup-
tion (Abrams 2014, 421–433).
The reason behind Poland’s failed property rights institutions was the plentiful availability of SBCs,
particularly in the 1990s. By late 1991, a coalition of anti-communists had assumed full control of the
government. But similarities with Estonia stop there. Although successive Polish governments went
further than Ukraine in implementing HBCs, they did not go nearly as far as their Estonian counterparts
did (see Tables 1 and 2). When it comes to HBCs, a country either takes the full course or does not –
and Poland did not. The upshot would be an economic environment littered with political capitalists.
The siphoning of state assets by the nomenklatura began in the 1980s (Staniszkis 1990) but expanded
dramatically after communism fell. Nonperforming loans to corrupt businesspeople linked to the com-
munist-era establishment (Kasprów and Łęski 1997; Głowacki 2012) reached near-crisis levels by the
mid-1990s (Table 2). Scores of prominent political capitalists such as billionaire Zygmunt Solorz (Bączek
2013) allegedly launched their careers thanks to soft loans from the Fund for Foreign Debt Servicing
(FOZZ). Michał Falzmann, one of two investigators who died in suspicious circumstances while inves-
tigating the matter, claimed to have found $3.5 billion in illegal transfers from the FOZZ to foreign
bank accounts. The response by regulators, particularly Finance Minister Leszek Balcerowicz, was half-
hearted at best (Los and Zybertowicz 2000, 167–175). Also fueling the rise of political capitalists was
a multibillion dollar tax evasion scam in the import of heating oil along with questionable contracts
doled out by oil company PKN Orlen (Piński and Trębski 2004; Piński 2005; author’s interview with
Witold Gadowski, April 21, 2008). On top of it all, many large firms were able to negotiate special tax
exemptions (Schoenman 2005).
The formal privatization process stood out for its relative honesty. Of the 10 largest privatizations,5
only three showed indications of malfeasance, compared to eight in Ukraine, and none of the three
Polish sales amounted to blatantly underpriced giveaways. This explains why political capitalists have
a lower presence among Poland’s plutocratic elite than they do in Ukraine (Abrams 2014, 146–151,
289–194).
But the non-plutocratic elite is marked by deeply entrenched networks of rent-seeking business
actors who thrived from freely available SBCs and used their resulting riches to corrupt the political
establishment. Measuring the proportion of non-plutocratic political capitalists is difficult. But the high
frequency of criminal corporate raiding provides a clue. Because political connections are essential to
raiders, raids tend exclusively to be the work of political capitalists, not entrepreneurs. So it is incon-
ceivable that a country with Poland’s level of non-plutocratic raiding lacks a well-established class of
non-plutocratic political capitalists.
It is worth remembering that Poland is a consolidated democracy with a vigorous independent
media and free elections that routinely unseat incumbents. But the problem of endemic criminal cor-
porate raiding cannot be cured merely by “kicking the bums out” at the next election. Even if the new
government purges some state agencies, personnel in other bodies such as the police, the intelligence
services, and the judicial system cannot easily be replaced. Whether due to legal constraints or practical
difficulties in finding replacements, judges, prosecutors, police, and intelligence agents often stay on
from administration to administration.
Consequently, influential business actors often maintain contacts in key state bodies even after a
change of government. To the extent that their allies in other agencies get dismissed, political capitalists
can often forge new links with the replacements. It would be one thing if there had occurred the kind
of systematic vetting process seen in Estonia, which filtered out officials who were politically com-
promised, corrupt, or incompetent. But in Poland (not to mention Ukraine), efforts to this end proved
woefully inadequate. As a result, many personnel linked to the former regime continued to serve – and
to provide points of contact for political capitalists – throughout the judicial system, police, and intel-
ligence services (Los and Zybertowicz 2000, 111–136). Notably, these are precisely the agencies that
are most important to aiding the execution of criminal corporate raids. Contrary to widespread belief,
then, democracy alone is inadequate for preventing economic criminals from hijacking the state and
expropriating private property.
In Estonia, the relative weakness of political capitalists opened the door for governments to build
and continually enhance property rights institutions. Poland and Ukraine display the opposite dynamic;
corrupt business actors have consistently obstructed institutional changes that might render property
rights more secure. In both countries, even those governments with the firmest anti-corruption commit-
ments ended up foundering under corrupt enticements from political capitalists – something that might
have been avoided with the early and comprehensive implementation of HBCs and personnel changes.
Among these were Poland’s sanctimonious Law and Justice coalition (2005–2007) and Ukraine’s Orange
coalition (2004–2005, 2007–2010) and post-Maidan governments (2014–present) (Three Is Company
2007; Wilson 2014, 44–48; Zawada 2015).
In Ukraine, anti-corruption law has proved a fig leaf while the judiciary remains notoriously crooked.
This circumstance is due in no small measure to powerful business interests who wish to keep things
that way. Judicial reforms passed in 2013 introduced some basic limits on the arbitrary powers of
prosecutors but did not touch the critical issues of unprofessionalism and lack of independence on
the part of judges. In 2012, the Group of States Against Corruption (GRECO) issued Ukraine a list of
13 recommendations for reducing corruption; by 2014 it found satisfactory progress on a mere two
of its proposals (as reported by Freedom House in Nations in Transit 2014, available on its website).
Personnel rules inhibit the dismissal of corrupt officials (Bullough 2015). To make matters worse, honest
law-enforcers find themselves on the receiving end of manufactured criminal cases and are often killed
(Cop Murder 2006; Court Declares 2006).
In Poland, too, political capitalists and their official patrons have frequently obstructed institutional
reforms. The current Civic Platform government even resorted to unconstitutional measures to prevent
enhancements in public information access (Freedom House, Nations in Transit 2013 [available online]).
Additionally, GRECO (2014) deemed Poland delinquent in fulfilling its anti-corruption commitments,
with genuine progress made on only three of 16 issues. A 1999 World Bank study caused a storm for
its findings of malfeasance, delays, and understaffing in the judicial system (World Bank 1999). But
the report spurred no meaningful change, and in recent reports, Freedom House has noted the same
problems (Nations in Transit 2011, 2013 [available online]). Arbitrary arrests and detentions without trial
remain all too common (Freedom House, Nations in Transit 2014). Meanwhile, Estonia has developed
one of the most transparent state administrations in the world.
Even if Poland may have less overall corruption than Ukraine, political capitalists in both countries
can exploit official connections as needed to evade, undermine, or manipulate the rules. On this score,
Poland and Ukraine both fall far behind Estonia. This state of affairs is due to the failure of successive
governments in both Poland and Ukraine completely to cut off political capitalists from SBCs and imple-
ment personnel and organizational policies that would undermine their ability to exploit connections
in the state apparatus.
Implications for theory and policy

Our analysis opens the possibility of transcending the interminable, inconclusive debate over whether
liberal market policies or sound institutions are more important for countries in economic transition.
Liberals (or as they are frequently called when being reviled, neoliberals) focus on policies, and par-
ticularly on price liberalization, monetary and fiscal stabilization, privatization, deregulation, and debt
reduction. Institutionalists insist upon laws that ensure an impartial judicial system, capital market
rules, regulations that increase transparency, insurance schemes, and workable frameworks governing
relations between the representatives of labor and capital.
Like the liberals, we claim that policies are crucial and can have good effects even in the absence of
sound institutions. Like the institutionalists, we acknowledge and laud the effects of well-designed rules.
Unlike many liberals, however, we regard a single aspect of liberalization – namely, the imposition
of HBCs – as key. HBCs mean liberalizing prices and abolishing subsidies, soft financing, and tax breaks
not justified by economic rationality. But they do not necessarily involve other aspects of liberalization
often touted as paramount, such as privatization and debt reduction; nor do we believe such measures
are necessary to produce good institutions.
Unlike the institutionalists, we find that institutions are auspicious byproducts rather than prime mov-
ers in economic transformation. We also argue that efforts to revise the rules will founder or ultimately
produce Potemkin institutions if predatory interests with a stake in undermining the institutions dom-
inate the economic arena. The institutions that most impinge upon the ability of political capitalists to
ply their felonious trade – anti-corruption laws, judicial independence, and legally protected property
rights – will remain especially underdeveloped.
In addition to HBCs, the personnel and organizational policies of Estonian governments were also
important. But they never would have produced the effects they did had HBCs not fatally weakened
the political capitalists interested in undermining sound institutions.
Our findings also shed light on why some countries have more effective institutions than others.
Nineteenth-century biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck famously argued that giraffes developed longer
necks simply by making a concerted effort to reach the trees. Like Lamarck, the standard institution-
alist prescription, to “build institutions,” tends to assume that governments can put their countries on
a course toward institutional development by force of will alone. According to this Lamarckian view,
improvements in institutional “traits” arise and become effective once leaders have made the choice
to bring them about. Institutionalists tend to ignore the need to drive out the status quo forces that
act as a break on meaningful change.
Our own approach is more Darwinian. We find that building robust institutions requires the margin-
alization of certain “species” – namely, political capitalists – whose interests are opposed to establishing
authoritative, impersonal legal rules. And the way to weaken such opponents is to take away the SBCs
they rely on for sustenance. Time and again in the postcommunist region, we have seen how powerful
networks of political capitalists manipulate and sabotage institution-building efforts. In Estonia, to a
greater extent than elsewhere in the region, HBCs were adopted, sidelining budding criminal networks
and rendering efforts to install effective property rights institutions viable.
If our conclusions are correct, efforts to build market-supporting institutions without first under-
mining political capitalists will fail to have their desired effects even if they are adopted. Consider the
implementation of better protections for minority shareholders, a measure frequently proposed by
institutionalists to prevent abuses in the sphere of corporate governance. In certain respects, Ukraine
has enacted stringent guarantees for the rights of minority shareholders. But far from improving the
situation, the rules only serve to grant powerful political capitalists leverage to buy up minority share-
holdings in targeted firms as a prelude to expropriating them from majority owners (Davis 2006). When
the economic sphere is under the sway of political capitalists, calls to “build institutions” will very likely
fall on deaf ears, or they will “succeed” but produce rules that are twisted to conform to the interests
of corrupt business actors.
Indeed, institutions can be good things, but they can also be devoid of content. A recent study of
transparency in corporate information placed Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kyrgyzstan, and Russia
ahead of the United States (Arachnys 2014). This ranking may well provide an accurate assessment of
the outward appearance of formal rules. It may reflect the ostensibly sound legal advice that Western
advisers gave governments and those governments’ efforts to create the impression that they took
the advice seriously. This example shows, however, how vacuous formal rules can be in environments
where political capitalists rule economic life, as they do in all four of the countries mentioned above.
Rather than trying to establish all manner of economic institutions, reformist governments in
early-capitalist societies may get more bang for their buck by focusing on weakening predatory business
actors. Imposing hard budgets is an efficient way to do so and is far more feasible than trying to install
a complete set of market-supporting institutions. Joseph Stiglitz famously attacked Russia’s economic
reformers under Boris Yel’tsin, along with their IMF advisers, for ignoring the need to build market-
supporting institutions. He argued that in the absence of an effective regulatory framework and tax system,
privatization created a class of oligarchs able to strip assets with impunity and transfer their ill-gotten
wealth abroad (Stiglitz 2002, 133–165). But Stiglitz has the causal arrows reversed. The rise of economic
predators from the early 1990s onward is precisely what hampered Russia’s institutional development
in the first place. Political capitalists whose fortunes were made on access to state subsidies, soft financ-
ing, tax breaks, and other privileges provided by the state were ascendant well before the notorious
loans-for-shares privatizations that created the so-called oligarchs. The tradition continues in Putin-era
Russia. While Vladimir Putin has pulled down most of Yel’tsin’s favorites and created his own oligarchy,
access to cheap capital from the state and myriad other favors doled out by rulers remains the way that
Russia’s wealthiest businesspeople attain their riches and maintain their control over the economy. Is it
any wonder, despite many years of blustery rhetoric about the need for the rule of law in the economy,
that market-supporting institutions remain a mirage in Russia?
Indeed, Stiglitz’s contention – or, rather, assumption – that sound institutions had a chance of taking
root under the conditions Russia faced during the Yel’tsin era, or for that matter even today, is hopelessly
romantic. Installing an effective property rights regime involves the enactment of a complex array of
rules as well as the construction of a broad range of state agencies capable of enforcing those rules.
Such rules will not be adopted or will fail even if adopted as long as the economy remains dominated
by capitalists whose fortunes depend on political favor rather than business acumen.
Governments in early-capitalist countries can obtain far greater leverage over the problem by impos-
ing HBCs. Unlike trying to install a full set of property rights institutions, hardening budgets can often
be accomplished by a handful of committed reformers in control of a few key ministries. Furthermore,
hard budgets will weaken those actors who support the status quo and thereby clear the way to create
property rights institutions that actually function as intended. HBCs not only weaken private political
capitalists; they also undermine official political capitalists, or state officials in business for themselves.
These elites, along with corrupt low-level bureaucrats, exploit overly burdensome regulatory restrictions
to make predatory attacks on property owners, a problem that is rampant in many postcommunist
countries (Markus 2015). Removing such restrictions is a key component of instituting HBCs and prom-
ises to undercut the ability of state actors to attack firms. Nevertheless, as Markus notes (ibid. 69–71),
deregulation can meet fierce and often successful resistance from the very state agents charged with
implementing the policy. Further investigation is required to assess the conditions under which such
resistance succeeds or fails.
The findings presented here may enjoy broad applicability. In criminalized economies around
the world, SBCs can be seen at work creating and sustaining classes of predators. From Mexico
and Venezuela to the Philippines, from much of the Middle East to broad swathes of Africa, soft
subsidies and bank credits, crony-engineered tax breaks, artificial pricing arrangements, rigged
tenders, and fraudulent privatizations have constituted the very bases of wealth and power for
key business actors (van de Walle 2001; Henry 2003). Similarly, in early-modern Europe, SBCs were
instrumental in establishing the dominance of the nobility. The basis of that economy was land,
and its owners did not exactly acquire it using capital obtained through dutiful accumulation.
Rather, presaging modern-style state subsidies, rulers bestowed land upon clients, who passed it
down by inheritance thereafter.
An important question is whether the implementation of HBCs becomes more difficult as political
capitalists grow wealthier and more entrenched. This article highlights only one case in which HBCs
were imposed. While some wealthy and influential business actors already existed by that point, they
had not been around long enough to solidify their positions before Pro Patria launched its economic
reforms. In countries such as Poland and Ukraine today, by contrast, powerful economic criminals are
extremely well rooted and arguably in a better position to resist government efforts to harden budg-
ets. In these countries, while different business actors fall in and out of favor as governments change,
each new government tends to assume power thanks in large part to financial backing from one set of
political capitalists or another. Each government thus begins its tenure at a major disadvantage from
the standpoint of implementing real reform. Furthermore, even those business actors who temporarily
lose influence in national policy-making due to a change in government still have cronies representing
their interests in key positions in the state administration, particularly the courts, police, and intelligence
services. If not, they can often cultivate links with the new leadership. This situation can complicate
efforts to enforce HBCs and punish those who aid and abet the provision of illegal SBCs. What is more,
many political capitalists have by now commandeered control of efficient enterprises, leaving them
less dependent on state largesse than they were in the 1990s. Consequently, cutting off the flow of
state largesse may not weaken them as much as it once would have. Unfortunately, the evidence from
our investigation does not allow a systematic inquiry into the impact of varying degrees of criminal
entrenchment on the prospects and effectiveness of HBCs.
Still, in almost all cases, SBCs continue to play a key role for corrupt business actors and their evolving
fortunes. Governments could readily clip their wings by taking away the easy access to state resources
they currently enjoy. In Ukraine, tax breaks, selectively granted subsidies, and cronyist financing from
pocket banks as well as fraudulent public procurement tenders continue to bolster influential business
groups. A similar situation prevails in Poland, though without the pocket banks, as much of the country’s
banking industry is now under foreign ownership. To be sure, political capitalists possess substantial
resources to survive a reasonably long winter of HBCs and honest governance. But a reformist admin-
istration could very well tilt the balance against political capitalists and in favor of entrepreneurs. At
this late stage, it may require a prolonged, gradual process to marginalize the defenders of the status
quo. But nobody ever said it would be easy. In an early-capitalist context, HBCs may be the best hope
for getting the job done. They certainly stand a better chance than do institutionalists’ dreams of trans-
planting Scandinavian-quality institutions into the likes of Russia and Ukraine.
To be sure, the outcome – the marginalization of political capitalists – might only occur gradually.
But the policies must be implemented rapidly. For governments seeking to harden budget constraints,
speed is of the essence. Stiglitz and likeminded scholars have consistently argued for gradual reform
(Stiglitz 2002, 53–88, 133–165). Whether or not gradual reform is optimal for ensuring long-term eco-
nomic growth is beyond the scope of this investigation. When it comes to laying a foundation for sound
property rights, however, slow-and-steady is probably not the answer.
In defending his case for gradualism, Stiglitz again cites Russia – mistakenly – as a case of radical
market reform attempted too quickly (Stiglitz 2002, 133–165). What most critics of Russian reform fail
to consider is that, despite the rapid price liberalization and privatization programs, the policies of the
Yeltsin-Gaidar team were far from radical in most respects, and the economy’s crash had much more to
do with the final, agonizing unraveling of the Stalinist economic model than with precipitous reforms
taken in the early 1990s. And while the early post-Soviet Russian state simply lacked the resources to
continue subsidizing inefficient enterprises at Soviet-era levels, it certainly did not impose HBCs. To this
day, Russian firms remain propped up by myriad SBCs including tax breaks, cheap energy supplies from
Gazprom, fraudulent public tenders, and other privileges (Laan 2011; Russia’s Natural 2012; Kravtsova
2014). In this regard, Russian reform was gradual. For a case of actual shock therapy, one need look
no further than Estonia. If the experiences of Poland and Ukraine show anything, it is that reformist
governments that are not sufficiently quick to harden budget constraints will likely founder under
pressure from corrupt status quo interests as support from their key constituencies begins to wane.
HBCs certainly have a better chance of transforming economies if they are implemented as compre-
hensively and swiftly as possible.
In any event, institution-building takes time and can only be done, if it is done at all, relatively
gradually. Policy change can be implemented speedily if the political will is there to do it, and may be
a prerequisite for authentic, lasting institutional transformation.
International organizations and lenders such as the European Union, OECD, IMF, and World Bank
can play an important role. They might aid reformers in early-capitalist societies by shifting away
from recommending myriad changes, from privatization to adopting rules that enhance corporate
transparency to restructuring the judicial system, and instead focus on counseling the adoption
of HBCs. Indeed, the Estonian case suggests that HBCs can create an environment in which the
construction of effective property rights institutions can proceed. Starting with a meager institu-
tional endowment, successive Estonian governments have built an impressive set of property rights
institutions and have continually improved them over time. Estonia’s institutional achievements
depended vitally on the adoption, early in the transition, of policies that tilted the business and
political environments against the kind of political capitalism that has typically emerged elsewhere
in the postcommunist world.
Notes
1.
All interviews for this article were conducted by Abrams.
2.
The 2008 rankings had to be excluded from the analysis since they were not available for some of the countries
under consideration.
3.
The term “criminal corporate raiding” first appeared in Firestone (2008).
4.
The sector that was excluded was “public administration and defence, education, human health and social work
activities.”
5.
The rankings of the 10 largest privatizations were compiled by multiplying a company’s revenues the year prior
to the privatization by the percentage sold.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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Policies ﬁrst, institutions second: Lessons from Estonias economic reforms

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Policies first, institutions second: lessons from Estonia’s

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

CONTACT Neil A. Abrams [email protected]; M. Steven Fish [email protected]

Enterprise Pct. difference

Serbia (1992) 1.00 3.67 1.00 1.89 −46.6

Hard budget constraints and the Estonian transformation

Table 2. Nonperforming loans as a percentage of all loans, 1991–2000.a

State from scratch: the construction of a bureaucracy

The outcome: robust property rights institutions and low corruption

Table 3. Political capitalists among the plutocratic elite.

Table 4. Criminal corporate raiding.

Country # of alleged raiders Total # of plutocrats Alleged raiders, %

# of sectors with one raid (max. = 9)a

The non-plutocratic elite

Estonia in comparative perspective

Implications for theory and policy

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