Voltage Control

A power system is said to be well designed if it gives good quality reliable supply. Practically
all the equipment on the power system are designed to operate satisfactorily only when voltage
levels on the system corresponds to their rated voltages or at the most variations are within say
5 %.
If the voltage variation is more than a pre-specified value, the performance of the equipment
suffers and the life of most of the equipment also is sacrificed. So, there is necessity of
controlling the system voltage.

I
jX Load

P + jQ
V1 V2

When power is supplied to a load through a transmission line keeping the sending end voltage
constant, the receiving end or load voltage undergoes variations depending upon the magnitude
of the load and the power factor of the load.
The voltage variations at a node is an indication of the unbalance between the reactive power
generated and consumed by that node. If the reactive power generated is greater than
consumed, the voltage goes up and vice versa. Whenever the voltage level of a particular bus
undergoes variation this is due to the unbalance between the two Vars at that bus.
In the above Fig., node 1 is a generator node with reference voltage V1 and node 2 is the load
node with voltage V2. The two bus bars are interconnected through a short line.
Assuming the interconnector to be lossless (R = 0) and voltage V1 constant (by adjusting the
excitation of the generator), the following relation hold good.

V2 = V1 − IZ __________________(1)

V1 I * = P + jQ

 V1* I = P − jQ ______________(2)

P − jQ
From (2), I =
V1*

V1* = V1 , V1 being the reference vector

Substituting the expression of I in equation (1),

 P − jQ 
V2 = V1 − j  X (∵ 𝑅 = 0)
 V1 

 QX  PX
V2 =  V1 − − j ____________(3)
 V1  V1
 QX/V1
V1

PX/V1
Phasor diagram
of the system
V2

From the phasor diagram it is clear that the load voltage V2 is not affected much due to the real
component of the load P as it is normal to vector V1 whereas the drop due to reactive component
of load is directly subtracted from the voltage V1. Assuming the voltage drop due to real power
negligible, the voltage drop is directly proportional to the reactive power Q. The relation is
given by

QX
V2 = V1 −
V1

In order to keep the receiving end voltage V2 fixed for a particular sending end voltage V1, the
drop (Q/V1)X must remain constant. Since, in this the only variable is Q, it is this reactive Vars
which keeps V2 to a specified value. Any deviation in Q at node 2 must be locally adjusted.
The local generation can be obtained by connecting shunt capacitors or synchronous capacitors
and/or shunt inductors (for light loads or capacitive loads).
Another possibility is that the product QX to be kept constant. This is achieved by introducing
series capacitors which will reduce the net reactance of the system.

Methods of Voltage Control

Methods of voltage control are the use of (i) Shunt capacitors (ii) Series capacitors (iii)
Synchronous capacitors (iv) Tap changing Transformers (v) Booster Transformers
First three are classified as reactive Var injection method.
In earlier times the voltage control was done by adjusting the excitation of the generator at the
sending end. The larger the reactive power required by the load; the more is the excitation to
be provided at the sending end. This system has the limitations that excitation below a certain
limit may result in unstability; and excitation above certain level will result in overheating of
the rotor.
Before discussion of the various methods of voltage control, it is important to know the various
sources and sinks of reactive power in a power system.

Methods of Voltage Control

There are several methods of voltage control. In each method, the system voltage is changed
in accordance with the load to obtain a fairly constant voltage at the consumer’s end of the
system. The following are the methods of voltage control in an AC power system:
1. By using tap changing transformers
2. Auto-Transformer tap changing
3. By synchronous condenser
 1) Tap changing Transformers
In this method, a number of tapping are provided on the secondary of the transformer. The
voltage drop in the line is supplied by changing the secondary emf of the transformer through
the adjustment of its number of turns.

(a) Off load tap changing Transformer

5
4
3
2 Movable
1 Arm
Primary

Secondary

Figure shows the arrangement where a number of tappings are provided on the secondary side.
As the position of tap is varied, effective number of turns is varied. Hence, output voltage in
secondary can be changed.

• When the movable arm makes contact with stud 1, secondary voltage is minimum and
when it makes contact with stud 5, secondary voltage is maximum.
• During the period of light load, the voltage across the primary is not much below the
alternator voltage and the movable arm us placed on stud 1.
• When the load increases, the voltage across the primary drops but the secondary voltage
can be kept at the previous value by placing the movable arm on the higher stud.
• Whenever a tapping is to be changed in this type of transformer, the load is kept off and
hence the name off load tap-changing transformer.
• Disadvantages of this arrangement is that it cannot be used for tap-changing on load.
Suppose for a moment that tapping is changed from a position 1 to position 2 when the
transformer is supplying load. If contact with stud 1 is broken before contact with stud
2 is made, there is break in the circuit and arcing results. On the other hand, if contact
with stud 2 is made before contact with stud 1 is broken, the coils connected between
these two tappings are short circuited and carry damaging heavy currents. For this
reason, above circuit arrangement cannot be used for tap-changing on load.

(b) On load tap changing Transformer

5a 5b
4a 4b
3a 3b
Primary 2a 2b
1a 1b

Secondary
 • Tap changing has normally to be performed on load so that there is no interruption to
supply.
• Secondary consists of two equal parallel windings which have similar tappings
1a……5a and 1b…….5b.
• In normal working coils, switches a, b and tappings with the same number remain
closed and each secondary winding carries one half of the total current.
• Secondary voltage will be maximum when switches a, b and 5a, 5b are closed.
However, secondary voltages will be minimum when switches a, b and 1a, 1b are
closed.
• Suppose that the transformer is working with tapping position at 4a, 4b and it is desired
to alter its position to 5a, 5b. For this, between one of the switches a and b, say a is
opened. Now secondary winding controlled by switch b carries the total current which
is twice its rated capacity. Then the tapping on the disconnected winding is changed to
5a and switch a is closed. After this, switch b is opened to disconnect its winding,
tapping position on this winding is changed to 5b and then switch b is closed. In this
way, tapping position is changed without interrupting the supply.
This method has the following disadvantages:
1. During switching, the impedance of transformer is increased and there will be a
voltage surge.
2. There are twice as many tappings as the voltage steps.
2. Voltage Control by Synchronous Condenser
The voltage at the receiving end of a transmission line can be controlled by installing specially
designed synchronous motors called “Synchronous Condensers” at the receiving end of the
line. Synchronous condenser supplies leading kVA to the line depending upon the excitation
of the motor. The leading kVA partly or fully cancels the lagging kVA of the line thus
controlling the voltage drop in the line. In this way, voltage on receiving end of a transmission
line can be kept constant as the load on the system changes.
Consider a short transmission line where the effects of capacitance are neglected. Therefore,
line has only resistance and inductance. Let V1 and V2 be per phase sending end and receiving
end voltages respectively. Let I2 be the load current at a lagging p.f. of cos ϕ2

(a) Without Synchronous Condenser

Figure shows the transmission line with resistance R and inductive reactance X per phase. The
load current I2 can be resolved into two rectangular components i.e., Ip in phase with V2 and Iq
at right angles to V2. Each component will produce resistive and reactive drop. Resistive drops
being in phase with and the reactive drops in quadrature leading with corresponding current.
Vector addition of these voltage drops to V2 gives the sending end voltage V1.

R X

V1 V2
 IqX

IqR

V1
IpX
ϕ2 Ip V2 IpR

Iq
I2

V1 = V2 + I 2 ( R + jX )

V1 = V2 + ( I p − jI q )( R + jX ) = V2 + ( I p R + jI p X ) + ( I q X − jI q R )

(b) With Synchronous Condenser

E (Im - Iq)X D

V1
Im (Im - Iq)R
Im - Iq { -Iq
C

IpX
A
O
ϕ2 Ip V2 IpR B

Iq
I2

Now suppose that a synchronous condenser taking a leading current Im (Neglecting losses of
synchronous condenser, Im will lead V2 by 90°) is connected at the receiving end of the line.
Since, Im and Iq are in direct opposition and that Im must be greater than Iq, four drops to these
two currents simplify to:

V1 = V2 + I 2 ( R + jX )
= V2 + ( I p + j ( I m − I q ))( R + jX )
= V2 + I p R + jI p X + j ( I m − I q ) R − ( I m − I q ) X
= V2 + I p R + j ( I p X + ( I m − I q ) R ) − ( I m − I q ) X

(Im - Iq) R in phase with Im and (Im - Iq) X in quadrature leading with Im
From vector diagram, relation between V1 and V2 is given by

OE 2 = (OA + AB − DE)2 + ( BC + CD)2

 V12 = [V2 + I p R − ( I m − I q ) X ]2 + [ I p X + ( I m − I q ) R ]2
From above Equation, Im can be calculated to obtain any desired ratio of V1/V2 for a given load
current and p.f.
3 V2 I m
kVAR capacity of condenser =
1000

Power factor Improvement

Power Factor: The cosine of angle between voltage and current in an a.c. circuit is known as
power factor.

In an a.c. circuit, there is generally a phase difference φ between voltage and current. The term
cos φ is called the power factor of the circuit. If the circuit is inductive, the current lags behind
the voltage and the power factor is referred to as lagging. However, in a capacitive circuit,
current leads the voltage and power factor is said to be leading.

voltage V; the angle of lag being φ. The phasor diagram of the circuit is shown in Fig. 6.1. The
circuit current I can be resolved into two perpendicular components, namely ; (a) I cos φ in
phase with V (b) I sin φ 90o out of phase with V.

The component I cos φ is known as active or wattful component, whereas component I sin φ is
called the reactive or wattless component. The reactive component is a measure of the power
factor. If the reactive component is small, the phase angle φ is small and hence power factor
cos φ will be high. Therefore, a circuit having small reactive current (i.e., I sin φ) will have
high power factor and vice-versa. It may be noted that value of power factor can never be more
than unity.

(i) It is a usual practice to attach the word ‘lagging’ or ‘leading’ with the numerical
value of power factor to signify whether the current lags or leads the voltage. Thus
if the circuit has a p.f. of 0·5 and the current lags the voltage, we generally write
p.f. as 0·5 lagging.
(ii) (ii) Sometimes power factor is expressed as a percentage. Thus 0·8 lagging power
factor may be expressed as 80% lagging.

Disadvantages of Low Power Factor

The power factor plays an importance role in a.c. circuits since power consumed depends
upon this factor.
It is clear from above that for fixed power and voltage, the load current is inversely
proportional to the power factor. Lower the power factor, higher is the load current and
vice-versa. A power factor less than unity results in the following disadvantages:

(i) Large kVA rating of equipment. The electrical machinery (e.g., alternators,
transformers, switchgear) is always rated in *kVA.
Now, kVA = kW /cos φ It is clear that kVA rating of the equipment is inversely
proportional to power factor. The smaller the power factor, the larger is the kVA
rating. Therefore, at low power factor, the kVA rating of the equipment has to be
made more, making the equipment larger and expensive.
(ii) Greater conductor size. To transmit or distribute a fixed amount of power at
constant voltage, the conductor will have to carry more current at low power factor.
This necessitates large conductor size. For example, take the case of a single phase
a.c. motor having an input of 10 kW on full load, the terminal voltage being 250 V.
At unity p.f., the input full load current would be 10,000/250 = 40 A. At 0·8 p.f; the
kVA input would be 10/0·8 = 12·5 and the current input 12,500/250 = 50 A. If the
motor is worked at a low power factor of 0·8, the cross-sectional area of the supply
cables and motor conductors would have to be based upon a current of 50 A instead
of 40 A which would be required at unity power factor.
(iii) Large copper losses. The large current at low power factor causes more I2R losses
in all the elements of the supply system. This results in poor efficiency.
(iv) Poor voltage regulation. The large current at low lagging power factor causes
greater voltage drops in alternators, transformers, transmission lines and
distributors. This results in the decreased voltage available at the supply end, thus
impairing the performance of utilisation devices. In order to keep the receiving end
voltage within permissible limits, extra equipment (i.e., voltage regulators) is
required.
(v) Reduced handling capacity of system. The lagging power factor reduces the
handling capacity of all the elements of the system. It is because the reactive
component of current prevents the full utilisation of installed capacity.
The above discussion leads to the conclusion that low power factor is an objectionable
feature in the supply system.

Causes of Low Power Factor

Low power factor is undesirable from economic point of view. Normally, the power factor
of the whole load on the supply system in lower than 0·8. The following are the causes of
low power factor:

(i) Most of the a.c. motors are of induction type (1φ and 3φ induction motors) which
have low lagging power factor. These motors work at a power factor which is
extremely small on light load (0·2 to 0·3) and rises to 0·8 or 0·9 at full load.
(ii) Arc lamps, electric discharge lamps and industrial heating furnaces operate at low
lagging power factor.
(iii) The load on the power system is varying ; being high during morning and evening
and low at other times. During low load period, supply voltage is increased which
increases the magnetisation current. This results in the decreased power factor.

Power Factor Improvement:

The low power factor is mainly due to the fact that most of the power loads are inductive
and, therefore, take lagging currents. In order to improve the power factor, some device
taking leading power should be connected in parallel with the load. One of such devices
can be a capacitor. The capacitor draws a leading current and partly or completely
neutralises the lagging reactive component of load current. This raises the power factor of
the load.

Illustration. To illustrate the power factor improvement by a capacitor, consider a single

*phase load taking lagging current I at a power factor cos φ1 as shown in Fig. 6.3. The
capacitor C is connected in parallel with the load. The capacitor draws current IC which
leads the supply voltage by 90o . The resulting line current I′ is the phasor sum of I and IC
and its angle of lag is φ2 as shown in the phasor diagram of Fig. 6.3. (iii). It is clear that φ2
is less than φ1, so that cos φ2 is greater than cos φ1. Hence, the power factor of the load is
improved. The following points are worth noting :

(i) The circuit current I ′ after p.f. correction is less than the original circuit current I.
(ii) The active or wattful component remains the same before and after p.f. correction
because only the lagging reactive component is reduced by the capacitor. ∴ I cos
φ1 = I ′ cos φ2
(iii) The lagging reactive component is reduced after p.f. improvement and is equal to
the difference between lagging reactive component of load (I sin φ1) and capacitor
current (IC) i.e., I ′ sin φ2 = I sin φ1 − IC
(iv) As I cos φ1 = I ′ cos φ2 ∴ VI cos φ1 = VI ′ cos φ2 [Multiplying by V] Therefore,
active power (kW) remains unchanged due to power factor improvement.
(v) I ′ sin φ2 = I sin φ1 − IC ∴ VI ′ sin φ2 = VI sin φ1 − VIC [Multiplying by V] i.e., Net
kVAR after p.f. correction = Lagging kVAR before p.f. correction − leading kVAR
of equipment
Power Factor Improvement Equipment

Normally, the power factor of the whole load on a large generating station is in the region
of 0·8 to 0·9. However, sometimes it is lower and in such cases it is generally desirable to
take special steps to improve the power factor. This can be achieved by the following
equipment : 1. Static capacitors. 2. Synchronous condenser. 3. Phase advancers.
1. Static capacitor. The power factor can be improved by connecting capacitors in
parallel with the equipment operating at lagging power factor. The capacitor (generally
known as static capacitor) draws a leading current and partly or completely neutralises
the lagging reactive component of load current. This raises the power factor of the load.
For three-phase loads, the capacitors can be connected in delta or star as shown in Fig.
6.4. Static capacitors are invariably used for power factor improvement in factories.
Advantages
(i) They have low losses.
(ii) They require little maintenance as there are no rotating parts.
(iii) They can be easily installed as they are light and require no foundation.
(iv) They can work under ordinary atmospheric conditions.
Disadvantages
(i) They have short service life ranging from 8 to 10 years.
(ii) They are easily damaged if the voltage exceeds the rated value.
(iii) Once the capacitors are damaged, their repair is uneconomical.
2. Synchronous condenser.
A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over-excited and, therefore,
behaves as a capacitor. An over-excited synchronous motor running on no load is
known as synchronous condenser. When such a machine is connected in parallel with
the supply, it takes a leading current which partly neutralises the lagging reactive
component of the load. Thus the power factor is improved.
Fig 6.5 shows the power factor improvement by synchronous condenser method. The
3φ load takes current IL at low lagging power factor cos φL. The synchronous condenser
takes a current Im which leads the voltage by an angle φm. The resultant current I is the
phasor sum of Im and IL and lags behind the voltage by an angle φ. It is clear that φ is
less than φL so that cos φ is greater than cos φL. Thus the power factor is increased
from cos φL to cos φ. Synchronous condensers are generally used at major bulk supply
substations for power factor improvement.
 Advantages
(i) By varying the field excitation, the magnitude of current drawn by the motor
can be changed by any amount. This helps in achieving stepless † control of
power factor.
(ii) The motor windings have high thermal stability to short circuit currents.
(iii) The faults can be removed easily.
Disadvantages

(i) There are considerable losses in the motor.

(ii) The maintenance cost is high.
(iii) It produces noise.
(iv) Except in sizes above 500 kVA, the cost is greater than that of static capacitors
of the same rating. (v) As a synchronous motor has no self-starting torque,
therefore, an auxiliary equipment has to be provided for this purpose.
3. Phase advancers.
Phase advancers are used to improve the power factor of induction motors. The low
power factor of an induction motor is due to the fact that its stator winding draws
exciting current which lags behind the supply voltage by 90o . If the exciting ampere
turns can be provided from some other a.c. source, then the stator winding will be
relieved of exciting current and the power factor of the motor can be improved. This
job is accomplished by the phase advancer which is simply an a.c. exciter. The phase
advancer is mounted on the same shaft as the main motor and is connected in the rotor
circuit of the motor. It provides exciting ampere turns to the rotor circuit at slip
frequency. By providing more ampere turns than required, the induction motor can be
made to operate on leading power factor like an over-excited synchronous motor.
Phase advancers have two principal advantages. Firstly, as the exciting ampere turns
are supplied at slip frequency, therefore, lagging kVAR drawn by the motor are
considerably reduced. Secondly, phase advancer can be conveniently used where the
use of synchronous motors is unadmissible. However, the major disadvantage of phase
advancers is that they are not economical for motors below 200 H.P.

Calculations of Power Factor Correction

Consider an inductive load taking a lagging current I at a power factor cos φ 1. In order to
improve the power factor of this circuit, the remedy is to connect such an equipment in parallel
with the load which takes a leading reactive component and partly cancels the lagging reactive
component of the load. Fig. 6.6 (i) shows a capacitor connected across the load. The capacitor
takes a current IC which leads the supply voltage V by 90o . The current IC partly cancels the
lagging reactive component of the load current as shown in the phasor diagram in Fig. 6.6 (ii).
The resultant circuit current becomes I′ and its angle of lag is φ2. It is clear that φ2 is less than
φ1so that new p.f. cos φ2 is more than the previous p.f. cos φ1.
From the phasor diagram, it is clear that after p.f. correction, the lagging reactive component
of the load is reduced to I′sin φ2.

𝐼 ′ sin ∅2 = 𝐼 sin ∅1 − 𝐼𝐶

𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛∅1 − 𝐼′𝑠𝑖𝑛∅2

Capacitance of capacitor to improve p.f. from cos φ1 to cos φ2

𝐼
𝐶 𝑉 1
= 𝜔𝑉 (𝑋𝐶 = 𝐼 = 𝜔𝐶)
𝐶

Power triangle:

The power factor correction can also be illustrated from power triangle. Thus referring to Fig.
6.7, the power triangle OAB is for the power factor cos φ1, whereas power triangle OAC is for
the improved power factor cos φ2. It may be seen that active power (OA) does not change with
power factor improvement. However, the lagging kVAR of the load is reduced by the p.f.
correction equipment, thus improving the p.f. to cos φ2.

Leading kVAR supplied by p.f. correction equipment

= BC = AB − AC

= kVAR1 − kVAR2

= OA (tan φ1 − tan φ2)

= kW (tan φ1 − tan φ2)

Knowing the leading kVAR supplied by the p.f. correction equipment, the desired results can
be obtained