Journal of the Hellenic Veterinary Medical Society

Vol 61, No 1 (2010)

Water quality and fish diseases

I. N. VATSOS (Ι.Ν. ΒΑΤΣΟΣ), P. ANGELIDIS (Π.

ΑΓΓΕΛΙΔΗΣ)

doi: 10.12681/jhvms.14875

To cite this article:

VATSOS (Ι.Ν. ΒΑΤΣΟΣ) I. N., & ANGELIDIS (Π. ΑΓΓΕΛΙΔΗΣ) P. (2017). Water quality and fish diseases. Journal of the
Hellenic Veterinary Medical Society, 61(1), 40–48. https://doi.org/10.12681/jhvms.14875

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JOURNAL OF THE HELLENIC VETERINARY MEDICAL SOCIETY 2010,61(1): 40-48
ΠΕΡΙΟΔΙΚΟ ΤΗΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗΣ ΚΤΗΝΙΑΤΡΙΚΗΣ ΕΤΑΙΡΕΙΑΣ 2010,61(1): 40-48

• Water quality and fish diseases

Vatsos I. N., DVM, MSc, PhD, Angelidis P., DVM, MSc, PhD
Laboratory of Ichthyology, Faculty of* Veterinary Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

• Ποιότητα νεροΰ και ασθένειες των ιχθύων

Ι. Ν. Βάτσος, DVM, MSc, PhD, Π. Αγγελίδης, DVM, MSc, PhD
Εργαστήριο Ιχθυολογίας, Κτηνιατρική Σχολή Α. Π. Θ.

ABSTRACT. Certain water quality parameters are known to cause serious problems to fish, especially when they are living under
intensive farming conditions. These problems range from discomfort of fish to heavy mortalities and factors, such as the fish species,
the time and level of exposure and the synergic effect of other coexisting stressful conditions, play an important role. In addition,
when these parameters are outside the preferable for each fish species range, they can induce stress to fish, compromising their
immune system and making them vulnerable to many opportunistic pathogens. Oxygen is, probably, the main limiting factor under
farming conditions and when its levels are below the preferable range for any fish species, many morphological, as well as
physiological alterations develop. Increased levels of carbon dioxide in the water usually coexist with decreased levels of oxygen
and can cause respiratory acidosis and nephrocalcinosis. The latter is characterized by the development of granulomas in many
internal organs and urolithiasis. Ammonia usually causes problems under intensive farming conditions, especially when the water
is recirculated and the pH is high. Increased levels of ammonia in the water can cause extensive alterations in the gills and
degenerative changes in the liver and kidney. Gas supersaturation of the water, depending on the level of saturation and the time
of exposure, can result in the gas bubble disease. Formation of bubbles in the eyes, skin and gills and extensive necrotic areas in
many organs due to gas emboli are the main findings caused by this disease. Many contaminants in the water can, also, create
serious problems to fish. Fin erosion, epidermal hyperplasia or papilloma and degenerative and necrotic alterations in many internal
organs are common findings observed in fish on many cases of water pollution. Many of the factors mentioned above, as well as
others, such as nutrition and bad management, can result in abnormal development of the body offish, when exposed at their early
life stages. Due to farming conditions, cultured fish tend to exhibit increased rate of body malformation compared to wild ones.
Careful design of the facilities, use of specialized equipment and, probably, application of genetic selection program can minimise
or even eliminate the effects these water parameters have on the cultured fish.

Keywords: water quality, fish, diseases

ΠΕΡΙΑΗΨΗ. Είναι γνωστό ότι πολλές παράμετροι της ποιότητας του νεροΰ μπορούν να δημιουργήσουν προβλήματα στην υγεία
των εντατικώς εκτρεφόμενων ψαριών. Τα προβλήματα αυτά μπορεί να είναι μια απλή ανησυχία των ψαριών ή ακόμα και
εκδήλωση υψηλής θνησιμότητας. Παράγοντες που παίζουν σημαντικό ρόλο στη σοβαρότητα της κατάστασης είναι το είδος του
ψαριού, ο χρόνος και το επίπεδο έκθεσης, καθώς και η συνεργική δράση άλλων συνθηκών καταπόνησης που ενδεχομένως συνυ­
πάρχουν. Επιπροσθέτως, όταν αυτές οι παράμετροι βρίσκονται έξω από τα ανεκτά για κάθε είδος ψαριού επίπεδα, μπορούν να
προκαλέσουν καταπόνηση σε αυτά, με αποτέλεσμα να εξασθενήσει το αμυντικό τους σύστημα, κάνοντας τα ευάλωτα σε πολλούς
ευκαιριακά παθογόνους οργανισμούς.Το οξυγόνο αποτελεί τον κυριότερο περιοριστικό παράγοντα στην εκτροφή των ψαριών
και όταν τα επίπεδα του είναι κάτω από τα επιθυμητά για τα ψάρια όρια, προκαλούνται πολλές μορφολογικές, αλλά και

Correspondence: Vatsos I. Ν.
Laboratory of Ichthyology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
GR-541 24 Thessaloniki, Greece, POBox 395 Submission date: 30.11.2009
Tel: 0030 2310 999880, E-mail: [email protected] Approval date: 17.02.2010

Αλληλογραφία: Ι. Ν. Βάτσος Ημερομηνία υποβολής: 30.11.2009

Εργαστήριο Ιχθυολογίας, Κτηνιατρική Σχολή Α.Π.Θ., 541 24 Θεσσαλονίκη, Τ.Θ. 395 Ημερομηνία εγκρίσεως: 17.02.2010
Τηλ.: 0030 2310 999880, E-mail: [email protected]
Ι. Ν. ΒΑΤΣΟΣ, Π. ΑΓΓΕΛΙΔΗΣ 41

φυσιολογικές μεταβολές. Αυξημένα επίπεδα διοξειδίου του άνθρακα στο νερό συνήθως συνυπάρχουν με μειωμένη συγκέντρωση
οξυγόνου και μπορεί να προκαλέσουν αναπνευστική οξείδωση και νεφροκαλσίνωση. Η τελευταία χαρακτηρίζεται από ανάπτυξη
κοκκιωμάτων σε πολλά όργανα και ουρολιθίαση. Η αμμωνία προκαλεί προβλήματα κάτω από συνθήκες εντατικής εκτροφής και
ιδιαίτερα όταν το νερό ανακυκλώνεται και το pH του είναι αυξημένο. Αυξημένα επίπεδα αμμωνίας στο νερό μπορούν να
προκαλέσουν εκτεταμένες αλλοιώσεις στα βράγχια και εκφυλιστικές αλλοιώσεις στο ήπαρ και το νεφρό. Ο υπερκορεσμός του
νερού με αέρια, ανάλογα με το επίπεδο κορεσμού και το χρόνο έκθεσης, μπορεί να οδηγήσει στο σχηματισμό φυσαλίδων στο
δέρμα και τα βράγχια, καθώς και σε νεκρωτικές εστίες σε πολλά όργανα, εξαιτίας του σχηματισμού εμφράκτων λόγω φυσαλίδων
στο αίμα. Η ύπαρξη ρυπαντών στο νερό μπορεί, επίσης, να δημιουργήσει σημαντικά προβλήματα στα ψάρια. Διάβρωση των
πτερυγίων, επιδερμική υπερπλασία ή ανάπτυξη θηλωμάτων, εκφυλιστικές και νεκρωτικές αλλοιώσεις σε πολλά εσωτερικά όργανα
είναι συνήθη ευρήματα που παρατηρούνται σε πολλές περιπτώσεις περιβαλλοντικής ρύπανσης. Πολλοί από τους παράγοντες
που έχουν αναφερθεί, καθώς και άλλοι, όπως η διατροφή και η κακή διαχείριση, μπορούν να οδηγήσουν στην εμφάνιση
δυσμορφιών στα ψάρια, όταν αυτά εκθέτονται σε αυτούς τους παράγοντες στα πρώτα στάδια της ζωής τους. Ο προσεκτικός
σχεδιασμός των εγκαταστάσεων, η χρήση εξειδικευμένου εξοπλισμού, αλλά και η εφαρμογή προγραμμάτων γενετικής επιλογής
μπορούν να μειώσουν ή και να εξαλείψουν πολλά από τα προβλήματα υγείας που προκαλούν αυτοί οι παράγοντες του νερού.
Λέξεις ευρετηρίασης: ποιότητα νερού, ψάρια, ασθένειες

INTRODUCTION REDUCED LEVELS OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN

ish in their environment constantly interact with Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a fundamental factor for
F many biotic, as well as abiotic factors present in
the ecosystem. When the amounts of dissolved oxygen,
the life of all aquatic organisms. In nature, the
concentration of DO in the aquatic environment can
carbon dioxide, ammonia or other pollutants in the be reduced by many biotic, as well as abiotic factors.
water are outside the preferable for each fish species The abiotic factors include: increased water
range, then the health of fish is affected. These disor­ temperature, salinity and reduced atmospheric
ders usually cause negligible problems to wild fish, pressure. On the other hand, the biotic factors refer to
since they have the freedom to move into more increased oxygen consumption by aquatic organisms.
favourable areas, whenever the environmental condi­ In most cases, a combination of both abiotic and biotic
tions are outside the acceptable range. Cultured fish, factors results in decreased oxygen levels in the water.
however, living in the restricted environment of a fish For example, increased oxygen consumption by
farm, are more sensitive to environmental factors, aquatic plants (algae) is noted whenever there is
which are very often combined with other stressors. increased amount of nutrients in the water and/or
Depending on the factor, short-term or/and long-term intense sunlight (Noga 2000). The algae produce
exposure to these factors can cause high mortalities, oxygen during the day, but they consume oxygen
especially in the weakest individuals. Stress induced during the night and this leads to environmental
by even the slightest variation of these environmental hypoxia early in the morning (Noga 2000). Such
factors can compromise the immune system of fish hypoxic conditions are very common in the
and, as a result, opportunistic or pathogenic infectious Mediterranean area, during summer, especially in
agents can proliferate within the fish, provoking serious closed lagoons where the water exchange is reduced.
diseases (Huntingford et al. 2006). To many authors, Under intensive farming conditions, increased stocking
as it will be discussed below, the overall health status densities of fish can, also, result in increased oxygen
of any population of organisms living in a certain consumption by the fish (Pichavant et al. 2001).
aquatic environment is a reliable indicator of the con­
According to Fick's diffusion equation (Jobling
ditions that prevail in the area.
1994), oxygen is transferred inside the body of the fish
This review summarizes the diseases of cultured through the gills and the skin. In general terms, the
fish associated with the main water quality parameters transfer is comprised of three steps: ventilation or water
that can cause serious problems to fish under intensive flow past the exchange sites (for example the gills),
farming conditions. Preventive measures, which can diffusive transfer between water and blood and, finally,
minimise or even eliminate the effects of those blood flow through exchanging structures (Piiper 1998).
parameters, will be briefly discussed. In this transfer, the partial pressure of the oxygen

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42 VATSOS I. Ν., ANGELIDIS P.

(tension) is more important than oxygen concentrations. feed conversion and overall survival, between rainbow
Depending on the fish species, below a range of 50-70 trout cultured using aeration or oxygenation.
% air saturation (which is roughly proportional to
oxygen partial pressure in the water), oxygen uptake is NEPHROCALCINOSIS
affected (Jobling 1994). It should be noted that other Nephrocalcinosis has been reported in a wide range
factors which can affect the oxygen diffusion are of farmed fish species, such as salmonids, halibut and
respiratory surface area (gills and skin) and gas diffusion some sparidae (Gomez 2000). It is a chronic condition
distance. These factors are usually affected by the affecting the kidney and it is characterized by the
lifestyle and habitat offish (Perry and McDonald 1993). presence of calcium deposits within the renal tissue.
Each fish species has different oxygen requirements. Although many aspects of the mechanisms via
In general terms, prolonged reduced oxygen levels in which this condition develops are still unknown,
the water result in many physiological, as well as nephrocalcinosis is usually associated with increased
functional and morphological alterations, such as: levels of free C 0 2 in the water (Fivelstad 2003). This
lower metabolism, alterations in ventilation rates, usually occurs when fish are reared under intensive
changes in circulatory parameters, increased number conditions in tanks. It should be noted that under these
of circulating red blood cells, decreased levels of conditions, it is possible that other adverse conditions,
intraerythrocytic phosphates, adjustments of also, coexist, such as decreased levels of DO and
intraerythrocytic pH, mobilization of anaerobic energy reduced pH.
pathways, changes in acid-base balance, decreased It has been suggested (Roberts and Rodgers 2001)
swimming capacity and, in some fish species, that one mechanism that leads to lesions in the kidney
morphological adaptations (Medale 1985; Barton and could be that the calcium hydrogen phosphate present
Taylor 1996; Val et al. 1998). Hypoxia as a stressor can, in the urine can be precipitated, if pH of the urine
also, influence the immune system (Henrique et al. increases, because its solubility decreases with
2002), making fish more susceptible to infectious increasing pH. There is evidence that such a change
diseases. Growth, food consumption and food efficiency could occur in fish exposed to elevated C 0 2
can, also, be affected. For example, oxygen level of concentration. However, such a mechanism does not
approximately 40% of saturation can significantly explain the formation of granulomas in the stomach,
reduce the growth rate of sea bass, probably due to which are often observed. It is possible that more than
decreased food intake by the fish rather than decreased one mechanism is involved in the appearance of the
feed efficiency (Thetmeyer et al. 1999; Pichavant et al. disease. For example, in chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus
2001). Increased rate of accumulation of toxicants in tshawytscha, the condition has, also, been connected
the fish due to greater ventilation rate can also be a with high levels of calcium coupled with phosphorous
result of low oxygen levels, as Yediler and Jacobs in the diet (Richardson et al. 1985).
(1995) showed investigating the accumulation of
mercury in carp (Cyprinus carpio) exposed to hypoxia. The mortalities are usually low with no external
signs observed in the affected fish (Harrison and
Finally, it has been noted that, in sea bass, the total
Richards 1979). In some cases, however, the abdomen
respiratory surface area is negatively correlated with
is distended due to ascites. The organs that are usually
oxygen availability in the water (Sargolia et al. 2002).
affected are the kidneys, the stomach and maybe the
Under farming conditions, regular monitoring of muscles (Harrison and Richards 1979). In the kidney,
the levels of DO is necessary and whenever it is required, the lesions in most cases include calcium deposition in
the levels can be increased either by aeration or by direct renal tubules and collecting ducts with little or no
diffusion of oxygen into the farm water. Using damage of the tubular epithelial cells. In severe cases,
oxygenation, the levels of DO can be higher than the granulomas and extensive destruction of the renal
ones achieved when using aeration and thus the stocking tissue can be observed. The reported histopathological
capacity of the rearing facilities can increase, as Clark findings in the stomach include: areas of calcification
and Helfrich (2006) reported. Interestingly, the same and granulomas, mainly in the lamina propria,
authors, also, concluded that at 90% oxygen saturation granulosa and submucosa, although the alterations can
there were no significant differences in growth rates, be occasionally found throughout the wall of the

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stomach. Muscle changes are observed only in the tends to exhibit a significantly higher amount of
most severely affected fish and they consist of pollutants, especially PCBs, in their muscles, on fresh
calcareous bodies and granulomas, which in some weight basis, compared to wild sea bass. The authors
cases occur in small clusters. concluded that the use of commercial feeds may play
It should be noted that the rise in blood partial an important role, since, due to increased lipid content
C 0 2 pressure (PCo2)> a s a result of increased C 0 2 of the feeds used, the cultured fish tend to accumulate
levels in the water, causes acidosis (Hosfeld et al. more fat in their bodies, where the pollutants are
2008). This condition results in reduced oxygen usually bio-accumulated. The same authors, also,
transport to tissues, increased ventilation rate and reported that in the Mediterranean Sea wild, marine
bradycardia. Reduced food intake and reduced growth, animals, such as fish and mammals, tend to exhibit
as consequences of water induced hypercapnia, have higher concentrations of persistent organic pollutants
also been reported. Sublethal effects of carbon dioxide in their tissues compared to the levels measured in the
exposure on Atlantic salmon smolts in freshwater same species in the Atlantic.
include a transient increase in plasma Cortisol, transient For most contaminants, the effects observed are
increase in haematocrit and a sustained reduction in not related with sex, age, fish age or length (Au 2004).
plasma chloride level (Hosfeld et al. 2008). However, some abiotic or biotic factors can play a
Since the main factor associated with nephro- significant role in the severity of the respective diseases.
calcinosis in fish is the increased concentration of free Stressed fish, for example, generally appear more
C 0 2 in the water, effective monitoring and removal of susceptible to environmental pollution (Vethaak and
excessive C 0 2 could prevent this condition. This can be Rheinallt 1992).
achieved, firstly, by maintaining the fish at low stocking The effects of most types of pollutants on fish and,
density and, secondly, by increasing the aeration of the generally, all the aquatic animals appear to be non­
water, especially when fish are reared in tanks. specific and many authors suggested that the study of
those effects is indicative of the general quality of the
DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH WATER environment (Au 2004). In most cases of environmental
POLLUTION pollution, the contaminants affect many organs of the
In the last decades, many studies have focused on fish simultaneously. Changes in swimming activity and
the effects of the increasing pollution of the waters on non-specific lesions in the gills, skin and fins are easily
many aquatic organisms and, of course, fish. Water observed and are often used as indications of
pollution occurs when various harmful or potential contaminated environments. The most common of
harmful chemicals or particles, originated from these symptoms include fin erosion and epidermal
industrial, agricultural or residential areas, end up in the hyperplasia or papilloma. Au (2004) has reviewed the
aquatic ecosystem through the water or the wind. Many alterations observed in the aquatic organisms and
toxic chemicals may adhere to particles, which are then these are summarized below.
taken up by plankton and benthos animals and thus are In the gills, epithelial hyperplasia and hypertrophy
bio-accumulated within the marine food chains. with lamellar fusion, telangiectasia, edema with
Under farming conditions, in particular, some epithelial lifting and epithelial desquamation are
activities of the farmers may result in accidental short- common histopathological findings.
term or long-term exposure of the fish to various Abnormal development of the operculum and the
chemicals, which can pose serious risks both to fish and skeleton has, also, been reported for many substances,
the consumers. An interesting example has been such as organochlorine compounds, chlorinated
presented by Varvarigos (2007) who reported hydrocarbons and pulp mill effluents. In some fish
mortalities due to the use of net antifoulants containing species, as in the northern pike, for example, these
toxic copper compounds. In that case, young fish abnormal developments can be sex-related.
appeared more sensitive and sea bass more susceptible In the kidney, degenerative changes in tubular
than sea bream. epithelium, dilation of tubules, protein or cellular casts
Schnitzler et al. (2008) found that cultured sea bass within tubular lumen, tubular necrosis and/or epithelial

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44 VATSOS I. Ν., ANGELIDIS P.

desquamation and necrosis of interstitial hematopoietic Whenever the gas concentration in the water is
tissues are common findings in a number of cases of above 100% of saturation, then diffusion of gases into
marine pollutions. the swim bladder occurs. However, GBD develops at
In the liver, necrotic areas, neoplasms, megalocytic higher supersaturation. As Colt (1986) reports, the
hepatosis, nuclear pleomorphism in the hepatocytes process of bubble formation within the fish tissues may
and hydropic vacuolation can, also, be seen and, in be influenced by many factors, such as surface tension
some cases, they can be associated with certain seasons, of the blood, number and size of nucleation sites for
age and sex. bubble growth, compliance characteristics of the
vascular system, gas diffusion rates through the
Finally, environmental pollution can affect the animals' integument, functional properties of the swim
quality of the gametes and the development of the bladder and lesions in the choroidal rete in the eye.
embryos (Au 2004).
The effects of gas supersaturation on the fish
Guidelines for the safe use of all chemical depend on many factors, such as water depth,
substances have already been set by many relevant temperature, fish size, the duration of exposure, the
organizations. In some cases, choosing the appropriate level of supersaturation, the species and the life stage
area to set up a farm and the detailed planning of the of the affected fish (Colt 1986). For example, it has
facilities can, also, help with the prevention of accidental been reported that, when gas supersaturation of the
exposure of the fish to various pollutants, which can water occurs, the fish that swim near the surface are
enter the farm via the incoming water or the use of more susceptible to this condition, due to low
contaminated feeds. hydrostatic pressure near the water surface. For this
reason, higher mortalities are observed in hatcheries,
GAS BUBBLE DISEASE (GBD) where fish cannot escape to lower depths.
This condition is caused by increased pressure of Susceptibility to GBD is reduced as the fish grow older
gases in the water. Since the first report on this disease and bigger (Gunnarsli et al. 2008). Fastening, also,
in the late 1800's, much information has been seems to increase susceptibility of fish to GBD (Colt
published on the effects of gas supersaturation on 1986). In some cases, gas supersaturation in natural
cultured freshwater fish species, mainly salmon and waters may be associated with certain seasons,
trout, but very little on the marine species (Gunnarsli especially with spring and summer (Colt 1986).
et al. 2008). Lesions can be induced when either the Some fish species, for example Chinook salmon
incoming water is supersaturated with gasses or when (O. tshawytscha), have the ability to detect the level of
supersaturation occurs within the farm. According to gases in the water and to avoid unsuitable depths with
Noga (2000), possible causes include: trapping in air in low hydrostatic pressure (Johnson et al. 2005).
pressurized water pipes, use of supersaturated
Exposure of the fish to moderate supersaturation,
(especially in nitrogen or carbon dioxide) ground
depending on the species, may require a long period of
water, excessive plant growth, especially in ponds,
time before the first deaths appear. Prolonged
malfunctioning water pumps and rapid heating of the
exposure to moderate levels of supersaturation
water. Accidental supersaturation of the water with
(< 110% of saturation) can lead to death. The clinical
oxygen can, also, occur when pure oxygen is used to
signs include severe inflation of the swim bladder in
oxygenate the farm water.
small fish, ocular lesions, immunosuppression, reduced
Excess nitrogen rather than excess oxygen is growth, bubbles in the intestinal tract and reduced
usually the cause of gas emboli, although oxygen levels swimming ability (Gunnarsli et al. 2008). Especially, the
of over 125% of saturation may cause serious problems lesions in the eye include development of exophthalmus
(Noga 2000). However, it should be noted that today, and subsequent blindness, usually associated with gas
despite the fact that the use of degassers in many fish embolism within or around the choroid. Behavioural
farms has minimized the occurrence of the acute form abnormalities, such as hyperactivity and loss of
of GBD, the chronic responses of fish to moderate gas equilibrium due to lesions in the related organs, can,
supersaturation can still lead to significant losses also, occur. The increased susceptibility of the fish to
(Gunnarsli et al. 2008). infectious diseases (due to induced stress) and the

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presence of necrotic areas in many tissues are especially in ponds. During a process called
considered to play significant role in the resulting "nitrification", various bacteria oxidize ammonia and
mortalities. Oxygen concentration of about 120% of thus lowering its concentration, in a two-step process,
saturation for a week provoked bubble formation in first, to nitrite (N02~) and subsequently to nitrate
the tissues around the eyes in cultured glass eels ( N 0 3 ) . Factors affecting the nitrification rate are: the
Anguilla anguilla (Angelidis, personal observations). total ammonia concentration, the water temperature
In that case, the eels were unable to immerge and and the available dissolved oxygen (Hargreaves and
remained under the water surface, which aggravated Tucker 2004). Under intensive rearing conditions and,
their condition. Due to their constant effort to swim particularly, when the water is recirculated and the fish
deeper, they were exhausted rapidly, refused to eat and are cultured in high densities, ammonia concentrations
died within a few days. In the same case, deaths were, may reach high levels which can have negative effects on
also, observed among the adult eels which were kept fish survival and growth (Person Le Ruyet et al. 2003).
in supersaturated water (over 130% of saturation) for
The un-ionized ammonia (UIA-N) is the toxic form
about two weeks. The mortality remained low (±0.1%
for the aquatic organisms. The N H + 4 is considered
per day), but it lasted for almost a month. Histological
non-toxic. As Benli et al. (2008) mentioned, the toxicity
investigation of the gills showed gill necrosis.
of UIA-N is attributed to the fact that this form of
When the level of supersaturation is significantly ammonia can readily pass through the cell membranes
high, then the fish die quite soon, even within minutes in the gills due to its lipid solubility and lack of charge,
(hyperacute form) or most commonly within a few whereas it is quite difficult for the NH + 4 to penetrate
days, due to anoxia resulting from obstruction in the the cell membranes of the organisms.
blood flow (Huchzermeyer 2003).
The percentage of total ammonia (TAN) present
Histopathological findings of GBD include edema as UIA-N can be calculated by the aqueous ammonia
and epithelial degeneration of the secondary lamellae,
equilibrium, which is strongly dependent on the
destruction of the buccal and intestinal mucosa and, in
temperature, pH and salinity (Lemarié et al. 2004).
the most chronic forms, degeneration of the tubular
The high buffer capacity of seawater compared to
epithelium in the kidneys and multiple necrotic areas
freshwater tends to keep the pH relatively high,
in many organs, such as liver and brain (Noga 2000).
resulting in a larger fraction of the ammonia present
In order to prevent GBD, constant monitoring of the in the water as UIA-N (Wajsbrot et al. 1991).
dissolved amounts of the gases in the water and the use
The sensitivity of fish to increased levels of
of degassers are strongly suggested. The use of degassers
ammonia is influenced by many other factors. In
and the construction of reservoirs, where the water can
general terms, sensitivity to ammonia decreases with
remain for some time, in order for the gases to
age (Wajsbrot et al. 1993). Interestingly, when the 0 2
equilibrate with atmospheric air, are common methods.
in the water is depleted through fish respiration, the
Some degassers, for example, the column aerators, can
remove the excess gases, while increasing the dissolved sensitivity to ammonia decreases, especially when the
oxygen to over 91% saturation (Marking et al. 1983). water exchange is, also, reduced (Tudor et al. 1994). In
this case, as C 0 2 increases, pH is lowered and this, in
AMMONIA POISONING turn, reduces the relative quantity of UIA-N. On the
other hand, when environmental hypoxia occurs due
Ammonia and urea are the two main end-products
to other reasons, then reduced DO increases the
of nitrogen metabolism in fish (Forster and Goldstein
sensitivity offish to ammonia. For example, it has been
1969). Ammonia is mainly excreted through the gills
found that sea bream juveniles, maintained in water
and the amount that is excreted from the fish mainly
with oxygen concentration below 85 % of saturation,
depends on the amount of protein in the feed
exhibited increased sensitivity to ammonia and, below
(Hargreaves and Tucker 2004) and the metabolic
40 % saturation, increased mortalities were observed
efficiency of the fish. Apart from ammonia that is
within a few hours (Wajsbrot et al. 1991).
excreted from fish, ambient ammonia usually increases
via decomposition of organic matter (i.e. faeces, Although there are many studies on the effects of
uneaten feeds, etc), which occurs in the sediment, ammonia on freshwater fish after both short and long-

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ΠΕΡΙΟΔΙΚΟ ΤΗΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗΣ ΚΤΗΝΙΑΤΡΙΚΗΣ ΕΤΑΙΡΕΙΑΣ 2010,61(1)
46 VATSOS I. Ν., ANGELIDIS P.

term exposure, there are relatively few studies on the have a negative effect on the quality of the produced fish
effects of ammonia on marine fish (Lemarié et al. 2004). and the production cost. In the previous two decades,
From these studies, it appears that some fish species are the reported incidences of some malformations in
particularly sensitive to ammonia. For example, juvenile reared sea bream and red sea bass were in some cases
sea bass is considered more sensitive than turbot as high as 90% of the population (Boglione et al. 2001).
(Person-Le Ruyet et al. 1995). In addition, marine fish Since then, many steps have been taken to improve the
seem to be less sensitive to long-term exposure to rearing methods and thus reducing the percentage of
ammonia than most salmonids (Lemarié et al. 2004). deformed fish. For example, the removal of the oily
Wajsbrot et al. (1993) reported almost no film, formed on the surface of the water of the rearing
histopathological findings in the gills of sea bream after tanks due to live feeds used in larval rearing, almost
exposing them to up to 13 mg l 1 TAN. However, the eliminated the problem of the lack of inflated swim
livers of fish, maintained in this concentration of bladder (Châtain 1997).
ammonia, exhibited some degree of atrophy in the Malformations are economically important, firstly,
hepatocytes, which contained large PAS-positive because they require manual sorting and, secondly,
eosinophilic inclusion bodies. In Nile tilapia due to the fact that the affected fish do not perform as
(Oreochromis niloticus) telangiectasis and hyperplasia well as the not deformed fish. And, of course,
of the gill epithelium, accompanied by congestion and deformed fish have lower market value.
haemorrhages, and degenerative changes in the livers
and kidneys have been reported (Benli et al. 2008). Many authors have studied the relationship
between skeletal deformities and various
We should keep in mind that ammonia can be environmental factors, such as light, temperature,
stressful for the fish even at low concentrations, salinity, mechanical shock during embryo or larval
something that can have adverse effect on the overall development, tank currents and type of rearing system.
performance offish and, especially, their resistance to For example, lordosis in sea bass and sea bream,
diseases (Kalogianni et al. 2003; Lemarié et al. 2004).
mainly affecting vertebrae 14-15, has been related with
Many techniques can control the level of ammonia the hydrodynamics in tanks, particularly the water
in the aquatic environment of a fish farm. These current intensity (Châtain 1994). Inadequate light
include: appropriate stocking density, appropriate intensity, as well as inappropriate temperature,
feeding regime, use of bio-filters in re-circulating depending on the species, and salinity in rearing water
systems, low water pH, which in turn reduces the have been reported as causes of skeletal malformations
percentage of TAN as UIA-N, addition of ion- (Johnson and Katavic 1984). Some genetic factors may,
exchange materials, such as zeolites and, finally, also, play an important role in the appearance of some
increased water exchange ratio (Hargreaves and types of deformities, as Afonso et al. (2000) have
Tucker 2004). observed in certain sea bream families. Nutritional
imbalances, such as deficiencies in vitamins, aminoacids
ABNORMAL BODY DEVELOPMENT or essential fatty acids in the diets of broodstock or
It is, now, well-known that wild-caught fish larvae, may, also, alter the development of reared larvae
generally exhibit significantly lower levels of body (Gapasin and Duray 2001; Fernandez et al. 2008; Roo
malformations and almost never severe ones, et al. 2009). Finally, some pathogenic bacteria can
compared to their cultured counterparts (Boglione et induce high rates of malformations, for example
al. 2001). Only wild fish found in heavily polluted areas Flavobacterìumpshychrophilum (Madsen and Dalsgaard
tend to exhibit increased incident of body 1999) in farmed rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).
malformations. The causes for the various forms of
abnormal body development, under farming It should be noted that, in some cases, for reasons not
conditions, are many. Although many steps have been well defined, there is seasonal variation in the appearance
taken to improve the rearing conditions for some of some deformities, for example some opercular
marine species whose culture started only a few years malformations in sea bream (Galeotti et al. 2000).
ago, the percentage of fish that exhibits such The most deformed fish usually die quickly, but
malformations can still be quite high, something that can most of the affected fish live for a period of time,

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ΠΕΡΙΟΔΙΚΟ ΤΗΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗΣ ΚΤΗΝΙΑΤΡΙΚΗΣ ΕΤΑΙΡΕΙΑΣ 2010,61(1)
Ι. Ν. ΒΑΤΣΟΣ, Π. ΑΓΓΕΛΙΔΗΣ 47

depending on the form of the malformation. malformations, for example the abnormal
Regardless of their form, these malformations lower development of the spinal cord with the absence of
the performance of reared fish, for example the functional swimbladder (Andrades et al. 1996),
swimming ability, the conversion index, the growth although it should be noted that more factors are
rate, the survival and their susceptibility to stress and involved in the development of spinal deformities
various pathogens. For example, due to absent or (Kiharaetal.2002).
deformed operculum, the affected fish are more Since most of the malformations are associated
vulnerable to various bacterial pathogens, which can with the rearing procedures (i.e. the use of artificial
attach the exposed gills easier (Galeotti et al. 2000). diets and some water parameters), adoption of
Malformations can be observed in many areas of appropriate farming methods, suitable for each fish
the body, such as the head (e.g. deformed jaws, aplastic species, will reduce the percentage of cultured fish that
or deformed operculum, deformed eyes), the spinal exhibit such body malformation. When the problem is
column (e.g. lordosis, scoliosis, kyphosis), the fins or suspected to be associated with certain broodstock,
internal organs, such as absent or abnormal then the application of a genetic program, which will
swimbladder (Andrades et al. 1996; Kingsford et al. eliminate some genetic traits, will improve the
1997; Galeotti et al. 2000; Cahu et al. 2003; Fernandez situation. However, in cases where the exact aetiology
et al. 2008; Roo et al. 2009). In some cases, the is still unknown, extensive research is required to
development of certain malformation tends to be identify the cause. •
correlated with the appearance of some other

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