Machine Elements Notes

Mechanical Engineering Department Machine Elements
I. INTRODUCTION
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the student would be able to:
1. Identify the applications of linkages.
2. Determine the length of stroke and the extreme points of a four-bar linkage.
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INTRODUCTION
The science of mechanism
Treats the laws governing the motion of the parts of a machine and the forces
transmitted by these parts.
Mechanisms
These are fundamental components of machines. They transmit forces and moments
and manipulate objects in industrial machinery, robots, automobiles, aircraft,
mechatronics devices, and biomechanical systems.
Two parts to the science of mechanism:
1. Pure mechanism or kinematics of machines

Treats the motion and forms of the parts of the machine, and the manner of
supporting and guiding them, independent of their strength.
2. Constructive mechanism or machine design

Involves the calculation of forces acting on different parts of the machine; the
selection of materials on the basis of strength, durability, and other physical
properties in order to withstand these forces, the convenience for repairs and
facilities for manufacture also being taken into account.
TERMINOLOGIES:
1. Machine
It is an assemblage of parts of parts interposed between the source of power and
the work, for the purpose of adapting the one to the other. Each of the pieces in a
machine either moves or helps to guide some of the other pieces in their motion.
TERMINOLOGIES:
Common parts found in a machine:
- Cranks - Screws - Cylinders
- Levers - Ropes - Pistons
- Bearings - Chains - Connecting rods
- Journals - Belts - Piston rods
- Shafts - Pulleys - Cams
- Crossheads - Wheels - Gears
- Keys - Collars
2. Structure
It is a combination of resistant bodies capable of transmitting forces or carrying
loads but having no relative motion between parts.
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3. Frame
It is a structure that supports the moving parts and regulates the path, or kind of
motion, of many parts. It may either be fixed or moving relative to the earth.
4. Rigid body
It is one whose component particles remain at a constant distance from one
another; that is, the body is assumed not to suffer any distortion by the forces that
may act on it.
LINKAGES
Link
It is defined as a rigid piece or a non-elastic substance that serves to transmit force

from one piece to another or to cause or control motion.
Example:
- Part of the belt or chain running from the driven to the driving wheel
- Connecting rod of an engine
Linkage
Consists of a number of pairs of elements connected by links. If the combination is

such that the relative motion of the links is possible, and the motion of each piece
relative to the others is definite, the linkage becomes a kinematic chain. If one of the
links of a kinematic chain is fixed, then the chain becomes a mechanism.
Four-bar linkage
Consists of two cranks and stationary pair members.
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Functions of linkages
The function of the link mechanism is to produce rotating, oscillating, or reciprocating

motion from the rotation of a crank or vice versa. Stated more specifically, linkages
may be used to convert:
1. Continuous rotation into continuous rotation, with a constant or variable angular

velocity ratio.
2. Continuous rotation into oscillation or reciprocation, with a constant or variable

velocity ratio.
3. Oscillation into oscillation, or reciprocation into reciprocation, with a constant or

variable velocity ratio.
SLIDER CRANK MECHANISM
APPLICATION OF SLIDER CRANK MECHANISM
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FOUR-BAR LINKAGE
In reciprocating machinery, the distance between the two extreme positions of the
piston travel or the displacement of the piston is called the stroke. The inside
diameter of a cylinder is called the bore. The size of reciprocating machinery is usually
expressed by giving the bore and stroke in inches.
A 3 ¼-inch x 4-inch gasoline engine means that the inside diameter of the cylinder is
3 ¼ inches and that the length of the crank is 2 inches, causing a stroke of the piston
of 4 inches. The length of the connecting rod is often given in terms of the length of
the crank as a ratio. If the ratio is 4, then in the case just cited, the length of the
connecting rod would be 8 inches.
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APPLICATION OF FOUR-BAR LINKAGE
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Examples:
1. Q2 is a fixed axis. 1 is a fixed guide for sliding block 4. Find the length of stroke of
B in inches as the crank Q2A makes a complete revolution. Q2A = 2 in and AB = 4
in.
Symbols:
Point on a body Sliding pair
Pair joining two links moving
relative to each other Sliding pair with
Fixed axis fixed guides
Solution:
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2. Q2 is a fixed axis. 1 is a fixed guide for sliding block 4. Trace the path of point E as
the crank Q2A makes a complete revolution. Q2A = 2 in, BE = 1.5 in and AB = 4 in.
Solution:
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EXERCISES: Solve the following problems.
1. The block of slider-crank mechanism travels along the center line XX’. Q2A = 1 ½
in, and AB = 6 in. As crank 2 rotates counterclockwise, find the length of stroke of
point B in millimeters. Show as well all links in the drawing using 300 per
movement of crank 2.
2. Crank 2 rotates counterclockwise. Trace the path of point C as the Rocker arm 4
oscillates while crank 2 completes one revolution. Q2A = 2 ¼ in, Q4B = 3 in, BC = 2
in, and Q2Q4 = 4.5 in. Show all links in the drawing using 300 per movement of
crank 2.
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II. MOTION
Lesson Objectives:
1. Identify the applications of motion.
2. Solve the problems related to velocity and acceleration.
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MOTION
Motion
Motion is the change of position. It may be relative or absolute, provided that some
point is assumed to be fixed.
Motion is also described in terms of displacement (x), time (t), velocity (v), and
acceleration (a).
Displacement
The displacement of an object is defined as the vector distance from some initial point
to a final point.
If the positions of the initial and final points are known, then the distance relationship
can be used to find the displacement.
Velocity
Is the rate of change of displacement.
Ave. velocity: v = ∆x
∆t
Linear velocity, v
It is how fast something moves, which is distance divided by time.
v = x , 5 ft/sec, 60 mi/hr, 10 m/sec

t
where: x = length of path
Average velocity can also be expressed in this way:
v = vo + v
2
where: vo = Initial velocity
v = Final velocity
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Angular velocity, ω
It describes the speed of rotation and the orientation of the instantaneous axis about
which the rotation occurs.
ω = θ , 300 rev/min, 2π rad/hr

t
where: θ = no. of turns
Linear Velocity can also be expressed in this way:
Arc length: x = r θ v=x

t
substituting x to the value of arc length,
v=rθ
t
v=ωr
Acceleration
It is the rate of change of velocity over time. It is the rate at which something speeds
up or slows down.
Ave. acceleration: a = ∆v
∆t
Linear acceleration in uniform acceleration
a = v – vo where: a = acceleration
t v = Final velocity
at = v – vo vo = Initial velocity
v = vo + at
Linear acceleration in uniformly accelerated motion
from v = x v = vo + at and v = vo + v
t 2
x= vt
Linear acceleration in uniformly accelerated motion
x= vt
= vo + v (t)
2
= vo + vo +at (t)
2
x = vot + ½ at2 where: x = Distance of displacement travelled by

a moving body in t
x= vt
= vo + v (t)
2
= vo + v v - vo
2 a
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= v2 – vo2
2a
v = vo2 + 2ax
2
Angular acceleration
Is the rate of change of a body’s angular velocity with respect to time.
α = v – vo
t ∆ω
α = ω – ωo
t
time = ∆t
where: α = Average angular acceleration
Angular motion equations with constant angular acceleration
If the angular acceleration is uniform, the average acceleration is the same as the
instantaneous angular acceleration.
α=α
And in the case of linear motion, the average angular velocity is given by
ω = ½ (ω + ωo)
Equations of motion for constant linear acceleration connecting x, v, a, and t, we have exactly
the same equations for rotational motion with constant angular acceleration
Linear Angular
v = vo + at ω = ωo + αt
x = ½ (v + vo) t θ = ½ (ω + ωo) t
x = vot + ½ a t2 θ = ωot + ½ α t2
v2 = vo2 + 2 a x ω2 = ωo2 + 2 α θ
Examples:
1. An airplane accelerates down a runway at 3.20 m/s2 for 32.8 s until is finally lifts off the
ground. Determine the distance traveled before takeoff.
Given: Find:
a = 3.2 m/s2 vo = 0 m/s x =?
t = 32.8 s
Solution:
x = vot + 0.5at2 = (0 m/s) (32.8 s) + 0.5(3.20 m/s2) (32.8 s)2
= 1720 m
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2. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly over 5.21 seconds for a
distance of 110 m. Determine the acceleration of the car.
Given: Find:
d = 110 m vo = 0 m/s a =?
t = 5.21 s
Solution:
x = vot + 0.5at2
110 m = (0 m/s)(5.21 s)+ 0.5(a)(5.21 s)2
110 m = (13.57 s2)a
a = (110 m)/(13.57 s2) = 8.10 m/ s2
3. A car traveling at 22.4 m/s skids to a stop in 2.55 s. Determine the skidding distance of
the car (assume uniform acceleration).
Given: Find:
vo = 22.4 m/s t = 2.55 s x=?
vf = 0 m/s
Solution:
x = (vo+ v) t = (22.4 m/s + 0 m/s) (2.55 s)

2 2
= (11.2 m/s) (2.55 s) = 28.6 m
4. Suppose the wire on a spool is being pulled out at a rate of 5 cm/sec when the radius is
15 cm. At what rate is the spool rotating in rev/min?
Given: Find:
v = 5 cm/sec ω=?
r = 15 cm
Solution:
v=ωr
ω = v = 5 cm/sec = 0.33 rad/sec (60 sec/min) (1 rev/2 π rad) = 3.18 rev/min

r 15 cm
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1. The economical speed for leather belting is around 4500 fpm. A pulley of what diameter
in inches should be used on a motor running at 1760 rpm to give the required belt speed,
if there is no slipping between the belt and pulley surface?
2. A particle is moving in a straight line with a constant acceleration of 60 ft/min2. When

passing another fixed particle B, it has a 40 ft/min velocity. What will be its velocity when
it has moved 2000 ft from B?
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III. VELOCITY ANALYSIS
Lesson Objectives:
1. Identify the applications of the velocity analysis method.
2. Determine the velocities of the mechanism using a graphical method.
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VELOCITIES OF MECHANISM
Different methods in identifying velocities of mechanism:
1. Resolution and composition
2. Instantaneous axis of velocity
3. Centro
4. Velocity polygon or relative velocity
Scales used:
Space scale, ks e.g. Ks = 1 ft = 1in
Velocity scale, kv e.g. Kv = 10 ft/min = 1 in
VELOCITIES BY RESOLUTION AND COMPOSITION METHOD
If the velocity of one point and the direction of the velocity of any point on a body are
known, the velocity of any other point on that body may be obtained by resolving the
known velocity vector into components along and perpendicular to the line joining
these points and making one of the velocities of the other point equal to the
component along the line.
Examples:
1. In the link shown below, the instantaneous angular velocity of the crank AB is 100
rpm counterclockwise. AB = 25in, 60 deg with respect to the horizontal, BC = 40in,
CD = 20in, CL = 20in, and CE is 70 deg with respect to the horizontal. Calculate the
velocity of B, C, D, and L.
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Solution:
Steps:
1. Solve first the linear velocity of point B.
VB = r ωA
= (25 in) (100) rev (2π) (1ft) (1min) = 21.82 ft/sec

min rev 12in 60 sec
Kv = 10 ft/sec : 1 in
Magnitude of VB = VB = 21.82 ft/ sec = 2.18 in

Kv 10 ft/ sec
in
2. Resolve VB into components along and perpendicular to BCD. BF is the component

along BCD and FG is the component perpendicular to BCD.
3. Lay off CH and DI equal to BF.
4. Draw HJ perpendicular to CH. Then CJ is the velocity representing Vc, which is also
perpendicular to link EC.
5. Draw the proportional line GJK. From I draw the component of VD.
6. Lay off line JME, and lay off LM perpendicular to link EC, representing VL’s
velocity.
7. Scale the following velocity. Hence: Vc = 11. 08 ft/sec, VL = 6.25 ft/sec, and VD =
12.73 ft/sec
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2. In the figure, the instantaneous angular velocity of the crank is 100 rpm. Find the
linear velocity of E. AB = 20in, BCD = 60in, and DE = 60in.
Ks = 10 in = 1 in
Kv = 15 ft/sec : 1 in
Solution:
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1. Q2A = 2ft, link AB = 4ft, link AC = 5ft, and CE = 1.5ft. Find the velocities of B, C, and
E as Crank Q2A rotates clockwise with a 30 ft/sec linear velocity.
Scales:
Kv = 20 ft/sec: 1in
Ks = 1ft = 1in
2. Q2B = 2 ¼”, Link DE = 2 ½”, and Link DF = 1”. Find the velocities C, D, E, and F as
Crank Q2B rotates counterclockwise with a 30 ft/sec linear velocity.
Scales:
Kv = 20 ft/sec: 1”
Ks = 1”= 1”
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VELOCITIES BY INSTANTANEOUS AXIS METHOD
Each member of a machine is either rotating about a fixed axis or about a moving axis.
Instantaneously this moving axis may be thought of as a stationary axis with properties
similar to a fixed axis. In other words, the cranks of a machine rotate or oscillate about their
respective fixed axes and the floating link rotates with an absolute angular velocity about an
instantaneous axis of velocity.
The absolute instantaneous linear velocities of points on the link are proportional to
the distance of the points from the instantaneous axis and are perpendicular to lines
joining the points with the Instantaneous axis.
Points to consider using this method:
1. Each link in a machine has one instantaneous axis of velocity.

2. There is not one common instantaneous axis of velocity for all links in a machine.
3. The instantaneous axis of velocity changes position as the link moves.
Angular Velocity of a Floating Link
ω3 = Va = Aa = a1a
Q3A Q3A AB
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Instantaneous Axis of Rolling Bodies
Examples:
1. Find the linear velocity of A, B, C, and D from the mechanism whose crank is
rotating counterclockwise at 100 rpm. Q2A = 20”, AB = 30”, BC = 30”, and CD =
60”.
Scales: Ks = 10”: 1”
Kv = 15 ft/sec: 1”
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Solution:
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26
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1. Link2 = 4”, Link3 = 2.5”, and Link4 = 4”. Find the velocities B, and C using the
Instantaneous Axis of Velocity as Crank2 rotates clockwise with a linear velocity
of 50 ft/sec.
Scales:
Kv = 40 ft/sec: 1”
Ks = Full scale
2. A non-parallel equal crank mechanism is drawn to full scale. The crank Q2A is 2”
long and is rotating counterclockwise with a linear velocity of 2.1875 ft/sec. The
connecting rod AB is 6.25”, Q2Q4 is 6”, link BC is 1.5”, and link CD is 4.5”. Determine
the linear velocities of B, C, D, and point P located 1.5” from A on AB. Use the
Resolution and Composition Method and the Instantaneous Axis of Velocity
Method separately.
Scales:
Kv = 1.75 ft/sec: 1”
Ks = Full scale
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VELOCITIES BY CENTROS METHOD
Centros
Centro may be defined as
1. A point common to two bodies having the same velocity in each;
2. A point in one body about which another body actually turns; and
3. A point in one body about which another body tends to turn.
Notation of Centros
All links, including the frame, are numbered 1, 2, 3, and so on. The centro has double
number of 12, 13, 23, and so on. The Centro 23 (called two-three) is in links 2 and 3
and maybe notated as 32, but the smaller number will be written first for consistency.
Number of Centros
The number of centros in a mechanism is the number of possible combinations of the

links taken two at a time.
Number of centros = N (N – 1)
2
where: N = The number of links, including the frame, in the mechanism.
Location of Centros
Centros are located by
1. Observation
2. Application of Kennedy’s theorem
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30
The sense of rotation is obtained by giving the wanted link’s angular velocity a
direction corresponding to the sense of the linear velocity of the common centro.
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Examples:
1.
Note: VA2 is perpendicular to crank Q2AB.
Solution:
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2.
VELOCITIES BY RELATIVE VELOCITY METHOD
RELATIVE VELOCITY METHOD
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Example:
1. Problem: Q2A = 2”; AB = 3.5”; BC = 1.75”; AC = 2.5”; BD = 1.5”; Q4B = 3.5”; Q4D = 3”;
Q2 Q4 = 5”; MVA = 2”. Determine the Velocities of points B, C, and D as crank Q2A
rotates counterclockwise using Relative Velocity Method.
Scales:
Kv = 150 ft/min: 1”
Ks = Full scale
Solution:
VB = Kv x MVB = 150 fpm x 1.09 in

in
= 163.5 ft/min
VC = Kv x MVC = 150 fpm x 1.73 in

in
= 259.5 ft/min
VD = Kv x MVD = 150 fpm x 0.93 in

in
= 139.5 ft/min
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1. Q2A = 1.5”; AB = 3.5”; BC = 0.67”; CD = 3”; DE = 1.88”; Q7E = 1.5”; Q 5C = 3”; DF =

3”; CE = 4.5”. THE angular velocity of crank 2 IS 75 rpm turning counterclockwise.
Determine the velocities in ft/min of point E, and slide 8.
Scales:
Kv = 40 ft/min: 1”
Ks = Full scale
2. Link 2 = 1 ¼”; Link 3 = 3 ½”; Link 5 = 4”, and the magnitude of Va = ¾”. Find the
magnitudes of B and C in inches using the instantaneous axis, centros, and relative
velocity method.
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IV. CAMS AND FOLLOWER
Lesson Objectives:
1. Identify the applications of cams and followers.
2. Determine the displacement diagram and the cam profile using a graphical
method.
36
Cams and Follower
Cam
Is a mechanical device with a surface or groove that controls the motion of a second
part called a follower in order to convert rotary motion to linear motion.
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Types of Cams
1. Plate Cam
Sometimes called a disc, radial or edge cam. It is made of a flat plate or disc with
an edge profile to transmit motion.
1 Intake
2 Compression
3 Power
4 Exhaust
5 Repeat
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2. Cylindrical Cam
Sometimes called a barrel cam. It’s curved surface has a groove machined, within
which a follower is contained. The movement is parallel to the cam axis.
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3. Toe (Follower) and Wiper
The cam itself oscillates.
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4. Positive-Motion Cam (Yoke)
The enclosed follower makes possible the application of force in both directions.
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5. End Cam
In this case, the end of the cylindrical cam has the profile machined on the end.
Cam Follower
Is a specialized type of roller or needle bearing designed to follow cams. It comes in a

vast array of different configurations, however, the most defining characteristic is
how the cam follower mounts to its mating part.
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Types of Cam Follower
1. Wedge or Knife Type
This has the advantage that it follows complicated profiles. However, it is not often
used as it wears rapidly due to the high frictional forces. It can also track profiles
in both directions.
2. Roller
This has the advantage that wear is minimized due to the roller action. However,
the profile of the cam and roller radius must not conflict. If the profile is smaller
than the radius of the roller, then the roller will follow the incorrect path.
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3. Flat Ended
This cannot be used for concave profiles. It wears slower than a knife-edge
follower, since the points of contact move across the surface of the follower. These
are often offset and allowed to spin.
The Cam Motion or Profile
The cam follower's motion depends upon the cam's profile or shape. Therefore the
profile determines the resultant action. Cams are expensive to make and therefore
the cam follower is normally sacrificial-allowed to wear.
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Types of Cam Motion/ Profile
1. Uniform Motion/ Constant Velocity
2. Uniformly Accelerated/ Decelerated Motion
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3. Simple Harmonic Motion
Examples:
1. Plot a displacement diagram that is to rise and fall as follows: rise 1” in 600 with
uniform acceleration; rise 1” in 600 with uniform retardation; rest in 600; fall 1
¼” in 900 with harmonic motion; rise ½” in 450 with uniform velocity; fall 1 ¼”
at once; and rest in 450. Plot the displacement as ordinate full size and the angle
as abscissa to a scale of ¼” = 150.
Solution:
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2. Design the cam profile in full scale and in inches using the parameters in problem
no. 1 as it rotates counter clockwise.
Solution:
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50
51
52
53
Base Circle
Cam Profile
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Exercises: Solve the following problems.
1. Draw the cam profile and the displacement diagram for a cam rotating clockwise
that will give its follower the following movement during one revolution of the
cam: rise 25mm with simple harmonic motion for 600; dwell for 450; fall 25mm
with simple harmonic motion for 900; and dwell for the remaining period.
Scale:
Ordinate: 1:1
Abscissa: 5mm = 150
Cam profile: 1:1
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2. Draw the cam profile and the displacement diagram for a cam that will give its
follower the following movement during one revolution of the cam: starting from
rest, the follower remains stationary for 450; the next 1200 it is raised with simple
harmonic motion a distance of 50mm; the next 750 it remains stationary; the next
600 it is lowered 25mm with uniform acceleration; and the final 600 it is lowered
to its original position with uniform deceleration. Plot the movement of follower
as ordinates full size and the rotation of the cam as abscissas to a scale of 26mm =
600.
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V. BODIES IN PURE ROLLING CONTACT
Lesson Objectives:
1. Identify the applications of bodies in pure rolling contact.
2. Solve the problems using the analytical method.
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BODIES IN PURE ROLLING CONTACT
PURE ROLLING CONTACT
Consists of such a relative motion of two lines or surfaces that the consecutive points
or elements of one come successively into contact with those of the other in their
order.
Two bodies may be rotating on their respective axes, so arranged that, by pure rolling
contact, one may cause the other to turn with an angular speed bearing a definite ratio
to the angular speed.
The axes may be parallel, intersecting, or neither parallel nor intersecting. With axes
that that are neither parallel nor intersecting, the coinciding elements of the rolling
bodies may slide on each other in the direction of their length, so that the contact is
not pure rolling in a strict sense.
CYLINDERS ROLLING TOGETHER WITHOUT SLIPPING – EXTERNAL CONTACT
C = R + R1
Surface speed of A = 2 π R N
Surface speed of B = 2 π R1 N1
Therefore, if the surface speed of A is

equal to the surface speed of B,
then 2 π R N = 2 π R1 N1 or
N = R1
N1 R
CYLINDERS ROLLING TOGETHER WITHOUT SLIPPING – INTERNAL CONTACT
C = R - R1
N = R1
N1 R
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Examples:
1. A cylinder 24 in. in diameter on shaft S dives, by pure rolling contact, another

cylinder 2 on shaft T. Shaft S has an angular speed of 600 radians per minute. Shaft
T turns 143.25 rpm in the opposite direction from S. Calculate the diameter of
cylinder 2 and the distance between the axes of the shafts.
Solution:
N = R1
N1 R
N1 = 143.25 rev x 2 π rad = 900 rad

min rev min
600 = R1 R1 = 8” D1 = 16”
900 12
C = 8 + 12 = 20”
2. Two parallel shafts connected by rolling cylinders turn in the same direction 150
rpm and 100 rpm respectively. The smaller cylinder is 16” in diameter. How far
apart are the axes of the shafts?
Solution:
N = R1
N1 R
100 = 8 R = 12”
150 R
C = R – R1
= 12 – 8
= 4”
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1. Two parallel shafts, 24” apart and having a speed ratio of 3, are connected by
cylinders in pure rolling contact. Determine the diameters of the cylinders: (a)
when they turn in opposite directions; and (b) when they turn in the same
direction.
2. A and B are rolling cylinders connecting the shafts S and T. C and E are cylinders
fast to these shafts and slipping on each other at P. Find the diameters of C and E
if the surface speed of E is twice that of C.
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VI. GEARS
Lesson Objectives:
1. Identify the gear nomenclatures and the applications of the different gears.
2. Solve the problems using graphical and analytical methods.
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GEARS
Gear
A gear is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another
toothed part in order to transmit torque. Two or more gears working in tandem are
called a transmission and can produce a mechanical advantage through a gear ratio
and thus may be considered a simple machine. Geared devices can change the speed,
torque, and direction of a power source. The most common situation is for a gear to
mesh with another gear, however a gear can also mesh a non-rotating toothed part,
called a rack, thereby producing translation instead of rotation.
Types of Gears
1. Spur Gear
Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a
cylinder or disk with the teeth projecting radially, and although they are not
straight-sided in form, the edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the
axis of rotation. These gears can be meshed together correctly only if they are fitted
to parallel shafts.
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2. Helical Gear
Helical gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth
are not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is
curved, this angling causes the tooth shape to be a segment of a helix. Helical
gears can be meshed in parallel or crossed orientations. The former refers to
when the shafts are parallel to each other; this is the most common orientation.
In the latter, the shafts are non-parallel, and in this configuration are sometimes
known as "skew gears".
3. Bevel Gear
A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut off. When
two bevel gears mesh, their imaginary vertices must occupy the same point. Their
shaft axes also intersect at this point, forming an arbitrary non-straight angle
between the shafts. The angle between the shafts can be anything except zero or
180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and shaft axes at 90 degrees
are called miter gears.
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4. Worm Gear
Worm gears resemble screws. A worm gear is usually meshed with a spur gear or
a helical gear, which is called the gear, wheel, or worm wheel. Worm-and-gear sets
are a simple and compact way to achieve a high torque, low speed gear ratio. For
example, helical gears are normally limited to gear ratios of less than 10:1 while
worm-and-gear sets vary from 10:1 to 500:1. A disadvantage is the potential for
considerable sliding action, leading to low efficiency.
5. Rack and Pinion
A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear with an
infinitely large radius of curvature. Torque can be converted to linear force by
meshing a rack with a pinion: the pinion turns; the rack moves in a straight line.
Such is used in automobiles to convert the rotation of the steering wheel into the
left-to-right motion of the tie rod(s). Racks also feature in the theory of gear
geometry, where, for instance, the tooth shape of an interchangeable set of gears
may be specified for the rack (infinite radius), and the tooth shapes for gears of
particular actual radii then derived from that. The rack and pinion gear type is
employed in a rack railway.
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Application of Gears
1. Transmission
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2. Differential
3. Speed Reducer
66
4. Steering Gear
67
5. Lifting
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GEAR NOMENCLATURES
SPUR GEAR
The spur gear is the simplest type of gear manufactured and is generally used for
the transmission of rotary motion between parallel shafts. The spur gear is the
first choice option for gears except when high speeds, loads, and ratios direct
toward other options.
Other gear types may also be preferred to provide more silent low-vibration
operation. A single spur gear is generally selected to have a ratio range of 1:1 and
1:6 with a pitch line velocity of up to 25 m/s. The spur gear has an operating
efficiency of 98-99%. The pinion is made from a harder material than the wheel.
A gear pair should be selected to have the highest number of teeth consistent with
a suitable safety margin in strength and wear. The minimum number of teeth on
a gear with a normal pressure angle of 20 degrees is 18.
The preferred number of teeth is as follows:
12 13 14 15 16 18 20 22 24 25 28 30 32 34 38 40 45 50 54 60 64 70 72 75 80 84
90 96 100 120 140 150 180 200 220 250
69
70
SPUR GEAR TERMINOLOGIES:
Diametral pitch (Pd ) The number of teeth per one inch of pitch circle
diameter
Module (m) The length, in mm, of the pitch circle diameter per
tooth.
Circular pitch (Pc) The distance between adjacent teeth measured
along the are at the pitch circle diameter
Addendum ( a ) The height of the tooth above the pitch circle
diameter.
Centre distance (c) The distance between the axes of two gears in
mesh.
Circular tooth thickness (ctt) The width of a tooth measured along the area at
the Pitch circle diameter.
Dedendum (d) The depth of the tooth below the pitch circle
diameter.
Outside diameter ( Do ) The diameter of outside circle.
Base Circle diameter ( Db ) The diameter on which the involute teeth profile
is based.
Root diameter (Di) The diameter of root circle.
Pitch circle dia ( Dp ) The diameter of the pitch circle.
Pitch point The point at which the pitch circle diameters of
two gears in mesh coincide.
Pitch to back The distance on a rack between the pitch circle
diameter line and the rear face of the rack.
Pressure angle (Φ) The angle between the tooth profile at the pitch
circle diameter and a radial line passing through
the same point.
Whole depth (ht) The total depth of the space between adjacent
teeth.
71
Speed ratio of spur gear
The speed ratio of gears may be defined as the ratio of the angular speed of the driving
gear to the angular speed of the driven gear and is equal to the number of teeth on the
driven divided by the number of teeth of the driver.
Speed of driver = Teeth on driven = D

Speed of driven Teeth on driver D1
n1 = N = D
n N1 D1
Pitch Circles (D) and Pitch Point (P)
Pitch circles are circles that represent the center circle of the driven and driving
gears. The point of intersection between the two pitch circles is called Pitch Point.
Circular Pitch (Pc)

Is the distance from the center of one tooth to the center of the next tooth, measured
on the pitch circle.
Pc = π D where: D = Pitch circle diameter
N N = Number of teeth
Diametral Pitch (Pd)

It is used to designate the tooth size; it is equal to the number of teeth divided by the
diameter of the pitch circle.
Pd = N
D
Module (m)
It is used to designate the tooth size in metric system.
m=1 = D
Pd N
72
Relation between Circular Pitch and Diametral Pitch
Pc = π D and Pd = N
N D
Pc Pd = π
Path of Contact
A line drawn through all the points at which the teeth touch each other. This may be
a straight line or a curved line, depending upon the nature of the curves which form
the tooth outlines. In all properly constructed gears, the pitch point is one point on
the path of contact.
Pressure Angle or Obliquity of Action, θ

Is the angle between the line drawn through the pitch point perpendicular to the line
of centers and the line drawn from the pitch point to the point where a pair of teeth
are in contact.
Law Governing the Shape of the Teeth

The line drawn from the pitch point to the point where the teeth are in contact must
be perpendicular to a line drawn through the point of contact tangent to the curves of
the teeth; that is, the common normal to the tooth curves at all points of contact must
pass through the pitch point.
STANDARD MODULES
73
GEAR TOOTH PROPORTIONS
0 0 0 0 0
System 14.5 Brown 14.5 Full 20 Full 20 Stub 20 Fellows
and sharpe Depth Std Depth Std
Addendum 1/Pd 1/Pd 1/Pd 0.8/Pd 1/Pd
Dedendum 1.157/Pd 1.157/Pd 1.157/Pd 1/Pd 1.25/Pd
Clearance 0.157/Pd 0.157/Pd 0.157/Pd 0.2/Pd 0.25/Pd
Working 2/Pd 2/Pd 2/Pd 1.6/Pd 2/Pd

Depth
Total Depth 2.157/Pd 2.157/Pd 2.157/Pd 1.8/Pd 2.25/Pd
Outside N+2 N+2 N+2 N + 1.6 N+2

Diameter Pd Pd Pd Pd Pd
Tooth 1.5708/Pd 1.5708/Pd 1.5708/Pd 1.5708/Pd 1.5708/Pd

Thickness
Tooth 1.5708/Pd 1.5708/Pd 1.5708/Pd 1.5708/Pd 1.5708/Pd

Space
Fillet 0.209/Pd 0.209/Pd 0.236/Pd 0.3/Pd 0.25/Pd

Radius
74
DRAWING A SPUR GEAR
75
76
77
MESHING SPUR GEARS
78
Examples:
1. A pair of spur gears with a gear ratio of 2:1 has a diametral pitch of 6. Determine
the number of teeth in each gear when the center distance between gears is 5 in.
Given: Pd = 6
C = 5 in
N=2
N1
Solution: N = D = 2 N1 = Pd x D1
N1 D1 = 6 x 3.33 i in
= 19.98
N1 = 20
From the given ratio,

D=2D N=2
C = D + D1 N1
2
Substituting D to the center distance equation, N = 2 x N1
C = 2D1 + D1 = 2 x 20
2 N = 40
5 = 3D1 3D1 = 10
2 D1 = 3.33in
2. A pinion with known module and number of teeth rotates at 2400 rpm and drives
a gear at 800 rpm. Determine the number of teeth on the gear, circular pitch and
the theoretical center distance.
Solution:
Velocity ratio = np = 2400 = 3

ng 800
Dp = m Np = 2 (24) = 48 mm
Ng = 3 Ng = 3 (24) = 72 teeth
Np
Pc = π m = π (2) = 6.28 mm
C = Dp + Dg
2
Dg = m Ng = 2 (72) = 144 mm
C = Dp + Dg = 48 + 144 = 96 mm
2 2
79
1. A pair of involute gears of known base circle diameters with (a) center distance =
120mm and (b) center distance = 100mm is given. Determine the pressure angles
of the gears for cases (a) and (b), and the ratio of pitch circle diameters.
2. A pair of mating gears of known pressure angle, numbers of teeth, and center
distance is given. The pinion has stub teeth and the gear has full involute teeth.
Calculate the contact ratio and the diametral pitch.
80
3. Draw one half of the Spur Gear with 20 teeth, a diametral pitch of 2.5, and a 200
full depth standard.
Position: Landscape
Scale: 1:1
81
VII. BELTS AND PULLEYS
Lesson Objectives:
1. Identify the applications of belts and Pulleys.
2. Solve the problems using analytical Method.
82
BELTS AND PULLEYS
Introduction
The belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of
pulleys that rotate at the same speed or at different speeds. The amount of power
transmitted depends upon the following factors:
1. The velocity of the belt.

2. The tension under which the belt is placed on the pulleys.
3. The arc of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley.
4. The conditions under which the belt is used.
Selection of a Belt Drive
1. Speed of the driving and driven shafts,

2. Speed reduction ratio,
3. Power to be transmitted,
4. Centre distance between the shafts,
5. Positive drive requirements,
6. Shafts layout,
7. Space available, and
8. Service conditions.
Types of Belt Drives
1. Light drives – These are used to transmit small powers at belt speeds up to about
10 m/sec (e.g. Agricultural machines, and small machine tools).
2. Medium drives – These are used to transmit medium power at belt speeds over
10 m/sec but up to 22 m/ sec (e.g. machine tools).
3. Heavy drives – These are used to transmit large powers at belt speeds above 22
m/sec (e.g. Compressors and generators).
83
Types of Belts
1. Flat belt – Is mostly used in factories and workshops, where a moderate amount
of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another when the two pulleys
are not more than 8 meters apart.
84
2. V-belt – Is mostly used in factories and workshops, where a moderate amount of

power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are
very near to each other.
85
3. Circular belt or rope – Is mostly used in factories and workshops, where a great
amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two
pulleys are more than 8 meters apart.
86
4. Toothed belts – They’re also known as Timing belts are a positive transfer belt
and can track relative movement. These belts have teeth that fit into a matching
toothed pulley. When correctly tensioned, they have no slippage, run at
constant speed, and are often used to transfer direct motion for indexing or timing
purposes.
87
Material Used for Belts
1. Leather belts
2. Cotton of fabric belts
3. Rubber belts
4. Balata belts
Types of Flat belt drives
1. Open belt drive – It is used when shafts arranged parallel and rotating in the
same direction.
2. Crossed or twist belt drive – It is used when shafts arranged parallel and rotating
in the opposite directions.
88
3. Quarter turn belt drive – Is used with shafts arranged at right angles and rotating
in one definite direction. In order to prevent the belt from leaving the pulley, the
width of the face of the pulley should be greater or equal to 1.4 b, where b is the
belt width.
4. Belt drive with idlers – Is used when shafts arranged parallel and when an open
belt drive cannot be used due to small angle of contact on the smaller pulley. This
type of drive is provided to obtain high velocity ratio and when the required belt
tension cannot be obtained by other means.
89
5. Compound belt drive – Is used when power is transmitted from one shaft to
another through number of pulleys.
6. Stepped or cone pulley drive - Is used for changing the speed of the driven shaft
while the main or driving shaft runs at constant speed. This is accomplished by
shifting the belt from one part of the steps to the other.
90
7. Fast and loose pulley drive – Is used when the driven or machine shaft is to be
started or stopped when ever desired without interfering with the driving shaft.
A pulley which is keyed to the machine shaft is called fast pulley and runs at the
same speed as that of machine shaft. A loose pulley runs freely over the machine
shaft and is incapable of transmitting any power. When the driven shaft is
required to be stopped, the belt is pushed on to the loose pulley by means of
sliding having belt forks.
Velocity ratio of belt drive
It is the ratio between the velocities of the driver and the follower or driven.
V1 = V2 where: d1 = Diameter of the driver

π d1N1 = π d2N2 d2 = Diameter of the driven or follower
N1 = Speed of the driver
d1 = N2 N2 = Speed of the driven or follower
d2 N1
Velocity ratio of a compound belt drive
For 4 pulleys:
Note: N2 = N3 since they are keyed to the same shaft
N2 x N4 = d1 x d3
N1 N3 d2 d4
For 6 pulleys:
Speed of the last driven = Product of diameters of the drivers

Speed of the first driver Product of diameters of the drivens
N6 = d1 x d3 x d5
N1 d2 x d4 x d6
91
Slip of belt
The frictional grip becomes insufficient that may cause forward motion of the belt
without carrying the driven pulley with it.
The result of the belt slipping is to reduce the velocity ration of the system. As the
slipping of the belt is a common phenomenon, thus the belt should be used where a
definite velocity ratio is of importance.
N2 = d1 1 - S1 1 – S2
N1 d2 100 100
Where: S1% = Slip between the driver and the belt

S2% = Slip between the belt and the driven or follower
Creep of Belt
When the belt passes from the slack side to the tight side, a certain portion of the belt
extends and it contacts again when the belt passes from the tight side to slack side.
Due to these changes of length, there is relative motion between the belt and the
pulley surfaces. This relative motion is termed as creep.
N2 = d1 x E + (δ2)1/2
N1 d2 E + (δ1)1/2
Where: δ1 and δ2 = Stress in the belt on the tight and slack side respectively
E = Young’s modulus for the material of belt
Length of Open Belt Drive
L = 2C + π (D1 + D2) + (D2 - D1)2

2 4C
ɵ = 1800 +/- 2 sin-1 (D2 – D1)

2C
Where: L = Length of belt

D1 = Diameter of smaller pulley
D2 = Diameter of bigger pulley
ɵ = Arc of contact
+ = For bigger pulley
- = For smaller pulley
92
Length of Closed Belt Drive
L = 2C + π (D1 + D2) + (D2 + D1)2

2 4C
ɵ = 1800 + 2 sin-1 (D2 – D1)2

2C
Where: L = Length of belt

D1 = Diameter of smaller pulley
D2 = Diameter of bigger pulley
ɵ = Arc of contact
93
Examples:
1. An engine running at 150 rpm drives a line shaft by means of a belt. The engine
pulley is 750mm diameter and the pulley on the line shaft being 450mm. A 900mm
diameter pulley on the line shaft drives a 150mm diameter pulley keyed to a
dynamo shaft. Find the speed of the dynamo shaft when a. there is no slip, and b.
there is a slip of 2% at each drive.
Solution:
a. When there is no slip
N4 = d1 x d3 N4 = 750 x 900 N4 = 1500 rpm

N1 d2 x d4 150 450 x 150
b. When there is slip of 2% on each drive
N4 = d1 x d3 1 – S1 1 – S2 N4 = 750 x 900 1 - 2 1- 2
N1 d2 x d4 100 100 150 450 x 150 100 100
N4 = 1500 x 0.96 = 1440 rpm
94
2. The power is transmitted from a pulley 1m diameter running at 200 rpm to a

pulley 2.25m diameter by means of a belt. Find the speed lost by the driven pulley
as a result of creep, if the stress on the tight and slack side of the belt is 1.4 Mpa
and 0.5 Mpa respectively. The Young’s modulus for the material of the belt is 100
Mpa.
Given: d1 = 1m σ1 = 1.4 Mpa = 1,400,000 N/m2

N1 = 200 rpm σ2 = 0.5 Mpa = 500,000 N/m2
d2 = 2.25m E = 100 Mpa = 100,000,000 N/m2
Solution:
Let N2 = Speed of the driven pulley
Neglecting creep,
N2 = d1 N2 = N1 d1 = 200 = 88.9 rpm

N1 d2 d2 2.25
Considering creep,
N2 = d1 x E + (δ2)1/2
N1 = d2 E + (δ1)1/2
N2 = N1 x d1 x E + (δ2)1/2 = (200) (1) 100,000,000 + (500,000)1/2 = 88.7 rpm

d2 E + (δ1)1/2 2.25 100,000,000 + (1,400,000)1/2
= (200) (1) 100,000,000 + (500,000)1/2 = 88.7 rpm

v2.25 100,000,000 + (1,400,000)1/2
Therefore, speed lost by the driven pulley due to creep

88.9 – 88.7 = 0.2 rpm
95
1. A flat belt drive for a compressor running at 720 rpm is driven by 25 KW motor
with 1440 rpm. Find the length of the open type belt in m and the arc of contact in
rad if the center distance between pulleys is 3m with 280mm diameter for the
driving pulley.
2. An engine running at 200 rpm with 800mm diameter pulley drives a line shaft by
means of a belt. The pulley diameter on the line shaft is 400mm. Another pulley
with 950mm diameter on the same line shaft, drives a 175mm diameter keyed to
another shaft. Find the speed of the last pulley when there is slip of 1.75% at each
drive?
96
97

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Mechanical Engineering Department Machine Elements

At the end of this lesson, the student would be able to:

1. Identify the applications of linkages.

The science of mechanism

Two parts to the science of mechanism:

1. Pure mechanism or kinematics of machines

2. Constructive mechanism or machine design

It is defined as a rigid piece or a non-elastic substance that serves to transmit force

- Connecting rod of an engine

Consists of a number of pairs of elements connected by links. If the combination is

Consists of two cranks and stationary pair members.

The function of the link mechanism is to produce rotating, oscillating, or reciprocating

1. Continuous rotation into continuous rotation, with a constant or variable angular

2. Continuous rotation into oscillation or reciprocation, with a constant or variable

3. Oscillation into oscillation, or reciprocation into reciprocation, with a constant or

SLIDER CRANK MECHANISM

APPLICATION OF SLIDER CRANK MECHANISM

APPLICATION OF FOUR-BAR LINKAGE

Point on a body Sliding pair

Pair joining two links moving

relative to each other Sliding pair with

Fixed axis fixed guides

EXERCISES: Solve the following problems.

At the end of this lesson, the student would be able to:

1. Identify the applications of motion.

2. Solve the problems related to velocity and acceleration.

Is the rate of change of displacement.

It is how fast something moves, which is distance divided by time.

v = x , 5 ft/sec, 60 mi/hr, 10 m/sec

Average velocity can also be expressed in this way:

ω = θ , 300 rev/min, 2π rad/hr

Linear Velocity can also be expressed in this way:

Arc length: x = r θ v=x

substituting x to the value of arc length,

Linear acceleration in uniformly accelerated motion

Linear acceleration in uniformly accelerated motion

x = vot + ½ at2 where: x = Distance of displacement travelled by

Is the rate of change of a body’s angular velocity with respect to time.

where: α = Average angular acceleration

Angular motion equations with constant angular acceleration

a = 3.2 m/s2 vo = 0 m/s x =?

x = vot + 0.5at2 = (0 m/s) (32.8 s) + 0.5(3.20 m/s2) (32.8 s)2

110 m = (0 m/s)(5.21 s)+ 0.5(a)(5.21 s)2

110 m = (13.57 s2)a

a = (110 m)/(13.57 s2) = 8.10 m/ s2

vo = 22.4 m/s t = 2.55 s x=?

x = (vo+ v) t = (22.4 m/s + 0 m/s) (2.55 s)

ω = v = 5 cm/sec = 0.33 rad/sec (60 sec/min) (1 rev/2 π rad) = 3.18 rev/min

EXERCISES: Solve the following problems.

2. A particle is moving in a straight line with a constant acceleration of 60 ft/min2. When

III. VELOCITY ANALYSIS

At the end of this lesson, the student would be able to:

1. Identify the applications of the velocity analysis method.

2. Determine the velocities of the mechanism using a graphical method.

Different methods in identifying velocities of mechanism:

1. Resolution and composition

2. Instantaneous axis of velocity

4. Velocity polygon or relative velocity

Space scale, ks e.g. Ks = 1 ft = 1in

Velocity scale, kv e.g. Kv = 10 ft/min = 1 in