Environmental Science Student Edition PDF

Texas
Heithaus • Arms
ABOUT THE COVER
Honeybees (Apis mellifera) provide valuable ecosystem services, including crop pollination and
honey production. Researchers use a variety of tools to track honeybees, from simple numbered
tags to RFID (radio frequency identification) tags.
Photo Credits
Cover, title page: honeycomb ©Brian Hagiwara/Foodpix/Getty Images; bees ©Old Dog
Photography/Flickr/Getty Images; tree ©Douglas Waters/The Image Bank/Getty Images.
Cover: rain forest ©altrendo nature/Getty Images; turtles ©Flickr/Getty Images; greenhouse
©Nigel Cattlin/Photo Researchers, Inc.; arctic ©Arctic-Images/The Image Bank/Getty Images;
storm chaser ©Ryan McGinnis/Flickr Select/Getty Images.
Text Credits
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: Adaptation of “Figure 4: Environmental portion of disease in the
major world regions” (retitled “Poor Health by World Region”) by Kirk R. Smith from “How Much
Global Ill Health Is Attributable to Environmental Factors?” by Kirk R. Smith, Carlos F. Corvalán,
and Tord Kjellström from Epidemiology, vol. 10, no. 5, September 1999, pp. 573–584. Copyright
©1999 by Epidemiology Resources Inc.
United Nations Population Fund (UNPFA): From “Women and the Environment” from The
State of the World Population 2001, edited by Alex Marshall. Copyright ©2001 by UNPFA.
Copyright © 2013 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

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AUTHORS
Michael R. Heithaus, Ph.D.

Executive Director, School of Environment, Arts, and Society
Associate Professor, Department of Biological Sciences
Florida International University
North Miami, Florida
Mike Heithaus received his Ph.D. in including the ecological role of large-bodied
Biological Sciences from Simon Fraser predators and herbivores in marine
University. He is now the Executive Director ecosystems. He uses his work to help
of Florida International University’s School develop plans for marine conservation. In
of Environment, Arts, and Society, which addition to his research, Dr. Heithaus has
brings together the natural and social worked to bring science and nature to the
sciences and humanities to develop public through documentary films on the
solutions to today’s environmental Discovery Channel and the National
challenges. His research, conducted mainly Geographic Channel, as well as special
in Western Australia and south Florida, video projects for the classroom.
focuses on predator-prey interactions,
Karen Arms, Ph.D., J.D.
Karen Arms received her Ph.D. in molecular and introductory biology at South College in
biology from Oxford University and a doctor Savannah, Georgia. In addition to Holt
of law from Cornell University. She was an Environmental Science, Dr. Arms is the author
assistant professor of biology at Cornell of several college-level biology textbooks.
University, where she taught introductory Her interest in and concern for the
biology and courses in science and society. environment led her to form an ecotourism
She also taught marine biology at the organization that introduces people to the
University of Georgia Marine Biology Station ecosystems of the southeastern coast.
Authors iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Contributing Writer Janice L. Branson Linda Gaul, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor Epidemiologist
E. Raymond Heithaus School of Agriculture Texas Department of Health
Philip and Sheila Jordan Professor of Tennessee Technological University Austin, Texas
Environmental Science & Biology Cookeville, Tennessee
Kenyon College Matthew R. Gilligan, Ph.D.
Gambier, Ohio Gary Campbell, Ph.D. Professor and Program Coordinator,
Professor of Mineral Economics Marine Sciences
Safety Reviewer School of Business and Economics Department of Natural Sciences and
Michigan Technological University Mathematics
Jack Gerlovich, Ph.D. Houghton, Michigan Savannah State University
Associate Professor Savannah, Georgia
School of Education Laura Chenault, D.V.M.
Drake University Bulverde, Texas Deborah Jean Gochfeld, Ph.D.
Des Moines, Iowa Senior Scientist
Marian R. Chertow, Ph.D. National Center for Natural Products
Assistant Professor of Industrial Research
Academic Reviewers Environmental Management University of Mississippi
Jess F. Adkins, Ph.D. Yale School of Forestry and University, Mississippi
Assistant Professor of Geochemistry and Environmental Studies
Global Environmental Science Yale University John Goodge, Ph.D.
New Haven, Connecticut Associate Professor of Geology
Division of Geological and Planetary
Sciences Southern Methodist University
Susan L. Cutter, Ph.D. Dallas, Texas
California Institute of Technology Carolina Distinguished Professor
Pasadena, California Department of Geography Mary L. Haasch, Ph.D.
Foster K. Amey, Ph.D. University of South Carolina NRC Senior Scientist
Associate Professor of Sociology Columbia, South Carolina U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Department of Sociology and Duluth, Minnesota
Susan B. Dickey, R.N., Ph.D.
Anthropology Associate Professor David Haig, Ph.D.
Middle Tennessee State University Pediatric Nursing Associate Professor of Biology
Murfreesboro, Tennessee Temple University Department of Organismic and
Mead Allison, Ph.D. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Evolutionary Biology
Associate Professor Harvard University
Dale Elifrits, Ph.D. Cambridge, Massachusetts
Department of Geology and Earth Professor
Sciences Department of Physics and Geology Vicki Hansen, Ph.D.
Tulane University Northern Kentucky University Professor of Geological Sciences
New Orleans, Louisiana Highland Heights, Kentucky Department of Geology
David M. Armstrong, Ph.D. Southern Methodist University
Turgay Ertekin, Ph.D. Dallas, Texas
Professor George E. Trimble Chair in Earth and Mineral
Environmental, Population, and Sciences Rosalind Harris, Ph.D.
Organismic Biology Professor, Rural Agriculture
Professor of Petroleum and Natural Gas
University of Colorado
Engineering Department of Sociology
Boulder, Colorado
Department of Energy and Geo- University of Kentucky
Paul D. Asimow, Ph.D. Environmental Engineering Lexington, Kentucky
Associate Professor of Geology and Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania Richard Hey, Ph.D.
Geochemistry
Professor of Geophysics
Division of Geological and Planetary Ronald A. Feldman, Ph.D. School of Ocean and Earth Sciences
Sciences
Ruth Harris Ottman Centennial Professor for Technology
California Institute of Technology
the Advancement of Social Work Education University of Hawaii
Pasadena, California
Director, Center for the Study of Social Work Honolulu, Hawaii
Nolan B. Aughenbaugh, Ph.D. Practice
Professor Columbia University
Department of Geology and New York, New York
Geological Engineering
University of Mississippi
University, Mississippi
iv Acknowledgments
James C. Hower, Ph.D. Eva Oberdörster, Ph.D. Miles Silman, Ph.D.
Editor-in-Chief Lecturer Associate Professor of Biology
International Journal of Coal Geology Department of Biological Sciences Department of Biology
Senior Scientist Southern Methodist University Wake Forest University
Center for Applied Energy Research Dallas, Texas Winston-Salem, North Carolina
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky
Hilary Olson, Ph.D. Marc Slattery, Ph.D.
Research Scientist Division Director, NIUST Ocean
Steven A. Jennings, Ph.D. Institute of Geophysics Biotechnology Center and Repository
Associate Professor of Geography The University of Texas Department of Pharmacognosy
Department of Geography and Austin, Texas University of Mississippi
Environmental Studies University, Mississippi
University of Colorado
Ken Peace, C.C.E.
Colorado Springs, Colorado Geology Supervisor Spencer Steinberg, Ph.D.
Ark Land Company Associate Professor, Environmental Organic
Elizabeth W. Kleppinger, Ph.D. St. Louis, Missouri Chemistry
Adjunct Professor Chemistry Department
Department of Chemistry Per F. Peterson, Ph.D. University of Nevada
Eastern Kentucky University Professor and Chair Las Vegas, Nevada
Richmond, Kentucky Department of Nuclear Engineering
University of California Richard Storey, Ph.D.
Joel Leventhal, Ph.D. Berkeley, California Dean of the Faculty and Professor of Biology
Emeritus Scientist Colorado College
U.S. Geological Survey and Diversified David Pimentel, Ph.D. Colorado Springs, Colorado
Geochemistry Professor and Agricultural Ecologist
Lakewood, Colorado Department of Entomology, Ramesh Teegavarapu, Ph.D., P.E.
Systematics and Ecology Assistant Professor (Adjunct)
Alex Mills, Ph.D. Cornell University Department of Civil Engineering
University of Toronto Ithaca, New York Assistant Director
Toronto, Ontario, Canada Kentucky Water Resources Research
Mary M. Poulton, Ph.D.
Institute
Joann Mossa, Ph.D. Department Head and Associate Professor
University of Kentucky
Associate Professor of Geological Engineering Lexington, Kentucky
Department of Geography Department of Mining and Geological
University of Florida Engineering Martin VanDyke, Ph.D.
Gainesville, Florida University of Arizona Professor of Chemistry, Emeritus
Tucson, Arizona Front Range Community College
Gary Mueller, Ph.D.
Westminster, Colorado
Associate Professor of Nuclear Engineering Barron Rector, Ph.D.
Department of Engineering Associate Professor and Extension Range Judith Weis, Ph.D.
University of Missouri Specialist Professor of Biology
Rolla, Missouri Texas Agricultural Extension Service Department of Biological Sciences
Texas A&M University Rutgers University
Barbara Murck, Ph.D. College Station, Texas Newark, New Jersey
Director, Environmental Programs
University of Toronto Steven Richard Reese, Ph.D. Elizabeth Wenk, Ph.D.
Mississauga, Ontario, Canada Director, Radiation Center Instructor Adjunct Faculty
Department of Nuclear Engineering Department of Science
Emily Niemeyer, Ph.D. and Radiation Health Physics Cerro Coso Community College
Assistant Professor of Chemistry Oregon State University Bishop, California
Department of Chemistry Corvallis, Oregon
Southwestern University Mary Wicksten, Ph.D.
Georgetown, Texas Dork Sahagian, Ph.D. Professor of Biology
Research Professor, Stratigraphy and Basin Department of Biology
Bryan Norton, Ph.D. Analysis, Geodynamics Texas A&M University
Professor Global Analysis, Interpretation, and College Station, Texas
School of Public Policy Modeling Program
Georgia Institute of Technology University of New Hampshire
Atlanta, Georgia Durham, New Hampshire
Acknowledgments v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, continued
Teacher Reviewers Katherine Cummings Clifford Lerner
Science Teacher Biology Teacher
Robert Akeson Currituck County Keene High School
Science Teacher Currituck, North Carolina Keene, New Hampshire
Boston Latin School
Boston, Massachusetts Alonda Droege Stewart Lipsky
Science Teacher Science Teacher
Dan Aude Evergreen High School Seward Park High School
Magnet Programs Coordinator Seattle, Washington New York, New York
Montgomery Public Schools
Montgomery, Alabama Richard Filson Mike Lubich
Science Teacher Science Teacher
Lowell Bailey Edison High School Mapletown High School
Science Teacher Stockton, California Greensboro, Pennsylvania
Bedford North Lawrence High School
Bedford, Indiana Randa Flinn Thomas Manerchia
Science Teacher Environmental Science Teacher, Retired
Robert Baronak Northeast High School Archmere Academy
Biology Teacher Fort Lauderdale, Florida Claymont, Delaware
Donegal High School
Mount Joy, Pennsylvania Jane Frailey Tammie Niffenegger
Science Coordinator Science Chair and Science Teacher
Michele Benn Hononegah High School Port Washington High School
Science Teacher Hononegah, Illinois Waldo, Wisconsin
Beaver Falls High School
Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania Art Goldsmith Gabriele DeBear Paye
Biology and Earth Sciences Teacher Science and Environmental Technology
David Blinn Hallandale High School Lead Teacher
Secondary Sciences Teacher Hallandale, Florida West Roxbury High School
Wrenshall High School West Roxbury, Massachusetts
Wrenshall, Minnesota Sharon Harris
Science Teacher Denice Sandefur
Bart Bookman Mother of Mercy High School Fire Ecology and Science Teacher
Science Teacher Cincinnati, Ohio Nucla High School
Stevenson High School Nucla, Colorado
Bronx, New York Carolyn Hayes
Honors Biology and Environmental Jennifer M. Fritz
Daniel Bugenhagen Science Teacher Science Teacher
Science Teacher Center Grove High School North Springs High School
Yutan Community School Greenwood, Indiana Atlanta, Georgia
Yutan, Nebraska
Stacey Jeffress Dyanne Semerjibashian, Ph.D.
Robert Chandler Environmental Science Teacher Science Teacher
Science Teacher El Dorado High School Pflugerville High School
Soddy-Daisy High School El Dorado, Arkansas Pflugerville, Texas
Soddy-Daisy, Tennessee
Donald R. Kanner Bert Sherwood
Johanna Chase, C.H.E.S. Physics Instructor Science/Health Specialist
Health Educator Lane Technical High School Socorro Independent School District
California State University Chicago, Illinois El Paso, Texas
Dominguez Hills, California
Edward Keller Dan Trockman
Cindy Copolo, Ph.D. Science Teacher Science Teacher
Science Specialist Morgantown High School Hopkins High School
Summit Solutions Morgantown, West Virginia Minnetonka, Minnesota
Bahama, North Carolina
Kathy LaRoe Jim Watson
Linda Culp Science Teacher Science Teacher
Science Teacher St. Paul School District Dalton High School
Thorndale High School St. Paul, Nebraska Dalton, Georgia
Thorndale, Texas
vi Acknowledgments
H o l t M c D o u g a l
ENTAL SCIENCE
ENVIRONM
Yes, it’s educational.

No, it’s not boring.
Student Online Environmental Science Textbook

One Stop You’ll have access to all program resources Explore the world around
With this convenient at HMDScience.com. In addition to your you with pages of colorful
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textbook in your tools, including the Smart Grapher. Get exciting Case Studies, and
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printable copies of all Concept Maps, FoldNote animations, everyday materials. Learn
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concepts are connected to
your everyday life.
online Environmental Science vii

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viii
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Ecozine photos ©Lisa Brennan
ix
Look for
Labs O n l i n e
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H M D S c ie n ce .co
QuickLab Inquiry Lab

Complete this easy activity in less Develop and perform your own
than one class period. procedure, often using a real-life
example.
Field Activity
Observe and apply a subject in a
real-world setting. Probeware Lab
Integrate data-collection technology
STEM Lab to generate more information and
perform deeper analyses.
Utilize technology and engineering
through hands-on projects.
Other lab types include
Exploration Lab • Data Analysis
• Environmental Engineering
Explore a situation or phenomenon
to improve your understanding. • Observation
• Simulation
x
CONTENTS
in brief
unit 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

CHAPTER 1 Science and the Environment 4
CHAPTER 2 Tools of Environmental Science 30
chapter 3 The Dynamic Earth 58
(bc) ©Yann Layma/Stone/Getty Images; (t) ©blickwinkel/Alamy; (bc) ©Luis Veiga/Image Bank/Getty Images; (tc) ©Prisma/Superstock; (b) ©NHPA/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (tc) ©Juniors Bildarchiv/Alamy Images
unit 2 ECOLOGY
CHAPTER 4 The Organization of Life 92
CHAPTER 5 How Ecosystems Work 116
CHAPTER 6 Biomes 142
CHAPTER 7 Aquatic Ecosystems 172
unit 3 POPULATIONS
CHAPTER 8 Understanding Populations 196
CHAPTER 9 The Human Population 218
CHAPTER 10 Biodiversity 240
unit 4 WATER, AIR, AND LAND

CHAPTER 11 Water 268
CHAPTER 12 Air 302
CHAPTER 13 Atmosphere and Climate Change 326
CHAPTER 14 Land 354
CHAPTER 15 Food and Agriculture 378
unit 5 MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES

CHAPTER 16 Mining and Mineral Resources 410
CHAPTER 17 Nonrenewable Energy 434
CHAPTER 18 Renewable Energy 456
CHAPTER 19 Waste 480
unit 6 OUR HEALTH AND OUR FUTURE

CHAPTER 20 The Environment and Human Health 510
CHAPTER 21 Economics, Policy, and the Future 532
Contents in Brief xi
CONTENTS
Unit 1 Introduction to Environmental Science
Chapter 1 Science and the Environment 4

1 Understanding Our Environment 5
Case Study Dam Removal on the Penobscot River 12
2 The Environment and Society 16
Making a Difference Predators of Africa 22
Chapter Summary and Review 24
Chapter Lab Field Activity
What’s in an Ecosystem? 28
Chapter 2 TOOLS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 30

1 Scientific Methods 31
2 Statistics and Models 38
3 Making Informed Decisions 45
Case Study Saving the Everglades:
Making Informed Decisions 46
Maps in Action A Topographic Map of Keene,
New Hampshire 50
(t) ©Michael Melford/Getty Images; (c) ©Charlotte Main/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) ©Earth Imaging/Stone/Getty Images
Society and the
Environment Bats and Bridges 51
Chapter Lab Data Analysis
Risk Assessment 56
Chapter 3 The Dynamic Earth 58

1 The Geosphere 59
2 The Atmosphere 67
3 The Hydrosphere and Biosphere 73
Case Study Storm Surge, Tsunamis, and Coastal Wetlands 74
Maps in Action Earthquake Hazard Map of the
Contiguous United States 82
Society and the
Environment Ocean Currents 83
Chapter Lab Simulation
Beaches 88
Earth Science Connection — This content correlates to common Earth Science standards.
xii Contents
Unit 2 Ecology
Chapter 4 The Organization of Life 92

1 Ecosystems: Everything Is Connected 93
2 Evolution 97
Case Study Darwin’s Finches 98
3 The Diversity of Living Things 102
Making a Difference Butterfly Ecologist 108
Chapter Lab Behavior Analysis
How Do Brine Shrimp Select a Habitat? 114
Chapter 5 how ecosystems work 116

1 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 117
Case Study DDT in an Aquatic Food Chain 120
2 The Cycling of Matter 124
3 How Ecosystems Change 129
Case Study Communities Maintained by Fire 130
Maps in Action Tracking Bats and Insects in Texas 134
Society and the
Environment Changing Seas 135
Factors That Influence Ecosystems 140
(cr) ©A. Cosmos Blank/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (tr) ©Photodisc/Getty Images
Contents xiii
Chapter 6 biomes 142
1 What Is a Biome? 143
2 Forest Biomes 146
Case Study Deforestation, Climate, and Floods 150
3 Grassland, Desert, and Tundra Biomes 155
Making a
Difference A Little Piece of Cajun Prairie 164
Identify Your Local Biome 170
Chapter 7 Aquatic Ecosystems 172

1 Freshwater Ecosystems 173
(cl) ©Marty Snyderman/Corbis; (tl) ©Photo Researchers, Inc.; (bc) ©Scimat/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (br) ©M. I. Walker/Photo Researchers, Inc.
2 Marine Ecosystems 179
Case Study Restoration of the Chesapeake Bay 180
Maps in Action Wetlands in the United States, 1780s vs. 1980s 186
Society and the
Environment Hurricane Katrina and New Orleans 187
Chapter Lab Observation
Eutrophication: Too Much of a Good Thing? 192
xiv Contents
Unit 3 Populations
Chapter 8 Understanding Populations 196

1 How Populations Change in Size 197
2 How Species Interact with Each Other 203
Case Study Predator-Prey Adaptations 206
Society and the
Environment Conserving Top Predators 210
Calculating Generation Rate 216
Chapter 9 The Human Population 218

1 Studying Human Populations 219
2 Changing Population Trends 225
Case Study Thailand’s Population Challenges 228
Maps in Action Fertility Rates and Female Literacy in Africa 232
Society and the
Environment Lost Populations: What Happened? 233
(t) ©Still Pictures/Peter Arnold, Inc.; (c) ©Syndicated Features Limited/The Image Works; (b) ©Photoshot USA/Canada

How Will Our Population Grow? 238
Chapter 10 Biodiversity 240

1 What Is Biodiversity? 241
2 Biodiversity at Risk 245
Case Study A Genetic Gold Rush in the Rain Forests 248
3 The Future of Biodiversity 252
Making a Difference Dr. E. O. Wilson: Champion of Biodiversity 258
Differences in Diversity 264
Contents xv
Unit 4 Water, air, and land
Chapter 11 Water 268

1 Water Resources 269
Case Study The Ogallala Aquifer: An Underground Treasure 272
2 Water Use and Management 276
3 Water Pollution 284
Points of View The Three Gorges Dam 294
Groundwater Filters 300
Chapter 12 Air 302

1 What Causes Air Pollution? 303
2 Air, Noise, and Light Pollution 309
Case Study The Health Effects of Ground-Level Ozone 310
3 Acid Precipitation 314
Maps in Action Light Sources 318
Society and the
Environment Killer Smog 319
The Acid Test 324
Chapter 13 Atmosphere and Climate Change
(t) ©Ralph A. Clevenger/Corbis; (b) ©NASA; (c) ©Deborah Davis/Getty Images

326
1 Climate 327
Case Study Ice Cores: Reconstructing Past Climates 330
2 The Ozone Shield 335
3 Climate Change 339
Making a
Difference Climate Scientist 346
Chapter Lab Environmental Engineering
Build a Model of Global Air Movement 352
xvi Contents
Chapter 14 land 354
1 How We Use Land 355
2 Urban Land Use 358
3 Land Management and Conservation 363
Case Study Conservation Planning 366
Making a
Difference Restoring the Range 370
Chapter Lab Modeling
Creating a Land-Use Model 376
Chapter 15 Food and Agriculture 378

1 Feeding the World 379
2 Crops and Soil 384
3 Animals and Agriculture 395
Case Study Menhaden: The Fish Behind the Farm 396
Points of View Genetically Modified Foods 400
(cr) ©David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc./Alamy; (tr) ©Jim Wark/Airphoto; (b) ©Edwin Remsberg/Alamy Images
Managing the Moisture in Garden Soil 406
Contents xvii
Unit 5 Mineral and energy resources
Chapter 16 Mining and Mineral Resources 410

1 Minerals and Mineral Resources 411
2 Mineral Exploration and Mining 415
Case Study Hydraulic Mining in the California Goldfields 418
3 Mining Regulations and Mine Reclamation 421
Maps in Action Mineral Production in the United States 426
Society and the
Environment Gold from Ghana 427
Extraction of Copper from Its Ore 432
Chapter 17 Nonrenewable Energy 434

1 Energy Resources and Fossil Fuels 435
Case Study The "Gas" Rush—Deep Hydraulic Fracturing 440
2 Nuclear Energy 444
Points of View Pipelines and Oil Sands 448
Your Household Energy Consumption 454
(tl) ©Dale O'Dell/Alamy Images; (cl) ©Accent Alaska.com/Alamy Images; (b) ©Corbis
xviii Contents
Chapter 18 Renewable Energy 456
1 Renewable Energy Today 457
Case Study A Super-Efficient Home 458
2 Developing Energy Technologies 466
Maps in Action Wind Power in the United States 472
Society and the
Environment Solar Living 473
Chapter Lab Modeling
Blowing in the Wind 478
Chapter 19 Waste 480

1 Solid Waste 481
2 Reducing Solid Waste 488
Case Study Paper or Plastic? 490
3 Hazardous Waste 493
Case Study Green Chemistry 496
Points of View How Should Nuclear Waste Be Stored? 500
(tr) ©Rafael Macia/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (cr) ©Photoshot USA/Canada; (b) ©Michelle Bridwell/Frontera Fotos

Out of Sight—Out of Mind 506
Contents xix
Unit 6 our health and our future
Chapter 20 The Environment and Human Health 510

1 Pollution and Human Health 511
Case Study Chemicals That Disrupt Hormones 516
2 Biological Hazards 519
Maps in Action Lyme Disease Risk 524
Society and the
Environment Water Challenges 525
Lead Poisoning and Mental Ability 530
Chapter 21 Economics, Policy, and the Future 532

1 Economics and International Cooperation 533
Case Study Saving Species in the Open Ocean 536
2 Environmental Policies in the United States 539
3 The Importance of the Individual 544
Making a Difference Get Involved with the Environment 548
Chapter Lab Research
Be an Environmental Scientist 554
Student Resources
Appendix A Lab Safety R2
Appendix B Field Studies R6
Appendix C Note-Taking and Study Skills R12 (c) ©Alex Webb/Magnum Photos; (t) ©Michel Gounot/Godong/Corbis
Appendix D Math Skills Refresher R18
Appendix E Chemistry Refresher R24
Appendix F Mineral Uses R28
Appendix G Economics Concepts R30
Appendix H SI Conversions R32
Appendix I Environmental Careers R33
Appendix J Ecoskills R45
Appendix K Maps R56
English and Spanish Glossary R72

Index R92
xx Contents
labs
Chapter Labs QUICKLABS

Classifying Resources 14
ExplorationLabs Hypothesizing and Predicting 32
The Heat Is On! 70
What’s in an Ecosystem? 28 Deep Ocean Currents 78
Beaches 88 Pollen and Flower Diversity 105
Factors That Influence Ecosystems 140 Make Every Breath Count 125
Identify Your Local Biome 170 Plant Adaptations 158
Eutrophication: Too Much of a Good Thing? 192 Estuaries 180
Calculating Generation Rate 216 Population Growth 198
How Will Our Population Grow? 238 Estimating Population Growth 231
Differences in Diversity 264 Habitat Degradation 254
Groundwater Filters 300 Measuring Dissolved Oxygen 288
The Acid Test 324 Effects of Acid Precipitation 316
Build a Model of Global Air Movement 352 Investigating Prevailing Winds 330
Creating a Land-Use Model 376 Measuring Soil Depth and Compaction 365
Managing the Moisture in Garden Soil 406 Preventing Soil Erosion 386
Extraction of Copper from Its Ore 432 Surface Coal Mining 420
Your Household Energy Consumption 454 Conserving Energy 438
Out of Sight—Out of Mind 506 Hydrolysis 468
Be an Environmental Scientist 554 Here Today—Gone Tomorrow? 491
Simulating an Epidemic 520
Making a Decision 546
InquiryLabs
Risk Assessment 56
How Do Brine Shrimp Select a Habitat? 114
Blowing in the Wind 478
Lead Poisoning and Mental Ability 530
(l) ©Gerhard Gscheidle; (c) ©Ted Kinsman/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Contents xxi
features
Making a Difference
Predators of Africa 22
Butterfly Ecologist 108
A Little Piece of Cajun Prairie 164
Dr. E. O. Wilson: Champion of Biodiversity 258
Climate Scientist 346
Restoring the Range 370
Get Involved with the Environment 548
Maps in Action
A Topographic Map of Keene, New Hampshire 50

Earthquake Hazard Map of the Contiguous United States 82
Tracking Bats and Insects in Texas 134
Wetlands in the United States, 1780s vs. 1980s 186
Fertility Rates and Female Literacy in Africa 232
Light Sources 318
Areas of predicted Lyme
disease transmission Mineral Production in the United States 426
Wind Power in the United States 472
Lyme Disease Risk 524
Points of View
(t) ©Lincoln Brower; (b) ©Vincent Laforet, POOL/AP Images; (c) ©Flemming Søgaard Jensen/Flickr/Getty Images
The Three Gorges Dam 294
Genetically Modified Foods 400
Pipelines and Oil Sands 448
How Should Nuclear Waste Be Stored? 500
Society and the Environment
Bats and Bridges 51

Ocean Currents 83
Changing Seas 135
Hurricane Katrina and New Orleans 187
Conserving Top Predators 210
Lost Populations: What Happened? 233
Killer Smog 319
Gold from Ghana 427
Solar Living 473
Water Challenges 525
xxii Contents
CASESTUDIES
Dam Removal on the Penobscot River 12 Menhaden: The Fish Behind the Farm 396
A series of dams in Maine provided hydropower benefits but A small, inedible fish that most people have never heard of
also obstructed the paths of migratory fish. helps marine ecosystems by removing nitrogen pollutants.
Saving the Everglades: Making Informed Decisions 46 Hydraulic Mining in the California Goldfields 418
The destruction of Florida’s Everglades has jeopardized the The first environmental ruling in the United States halted mining
state’s tourism industry, farming, and economic future. methods that polluted rivers, damaged fields, and poisoned
marine animals.
Storm Surge, Tsunamis, and Coastal Wetlands 74
Maintaining and restoring wetland plants can help protect The “Gas Rush”—Deep Hydraulic Fracturing 440
coastal areas from natural disasters. Fluid pressure applied underground breaks rocks and frees
trapped oil or gas, but chemicals in the fluid can contaminate
Darwin’s Finches 98 the environment.
Scientific studies of unique species on the remote Galápagos
Islands found that evolutionary change can happen over a A Super-Efficient Home 458
surprisingly short period of time. Architects are developing tiny homes that can generate their
own heat and electricity—and even provide their own water
DDT in an Aquatic Food Chain 120 through a rainwater-collection system.
A U.S. government ban on the pesticide DDT has helped aquatic
food chains start to recover from its effects. Paper or Plastic? 490
Environmentally conscious shoppers debate whether it is better
Communities Maintained by Fire 130 to carry groceries home in plastic, paper, or cloth bags.
In a fire-adapted ecosystem, regular wildfires remove
old-growth trees and stimulate seeds to germinate. Green Chemistry 496
The U.S. Green Chemistry Institute strives to develop
Deforestation, Climate, and Floods 150 biodegradable products that use renewable raw materials and
Clearing trees in a large area can cause serious flooding and as little energy as possible.
even changes in climate.
Chemicals That Disrupt Hormones 516
Restoration of the Chesapeake Bay 180 Some pollutants can prevent natural hormones from functioning
The Chesapeake Bay Program was formed to restore the bay’s normally, causing reproductive problems, tumors, and sexual
ecosystems, which have been threatened by pollution. abnormalities.
Predator-Prey Adaptations 206 Saving Species in the Open Ocean 536
Adaptations, including changes in behavior and physical Regional Fisheries Management Organizations manage
features, help predators catch prey and help prey avoid migratory fish populations and try to prevent overharvesting of
predators. marine species.
Thailand’s Population Changes 228
Thailand has slowed its population growth in an effort to
conserve limited resources and improve the quality of life.
A Genetic Gold Rush in the Rain Forests 248

Tropical rain forests are home to many plants with medicinal
properties that are valued by the biotechnology industry.
(t) ©Joseph Collins/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) ©Jodi Cobb/Getty Images
The Ogallala Aquifer: An Underground Treasure 272

Farmers and other Great Plains residents are working to
conserve a vast underground aquifer that is showing signs of
depletion.
The Health Effects of Ground-Level Ozone 310

Increased levels of ozone at Earth's surface can have damaging
effects on people’s lungs.
Ice Cores: Reconstructing Past Climates 330

Scientists can reconstruct Earth’s climate history by examining
cores drilled out of ice sheets thousands of meters thick.
Conservation Planning 366

Conservation planners set aside as much as 80 percent of
undeveloped land to be used as shared green space.
Contents xxiii
Safety
symbols
The following safety symbols will appear in this text when

you are asked to perform a procedure requiring extra CHEMICAL SAFETY
precautions. Once you have familiarized yourself with these
• Always use caution when working with chemicals.
safety symbols, turn to Appendix A for safety guidelines to
use in all your laboratory work in environmental science. • Always wear appropriate protective equipment.
Always wear eye goggles, gloves, and a lab apron or
lab coat when you are working with any chemical or
EYE PROTECTION chemical solution.
• Wear safety goggles when working around chemicals, • Never mix chemicals unless your instructor directs
acids, bases, flames, or heating devices. Contents you to do so.
under pressure may become projectiles and cause • Never taste, touch, or smell chemicals unless your
serious injury. instructor directs you to do so.
• Never look directly at the sun through any optical • Add an acid or base to water; never add water to an
device or use direct sunlight to illuminate a acid or base.
microscope.
• Never return an unused chemical to its original
• Avoid wearing contact lenses in the lab. container.
• If any substance gets into your eyes, notify your • Never transfer substances by sucking on a pipet or
instructor immediately and flush your eyes with straw; use a suction bulb.
running water for at least 15 minutes.
• Follow instructions for proper disposal.
CLOTHING PROTECTION
ANIMAL SAFETY
• Secure loose clothing and remove dangling jewelry.
Do not wear open-toed shoes or sandals in the lab. • Always obtain permission before bringing any
animal to school.
• Wear an apron or lab coat to protect your clothing
• Handle animals carefully and respectfully.
when you are working with chemicals.
• Wash your hands thoroughly after handling any
• If a spill gets on your clothing, rinse it off
animal.
immediately with water for at least 5 minutes while
notifying your instructor.
PLANT SAFETY
CAUSTIC SUBSTANCES • Wear disposable polyethylene gloves when handling
any wild plant.
• If a chemical gets on your skin, on your clothing, or
in your eyes, rinse the area immediately and alert • Do not eat any part of a plant or plant seed used in
your instructor. the lab.
• If a chemical is spilled on the floor or lab bench, alert • Wash hands thoroughly after handling any part of a
plant.
your instructor but do not clean it up yourself unless
your instructor directs you to do so. • When outdoors, do not pick any wild plants unless
your instructor directs you to do so.
xxiv Safety Symbols

ELECTRICAL SAFETY FIRE SAFETY
• Do not place electrical cords in walking areas or • Know the location of laboratory fire extinguishers
let cords hang over a table edge in a way that could and fire-safety blankets.
cause equipment to fall if the cord is accidentally • Know your school’s fire-evacuation routes.
pulled.
• Do not use equipment that has frayed electrical
cords or loose plugs. GAS SAFETY
• Be sure that equipment is in the “off” position before • Do not inhale any gas or vapor unless your instructor
you plug it in. directs you to do so. Do not breathe pure gases.
• Never use an electrical appliance around water or • Handle materials prone to emit vapors or gases in a
with wet hands or clothing. well-ventilated area. This work should be done in an
approved chemical fume hood.
• Be sure to turn off and unplug electrical equipment
when you are finished using it.
GLASSWARE SAFETY
HEATING SAFETY • Check the condition of glassware before and after
using it. Inform your teacher of any broken, chipped,
• Avoid wearing hair spray or hair gel on lab days.
or cracked glassware, because it should not be used.
• Whenever possible, use an electric hot plate instead
• Do not pick up broken glass with your bare hands.
of an open flame as a heat source.
Place broken glass in a specially designated disposal
• When heating materials in a test tube, always angle container.
the test tube away from yourself and others.
• Glass containers used for heating should be made of
heat-resistant glass. WASTE DISPOSAL
• Clean and decontaminate all work surfaces and
personal protective equipment as directed by your
SHARP OBJECTS instructor.
• Use knives and other sharp instruments with • Dispose of all broken glass, contaminated sharp
extreme care. objects, and other contaminated materials
• Never cut objects while holding them in your hands. (biological and chemical) in special containers as
Place objects on a suitable work surface for cutting. directed by your instructor.
• Never use a double-edged razor in the lab.
HYGIENIC CARE/CLEAN HANDS
HAND SAFETY • Keep your hands away from your face and mouth.
• To avoid burns, wear heat-resistant gloves whenever • Always wash your hands thoroughly when you have
instructed to do so. finished with an experiment.
• Always wear protective gloves when working with
an open flame, chemicals, solutions, or wild or
unknown plants.
• If you do not know whether an object is hot, do not
touch it.
• Use tongs when heating test tubes. Never hold a test
tube in your hand to heat the test tube.
Safety Symbols xxv

Ecozine
HMDScience.com
Go online for more information about

these feature articles in the unit:
Chapter 1: making a difference

Predators of Africa
Chapter 2: Society and the

environment Bats and
Bridges
©blickwinkel/Alamy

environment Ocean Currents
2
T
Introduction to Unit 1
E
Environmental Chapter 1
a
Science
Science and the
H
Environment
Chapter 2
Tools of Environmental
Science
Chapter 3
The Dynamic Earth
(t) ©Michael Melford/Getty Images; (b) ©Earth Imaging/Stone/Getty Images; (c) ©Charlotte Main/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Once hatched, these perch will

continuously pump water through
the mouth and over the gill arches to
breathe, which makes them vulnerable
to pollutants in their environment.
Scientists monitor fish and amphibian
species to determine the effects of
pollution on the world’s ecosystems.
3
Chapter 1
Section 1
Understanding Our Environment
Science and the
Environment
Section 2
The Environment and Society
Why It Matters
A biologist uses an aerial
tramway to survey the rain
forest canopy in Costa Rica.
Many plants found in the
canopy ecosystem seem better
adapted for life in the desert
than in the rain forest. Why?
CASESTUDY
Learn more about the delicate
balance in an ecosystem and
the ways humans can both
harm and help an ecosystem in
the case study Dam Removal
on the Penobscot River on
pages 12–13.
Online
Melford/Getty Images
ENVironmental Science
HMDScience.com
Go online to access additional

Image Credits:
resources, including labs,

©Michael
worksheets, multimedia, and

resources in Spanish.
4
Section 1
Understanding Our Objectives
Environment
Define environmental science,
and compare environmental
science with ecology.
List the five major fields

When someone mentions the term environment, some people think of a beautiful
scene, such as a stream flowing through a wilderness area or a rain forest canopy
of study that contribute to
alive with blooming flowers and howling monkeys. You might not think of your environmental science.
backyard or neighborhood as part of the environment. In fact, the environment is
everything around us. It includes the natural world as well as things produced by
Describe the major
humans. But the environment is also more than what you can see—it is a complex environmental effects of hunter-
web of relationships that connects us with the world we live in. gatherers, the agricultural
revolution, and the Industrial
Revolution.
What Is Environmental Science?
Distinguish between renewable
There is a growing need to understand the environment as a whole,
and nonrenewable resources.
including both its biological and physical features. A wide variety of
people contribute to this understanding of the environment, including Classify environmental
high school students. In the 1990s, students from Keene High School problems into three major
in Figure 1.1 studied dwarf wedge mussels in the Ashuelot River of New categories.
Hampshire. The mussels, which were once abundant in the river, were
in danger of disappearing, and the students wanted to know why. The
students tested water samples from different parts of the river, conducted
experiments, and asked questions.
Key Terms
environmental science
The students’ efforts were highly praised and widely recognized.
ecology
More importantly, their work contributed to an ongoing community
effort that still works toward the preservation of the endangered dwarf
agriculture
wedge mussel. The students’ work is just one example of a field called natural resource
environmental science, the study of the environment that includes the pollution
physical, biological, and social sciences. biodiversity
Figure 1.1
Student Scientists These students are counting the dwarf wedge mussels in part of the Ashuelot River.
Chapter 1: Science and the Environment 5

Figure 1.2
Environmental Scientists
Scientists from a variety of fields use
different methods to study how humans
Connect to HISTORY
interact with and impact the environment.
Connect to HISTORY The Goals of Environmental Science

Rachel Carson Environmental scientists have found that the environment is influenced
Alarmed by the increasing levels of by people and that people are influenced by the environment. A major
pesticides and other chemicals in the goal of many environmental scientists is to understand and solve envi-
environment, biologist Rachel Carson ronmental problems. To address this goal, environmental scientists study
published Silent Spring in 1962. two main types of interactions between humans and the environment.
Carson imagined a spring morning One area of study focuses on how we use natural resources, such as water
that was silent because the birds and and plants. The other area of study focuses on how our actions alter our
frogs were dead after being poisoned environment. Environmental scientists must gather and analyze informa-
by pesticides. Carson’s carefully tion from many different disciplines. Even though environmental scien-
researched book was enthusiastically tists want to solve environmental problems, they are not the same as en-
received by the public and was read vironmentalists. Scientists study the environment to accurately describe
by many other scientists, as well environmental systems and determine how they work. Scientists also can
as policy makers and politicians. use data and mathematical models to predict how systems might change
However, many people in the chemical under different scenarios. It is up to the public, special interest groups,
industry saw Silent Spring as a threat and politicians to make decisions about how to manage the environment.
to their pesticide sales and launched Environmentalism is a social movement that seeks to protect the environ-
a $250,000 campaign to discredit ment and, because we all depend on the environment, people.
Carson. Carson’s research prevailed,
although she died in 1964—unaware
that the book she had written was Many Fields of Study
instrumental in the birth of the modern Environmental science is an interdisciplinary science, which means it
environmental movement. involves many fields of study. Ecology is the study of how living things
interact with each other and with their nonliving environment. Chemistry
helps us understand how organic matter is transformed and the nature of
pollutants. Geology helps us model how water and air move around the
globe. Botany and zoology provide information needed to preserve species.
Paleontology, the study of fossils, helps us understand how Earth’s climate
has changed in the past. Using such information about the past can help us
predict how future climate changes could affect life on Earth. Often, teams
of environmental scientists work together to understand and solve environ-
mental problems.
Studying the environment also involves studying human populations.
Environmental scientists may use the social sciences, which include eco-
nomics, law, politics, and geography. Social sciences can help us answer
questions such as How does human migration from rural to urban areas
©Matt Meadows
Check for Understanding affect the local environment? Or how can economic incentives change
Compare How is ecology related to people’s decisions to protect the environment? Figure 1.3 lists some of the
environmental science? major fields of study that contribute to the study of environmental science.
6 Unit 1: Introduction to Environmental Science

Figure 1.3
Major Fields of Study That Contribute to Environmental Science
Biology is the study of living Zoology is the study of animals.
organisms. Botany is the study of plants.
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms.
Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with their environment and each other.
Earth science is the study Geology is the study of Earth’s surface, interior processes, and history.
of Earth’s nonliving systems Paleontology is the study of fossils and ancient life.
and the planet as a whole. Climatology is the study of Earth’s atmosphere and climate.
Hydrology is the study of Earth’s water resources.
Physics is the study Engineering is the science by which matter and energy are made useful to humans in structures,
of matter and energy. machines, and products.
Chemistry is the study Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of living things.
of chemicals and their Geochemistry, a branch of geology, is the study of the chemistry of materials such as rocks, soil,
interactions. and water.
Social sciences are the Geography is the study of the relationship between human populations and Earth’s features.
study of human populations. Anthropology is the study of the interactions of the biological, cultural, geographical,
and historical aspects of humankind.
Sociology is the study of human population dynamics and statistics.
©Douglas Faulkner/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 1.4
Environmental Science and Public Life
Scientists at a conference discuss climate change. Students study the movements of box turtles.
Scientists as Citizens, Citizens as Scientists

Governments, businesses, and communities recognize that studying our
environment is vital to maintaining a healthy and productive society.
Thus, environmental scientists are often asked to share their research
with the world. Figure 1.4 shows scientists meeting to discuss climate
change at a United Nations conference.
Often, the observations of nonscientists are the first step toward
addressing an environmental problem. For example, middle-school
(b) ©North Wind Picture Archives; (tr) Courtesy of Gardner Watkins; (tl) ©Xu Jinquan/Xinhua Press/Corbis
Figure 1.5
students first noticed the appearance of deformed frogs in Minnesota
Change Three hundred years ago, lakes. Similarly, the students at Dublin Scioto High School in Ohio,
Manhattan was a very different place. shown in Figure 1.4, have studied the habitat of endangered box turtles. A
This painting shows an area where Native habitat is a place where an organism usually lives. The students wanted
Americans hunted and fished.
to find out how the turtles live and what factors affect their nesting and
hibernation sites in their habitat. The students tracked and mapped the
turtles’ movements, measured atmospheric conditions, and analyzed
soil samples. These efforts are important because the box turtle habitat is
threatened. The students have presented their findings to city planners,
in an effort to protect the most sensitive turtle habitats.
Our Environment Through Time

Wherever humans have hunted, grown food, or settled, they have changed
the environment. For example, the land where New York City now stands
was once an area where Native Americans hunted game and gathered
food, as shown in Figure 1.5. The environmental change that has occurred
on Manhattan Island over the past 300 years is immense, yet this period of
time is just a “blink” in human history.

Hunter-Gatherers ECOFACT
For most of human history, people were hunter-gatherers, or people who The Fall of Troy
obtain food by collecting plants and by hunting wild animals or scaveng- Environmental problems are nothing
ing their remains. Early hunter-gatherer groups were small, and they new. Nearly 3,000 years ago, the
migrated from place to place as different types of food became available at Greek poet Homer wrote about the
different times of the year. Even today there are hunter-gatherer societies ancient seaport of Troy, which was
in the Amazon rain forests of South America and in New Guinea, as shown located beneath a wooded hillside.
in Figure 1.6. The Trojans cut down all the trees on
Hunter-gatherers affected their environment in many ways. For the surrounding hills. Without trees
example, some Native American tribes hunted bison that live in grass- to hold the soil in place, rain washed
lands. The tribes set fires to burn the prairies and prevent the growth the soil into the harbor. So much
of trees. This kept the prairies as open grassland where the tribes could silt accumulated in the harbor that
hunt bison. large ships could not enter and Troy’s
economy collapsed. Today, the ruins of
In North America, rapid climate changes and overhunting by hunter- Troy are several miles from the sea.
gatherers may have contributed to the disappearance of some species of
large mammals. These species include giant sloths, giant bison, mast-
odons, cave bears, and saber-toothed cats. Large piles of bones have been
found where meat was possibly stored during the winter. In Australia and Check for Understanding
New Zealand, hunter-gatherers caused the extinction of many large spe- Identify Name two ways that hunter-
cies of mammals and birds. gatherers affected their environment.
Figure 1.6
Hunter-Gatherers This modern hunter-gatherer group lives in New Guinea, a tropical island off the north coast of Australia.
©David Gillison

The Agricultural Revolution
FieldStudy Eventually many hunter-gatherer groups began to collect the seeds of
Go to Appendix B to find the field study the plants they gathered and to domesticate some of the animals in their
Measure Up. environment. Agriculture is the practice of growing, breeding, and caring
for plants and animals that are used for food, clothing, housing, transpor-
tation, and other purposes. The practice of agriculture started in many
different parts of the world over 10,000 years ago. This change had such
a dramatic impact on human societies and their environment that it is
often called the neolithic agricultural revolution.
The agricultural revolution allowed human populations to grow at an
unprecedented rate. An area of land can support up to 100 times as many
people by farming as it can by hunting and gathering. As populations
grew, they began to concentrate in smaller areas. These changes placed
increased pressure on local environments.
The agricultural revolution also changed the food we eat. The plants
we grow and eat today are descended from wild plants. During harvest
season, farmers collected seeds from plants that exhibited the qualities
they desired. The seeds of plants with large kernels or sweet and nutri-
tious flesh were planted and harvested again. Over the course of many
generations, the domesticated plants became very different from their
wild ancestors. For example, the grass shown in Figure 1.7 may be related
to the grass from which corn was bred.
As grasslands, forests, and wetlands were replaced with farmland,
habitats were destroyed. Slash-and-burn agriculture, shown in Figure 1.7,
is one of the earliest ways by which land was converted to farmland.
Replacing forest with farmland on a large scale caused soil loss, floods,
and water shortages. In addition, much of this converted land was farmed
poorly and is no longer fertile. The loss of fertile farmland had far-reach-
ing effects. For example, the early civilizations of the Tigris-Euphrates
River basin collapsed, in part, because the overworked soil became infer-
tile through salt contamination.
Figure 1.7
The Agricultural Revolution
(bl) ©A. Murray/University of Florida; (br) ©Still Pictures
This grass, called Eastern gama grass, is thought to be a relative For thousands of years humans have burned forests to create fields for
of the modern corn plant. Native Americans may have selectively agriculture. In this photo, a rain forest in Thailand is being cleared for farming.
bred a grass like this to produce corn.

Figure 1.8
Industrial Revolution During much of the Industrial Revolution, few limits were Quality of Life The invention of computers
placed on the air pollution caused by burning fossil fuels. Locomotives such as these has improved the ways that people work, learn,
were powered by burning coal. communicate, and entertain themselves.
The Industrial Revolution

For about 2.5 million years the tools of human societies were
powered mainly by humans or animals. This pattern changed
in the middle of the 1700s with the Industrial Revolution, which
involved a shift from energy sources, such as animal muscle and
running water, to fossil fuels, such as coal and oil. The increased
use of fossil fuels and machines, such as the steam engines
shown in Figure 1.8, changed society and greatly increased the
efficiency of agriculture, industry, and transportation.
During the Industrial Revolution, the large-scale production of goods
(tl) ©Lambert/Archive Photos/PictureQuest/Getty Images; (tr) ©Color Blind Images/Blend Images/Getty Images
in factories became less expensive than the local production of goods.

Machinery reduced the amount of land and human labor needed for
farming. As fewer people grew their own food, populations in urban areas
steadily grew. Fossil fuels and motorized vehicles allowed food and other
goods to be transported cheaply across great distances.
Improving Quality of Life

The Industrial Revolution introduced many positive changes. Inventions
such as the light bulb greatly improved our quality of life. Agricultural
productivity increased, and sanitation, nutrition, and medical care vastly
improved. Technologies such as the telephone and the portable com-
puter, shown in Figure 1.8, enabled people to work and communicate
more easily from any location. Yet with all of these advances, the Indus-
trial Revolution introduced many new environmental problems.
In the 1900s, modern societies began to use artificial substances
in place of raw animal and plant products. Plastics and many other
artificial materials have made life easier. However, we now understand
some of the environmental problems they present. Much of environ- Check for Understanding
mental science is concerned with the problems associated with the Identify Identify three ways that the
Industrial Revolution. Industrial Revolution changed society.

Figure 1.9 Spaceship Earth
Earth, shown from space in Figure 1.9, has been compared to a ship travel-
Space This photograph was taken in
ing through space, unable to dispose of waste or take on new supplies as
1968 by the crew of Apollo 8. Photographs
such as this helped people realize the
it travels. Earth is essentially a closed system—the only thing that enters
uniqueness of the planet we share. Earth’s atmosphere in large amounts is energy from the sun, and the only
thing that leaves in large amounts is heat. A closed system has potential
problems. Some resources are limited, and as the population grows, the
resources will be used. In a closed system there is also the chance that we
will produce wastes more quickly than we can dispose of them.
Although Earth can be thought of as a complete system, envi
ronmental problems can occur on different scales: local, regional, or
global. For example, your community may be discussing where to build
a new landfill, or local developers may be arguing with environmental-
ists about the importance of a rare bird or insect. On a regional level, the
drinking water in your area may be affected by a polluted river hundreds
of miles away. Other environmental problems are global. For example,
carbon dioxide released in one part of the world can contribute to climate
change around the globe.
CASESTUDY
Dam Removal on the Penobscot River

Dams on rivers help to produce much-needed electricity fisheries have been lost and the Penobscot population
without continuously burning fossil fuels. These benefits, of salmon was listed under the Endangered Species Act
however, are accompanied by some environmental, in 2009. Scientists determined that the primary cause of
economic, and social costs. The large geographic areas of decline is obstruction of fishes’ migratory paths by dams.
watersheds (the land area that drains into a river) and the Dams reduce the environmental benefits of a free-
diverse mix of interest groups present challenges to making running river in many ways. These benefits include food,
fair and sustainable decisions about hydropower. How can recreation, cultural enrichment, and clean water. Varying
the right balance be achieved? depths and currents that come with natural flow create
diverse habitats that promote diverse wildlife. Periods of
The Penobscot River, Maine fast flow remove silt from gravel beds, which is necessary
The watershed of the Penobscot River is the largest in for many aquatic insects. These insects are food for fish.
Maine, and the major streams extend over 8,800 km (about Many species of fish need sand or gravel to reproduce.
5,500 miles). Historically, the Penobscot was home to Normal river flow helps rivers recover from pollution, and
abundant fish and other wildlife. For example, more than coastal ocean ecosystems are productive because rivers
100,000 salmon per year migrated for reproduction from deliver nutrients from land to ocean. These benefits of
the ocean to this watershed. Salmon and ten other species natural river flow have been revealed by the work of many
of migratory fish enriched the watershed and provided food environmental scientists.
and cultural value for the Wabanaki people, who occupied
the area continuously for more than 9,000 years. The Penobscot River Restoration Trust
European settlement of the area brought construction To reconcile the benefits and costs of dams, the Penobscot
of many dams to provide power for mills and eventually to River Restoration Project brought together a wide variety of
©NASA
produce electricity. In the past few decades all commercial groups to develop a plan that is now being implemented.

Population Growth: A Local Pressure Figure 1.10
One reason many environmental problems are so pressing today is that World Population The size of the
the agricultural revolution and the Industrial Revolution allowed the human population in 2010 was nearly
human population to grow much faster than it had ever grown before. The 14 times larger than it was in 1600.
development of modern medicine and sanitation also helped increase the
human population. As shown in Figure 1.10, the human population almost WorldÊPopulation:Ê
quadrupled during the 20th century. Producing enough food for such 1600Ð2010
7.5
a large population has environmental consequences. Many of the envi-
Population (in billions)

6.5
ronmental problems that affect us today, such as habitat destruction and
5.5
pesticide pollution, are the result of feeding the world in the 20th century.
4.5
Other problems, like climate change, are the result of filling the demand
3.5
for goods and transportation of so many people.
2.5
There are many different predictions of population growth for the 1.5
future. But most scientists think that the human population will almost 0.5
double in the 21st century before it will begin to stabilize. We can expect 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
that the pressure on the environment will continue to increase as the hu- Year
Source:ÊU.S.ÊCensusÊBureau,Ê
man population and its need for food and resources grow. InternationalÊDatabase
The Penobscot River, Maine
today to millions of fish! This will revitalize

the Penobscot Indian Nation’s culture and
traditions and will promote sustainable
economic development of communities within
the watershed.
The story of the Penobscot River is an
example of how environmental science
and public action work together to solve
environmental problems. Good science
These groups include a hydropower company, the revealed the causes for decline, needs for ecological
Penobscot Indian Nation (a part of the Wabanaki people),
Critical Thinking
restoration, and the engineering solutions to implement
seven conservation groups, and government agencies at large-scale projects. Science will continue to be applied
the state and federal levels. As part of the plan, hydropower to evaluate the recovery of wildlife, and many groups with
levels will be maintained, but two dams closest to the different interests working together will ensure the long-term
mouth of the river will be removed, construction of a bypass health of the river and local communities.
for migratory fish will occur at a third dam, and passages
will be built for fish at four more dams. These actions Critical Thinking
©Edwin Remsberg/Alamy Images
will be monitored by Maine and Federal agencies. Most 1. Analyzing Processes Why was the Penobscot
importantly, the Penobscot River Restoration Trust was River Restoration Trust formed?
formed to promote continued collaboration and oversight
2. Analyzing Relationships Describe how
for all the participating groups. Increased access to proper
environmental science helped the Trust decide
habitat and improved water quality should allow populations that some dams should be removed.
of many migratory fishes to grow from no more than 2,000

QUICKLAB What Are Our Main Environmental Problems?
Classifying Resources You may feel as though the world has an unlimited variety of environ-
QUICKLAB
Procedure mental problems. But many environmental problems fall into three
1. You and a partner will be given a categories: resource depletion, pollution, or loss of biodiversity.
small container of objects by your
teacher.
2. Working separately, you should Resource Depletion
each create a data table with Any natural material that is used by humans is called a natural resource.
the headings, “Renewable” and Natural resources can be classified as renewable or nonrenewable, as
“Nonrenewable.”
shown in Figure 1.11. A renewable resource is a resource that can be replaced
3. Without speaking, each of you
relatively quickly by natural processes. Fresh water, air, soil, trees, and crops
should look at the objects and
are all resources that can be renewed. Energy from the sun is also a renew-
decide in which of the two
able resource. A nonrenewable resource is a resource that forms at a much
categories they belong .
slower rate than the rate that it is consumed. The most common nonre-
4. When you are both finished,
compare your choices. Discuss
newable resources are minerals and fossil fuels. Once a nonrenewable
any differences, explaining why resource is used up, it may take millions of years to replenish it.
you placed objects in a particular Resources are said to be depleted when a large fraction of the resource
category. has been used up. Figure 1.11 shows a mine where copper, a nonrenew-
5. Participate in a class discussion able resource, is removed from the Earth’s crust. Some renewable re-
about what resources the sources can also be depleted. For example, if trees are harvested faster
objects represent and why they than they can grow naturally in an area, deforestation will result.
are considered renewable or
nonrenewable.
Pollution
Analysis
With the Industrial Revolution, societies began producing wastes faster
1. Why are resources like air and
water considered to be at risk,
than the wastes could be disposed of. The wastes accumulate and cause
even though they are considered pollution. Pollution is an undesired change in air, water, or soil that ad-
renewable? versely affects the health, survival, or activities of humans or other organ-
2. Select one resource and hypothesize isms. Air pollution levels in Mexico City, as shown in Figure 1.12, are danger-
what side effects might occur if ously high, mostly because of car exhaust and industrial pollutants.
that resource is depleted. Biodegradable pollutants can be broken down by natural processes.
These pollutants include things such as human sewage and food wastes.
Figure 1.11
Resources More than

12 million tons of copper have
Renewable and
been mined from the Bingham
Nonrenewable Resources
mine in Utah. Once all of the
copper that can be profitably Renewable Nonrenewable
extracted is used up, the copper
energy from metals such as
©Gene Ahrens/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot
in this mine will be depleted.

the sun iron, aluminum, and
water copper
nonmetallic materials
wood
such as salt, sand,
soil and clay
air fossil fuels

Biodegradable pollutants are a problem when they accumulate faster Figure 1.12
than they can be broken down. Nonbiodegradable pollutants, such as
mercury, lead, and some types of plastic, cannot be broken down by Air Pollution The problem of air
pollution in Mexico City is compounded
natural processes. Because such pollutants do not break down easily,
because the city is located in a valley that
they can build to dangerous levels in the environment.
traps air pollutants.
Because carbon dioxide is generally not harmful to people’s health—
we breathe it out when we exhale—people often don’t think of it as a
pollutant. But the huge amounts of CO2 being released from the burning
of fossil fuels are increasing the amount in the atmosphere and chang-
ing the climate. Because of this undesirable effect, it may be considered
pollution in some forms. Because climate change is a global problem that
affects many other environmental problems, many scientists believe that
it is the most pressing environmental issue.
Loss of Biodiversity
The term biodiversity refers to the number and variety of species that live
in an area. Earth has been home to hundreds of millions of species. Only
a fraction of those species are alive today. Extinction is a natural process,
(cr) ©Nature Source/Photo Researchers, Inc; (tr) ©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
and several large-scale extinctions, or mass extinctions, have occurred

through Earth’s history. Scientists believe that the pace of extinctions Figure 1.13
occurring today matches that of mass extinctions in the past. Why should
Loss of Biodiversity The Tasmanian
we be concerned about the modern extinction of individual species?
tiger, native to Australia and the island of
The organisms that share the world with us can be considered natural Tasmania, was declared extinct in 1986.
resources. We depend on other organisms for food, for the oxygen we
breathe, and for many other things. A species that is extinct is gone for-
ever, so a species can be considered a nonrenewable resource. Scientists
think that if current rates of extinction continue, it may cause problems
for human populations in the future because the loss of too many species
may cause significant disruption in ecosystems. If this happens, many
of the services ecosystems provide to people may be lost. Many people
also argue that all species have potential economic, ecological, scientific,
aesthetic, and recreational value, so it is important to preserve them.
Section 1 Formative Assessment

Reviewing Main Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Describe the two main types of interactions 5. Making Comparisons What is the difference
that environmental scientists study. Give an between environmental science and ecology?
example of each.
6. Making Inferences Fossil fuels are said to be
2. Describe the major environmental effects of nonrenewable resources, yet they are produced
the agricultural revolution and the Industrial by the Earth over millions of years. By what time
Revolution. frame are they considered nonrenewable? Write
a paragraph that explains your answer.
3. Explain how environmental problems can be
local, regional, or global. Give one example of
each.
4. Explain why environmental science is an
interdisciplinary science.

Section 2
Objectives
The Environment
and Society
Describe “The Tragedy of the
Commons.”
Explain the law of supply and

demand.
When we think about environmental problems and how to solve them, we have
List three differences between
to consider human societies, how they act, and why they do what they do. One
developed and developing way to think about society and the environment is to consider how a society uses
countries. common resources. A neighborhood park, for example, is a common resource
that people share. On a larger scale, the open ocean is not owned by any nation,
Explain what sustainability is, yet people from many countries use the ocean as a common resource for fishing
and describe why it is a goal of and for transporting goods. How do societies decide to share common resources?
environmental science. In 1968, ecologist Garrett Hardin published an essay titled “The Tragedy of the
Commons,” which addressed this question.
Key Terms “The Tragedy of the Commons”

law of supply and demand In his essay, Hardin argued that the main difficulty in solving environ-
ecological footprint mental problems is the conflict between the short-term interests of
sustainability individuals and the long-term welfare of society. To illustrate his point,
Hardin used the example of the commons, as shown in Figure 2.1. Com-
mons were areas of land that belonged to a whole village. Anyone could
graze cows or sheep on the commons. It was in the best short-term inter-
est of an individual to put as many animals as possible on the commons.
Individuals thought, If I don’t use this resource, someone else will.
However, if too many animals grazed on the commons, the animals
destroyed the grass. Then everyone suffered because no one could raise
animals on the commons. Commons were eventually replaced by closed
fields owned by individuals. Owners were careful not to put too many
animals on their land, because overgrazing meant that fewer animals
could be raised the next year. The point of Hardin’s essay is that some-
one or some group has to take responsibility for maintaining a resource.
If no one takes that responsibility, the resource can be overused and
become depleted.
Figure 2.1
“The Tragedy of the Commons”

Hardin observed that when land was held in
common (left), individuals tended to graze
as many animals as possible. Overgrazing
led to the destruction of the land resources.
When commons were replaced by enclosed
fields owned by individuals (right), people
tended to graze only the number of animals
that the land could support.

Earth’s natural resources are our modern commons. Hardin thought that Figure 2.2
people would continue to deplete natural resources by acting in their own
self-interest to the point of society’s collapse. In history there are examples Supply and Demand As demand
has increased for copper, supply has not
of this occurring, and the Tragedy of the Commons is still occurring for
been able to keep up. This has led to an
many resources. But humans live in groups and depend on one another.
increase in the price of copper.
Societies can solve an environmental problem by planning, organizing,
considering the scientific evidence, and proposing a solution. The solution U.S. Copper Supply
may override the interests of some individuals in the short term, but it will 1990–2010
Available copper (millions of tons)

6 6,000
improve the environment for everyone in the long term. Environmental
Cost per ton (1998 dollars)

science can provide information on how different plans will affect the 5 5,000
environment. Society must decide what outcome is desirable.
4 4,000
Economics and the Environment 3 3,000
Economic forces influence how we use resources. Many of the topics you
2 2,000
will explore later in this book are affected by economic considerations.
1 1,000
Supply and Demand 1990 2000 2010
Year
One basic rule of economics is the law of supply and demand, which states
that the greater the demand for a limited supply of something, the more Source: U.S. Geological Survey
that product is worth. One example of this rule is shown in Figure 2.2,
which illustrates the relationship between the supply of copper and its Check for Understanding
price. In recent years, demand for copper has grown beyond the amount Illustrate Use an example to illustrate
that can be supplied in the U.S. This increase in demand and reduction in the law of supply and demand.
supply is reflected in the increased price. Many environmental solutions
have to take the relationship between supply and demand into account.
Costs and Benefits

The cost of environmental solutions can be high. To determine how much
to spend to control air pollution, a community may perform a cost-benefit
analysis. A cost-benefit analysis balances the cost of the action against the
benefit expected from it. The results of a cost-benefit analysis often depend
EV_CNLESE904016_784A
on who is doing the analysis. To an industry, cost of pollution control may
final
outweigh the benefits, but to a nearby community, the benefits may be 2-28-12
worth a high price. The cost of environmental regulations is often passed LKell
on to the consumer or taxpayer. The consumer can then choose to either
pay for the more expensive product that meets environmental regulations
or find a cheaper product without the same environmental safeguards.
Risk Assessment
One cost of any action is the risk of an undesirable outcome. Cost-benefit
analysis involves risk assessment, which is one tool that helps us create
cost-effective ways to protect our health and environment. To develop an
effective solution to an environmental problem, the public must perceive
the risk accurately. This does not always happen. In one study, people
were asked to assess the risk from various technologies. The public gener-
ally ranked nuclear power as the riskiest technology on the list, whereas
experts ranked it 20th—less risky than riding a bicycle.

ECOFACT Developed and Developing Countries
Minerals of South Africa The The decisions and actions of all people in the world affect our environ-
resources a country has are a result ment. But the unequal distribution of wealth and resources around the
of geologic processes. South Africa, world influences the environmental problems that a society faces and
for example, has some of the most the choices it can make. The United Nations classifies countries as either
productive mineral deposits in the developed or developing. Developed countries have higher average
world. In fact, the country is nearly
incomes, slower population growth, diverse industrial economies, and
self-sufficient in the mineral resources
stronger social support systems. They include the United States, Canada,
that are important to modern industry.
Japan, and the countries of Western Europe. Developing countries have
South Africa is the world’s largest
lower average incomes, simple and agriculture-based economies, and
producer of gold, platinum, and
rapid population growth. Developed and developing countries have
chromium.
different consumption patterns that affect the environment in different
ways. In addition, different developing countries are on different paths.
Some are experiencing little change in living conditions, while others, like
Brazil, China, and India, have emerged as major international economic
powers with environmental impacts and challenges similar to those in
developed countries.
Population and Consumption

Most environmental problems can be traced back to two root causes. First,
the human population in some areas is growing too quickly for the local
environment to support it. Second, people are using, wasting, or polluting
many natural resources faster than they can be replaced or cleaned up.
Figure 2.3
Consumption Trends
(bl) ©Purepix/Alamy Images; (br) ©Photodisc/Getty Images
A food market in India is shown to the left. The food market above
is in the United States. How do these two food markets show
differing consumption trends in India and the United States?

figure 2.4
Indicators of Development for the U.S., Japan, Mexico, and Indonesia
Measurement U.S. Japan Mexico Indonesia
Health life expectancy in years 78.5 82 76 71

Population per year 0.7% –0.1% 1.2% 1.0%
growth
Wealth gross domestic product per person $47,200 $34,000 $13,900 $4,200
Living space people per square kilometer 32 339 59 125
Energy use per person per year (millions of Btu) 330 172 67 25
Pollution carbon dioxide from fossil fuels per person per year (tons) 17.3 9.5 4.4 1.8
Waste garbage produced per person per year (kg) 720 400 300 43
Local Population Pressures

When the population in an area grows rapidly, there may not be enough
natural resources for everyone in the area to live a healthy, productive life.
Often, as people struggle for survival in severely overpopulated regions,
forests are stripped bare, topsoil is exhausted, and animals are driven to
extinction. Malnutrition, starvation, and disease can be constant threats.
Even though there are millions of people starving in developing countries,
populations tend to grow most rapidly in these countries. Food produc- Figure 2.5
tion, education, and job creation cannot keep pace with population
Ecological Footprints An ecological
growth, so each person gets fewer resources as time goes by.
footprint is a calculation of the amount
of land and resources needed to support
Consumption Trends one person from a particular country.
The ecological footprint of a person in a
For many people in the wealthier part of the world, life is better than ever
developed country is, on average, four
before. Many environmental problems are being addressed. In addition,
times as large as the footprint of a person
the population has stabilized or is growing slowly. But to support this qual-
in a developing country.
ity of life, developed countries are using much more of Earth’s resources
than developing countries are. Developed nations use about 75 percent of 35
the world’s resources, even though they make up only about 20 percent of
the world’s population. This rate of consumption creates more waste and 30
pollution per person than in developing countries, as shown in Figure 2.4.
25
Ecological footprint (acres)
Ecological Footprints 20
One way to express the differences in consumption between nations is
as an ecological footprint, as shown in Figure 2.5. An ecological footprint 15
shows the productive area of Earth needed to support one person in a
particular country. It estimates the land used for crops, grazing, forest 10
products, and housing. It also estimates the ocean area used to harvest
seafood and the forest area needed to absorb the air pollution caused by
5
fossil fuels. Another footprint is the carbon footprint, or how much car-
bon dioxide is released into the atmosphere to support a person’s lifestyle
0
including goods used and emissions from powering vehicles and houses. India Mexico U.S. Britain

Environmental Science in Context
Connect to ASTRONOMY As you have learned, environmental problems are complex. Simple solu-
tions are rare, and they sometimes cause more damage than the original
problem. To complicate matters, the environment has also become a bat-
tleground for larger issues that affect human societies. For example, how
does society balance the rights of individuals and property owners with
the needs of society as a whole? Or, when economic or political refugees
emigrate—legally or illegally—what can be done about the devastation
they may cause to the local environment? How do human rights relate to
the environment?
Critical Thinking and the Environment

People on any side of an environmental issue may feel passionately
about their cause, and can consequently distort information and mis-
lead people about the issues. Research done by environmental scientists
is often used to make political points or is misrepresented to support
Connect to ASTRONOMY controversial viewpoints. In addition to the scientific data, the economic
Another Earth? dimensions of an environmental issue can be oversimplified. Even more
If the environment on Earth changed complication is introduced by the media, which often sensationalizes
drastically, would we have anywhere environmental issues. So, as you make your own decisions about the en-
to go? There are no other planets in vironment, it is essential that you use your critical-thinking skills.
our solar system with an adequate
Learning to think critically about what you see in newspapers, on
range of temperatures, a breathable
television, and on the Internet will help you make informed decisions.
atmosphere, or the resources needed
As you explore environmental science further, you should remember a
to sustain humans with our present
few things. First, be prepared to listen to many viewpoints. People have
technology. There may be other
planets like Earth in the universe, but
many different reasons for the opinions they form. Try to understand
the closest planets we know of are in what those reasons are before reacting to their ideas. If you want your
other solar systems that are light-years ideas to be heard, it is important that you listen to the opinions of others,
away. as shown in Figure 2.6. Also, identify your own bias. How does it affect the
way you interpret the issue?
Figure 2.6
Community Involvement Anyone

can express an opinion on environmental
issues at state and local public hearings.
©Jim West/Alamy Images

Second, investigate the source of the information you Figure 2.7
encounter. Remember that environmental science is not
just somebody’s opinion. It is information that has been Citizens in Action These high school students are taking
collected carefully, often by many scientists, and checked action to improve their environment. They are cleaning up
trash that is clogging an urban creek.
for accuracy by other scientists that did not collect or ana-
lyze the data. Science is designed to objectively test ideas,
not just collect data that support a preconceived bias.
A Sustainable World
Despite the differing points of view on the environment,
most people support the goal of achieving sustainability.
Sustainability is the condition in which human needs are
met in such a way that a human population can survive
indefinitely at a standard of living similar to the current
one. A sustainable world is not an unchanging world; tech-
nology advances and human civilizations continue to be
productive. But at the present time we live in a world that
is far from sustainable. The combination of a large popula-
tion, the current standard of living in developed countries,
and how we produce energy is using resources faster than Check for Understanding
they can be replaced. Explain What is a sustainable world?
The problems described in this chapter are not insurmountable.
Achieving a sustainable world requires everyone’s participation. If
individual citizens, industries, and governments cooperate, we can move
toward sustainability. For example, the Penobscot River is cleaner and
healthier now than it was years ago. As another example, bald eagles were
once on the brink of extinction. But now they are now making a comeback
because of the efforts to preserve their habitat and to reduce pollution
©Frank Pedrick/The Image Works
from the pesticide DDT.

Nevertheless, our environmental problems are significant and require
careful attention and action. The 21st century will be a crucial time in
human history. We must find solutions that allow people on all parts of
our planet to live in a clean, healthy environment and have the resources
they need for a good life.

1. Describe three differences between developing 4. Applying Ideas The law of supply and demand
and developed nations using the examples is a simplification of economic patterns. What
in Figure 2.4. Would you classify Mexico as a other factors might affect the cost of copper?
developing nation? Explain your answer.
5. Evaluating Ideas Write a description of “The
2. Explain why critical thinking is an important Tragedy of the Commons.” Do you think that
skill in environmental science. Hardin’s essay is an accurate description of the
relationship between individuals, society, and
3. Explain the law of supply and demand,
the environment?
and give an example of how it relates to the
environment.

Making a Difference
Predators
Hyenas and lions are two of the most recognized predators on the planet.
Every year, millions of people go on safari in Africa to see these predators.
Millions more see them in documentaries on TV. Most people love lions, but
of Africa
hyenas have a bad reputation.
Since the early 1970s, Dr. Laurence Frank has been studying the predators
of Africa in Kenya. By studying the behavior, interactions, and physiology
of hyenas, he and other scientists have shown that hyenas don’t deserve
their reputation. It turns out that hyenas are excellent hunters. Rather than
being scavengers and stealing kills from lions, hyenas get almost all of their
food by catching their own prey. Also, hyenas are highly social, cooperate
with one another, and live in clans where females are the leaders. As top
predators, both lions and hyenas are important in Africa. They help keep prey
populations in check, including keeping large herbivores from overgrazing
plants. But both lions and hyenas are in trouble. Seeing lions and hyenas
disappearing from the places he worked caused Dr. Frank to focus his
research on finding ways to protect these important predators. He is now the
Director of the Living with Lions Project—a group of scientists and Masai
warriors working in nonprotected areas of Kenya to protect lions. Not only is
it important to protect predators to ensure healthy ecosystems, but “a world
without lions would be a very sad place,” Dr. Frank has said.
Trouble in Africa
Because it is easy to see lions and hyenas in parks and on TV, most people
think that they are thriving in Africa. Unfortunately, these predators are
disappearing across the continent. Lion numbers in Africa have fallen
A Lion Guardian takes measurements and quickly—from around 200,000 in the 1990s to less than 30,000 in 2011.
attaches a tracking collar to a lion.
Lions are no longer found in many rangeland areas that had lions in the
early 1990s. Dr. Frank thinks that unless something is done quickly, lions
may disappear from Kenya in 10 to 20 years!
There are several reasons that lions and other predators
are in trouble. First, their habitat is being destroyed. Predators
need to be able to roam huge areas to find enough prey, but
(t) ©Seamus Maclennan; (bg) ©Pal Teravagimov Photography/Flickr/Getty Images

much of their natural habitat is being destroyed or is being used
for agriculture or raising livestock. In many places, livestock
overgraze the plants and there is not enough food to support
populations of prey for lions.
Although predators are doing well in some parks and
nature reserves, most of these are not big enough to ensure
their survival. The small populations of lions that live in these
protected areas could easily be wiped out by disease. Also, to
find enough prey, predators may have to leave the parks. When
predators enter commercial ranches or community grazing
lands, they come into conflict with people by killing livestock
such as cattle, sheep, and goats.

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Both commercial ranchers and

Dr. Laurence Frank has studied the predators of Africa for decades, and he is now
traditional herders (the Masai) use the working to save them through programs such as the Living with Lions Project.
same methods to protect livestock.
During the day, the Masai watch
over livestock and move them to
areas where they can eat and drink.
At night, they move the livestock to
an enclosure made of thorn bushes
(boma). The boma is meant to protect
cattle from predators and from
theft. Some lions, however, will hunt
livestock at night by trying to scare
them out of the boma.
When a lion kills livestock, the
Masai may hunt it down and kill it. Or
the Masai may poison the carcass.
This will kill the lion when it comes
back to finish its meal the next night.
But this method also kills entire prides
of lions, as well as hyenas, vultures,
and other animals that eat the carcass. Another example of working with local communities to
Dr. Frank and many other people are trying to find out how save predators is Dr. Frank’s Laikipia Predator Project. The
to solve the problems that are causing lions to disappear. Project involves commercial ranchers, like Claus Mortensen at
Mugie Ranch, and Masai communities working together with
It Takes More Than a Village scientists. They are using GPS collars on lions to study how
Protecting predators isn’t easy and it isn’t all about science. lions use the landscape. They need to know how lions respond
Important factors include understanding how far predators to movements of livestock, wildlife, and humans. They have
range, how and why they kill livestock, and how people who found new ways to build bomas that better protect livestock.
have conflicts with lions can be encouraged to help save them. Also, they have found ways to work together so the money
To do this, the Living with Lions Project is finding ways that tourists spend when they come to see lions and other wildlife
the Masai and commercial ranchers can benefit financially benefits the ranchers and the Masai.
from keeping lions around. They are also working to reduce Lions and other predators in Africa are still in trouble. But
the number of livestock killed by lions and to educate people the work of many people, including Dr. Frank, Dr. Hazzah, the
about the importance of predators and the troubles predators MasaiWhat
warriors,Do
Stephanie Dolrenry, and Claus Mortensen, is
You Think?
are facing. building a blueprint for protecting them. With more hard work
One member of the Living with Lions Project is Dr. Leela and dedicated people, scientists and community members hope
Hazzah. Dr. Hazzah is the founder of the Lion Guardians. Her these predators will someday thrive again all across Africa.
idea was to try to convince Masai warriors, who were renowned
lion killers, to become lion protectors. Now, Masai warriors have
found that lions can be a benefit because they bring tourism.
With the help of graduate student and conservation biologist
Stephanie Dolrenry, the Lion Guardians have identified every
What Do You Think?
lion in 3500 km2 and have stopped all lion killing by the Masai. Why is it important that Dr. Frank and Dr. Hazzah
(t) ©Dr. Michael Heithaus
As a result, the population is recovering. work with the Masai and commercial ranchers? If
you had money to help protect lions, how would
you spend it?

Chapter 1 Summary
Section 1 nderstanding Our

U Objectives Key Terms
Environment
• Environmental science is an interdisciplinary study environmental
of the environment. A goal of many environmental science
scientists is to understand and solve environmental ecology
problems. One important foundation of environmental agriculture
science is the science of ecology. natural resource
• Environmental change has occurred throughout Earth’s pollution
history. biodiversity
• Hunter-gatherer societies cleared grassland by setting
fires and contributed to the extinction of some large
mammals.
• The agricultural revolution caused human population
growth, habitat loss, soil erosion, and the domestication
of plants and animals.
• The Industrial Revolution caused rapid human popula-
tion growth and the increased use of fossil fuels. Most
modern environmental problems began during the
Industrial Revolution.
• The major environmental problems we face today
include resource depletion, pollution, and loss of biodi-
versity.
Section 2 The Environment and Objectives Key Terms

Society
• “The Tragedy of the Commons” was an influential essay law of supply
that described the relationship between the short-term and demand
interests of the individual and the long-term interests ecological foot-
of society. print
• The law of supply and demand states that when the sustainability
demand for a product increases while the supply
remains fixed, the cost of the product will increase. (bl) ©Purepix/Alamy Images; (tl) Courtesy of Gardner Watkins
• Environmental problems in developed countries tend
to be related to consumption. In developing nations,
the major environmental problems are related to
population growth.
• Sustainability is the condition in which human needs
are met in such a way that a human population can
survive indefinitely at a standard of living similar to the
current one.

Chapter 1 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 12. Which of the following does not describe an effect
of the Industrial Revolution?
Use each of the following terms in a separate sentence.
a. Fossil fuels became important energy sources.
1. agriculture
b. The amount of land and labor needed to
2. natural resource produce food increased.
3. pollution c. Artificial substances replaced some animal and
4. ecological footprint plant products.
5. sustainability d. Machines replaced human muscle and animal
power.
Use the correct key term to complete each of the
following sentences. 13. Pollutants that are not broken down by natural
6. The _________ Revolution was characterized by a processes are
shift from human and animal power to fossil fuels. a. nonrenewable.
7. Resources that can theoretically last forever are b. nondegradable.
called __________ resources.
c. biodegradable.
8. __________ is a term that describes the
d. Both (a) and (c)
number and variety of species that live in an area.
9. Concept Map Use the following terms to 14. All of the following are renewable resources except
create a concept map: geology, biology, ecology,
a. energy from the sun.
environmental science, chemistry, geography, and
social sciences. b. minerals.
c. crops.
Reviewing Main Ideas d. fresh water.
10. An important effect that hunter-gatherer societies 15. In his essay, “The Tragedy of the Commons,” one
may have had on the environment was factor that Garrett Hardin failed to consider was
a. soil erosion. a. the destruction of natural resources.
b. extinction. b. human self-interest.
c. air pollution. c. the social nature of humans.
d. All of the above d. None of the above
11. An important effect of the agricultural 16. The term used to describe the productive area
revolution was of Earth needed to support the lifestyle of one
a. soil erosion. person in a particular country is called
b. habitat destruction. a. supply and demand.
c. plant and animal domestication. b. the ecological footprint.
d. All of the above c. the consumption crisis.
d. sustainability.

Chapter Review
Short Answer Critical Thinking

17. Give an example of how environmental science 26. Analyzing Ideas Are humans part of the
might involve geology and chemistry. environment? Explain your answer.
18. Can biodegradable pollutants cause 27. Drawing Conclusions Why do you think
environmental problems? Explain your answer. that fossil fuels were not widely used until the
19. In what ways are today’s environmental resources Industrial Revolution? Write a paragraph that
like the commons described in the essay “The describes your thoughts.
Tragedy of the Commons”? 28. Evaluating Assumptions Once the sun
20. How could environmental concerns conflict with exhausts its fuel and burns itself out, it cannot
your desire to improve your standard of living? be replaced. So why is the sun considered a
renewable resource?
21. If you were evaluating the claims made on a Web
site that discusses environmental issues, what 29. Evaluating Assumptions Read the description
types of information would you look for? of the Industrial Revolution. Were all the effects of
the Industrial Revolution negative? Explain your
22. Can species be considered natural resources? answer.
Explain your answer.
30. Demographics Obtain the 1985 and 2000
census reports for your town or city. Look for
Interpreting Graphics changes in demographic characteristics, such
as population size, income, and age. Make a bar
The graphs below show the difference in energy graph that compares some of the characteristics
consumption and population size in developed you chose. How does your city or town compare
and developing countries. Use the graphs to answer with national trends? What might be some of the
questions 23–25. environmental implications of these trends?
Commercial Energy Population Size 31. Make a Diagram Many resources can be traced
Consumption 6 to energy from the sun. For example, plants living
in swamps millions of years ago used energy from
5 the sun to grow. Over time, some of these plants
Developing 4 became coal deposits. When we burn coal today,

countries we are using energy that radiated from the sun
32% Developing
3 countries millions of years ago. Choose a resource, and
Developed
create a diagram that traces the resource back to
2
countries energy from the sun.
68% 1
Developed countries
0
1900 1950 2000
Year
23. Describe the differences in the energy

consumption and population growth of
developed and developing countries.
24. Do you think that the percentage of commercial
energy consumed by developing countries will
increase or decrease? Explain your answer.
25. Why is information on energy consumption
represented in a pie graph, while population size
is shown in a line graph?

Chapter Review
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
Use the table below to answer questions 32–34.
38. The dams on the Penobscot River will be
U.S. Japan Indonesia modified to help restore the populations of
migratory fish. Describe the three solutions
People per square 32 339 125
that will be implemented to allow for the
kilometer
migration of fish.
Garbage produced 720 kg 400 kg 43 kg 39. When the population of migratory fish
per person per year decreased because of dams on the Penobscot
River, what other populations might have been
32. Analyzing Data Make a bar graph that compares affected? As the numbers of migratory fish
the garbage produced per person per year in each recover, how will those same populations be
country. STUDYSKILL
affected?
33. Making Calculations Calculate how much
garbage is produced each year per square Why It Matters
kilometer of each country listed in the table.
40. Often, researching
34. Evaluating Data Use the information in the
and effectively
table to evaluate the validity of the following
statement: In countries where population density Whyaddressing
It Matters
environmental
is high, more garbage is produced per person.
concerns requires
cooperation from
multiple groups,
Making Connections such as corporations,
35. Communicating Main Ideas Briefly describe local residents,
the relationship between humans and the scientists, and
environment through history. governments. Why
is it important to
36. Writing Persuasively Write a persuasive essay seek agreement
explaining the importance of science in a debate among groups with
about an environmental issue. potentially different
37. Outlining Topics Write a one-page outline that goals and interests?
describes population and consumption in the
developing and developed world.
STUDYSKILL
Root Words As you study, it may be helpful to learn the
meaning of important root words. You can find these roots
in most dictionaries. For example, hydro- means “water.”
Once you learn the meaning of this root, you can learn
the meanings of words such as hydrothermal, hydrologist,
hydropower, and hydrophobic.
©Michael Melford/Getty Images

ExplorationLab
Field Activity
What’s in an
Objectives
Survey an area of land and
Ecosystem?
determine the land’s physical
features and the types of How well do you know the environment around your home or school?
organisms that live there. You may walk through it every day without noticing most of the living
Identify possible
things it contains or thinking about how they survive. Ecologists, on the
relationships between the other hand, observe organisms and seek to understand how they interact.
organisms that live in the In this lab, you will play the role of an ecologist by closely observing part
area of land you surveyed. of your environment.
Materials
hand lens Procedure
markers or felt-tip pens of 1. Use a tape measure or meter stick to measure a 10 m × 10 m site
several different colors to study. Place one stake at each corner of the site. Loop the string
notebook around each stake, and run the string from one stake to the next to
pen or pencil
form boundaries for the site.
stakes, (4) 2. Survey the site, and then prepare a site map of the physical features of
string, about 50 m the area in your science journal or field notes. For example, show the
tape measure or meter stick location of streams, sidewalks, trails, or large rocks, and indicate the
direction of any noticeable slope.
optional materials: field
guides to insects or plants 3. Create a set of symbols to represent the organisms at your site. For
example, you might use green triangles to represent trees, blue circles to
represent insects, or brown squares to represent animal burrows or nests.
At the bottom or side of the site map, make a key for your symbols.
4. Draw your symbols on the map to show the location and relative
abundance of each type of organism. If there is not enough space
on your map to indicate the specific kinds of plants and animals you
observed, record them in your notebook.
5. In your field notes, record any observations of organisms in their

environment. For example, note insects feeding on plants or seeking
shelter under rocks. Also describe the physical characteristics of your
study area. Some characteristics you might consider including are:
a. Sunlight Exposure How much of the area is exposed to sunlight?
b. Soil Is the soil mostly sand, silt, clay, or organic matter?
c. Rain When was the last rain recorded for this area? How much
rain was received?
d. Maintenance Is the area maintained? If so, interview the person
who maintains it and find out how often the site is watered, fertil-
ized, treated with pesticides, and mowed.
e. Water Drainage Is the area well drained, or does it have pools of
water?
f. Vegetation Cover How much of the soil is covered with vegeta-
Marking a Site Use stakes and string to mark tion? How much of the soil is exposed?
a site that you will observe in detail.

6. After completing these observations, identify a 2 m × 2 m area that
you would like to study in more detail. Stake out this area, and wrap
the string around the stakes.
7. Use your hand lens to inspect the area. Be careful not to disturb the soil
or the organisms. Then record the types of insects and plants you see.
8. Collect a small sample of soil, and observe it with your hand lens.
Record a description of the soil and any organisms that live in it.
Analysis
Organizing Data Use your site map,
your classmates’ site maps, and your
notes to answer the following questions.
Write your answers in your science
journal.
1. Identifying Organisms Use field

guides provided by your teacher
to identify the organisms you saw.
Include both the common and
the scientific name for each. Was
there more of one particular type
of organism in your area?
2. Analyzing Data Describe the

2 m × 2 m site you studied. Is this
site characteristic of the larger site?
Site Maps Your site map should be as detailed

Conclusions as possible, and it should include a legend.
3. Interpreting Conclusions What are the differences between the

areas that your classmates studied? Do different plants and animals
live in different areas?
4. Making Predictions As the seasons change, the types of organisms

that live in the area you studied may also change. Predict how your
area might change in a different season or if a fire or flood occurred.
Extension
5. Asking Questions Based on what you have learned, think of a
question that explores how the components of the area you observed
interact with each other. For example, you might want to consider
the influence of humans on the site; study a particular predator/prey
relationship; or explore the effects of physical features, such as water
or sunlight, on the growth or behavior of organisms. Write a descrip-
tion of how you would investigate this topic.

Chapter 2
Section 1
Scientific Methods
Tools of
Environmental
Section 2
Statistics and Models
Section 3
Making Informed Decisions
Why It Matters
Scientists use a variety
of techniques to study
environmental science topics.
In this photo, researchers
Science
are monitoring the breeding
behaviors of king penguins.
How might the observations
made by scientists in the field
impact decision-making that
affects the environment?
CASESTUDY
Learn about how scientific
observations can help solve
complex environmental
problems in the case study
Saving the Everglades: Making
Informed Decisions on pages
46-47.
Main/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Online
Environmental Science
HMDScience.com

Image Credits:

©Charlotte

30
Section 1
Scientific Methods Objectives
List and describe the steps of

the experimental method.
The word science comes from the Latin verb scire, meaning “to know.” Indeed,
science is full of amazing facts and ideas about how nature works. But science is Describe why a good hypothesis
not just something you know; it is also something you do. This chapter explores is not simply a guess.
how science is done and examines the tools scientists use.
Describe the two essential parts
of a good experiment.
The Experimental Method Describe how scientists study
You have probably heard the phrase, “Today scientists discovered…” How subjects in which experiments
do scientists make these discoveries? Scientists make most of their dis- are not possible.
coveries using the experimental method. This method consists of a series
of steps that scientists worldwide use to identify and answer questions. Explain the importance of
The first step is observing. curiosity and imagination in
science.
Observing
Science usually begins with observation. Someone notices, or observes, Key Terms
something and begins to ask questions. An observation is a piece of infor- observation
mation we gather using our senses—our sight, hearing, smell, and touch. hypothesis
To extend their senses, scientists often use tools such as rulers, micro- prediction
scopes, and even satellites. For example, a ruler provides our eyes with a experiment
standard way to compare the lengths of different objects. The scientists variable
in Figure 1.1 are observing the body length of a tranquilized wolf with the
experimental group
help of a tape measure. Observations can take many forms, including
descriptions, drawings, photographs, and measurements. control group
data
Students at Keene High School in New Hampshire observed that
correlation
dwarf wedge mussels were disappearing from the Ashuelot River, which
is located near their school. The students also observed that the river is
polluted. These observations prompted the students to take the next step
in the experimental method—forming hypotheses.
Figure 1.1
Making Measurements These scientists

are measuring the body length of a tranquilized
wolf for a scientific study.
©Jeff & Alexa Henry
Chapter 2: Tools of Environmental Science 31

QUICKLAB
QUICKLAB Hypothesizing and Predicting

Hypothesizing and Predicting Observations give us answers to questions, but observations almost
Procedure always lead to more questions. To answer a specific question, a scientist
1. Place a plastic or metal tray on a may form a hypothesis. A hypothesis (hie PAHTH uh sis) is a testable
table, with a thin book underneath idea or explanation that leads to a scientific investigation. A hypothesis
one end of the tray. is more than a guess. A good hypothesis follows from what you already
2. Place 50 mL each of potting know and can be tested.
soil, sand, and schoolyard dirt in
The Keene High School students observed two trends: that the
separate piles at the high end of
number of dwarf wedge mussels on the Ashuelot River was declining
the tray.
over time and that the number of dwarf wedge mussels decreased at
3. Write a hypothesis that explains
sites downstream from the first study site. These trends are illustrated in
which of the three soils will wash
Figure 1.2. Students tested the water in three places and found that the
away most easily when it rains.
4. Use a toothpick to poke several
farther downstream they went, the more phosphate the water had. Phos-
small holes in the bottom of a phates are chemicals in many fertilizers.
paper cup. Armed with their observations, the students might make the following
5. Pour water into the cup, and hypothesis: phosphate fertilizer from a lawn is washing into the river and
slowly sprinkle water over the killing dwarf wedge mussels. To test their hypothesis, the students make
three piles of soil. a prediction, a logical statement about what will happen if the hypothesis
Analysis
is supported. The students might make the following prediction: mussels
1. What happened to the different will die when exposed to high levels of phosphate in their water.
soils? Explain why. It is important that the students’ hypothesis—high levels of
2. Revise your hypothesis, if phosphate are killing the mussels—can be incorrect. If students
necessary, based on your successfully raised mussels in water that has high phosphate levels,
experiment. their hypothesis would not be supported. Every time a hypothesis is not
supported, the number of possible explanations for an observation is
reduced. By eliminating possible explanations, a scientist can zero in on
the best explanation with more confidence.
Figure 1.2
Diagramming Trends The diagram below shows the trends observed by the students
at Keene High School. Site 1 is upstream. Site 3 is downstream.
1998
Site 1 Students found many

mussels in 1998 but fewer in 2000.
2000 Site 2 Students found few mussels Site 3 Students found no

in 1998 and fewer in 2000. mussels in 1998 or 2000.

Experimenting
The questions that arise from observations often cannot be answered by
making more observations. In this situation, scientists usually perform
one or more experiments. An experiment is a procedure designed to test a
HMDScience.com
hypothesis under controlled conditions.
Experiments should be designed to pinpoint cause-and-effect rela The Scientific Process
tionships. For this reason, good experiments have two essential char-
acteristics: a single variable is tested, and a control is used. The variable
(VER ee uh buhl) is the factor of interest, which, in our example, would be
the level of phosphate in the water. To test for one variable, scientists usu-
ally study two groups or situations at a time. The variable being studied
is the only difference between the groups. The group that receives the
experimental treatment is called the experimental group. In our example,
the experimental group would be those mussels that receive phosphate in
their water. The group that does not receive the experimental treatment is
called the control group. In our example, the control group would be those
Courtesy of Cliff Lerner
mussels that do not have phosphate added to their water. If the mussels Check for Understanding
in the control group thrive while most of those in the experimental group Compare What is the difference
die, the experiment’s results support the hypothesis that phosphates from between an experimental group and a
fertilizer are killing the mussels. control group?
The Experimental Method

in Action at Keene High
School
Keene High School students collected mussels
(nonendangered relatives of the dwarf wedge mussel) and
placed equal numbers of them in two types of aquariums.
They ensured that the conditions in the aquariums were
identical—same water temperature, food, hours of light,
and so on. The students added a measured amount of
phosphate to the aquarium of the experimental group.
They added nothing to the aquarium of the control group.
Keene High School students conducted
A key to the success of an experiment is changing an experiment to study the effect of
only one variable and having a control group. What phosphate levels on the growth rates of
would happen if the aquarium in which most of the mussels freshwater mussels.
died had phosphate in the water and was also warmer?
The students would not know if the phosphate or the higher Critical Thinking
temperature killed the mussels.
1. Applying Ideas Why did the students ensure
Another key to experimenting in science is replication,
that the conditions in both aquariums were
or recreating the experimental conditions to make sure the identical?
results are consistent. In this case, using ten aquariums—five
2. Evaluating Hypotheses How would you
control and five experimental—would help ensure that the
change the hypothesis if mussels died in
results are not simply due to chance.
both aquariums?

Figure 1.3 Organizing and Analyzing Data
Scientific Tools This scientist is Keeping careful and accurate records is extremely important in science.
analyzing his data with the help of a A scientist cannot rely on experimental results that are based on sloppy
computer and specialized equipment. observations or incomplete records. The information that a scientist gath-
ers during an experiment, which is often in numeric form, is called data.
Organizing data into tables and graphic illustrations helps scientists
analyze the data and explain the data clearly to others. The scientist in
Figure 1.3 is analyzing data on pesticides in food. Graphs are often used by
scientists to display relationships or trends in the data. Graphs are espe-
cially useful for illustrating conclusions drawn from an experiment.
One common type of graph is called a bar graph. Bar graphs are useful
for comparing the data for several things in one graph. Figure 1.4 shows the
same data in both table and graph form. Look at the data for Site 3 in the
bar graph. The data show that the concentration of phosphates is higher at
Site 3 than at Sites 1 and 2, and the concentration of nitrates is lower than at
Sites 1 and 2.
Drawing Conclusions
Scientists determine the results of their experiment by analyzing their
data and comparing the outcome of their experiment with their predic-
tion. Ideally, this comparison provides scientists with an obvious conclu-
sion. But often the conclusion is not obvious. For example, in the mussel
experiment, what if three mussels died in the control tank and five died
Figure 1.4 in the experimental tank? The students could not be certain that
phosphate is killing the mussels. Scientists often use mathemati-
Organizing Data The graph and the table above cal tools, or statistics, to help them determine whether such dif-
it compare the concentrations of phosphates and ferences are meaningful or are just a coincidence. Scientists also
nitrates in the Ashuelot River in 2000. Site 1 is repeat their experiments.
upstream of Sites 2 and 3.
Pollutant Concentrations Repeating Experiments

(mg/L) Although the results from a single experiment may seem conclu-
Site Nitrates Phosphates sive, scientists look for a large amount of supporting evidence
before they consider a hypothesis to be supported. The more
1 0.3 0.02 often an experiment can be repeated with the same results, in
2 0.3 0.06 different places and by different people, the more sure scientists
become about the reliability of their results and conclusions.
3 0.1 0.07
Communicating Results
0.3 Nitrates
Milligrams per liter of water
Phosphates Scientists publish their results to share what they have learned
with other scientists. When scientists think their results are im-
0.2 portant, they usually publish their findings as a scientific article
©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
in a peer-reviewed journal. This means other scientists have con-

0.1
fidence in the quality of their work. A scientific article includes
the question the scientist explored, reasons why the question
is important, background information, a precise description of
0
Site 1 Site 2 Site 3
how the work was done, the data that were collected, and the
scientist’s interpretation of the data.

The Correlation Method
Whenever possible, scientists study questions by using experiments. But
many questions cannot be studied experimentally. The question “What
Connect to GEOLOGY
was Earth’s climate like 60 million years ago?” cannot be studied by Coral Correlation
performing an experiment because the scientists are 60 million years too Some geologists use an interesting
late. “Does smoking cause lung cancer in humans?” cannot be studied correlation to study records of past
experimentally because doing experiments that might injure people climates. Certain species of coral put
would be unethical. down layers of skeleton every year and
can live for 300 years. Coral skeletons
When using experiments to answer questions is impossible or unethi-
contain the elements strontium, Sr, and
cal, scientists test predictions by examining correlations, or associations
calcium, Ca. In some corals, the ratio
between two or more events. For example, scientists know that the rela-
of these elements in a layer of skeleton
tive width of a ring on a tree trunk is a good indicator of the amount of
correlates with local sea surface
rainfall the tree received in a given year. Trees produce wide rings in rainy temperature at the time that the layer
years and narrow rings in dry years. Scientists have used this knowledge forms. The correlation between the Sr
to investigate why the first European settlers at Roanoke Island, Virginia to Ca ratio and the sea temperature
(often called the Lost Colony) disappeared and why most of the first set- provides scientists with one record of
tlers at Jamestown, Virginia, died. As shown in Figure 1.5, the rings of older how Earth’s climate has changed over
trees on the Virginia coast indicate that the Lost Colony and the James- the centuries.
town Colony were founded during two of the worst droughts the coast
had experienced in centuries. The scientists concluded that the settlers
may have starved because the drought made it hard to grow food.
Although correlation studies are useful, correlations do not
necessarily prove cause-and-effect relationships between two variables.
For example, the correlation between increasing phosphate levels and a
declining mussel population on the Ashuelot River
does not prove that phosphates harm mussels. Sci-
entists become more sure about their conclusions
if they find the same correlation in different places
and as they eliminate other possible explanations.
Figure 1.5
Lost Colony Jamestown

4 Drought Drought
1587–1589 1606 –1612 Wet
conditions
Drought severity index
Correlation Studies This cross section

of a bald cypress from southeastern Virginia
0 (above) shows a record of rainfall beginning
in 1531. The graph translates the relative tree
ring width into what is called a drought index,
Courtesy of U of AK Tree-Ring Lab
Dry conditions which lets scientists compare rainfall between

–4
different years.
1560 1600 1640 1680

Year
Source: Science.

Connect to BIOLOGY Scientific Habits of Mind
Discovering Penicillin Scientists actually approach questions in many different ways. But scien-
Alexander Fleming discovered tists tend to share several key habits of mind, or ways of approaching and
penicillin by accident. Someone thinking about things.
left a window open near his dishes
of bacteria, and the dishes were
infected with spores of fungi. Instead Curiosity
of throwing the dishes away, Fleming Scientists are endlessly curious. Jane Goodall, pictured in Figure 1.6, is an
looked at them closely and saw that inspiring example. She studied a chimpanzee troop in Africa for years.
the bacteria had died on the side She observed the troop so closely that she came to know the personality
of a dish where a colony of green
and behavior of each member of the troop and greatly contributed to our
Penicillium mold had started to grow.
knowledge of that species.
If he had not been a careful observer,
penicillin might not have been
discovered. You may find Penicillium The Habit of Skepticism
yourself on moldy bread.
Scientists also tend to be skeptical, which means that they don’t believe
everything they are told. For example, up until the late 19th century,
many people thought that some organisms arose spontaneously from
non-living material. A series of scientists, including Francesco Redi in
1668, John Needham in 1745, and Louis Pasteur in 1859, conducted
experiments that refuted the possibility of spontaneous generation. Sci-
entists are also skeptical of their own work. They try to think of alternate
explanations for their results before publishing them.
Figure 1.6
Openness to New Ideas
Curiosity Jane Goodall is famous for her close observations of
chimpanzees—observations fueled in part by her endless curiosity.
As the example above shows, skepticism
can go hand in hand with being open to
new ideas. Good scientists keep an open
mind about how the world works.
Intellectual Honesty
A scientist may be certain that a hypothesis
is correct before it has been fully tested.
But when an experiment is repeated, the
results may differ from those obtained the
first time. A good scientist will consider the
possibility that the new results may be ac-
curate, even if this means that the hypoth-
esis might be wrong.
©K & K Ammann/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot

Figure 1.7 Scale
0 50 100 yards
Creative Problem-Solving John Snow t.
Oxford S
(below) created his famous spot map (right), 0 50 100
D ea
meters
nS
which let him see a pattern that no one had Pump sites
t.
Wa
noticed before. St.
Pola
Deaths from cholera
ugh
rdo
ro
rlbo
nd
u r St
Ma
St.
Gt.
.
St.
ad
Bro
Kin
gS
St.
t.
uit
nd
Co
.
Wa
r St
rw
we
Sa
ick
e
vill
Br
St.
eR
ow
illy
cad
Pic
Imagination and Creativity

Good scientists are not only open to
new ideas but able to conceive of new ideas themselves. The ability to
see patterns where others do not, or to imagine things that others cannot,
allows a good scientist to expand the boundaries of what we know.
An example of an imaginative and creative scientist is John Snow,
shown in Figure 1.7. Snow was a physician in London during a cholera
epidemic in 1854. Cholera, a potentially fatal disease, is caused by a
bacterium found in water that is polluted with human waste. Few people
had indoor plumbing in 1854. Most people got their water from public
pumps; each pump had its own well. To find the polluted water source,
Snow made a map showing the homes of everyone who died of cholera.
The map also showed the public water pumps. In this example of a cor-
relation study, he found that more deaths occurred around a pump in

Broad Street than around other pumps in the area. London authorities
ended the cholera epidemic by shutting off the Broad Street pump. Using
observation, imagination, and creativity, Snow solved an environmental
problem and saved lives.

1. Describe the steps of the experimental method. 5. Analyzing Methods Read the description
of experiments. Describe the two essential
2. Name three scientific habits of mind and
parts of a good experiment, and explain their
explain their importance.
importance.
3. Explain why a hypothesis is not just a guess.
6. Analyzing Relationships How can a scientist
4. Explain how scientists try to answer questions
Image Credits:
be both skeptical and open to new ideas at

that cannot be tested with experiments. the same time? Write a one-page story that
describes such a situation.

Section 2
Objectives
Explain how scientists use

Statistics and Models
statistics.
Environmental science provides a lot of data that need to be organized and
Explain why the size of a interpreted before they are useful. Statistics is the collection and classification of
statistical sample is important. data that are in the form of numbers. People commonly use the term statistics to
describe numbers, such as the batting record of a baseball player. Sportswriters
Describe three types of models also use the methods of statistics to translate a player’s batting record over many
commonly used by scientists. games into a batting average, which allows people to easily compare the batting
records of different players.
Explain the relationship
between probability and risk.
Explain the importance of

How Scientists Use Statistics
conceptual and mathematical Scientists are also interested in comparing things, but scientists use sta-
models. tistics for a wide range of purposes. Scientists rely on and use statistics to
summarize, characterize, analyze, and compare data. Statistics is actually
a branch of mathematics that provides scientists with important tools for
Key Terms analyzing and understanding their data.
statistics Consider the experiment in which students studied mussels to see if
mean the mussels were harmed by fertilizer in their water. Students collected
distribution data on mussel length and phosphate levels during this experiment.
probability Some mussels in the control group grew more than some mussels in the
sample experimental group, yet some grew less. How could the students turn this
data into meaningful numbers?
risk
model
conceptual model Statistics Works with Populations
mathematical model Scientists use statistics to describe statistical populations. A statistical
population is a group of similar things that a scientist is interested in learn-
ing about. For example, the dwarf wedge mussels shown in Figure 2.1 are
part of the population of all dwarf wedge mussels on the Ashuelot River.
Figure 2.1
Statistical Population Students

found these dwarf wedge mussel shells in
a muskrat den. These mussels are part of
the statistical population of all dwarf wedge
mussels on the Ashuelot River.
Courtesy of Cliff Lerner

What Is the Average?
Although statistical populations are composed of similar individuals,
these individuals often have different characteristics. For example, in the
population of students in your classroom, each student has a different
height, weight, and so on.
The Keene High School students measured the lengths of dwarf wedge
mussels in a population, as shown in Figure 2.1. They added the lengths of
the mussels and then divided that value by the total number of mussels.
This gave the average length of the mussels, which in statistical terms is
called the mean. The mean is the number obtained by adding the data for
a characteristic and dividing this sum by the number of individuals. The
mean provides a single measure for a given characteristic of a population.
Scientists can compare different populations by comparing their means.
The mean length of the mussels in Figure 2.2 is about 30 mm.
The Distribution
The bar graph in Figure 2.2 shows the lengths of dwarf wedge mussels in
a population. The pattern that the bars create when viewed as a whole
is called the distribution. A distribution is the relative arrangement of
the members of a statistical population. In Figure 2.2, the lengths of the
individuals are arranged between 15 and 50 mm.
The overall shape of the bars, which rise to form a hump in the middle
of the graph, is also part of the distribution. The line connecting the tops of
the bars in Figure 2.2 forms the shape of a bell. The graphs of many char- Check for Understanding
acteristics of populations, such as the heights of people, form bell-shaped Summarize How was the mean length
curves. A bell-shaped curve indicates a normal distribution. In a normal of the dwarf wedge mussel population
distribution, the data are grouped symmetrically around the mean. calculated?
Figure 2.2
Size Distribution This bar Size Distribution of Dwarf Wedge Mussels

graph shows the distribution of 25
lengths in a population of dwarf

wedge mussels.
20
critical thinking
Analyze Data Which shell
Number of mussels
length was most common 15

in this population of dwarf
wedge mussels? Which shell
size was least common? 10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Length (mm)

Connect to MATH What Is the Probability?
Probability The chance that something will happen is called probability. For
Probability is often determined by example, if you toss a penny, what is the probability that it will come up
observing ratios or patterns. For heads? Most people would say “half and half,” and they would be right.
example, imagine that you count 200 The chance of a tossed penny coming up heads is  __12 , which can also be
pine trees in a forest and notice that 40 expressed as 0.5 or 50%. In fact, probability is usually expressed as a num-
of those trees have pine cones. What is ber between 0 and 1 and written as a decimal rather than as a fraction.
the probability that the next pine tree Suppose the penny comes up heads 7 out of 10 times. Does this result
you come across will have pine cones? prove that the probability of a penny coming up heads is 0.7? No, it does
not. So what is the problem?
The problem is that the sample size—the number of objects or events
sampled—is too small to yield an accurate result. In statistics, a sample is
a group of individuals or events selected to represent the population. If
you toss a penny 10 times, your sample size is 10. If you continue tossing
1,000 times, you are almost certain to get about 50% heads and 50% tails.
In this example, the sample is the number of coin tosses you make, while
the population is the total number of coin tosses possible. Scientists try to
make sure that the samples they take are large enough to give an accurate
estimate for the whole population.
Statistics in Everyday Life

You have probably heard, “There is a 50 percent chance of rain today.”
Figure 2.3 shows an example of a natural event that we often associate
with probability—a thunderstorm. You encounter statistics often and use
them more than you may think. People are constantly trying to determine
the chance of something happening. A guess or gut instinct is probably
just an unconscious sense of probability.
Figure 2.3
Understanding the News
Probability Most people are familiar with statistics regarding the weather,
The news contains statistics every day, even if
such as the chance, or probability, that a thunderstorm will occur.
they are not obvious. For example, a reporter
may say, “A study shows that forest fires in-
creased air pollution in the city last year.” We
could ask many statistical questions about this
news item. We might first ask what the average
amount of air pollution in the city is. We could
gather data on air pollution levels over the past
20 years and graph these data. Then we could
calculate the mean, and ask ourselves how dif-
ferent last year’s data are from the average. We
might graph the data and look at the distribu-
©Kent Wood/Photo Researchers, Inc.
tion. Do this year’s pollution levels seem un-

usually high compared to levels in other years?
Recognizing and paying attention to statistics
will make you a better consumer of information,
including information about the environment.

Figure 2.4
Oil Pollution The Deepwater Horizon

spill was the largest oil spill in U.S.
history. Big oil spills are a relatively minor
source of oil pollution. Big spills, however, Connect to LAW
can have a devastating impact where
they occur. The graph shows oil sources
that pollute the ocean. Runoff from land
51.4%
critical thinking Routine ship
Interpret Data What are the top three maintenance
sources of oil that pollute the ocean? 19.4%
Big spills
5.2%
Natural seeps Air pollution
8.8% 13.0%
Offshore drilling
2.2%
Thinking About Risk Connect to LAW

In scientific terms, risk is the probability of an unwanted outcome. For ex- Oil Tankers
ample, if you have no clue about the correct answer on a multiple choice The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 was a
test with four options, you have a 3 in 4 chance of guessing the wrong an- response to a huge oil spill from an
swer. The risk of guessing incorrectly is __
 34  , or 75 percent. Figure 2.4 shows oil tanker, the Exxon Valdez, in Alaska
a well-publicized environmental problem—an oil spill. As you can see in in 1989. The controversial bill had
the circle graph, the risk of pollution from large oil spills is much smaller been debated for 14 years; it passed
than the risk of oil pollution from everyday sources. swiftly in the aftermath of the disaster.
Individuals intuitively evaluate risk every day and make decisions Under the law, all oil tankers operating
about what to do or what not to do. For example, deciding whether to in United States waters must be
cross the street against a red light might get you to school on time, but protected with double hulls by 2015.
could have unwanted outcomes, too. General considerations in weighing
individual risk include the probability that an event will occur (such as
a speeding car entering the intersection), the severity of the outcome if
such an event does occur, and whether the exposure to risk is involuntary.
People tend to perceive voluntary risk as less likely. Most individual risk
analysis includes subjective factors and best guesses about the chances of
an event occurring.
Scientists often must calculate risk to large communities of people in
order to inform policy decisions in government. These estimates involve
data on the history of events, projections for future occurrences, and
scientific evidence for adverse outcomes. The challenge for governments
©Julie Dermansky/Corbis
is that evaluating adverse outcomes usually involves many citizens. The

risk of getting cancer from exposure to a pollutant might just be one in a
thousand for each exposed individual, but if a million people are ex-
posed, then 1,000 individuals and their families must deal with the effects
of the resulting disease.

Figure 2.5 Models
Physical Model This plastic You are probably already familiar with models. Museums have models of
model of a DNA molecule is an ships, dinosaurs, and atoms. Architects build models of buildings. Even
example of a physical model. crash-test dummies are models. Models are representations of objects
or systems. Although people usually think of models as things they can
touch, scientists use several different types of models to help them learn
about our environment.
Physical Models
All of the models mentioned above are physical models. Physical models
are three-dimensional models you can touch. Their most important
feature is that they closely resemble the object or system they represent,
although they may be larger or smaller.
One of the most famous physical models was used to discover the
structure of DNA. The two scientists who built the structural model of
DNA knew information about the size, shape, and bonding qualities of
the subunits of DNA. With this knowledge, the scientists created model
pieces that resembled the subunits and the bonds between them. These
pieces helped them figure out the possible structures of DNA. Discover-
ing the structure of DNA furthered other research that helped scientists
understand how DNA replicates in a living cell. Figure 2.5 shows a modern
model of a DNA molecule. The most useful models teach scientists some-
thing new and help to further other discoveries.
Graphical Models
287
Maps and charts are the most common examples of graphical 87 85
models.
Showing someone a road map is easier than telling him or her how to get
somewhere. An example of a graphical model is the map of the Denver,
Colorado, area shown in Figure 2.6. Scientists use graphical models to
Lory
show things such as the positions of the stars, S.P. the amount of forest cover
Gould
in a given area, and thePass depth
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NATL. FOR.
Conceptual Models
A conceptual model is a verbal or graphical explanation of how a system
works or is organized. A flow-chart diagram is an example of a type of FieldStudy
conceptual model. A flow-chart uses boxes linked by arrows to illustrate Go to Appendix B to find the field study
what a system contains and how those contents are organized. Organizing Data
Consider this example. Suppose that a scientist wants to know how
mercury, a poisonous metal, moves through the environment to reach
people after the mercury is released from burning coal. The scientist
would use an understanding of mercury in the environment to build a
conceptual model, as shown in Figure 2.7. Scientists often create such
diagrams to help them understand how a system works—what compo-
nents the system contains, how they are arranged, and how they affect
one another.
Conceptual models are not always diagrams. They can also be verbal
descriptions or even drawings of how something works or is put together.
For example, the model of an atom as a large ball circled by smaller balls
is a conceptual model of the structure of an atom. As this example shows, Check for Understanding
an actual model can be more than one type. An atomic model made of Explain How does building a conceptual
plastic balls is both a conceptual model and a physical model. model help scientists in their work?
Conceptual Model of Mercury Contamination

Figure 2.7
Conceptual Model This Mercury released from burning coal
conceptual model shows how
mercury released from burning
coal could end up reaching people,
where it could cause poisoning.
Air
Soil Water
Crops Fish
People
Health effects from mercury poisoning

Figure 2.8
Satellite Image This is a satellite image

of the San Francisco Bay Area. Scientists use
mathematical models to understand the terrain
from the way objects on the surface reflect
light. In this image, healthy vegetation is red.
Mathematical Models
A mathematical model is one or more equations that represents the way
a system or process works. You can represent many common situations
using math models. Mathematical models are especially useful in cases
with many variables, such as the many things that affect the weather.
Because mathematical models use numbers and equations, people
may think the models are always right. But weather models, for example,
sometimes predict rain on dry days. In fact, people are the ones who
interpret data and write the equations.
If the data or the equations are wrong, the model will not be realistic
and so will provide incorrect information. Like all models, mathematical
models are only as good as the data that went into building them.
Scientists use the power of computers to model many complex factors.
For example, information on location and many wavelengths of reflected
light can be used to create amazing images. Look at the image of the San
Francisco Bay Area in Figure 2.8. This is a “false color” digital satellite im-
age. The satellite measures energy reflected from the Earth’s surface. Sci-
entists use mathematical models to relate the amount of energy reflected

from objects to the objects’ physical condition.
One important tool of environmental science that combines both
mathematical and graphical models is Geographic Information Systems
(GIS). GIS is a mapping tool that can help scientists understand relation-
ships between many variables and how they affect organisms and people.

1. Explain why sample size is important in 4. Analyzing Relationships Explain the
determining probability. relationship between probability and risk.
2. Explain what “the mean number of weeds in 5. Applying Ideas Write a paragraph that uses
three plots of land” means. examples to show how scientists use statistics.
3. Describe three types of models used by 6. Evaluating Ideas Why are conceptual and
scientists. mathematical models especially powerful?

Section 3
Making Informed Objectives
Decisions
Describe three values that
people consider when
making decisions about the
environment.
Scientific research is an essential first step to solve environmental problems. Describe the four steps in a
However, many other factors must also be considered. How will the proposed simple environmental decision-
solution affect people’s lives? How much will it cost? Is the solution ethical? making model.
Questions like these require an examination of values, which are principles or
standards we consider important. What values should influence decisions that Compare the short-term and
affect the environment? Figure 3.1 lists some values that often affect environmental long-term consequences of
decisions. You might think of others as well. two decisions regarding a
hypothetical environmental
An Environmental Decision-Making Model issue.
Forming an opinion about an environmental issue is often difficult and

may seem overwhelming. It helps to have a systematic way of analyzing Key Terms
the issues and deciding what is important. One way to guide yourself value
through this process is to use a decision-making model. A decision- decision-making model
making model is a conceptual model that provides a systematic process
for making decisions.
Figure 3.2 shows one possible decision-making model. The first step of
the model is to gather information. In addition to watching news reports
and reading about environmental issues, you should listen to well-
informed people on all sides of an issue. Then consider which values
apply to the issue. Explore the consequences of each option. Finally,
evaluate all of the information to make a decision.
Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2

Values That Affect Environmental Decision-Making Model
Decision Making This diagram shows a simple decision-
Value Definition making model.
Aesthetic what is beautiful or pleasing Gather information
Economic the gain or loss of money or jobs
Educational the accumulation and sharing of knowledge
Environmental the protection of natural resources Consider values
Ethical/moral what is right or wrong
Health the maintenance of human health

Explore
consequences
Recreational human leisure activities
Scientific understanding of the natural world
Social/cultural the maintenance of human communities and their values and

Make a decision
traditions

Figure 3.3 A Hypothetical Situation
Proposed Nature Preserve Consider the following hypothetical example. In the town of Pleasanton,
This map shows the proposed nature in Valley County, biologists from the local college have been studying the
preserve, which would be home to golden-cheeked warbler, shown in Figure 3.3. The warblers have already
warblers like the one pictured (right). disappeared from most areas around the state, and the warbler popula-
tion is declining in Valley County. The biologists warn county officials
that if the officials do not take action, the state fish and wildlife service
may list the bird as an endangered species.
Pleasanton is growing rapidly, and
much of the new development is occur-
ring o
utside the city limits. This develop-
ment is destroying warbler habitat. Valley
County already has strict environmental
controls on building, but these controls
do not prevent the clearing of land.
CASESTUDY
Saving the Everglades:

Making Informed
Decisions
The Florida Everglades is an enormous, shallow freshwater marsh. The
water in the Everglades slowly flows from Lake Okeechobee to Florida
Bay. Much of the marsh is filled with sawgrass and other water-loving
plants. Along the coasts there are estuaries with mangrove forests. The
Everglades is home to many species of wildlife, such as fish, panthers,
alligators, and wading birds.
(b) ©F. Bettex - lookandprint.com/Alamy Images; (c) ©G. Lasley/VIREO
In the 1880s, marshlands were considered wastelands. So developers
began to drain the Everglades and replace marsh with houses and
sugarcane fields. Between 1940 and 1971, the Army Corps of Engineers
built dikes, canals, and pumping stations that drained even more water.
The Corps also straightened the Kissimmee River, which runs into Lake
Okeechobee.
Scientists have shown that what remains of the Everglades is in
trouble. Not enough freshwater is moving south through the marshes
and into the estuaries and Florida Bay. Fertilizer from farms is polluting
the water, and wading-bird colonies are much smaller than before. These The roseate spoonbill is a colorful
effects have economic impacts. Because much of the Everglades’ water resident of the Everglades.
has been diverted into the Atlantic Ocean, the towns of southeast Florida
are running out of fresh water and marine life in Florida Bay has declined.

Several groups join together to propose that the county buy several ECOFACT
hundred acres of land where the birds are known to breed and save that
land as a nature preserve. The groups also propose limiting development The Everglades
on land surrounding the preserve. The group obtains enough signatures There are 67 threatened or
on a petition to put the issue to a vote, and the public begins to discuss endangered plant and animal species
in the Florida Everglades, according to
the proposal.
the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service.
Some people who own property within the proposed preserve oppose
the plan. These property owners have an economic interest in this discus-
sion. They believe that they will lose money if they are forced to sell their
land to the county instead of developing it.
Other landowners support the plan. They fear that without the pre-
serve the warbler may be placed on the state’s endangered species list.
If the bird is listed as endangered, the state will impose a plan to protect
the bird that will require even stricter limits on land development. People
who have land near the proposed preserve think their land will become
more valuable. Many residents of Pleasanton look forward to hiking and
camping in the proposed preserve. Other residents do not like the idea of
more government regulations on how private property can be used.
The Everglades can be thought of

as a shallow, slow-moving river
that empties into Florida Bay.
In the 1990s, a commission reported that the Everglades restoration is ongoing and requires continual
destruction of the Everglades had jeopardized the state’s research. Scientists continue to study how water flows
tourism industry, farming, and the economic future of south through the Everglades, how the changing flows from
Florida. The solution was obvious: undo the water-diversion restoration will affect plants and animals, and what levels of
dikes and dams and restore water to the Everglades.
Critical Thinking
nutrients from fertilizer are safe for the ecosystem. With this
Groups that had been fighting over the Everglades and other information, the plan can continually be improved.
for decades met to work on a plan. After five years,
environmentalists, politicians, farmers, tourism advocates,
Critical Thinking
©Matt Bradley/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot
and developers agreed on the $7.8 billion Everglades

Restoration Plan, which was signed into law in 2000.
1. Analyzing Processes Explain why it was so
No group was fully satisfied with the plan, but all agreed
difficult for people to agree on how to restore the
that they were better off with it than without it. As a result of Everglades.
the plan, 7 miles of the Kissimmee River has been restored
2. Analyzing Relationships If your county
to its original path. Native plants are absorbing some of the
decided to build a landfill, do you think the
pollution that has killed an estimated $200 million worth of
decision-making process would resemble the
wildlife. Everglades example?

Figure 3.4 How to Use the Decision-Making Model
Warbler Population The hypothetical situation in Pleasanton can be used to illustrate how to
The population of golden-cheeked use the decision-making model. Michael Price is a voter in Valley County
warblers in the Pleasanton area has who will vote on whether the county should create a nature preserve to
declined in recent years. protect the golden-cheeked warbler. The steps Michael took to make his
Warbler Population decision about the proposal are outlined below.
in the Pleasanton Area
50
Gather Information
Number of breeding pairs
40
Michael studied the warbler issue thoroughly by watching local news
30 reports, reading the newspaper, learning more about golden-cheeked
warblers from various Web sites, and attending forums where the i ssues
20 were discussed. An example of scientific information that Michael
considered includes the graph of warbler population decline in
10
Figure 3.4. Several of the arguments on both sides made sense to him.
0
2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
Year Consider Values
Michael made a table similar to Figure 3.5 to clarify his thoughts. The
v alues listed are environmental, economic, and recreational. Someone
else might have thought other values were more important to consider.
Figure 3.5
Should Valley County Set Aside a Nature Preserve?
Environmental Economic Recreational
Positive • Habitat destruction in • Landowners whose property was bought by • Parts of the preserve are
short-term the nature preserve area the county receive a payment for their land. made available immediately
consequences is slowed or stopped. • Property outside the preserve area can be for hiking and picnicking.
developed with fewer restrictions.
Negative • Environmental controls • Property owners inside the preserve area • Michael could not think of
short-term are made less strict do not make as much money as if they had any negative short-term
consequences in parts of the county developed their land. consequences.
outside the preserve • Taxpayers must pay higher taxes to buy
area. preserve land.
Positive • The population of • Property near the preserve increases in • Large areas of the preserve
long-term warblers increases, value because it is near a natural area. are available for hiking and
consequences and the bird does not • Businesses move to Valley County because picnicking.
become endangered. of its beauty and recreational opportunities, • Landowners near the
• Other species of which results in job growth. preserve may develop
organisms are also • The warbler is not listed as endangered, campgrounds with bike
protected. which avoids stricter controls on land use. trails, swimming, and fishing
• An entire habitat is available on land adjacent to
preserved. the preserve.
Negative • Other habitat outside • Taxpayers must continue to pay for • State officials might restrict
long-term the preserve may maintaining the preserve. some recreational activities
consequences be damaged by • Taxpayers lose the tax revenue that this land on private land within the
overdevelopment. would have provided if it was developed. preserve.

Explore Consequences Figure 3.6
Michael decided that in the short term the positive and nega-
Nature Preserve
tive consequences listed in his table were almost equally Land set aside for a nature preserve can benefit
balanced. He saw that some people would suffer financially people as well as wildlife.
from the plan, but others would benefit. Taxpayers would
have to pay for the preserve, but all the residents would have
access to land that was previously off-limits because it was
privately owned. Some parts of the county would have more
protection from development, and some would have less.
The long-term consequences of the plan helped Michael
make his decision. He realized that environmental values
were an important factor. The idea of a bird becoming extinct
distressed him. Also, protecting warbler habitat now would
cost less than doing it later under a state-imposed plan.
Michael considered that there were long-term benefits to
add to the analysis as well. He had read that property values
were rising more rapidly in counties with land for recreation.
He found that people would pay more to live in counties that
have open spaces. Michael had found that Valley County had
very little preserved land. He thought that creating the pre-
serve would bring the county long-term economic benefits.
He also highly valued the aesthetic and recreational benefits
a preserve would offer, such as the running trail in Figure 3.6.
Make A Decision
Michael chose to vote for the nature preserve. Other people
who looked at the same table of pros and cons might have
voted differently. If you lived in Valley County, how would
you have voted?
As you learn about issues affecting the environment, both
©Thomas Northcut/Getty Images
in this course and in the future, use this decision-making

model as a starting point to making your decisions. Make
sure to consider your values, weigh pros and cons, and keep
in mind both the short-term and long-term consequences of
your decision.

1. Explain the importance of each of the four 4. Making Decisions Pick one of the situations
steps in a simple decision-making model. you described in question 3. Make a decision-
making table that shows the positive and negative
2. List and define three possible values to
consequences of either of two possible decisions.
consider when making environmental decisions.
5. Analyzing Information Suggest how to make
3. Describe in a short paragraph examples of two
the decision-making model presented here
situations in which environmental values come
more powerful.
into conflict with other values.

Maps in Action
A Topographic Map of Keene,

New Hampshire
Keene, New Hampshire Topography
USGS, 1986.
Map Skills
Topographic maps use contour lines to indicate areas that share a common elevation. Where the lines are close
together, the terrain is steep. Where the lines are far apart, the landscape is flat. In this map, the Ashuelot River
flows downhill from Site 1 to Site 3. Use the map to answer the questions below.
1. Using a Key Use the scale to calculate the distance 4. Analyzing Data Trace the sections of the Ashuelot
between Sites 1 and 2 and between Sites 2 and 3. River between each site to determine the length of
stream between each site.
2. Understanding Topography Are the hills to the east
and west of the town of Keene more likely to drain into 5. Interpreting Landforms A flood plain is an area
the river around Site 3 or Site 2? Explain your answer. that floods when a river overflows its banks. Interpret
the contour lines to locate the flood plain.
3. Identifying Trends Which site is more likely to be
polluted? Explain your answer.

Society and the Environment ECOZine
at HMDScience.com
Bats and Bridges

A large colony of Mexican free-tailed bats lives under the
Mexican free-tailed bats leave their roost under the
Congress Avenue Bridge in Austin, Texas. These bats eat Congress Avenue Bridge in Austin, Texas, to hunt for insects.
millions of insects a night, so they are welcome neighbors.
Communities around the country and around the world have
learned of the bats and have asked Austin for help in building
bat-friendly bridges. But all that the people of Austin knew
was that the bats appeared after the Congress Avenue Bridge
was rebuilt in the 1980s. What attracted the bats? The people
of Austin had to do a little research.
A Crevice Will Do
In the wild, bats spend the day sleeping in groups in caves
or in crevices under the flaking bark of old trees. They come
back to the same place every day to roost. Deep crevices in
tree bark are rare now that many of our old forests have been
cut down, and many bats are in danger of extinction.
In the 1990s, the Texas Department of Transportation and
Bat Conservation International, a nonprofit organization based
in Austin, set out to discover what made a bridge attractive
to bats. They collected data on 600 bridges, including some
that had bat colonies and some that did not. They answered
the following questions: Where was the bridge located? What
was it made of? How was it constructed? Was it over water or
land? What was the temperature under the bridge? How was
the land around the bridge used?
houses are known as Texas Bat-Abodes, and they can make
any bridge friendly to bats.
Some Bridges are Better Bat Conservation International is collecting data on bats
Statistical analysis of the data revealed a number of and bridges everywhere. Different bat species may have
differences between bridges occupied by bats and bridges different preferences. A Texas Bat-Abode might not attract
unoccupied by bats. Which differences were important to the bats What DoinYou
to a bridge Think?
Minnesota or Maine. If we can figure out
bats and which were not? The researchers returned to the what features attract bats to bridges, we can incorporate
Congress Avenue Bridge in Austin to find out. Crevices under these features into new bridges and make more bridges into
the bridge appeared to be crucial, and the crevices had to be bat-friendly abodes.
the right size. Free-tailed bats appeared to prefer crevices 1
to 3 cm wide and about 30 cm deep in hidden corners of the
bridge, and they preferred bridges made of concrete, not steel. What Do You Think?
©Karen Marks/Bat Conservation International
The scientists looked again at their data on bridges. They Many bridges in the United States could provide
discovered that 62 percent of bridges in central and southern roosting places for bats. Do you think communities
should try to establish colonies of bats under local
Texas that had appropriate crevices were occupied by bats.
bridges? How should communities make this
Now, the Texas Department of Transportation is adding bat decision, and what information would they need to
houses to existing bridges that do not have crevices. These make this decision wisely?

Chapter 2 Summary
Section 1 Scientific Methods Objectives Key Terms
• Science is a process by which we learn about the world observation

around us. Science progresses mainly by the experi- hypothesis
mental method. prediction
• The experimental method involves making observa- experiment
tions, forming a hypothesis, performing an experiment, variable
interpreting data, and communicating results.
experimental
• In cases in which experiments are impossible, scien- group
tists look for correlations between different phenomena. control group
• Good scientists are curious, creative, honest, skeptical, data
and open to new ideas. correlation
Section 2 Statistics and Models Objectives Key Terms
• Scientists use statistics to classify, organize, and statistics

interpret data. mean
• Measures such as means and probabilities are used to distribution
describe populations and events. probability
• Statistics is a powerful tool for evaluating information sample
about the environment. risk
• Scientists use models, including physical, graphical, model
conceptual, and mathematical models, to understand conceptual
the systems they study. model
mathematical
model
(t) ©Jeff & Alexa Henry; (c) ©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) ©Thomas Northcut/Getty Images
Section 3 Making Informed Decisions Objectives Key Terms
• Making environmental decisions involves gather- value

ing information, considering values, and exploring decision-making
consequences. model
• Decisions about the environment should be made
thoughtfully. Using a decision-making model will
provide you with a systematic process for making
knowledgeable decisions.
• Making a table that lists positive and negative
short-term and long-term consequences will help
you recognize and weigh your values about an
environmental decision.

Chapter 2 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 14. Models used by scientists include
Use each of the following terms in a separate sentence. a. conceptual models.
1. experiment b. variable models.
2. correlation c. physical models.
3. model d. Both (a) and (c)
4. distribution 15. Reading scientific reports is an example of
5. values a. assessing risk.
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings b. considering values.
of the terms differ. c. gathering information.
6. hypothesis and prediction d. exploring consequences.
7. risk and probability
16. A conceptual model represents a way of thinking
8. distribution and population
about
9. sample and population
a. relationships.
10. Concept Map Use the following terms to
b. variables.
create a concept map: control group, experiment,
experimental group, prediction, data, observations, c. data.
conclusions, and hypothesis. d. positions.
17. In an experiment, the experimental treatment

Reviewing Main Ideas differs from the control treatment only in the
_______ being studied.
11. Scientists form _______ hypotheses to
answer questions. a. experiment
a. accurate b. variable
b. short c. hypothesis
c. mathematical d. data
d. testable 18. To fully understand a complex environmental
issue, you may need to consider
12. Risk is the _______ of a negative outcome.
a. economics.
a. sample
b. values.
b. statistic
c. scientific information.
c. probability
d. All of the above
d. event
19. Scientists _______ experiments to make sure the
13. If the results of your experiment do not support results are meaningful.
your hypothesis, you should
a. perform
a. publish your results anyway.
b. repeat
b. consider the results abnormal and continue
working. c. conclude
c. find a way to rationalize your results. d. communicate
d. try another method.

Chapter Review

20. Explain the statement, “A good scientist is one 28. Draw Conclusions What does a scientist
who asks the right questions.” mean by the statement, “There is an 80 percent
21. Explain the role of a control group in a scientific probability that a tornado will hit this area within
experiment. the next 10 years?”
22. How are statistics helpful for evaluating 29. Infer How does a map of Denver, Colorado allow
information about the environment? you to navigate around the city?
23. Explain why environmental scientists use 30. Evaluate Are complicated models always more
mathematical models. accurate? Write a paragraph that uses examples to
explain your answer.
24. How does making a table help you evaluate
the values and concerns you have when making 31. Interpret Explain what the following statement
a decision? proves: “We sampled pet owners and found that
three out of five surveyed own dogs and two out of
five surveyed own cats.”
Interpreting Graphics 32. Language Arts The word serendipity, which
The graph below shows the change in size of a means “luck in finding something accidentally,”
shoreline alligator population over time. Use the graph came from a Persian fairy tale called The Three
to answer questions 25–27. Princes of Serendip. In the story, each of the
princes discovers something by accident.
25. Analyzing Data What happened to the density of Research and write a short report on a
alligators between 1986 and 1988? serendipitous discovery about the environment.
26. Interpreting Data What happened to the trend 33. Make a Poster Choose an environmental issue
in the concentration of alligators between 1994 in your area. You can choose a real-life problem
and 1998? that you have heard about on the news, such as
27. Calculate How many times greater was the improving the sewage system or building a new
alligator population in 1986 than it was in 2000? landfill, or you can choose a project that you think
should be considered. Research the issue at your
school or local library. Prepare a poster listing
20 the groups of people likely to be involved in the
decision and the factors that may be taken into
consideration, including economic, social, and
Alligators per kilometer of shoreline
16 environmental factors.
12
0
1985 1990 1995 2000
Year
54 Unit 1 Introduction to Environmental Science

STUDYSKILL Chapter Review
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
The table below shows the results of an experiment
that tested the hypothesis that butterflies are attracted 38. How do scientific activities help to inform
to some substances but not to others. Twenty-four decision makers in the Everglades?
Why It Matters
trays containing four substances were placed in 39. What is the ecological value of the Everglades?
random order on a sandbank to see if butterflies
landed on the trays. The number of butterflies that Why It Matters
landed on each type of tray and stayed for more than
40. Explain the
five minutes during a two-hour period was recorded
importance of
in the table. Use the data in the table below to answer
observation to
questions 34–35.
environmental
science.
Butterfly Feeding Preferences
Sugar Nitrogen Salt
Water
solution solution solution
Number of
butterflies 5 87 7 403
attracted
STUDYSKILL
34. Interpret Do the results in the table show that
butterflies are attracted to salt solution but not Imagining Examples To understand how key terms
any other substance? Why or why not? What other apply to actual examples, work with a partner and take turns
data would you like to see to help you evaluate the describing an environmental problem and explaining how the
results of this experiment? key terms relate to the problem.
35. Evaluate Are there any controls shown in this
table? Explain your answer.
Making Connections
36. Explain Why is the experimental method an
important scientific tool?
37. Write Persuasively Write a letter to the editor of
your local paper outlining your opinion on a local
environmental issue.
©Charlotte Main/Photo Researchers, Inc.

InquiryLab
Data Analysis
Risk Assessment
Objectives
In this lab, you will design a method of assessing the risk from exposure to
Ask questions about
contaminants from a Superfund hazardous waste site.
possible harm to people
or the environment from
proximity to a Superfund site.
Background
Design a method of The news abounds with stories about oil spills in the ocean, toxic air
assessing the risk to people
pollution from chemical plants, and hazardous waste leaks—it seems
and the environment from a
Superfund site.
like we are constantly at risk from some type of ecological disaster. But
are we really at that much risk? What exactly is risk and how can we tell if
Identify the factors that something will affect us?
determine if there is a risk of
Risk is the possibility of suffering harm from some sort of hazard.
harm to the environment or
human health.
The harm might take the form of an injury, disease, economic loss, or
damage to the environment in which we live. In order to determine if
Communicate the possible something has the possibility to cause harm, scientists often perform
risks from the Superfund site.
a risk assessment. Risk (R) is usually expressed as the probability of
exposure (E) to the substance or activity multiplied by the probability of
Materials
computer with Internet
harm (H) occurring due to that exposure. Or, stated mathematically, risk
access is calculated as R = E x H.
reference books and In 1980, the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation
periodicals and Liability Act, or CERCLA, established an environmental program to
allow the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to clean up abandoned
hazardous waste sites in the United States. The long and often complex
clean-up process involves identification of the sites, assessment to place
them on the National Priorities List (NPL), and the establishment of
appropriate plans to remediate them. Any responsible parties must be
identified and penalties for damages enforced. Both state and community
involvement is desired to ensure long-term protection from harm.
This clean-up process was initially funded by
a “polluters tax.” This tax penalized polluters
who could be identified and used the money
to clean up sites where the responsible
parties could not be found, could not pay,
or refused to pay. However, the tax expired
in 1995 and as of 2011, has never been
reauthorized by Congress. Approximately
1300 contaminated sites remain on the EPA
Superfund list, with 347 cleaned up, and 62
new sites proposed for addition to the list.
©Susan Leavines/Photo Researchers/Getty Images
Safety Caution
If a local Superfund site is selected, do NOT
visit the site under any circumstances.
Superfund Sites This Superfund site is located in Louisiana.

Procedure
1. Using the Internet, select a Superfund site and
identify the types of contaminants found in
that location.
2. Research details about each contaminant. Ma-

terial Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for chemicals
may provide useful information. Some sites
may have already been treated. In that case,
either select another site or base your research
on the details of the site prior to remediation.
3. Design a method to assess the risks of harm to

people or to the environment from proximity
to the Superfund site.
4. Develop a plan to communicate your findings

to the class using visual aids on poster board
or presentation software that can be projected Procedure Step 1 You can find a list of Superfund sites by searching the Web site
from a computer. of the Environmental Protection Agency.
Analysis
1. Analyzing Data In your evaluation, did you consider short-term or
long-term consequences to be more important? Why?
2. Analyzing Results Which potential consequences had the greatest

value according to your ranking? Why?
Conclusions
3. Evaluating Data Did the values assigned for each type of risk make a
difference in the decision reached on how to remediate the problem?
Extension
4. Evaluating Results Based on the research and discussions in which
you have been involved, do you feel the “polluters tax” on oil and
chemical companies should be reestablished to provide the funding
to clean up the remaining Superfund sites? Explain your answer.
©Marili Forastieri/Getty Images

Chapter 3
Section 1
The Geosphere
The Dynamic
Earth
Section 2
The Atmosphere
Section 3
The Hydrosphere and Biosphere
Why It Matters
Data from NASA satellites
enables scientists to determine
such things as ecosystem
health and air quality and to
increase our knowledge of
human impact on the planet.
In what ways might satellite
observations directly affect your
life?
CASESTUDY
Learn about the important
services provided by coastal
wetlands in the case study The
Storm Surge, Tsunamis, and
Coastal Wetlands on page 74.
©Earth Imaging/Stone/Getty Images
Online
HMDScience.com

58
Section 1
The Geosphere Objectives
Describe the composition and

structure of Earth.
Violent eruptions blow the tops off volcanoes, and molten rock from Earth’s interior
flows across the surface of the planet. Hurricanes batter beaches and change Describe Earth’s tectonic plates.
coastlines. Earthquakes shake the ground and topple buildings and freeway
overpasses. All of these are the result of the dynamic state of planet Earth. What Explain the main cause of
are the underlying conditions that cause our planet to change constantly? earthquakes and their effects.
Identify the relationship

Earth as a System between volcanic eruptions and
climate change.
Earth consists of rock, air, water, and living things that all interact with
each other. Scientists divide this system into four parts. As shown in Describe how wind and water
Figure 1.1, the four parts are the geosphere (rock), the atmosphere (air), alter Earth’s surface.
the hydrosphere (water), and the biosphere (living things).
The solid part of Earth that consists of all rock, as well as the soils
and loose rocks on Earth’s surface, makes up the geosphere. Most of
Key Terms
the geosphere is located in Earth’s interior. At the equator, the average
geosphere
distance through the center of Earth to the other side is 12,756 km. The
atmosphere is the mixture of gases, nearly all of which are found in the hydrosphere
first 30 km above Earth’s surface. The hydrosphere makes up all of the crust
water on or near Earth’s surface. Much of this water is in the oceans. mantle
Water is also found in the atmosphere, on land, and in the soil. The core
biosphere is made up of parts of the geosphere, the atmosphere, and the lithosphere
hydrosphere. The biosphere is the part of Earth where life exists. It is a asthenosphere
thin layer of living organisms found at Earth’s surface and extending from tectonic plate
about 9 km above the surface down to the bottom of the ocean.
chemical weathering
erosion
Figure 1.1
Earth As a System Earth is an integrated system that consists of the geosphere, the
atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the biosphere (inset).
Chapter 3: The Dynamic Earth 59

Discovering Earth’s Interior
Studying the Earth beneath our feet is not easy. The deepest well that has
been drilled into Earth’s interior is only about 12 km deep. An alternative
method must be used to study the interior of Earth. Scientists can use
seismic waves to learn about Earth’s interior. These waves travel through
Earth’s interior during an earthquake. If you have ever tapped a melon to
see if it is ripe, you know that the state of the melon’s interior affects the
sound you detect. Similarly, a seismic wave is altered by the nature of the
material through which it travels. As shown in Figure 1.2, seismologists
measure changes in the speed and direction of seismic waves that pen-
etrate the interior of the planet. By doing this, seismologists have learned
that Earth is made up of different layers and have inferred from the data
what substances make up each layer.
The Composition of the Earth

Scientists divide Earth into three layers—the crust, the mantle, and the
core—based on their composition. These layers are composed of progres-
sively denser materials toward the center of the Earth. Figure 1.3 shows a
cross section of Earth. Earth’s thin crust is composed almost entirely of
light elements. The crust makes up less than 1 percent of Earth’s mass.
The crust is Earth’s thinnest layer. It averages about 5 km in thickness
beneath the oceans and is 30 km to 35 km thick beneath the continents.
Figure 1.2
Seismic Waves Seismologists have measured changes in the speed and

direction of seismic waves that travel through Earth’s interior. Through this
process, they have learned that Earth is made up of different layers.

Figure 1.3
Earth’s Layers Scientists divide Earth into different layers based on composition and
physical properties.
The mantle, which is the layer beneath the crust, makes up 68 percent
of the mass of Earth. The mantle is approximately 2,900 km thick and is
made of rocks of medium density. Earth’s innermost layer is the core. The
core, which has a radius of approximately 3,400 km, is composed of the
elements having the greatest density.
The Structure of the Earth

If we consider the physical properties of each layer, instead of their
chemistry, Earth can be divided into five layers. Earth’s outer layer is the
lithosphere. It is a cool, rigid layer, 15 km to 300 km thick, that includes the
crust and uppermost part of the mantle. It is divided into huge pieces called
tectonic plates. The asthenosphere is the layer beneath the lithosphere. The
asthenosphere is a pliable, solid layer of the mantle made of rock that flows
very slowly and allows tectonic plates to move on top of it. Beneath the
asthenosphere is the mesosphere, the lower part of the mantle.
Earth’s outer core is a dense liquid layer. The inner core, at the center of Check for Understanding
the Earth, is dense and solid, made up mostly of the metals iron and nickel. Identify Which of Earth’s physical layers
The temperature of the inner core is estimated to be between 4,000°C to is liquid?
5,400°C. It is solid because it is under enormous pressure. Earth’s outer and
inner core together make up about one-third of Earth’s mass.

Figure 1.4
The Lithosphere Earth’s lithosphere is divided into pieces called tectonic plates.
The tectonic plates are moving in different directions and at different speeds.
Eurasian plate
North American
plate
Indian
plate
Pacific plate African
plate
Nazca South American

plate plate Australian
plate
Antarctic
plate
Plate Tectonics
The lithosphere is divided into pieces called tectonic plates that glide
mg7vs_ear000014aa
HMDScience.com across the underlying asthenosphere in much the same way a chunk of
8th pass
08/18/05
Tectonic Plate Boundaries ice drifts across a pond. The continents are located on the tectonic plates
cmurphy
and slowly, over eons, move around with them. The major plates include
the Pacific, North American, South American, African, Eurasian, and
Antarctic plates. Figure 1.4 illustrates the major tectonic plates.
Plate Boundaries
Much of the geologic activity at the surface of Earth takes place at the
boundaries between tectonic plates. Plates may move away from one
another, collide with one another, or slip past one another. Enormous
forces are generated at tectonic plate boundaries, where the crust is
pulled apart, is squeezed together, or is slipping. The forces produced at
the boundaries of tectonic plates can cause violent changes.
Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building

When tectonic plates collide, the crust becomes thicker, is pushed up,
buckles and folds, and eventually forms a mountain range. As shown in
Figure 1.5, the Himalaya Mountains in south-central Asia began to form
when the Eurasian tectonic plate and the Indian tectonic plate began to
push into each other about 50 million years ago.

Earthquakes Figure 1.5
A fault is a break in Earth’s crust along which blocks of the crust slide rela- Plate Collisions The Himalaya
tive to one another. When rocks that are under stress suddenly slip along Mountains are still growing today
a fault, a series of vibrations is set off. These vibrations of Earth’s crust because the tectonic plates
caused by slippage along a fault are known as earthquakes. Earthquakes containing Asia and the tectonic plate
are occurring all the time, but many are so small that we cannot feel containing India continue to collide.
them. Other earthquakes are enormous movements of the Earth’s crust
that cause widespread damage.
The Richter scale is used by scientists to quantify the amount of en-
ergy released by an earthquake. The measure of the energy released by
an earthquake is called magnitude. The smallest magnitude that can be
felt is approximately 2.0, and the largest magnitude that has ever been
recorded is 9.5. Each increase of magnitude by one whole number indi-
cates the release of about 30 times more energy than the whole number
below it. For example, an earthquake of magnitude 6.0 releases 30 times
the energy of an earthquake of magnitude 5.0. Earthquakes that cause
widespread damage have magnitudes of 7.0 and greater.
Where Do Earthquakes Occur?

Areas of the world where earthquakes occur are shown on the map in
Figure 1.6. The majority of earthquakes take place at or near tectonic plate
boundaries. Over the past 15 million to 20 million years, many earth-
quakes have occurred along the San Andreas fault, which runs almost Check for Understanding
the entire length of California. The San Andreas fault is where parts of the Explain What
is meant by the magnitude
North American plate and the Pacific plate are slipping past one another. of an earthquake?
Figure 1.6
Earthquake Zones The largest and most active earthquake zones lie along tectonic
plate boundaries.
©Jock Montgomery/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshotot

Connect to BIOLOGY Earthquake Hazard
Can Animals Predict Despite much study, scientists cannot predict when earthquakes will take
Earthquakes? place. However, information about where they are most likely to occur
Can animals that live close to the site can help people prepare for them. An area’s earthquake-hazard level
of an earthquake detect changes in is determined by past and present seismic activity. The Maps in Action
their physical environment prior to an activity located at the end of this chapter shows earthquake-hazard levels
earthquake? Documentation of unusual for the contiguous United States.
animal behavior prior to earthquakes Earthquakes are not restricted to high-risk areas. In 1886, an
can be found as far back as 373 BCE.
earthquake shook Charleston, South Carolina, which is considered to
Examples of this odd behavior include
be in a medium-risk area. Because the soil beneath the city is sandy,
zoo animals refusing to enter shelters
this earthquake caused extensive damage. During shaking from a strong
at night, snakes and small mammals
earthquake, sand can act like a liquid and causes buildings to sink.
abandoning their burrows, and wild
Earthquake-resistant buildings are slightly flexible so that they can sway
birds leaving their usual habitats.
These behaviors reportedly happened
with the ground motion. This flexibility can greatly reduce damages.
within a few days, hours, or minutes of
earthquakes.
Volcanoes
A volcano is a mountain built when magma—melted rock—rises from
Earth’s interior to its surface. Once the magma reaches the surface,
it is known as lava. Volcanoes are often located near tectonic plate
boundaries where plates are either colliding or separating from one
another. Volcanoes may occur on land or under the sea, where they may
eventually break the ocean surface as islands. As Figure 1.7 shows, the
majority of the world’s active volcanoes on land are located along tectonic
plate boundaries that surround the Pacific Ocean.
Figure 1.7
The Ring of Fire Tectonic plate

boundaries are places where volcanoes
usually form. The Ring of Fire contains
nearly 75 percent of the world’s active
volcanoes that are on land. A large number
of people live on or near the Ring of Fire.
critical thinking
Explain Many of the islands in the
central Pacific Ocean are of volcanic
origin. Explain how they formed.
PACIFIC OCEAN
Ring of Fire
Plate boundary
Volcano

Figure 1.8
Mount St. Helens On May 18, 1980, Mount St. Helens in Washington State erupted.
Sixty-three people lost their lives, and 596 km2 of forest were destroyed in an eruption
that blew away the top 410 m of the volcano.
Local Effects of Volcanic Eruptions

A volcano erupts when the pressure of the magma inside becomes so
great that it blows open the solid surface of the volcano. Some volcanoes
have lava flowing out of them all the time, so the pressure never builds
up. Volcanic eruptions can be devastating to local economies and can
cause great human loss. Clouds of hot ash, dust, and gases can flow
down the slope of a volcano at speeds of up to 160 km/h and sear every-
thing in their path. During an eruption, volcanic ash can mix with water
and produce a mudflow. In addition, ash that falls to the ground can
cause buildings to collapse under its weight, bury crops, and damage the
engines of vehicles. Volcanic ash may also cause breathing difficulties.
Global Effects of Volcanic Eruptions

Major volcanic eruptions, such as the eruption of Mount St. Helens shown
in Figure 1.8, can change Earth’s climate for several years. In large eruptions,
clouds of volcanic ash and sulfur-rich gases may reach the upper atmo-
sphere. As the ash and gases spread across the planet, they can reduce the
amount of sunlight that reaches Earth’s surface. This reduction in sunlight
can cause a drop in the average global surface temperature. In the 1991
©Gary Braasch/Corbis
eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, the amount of sunlight that

reached Earth’s surface was estimated to have decreased by 2 to 4 percent.
As a result, the average global temperature dropped by several tenths of a
degree Celsius over a period of several years.

Weathering and Erosion
Forces at the boundaries of tectonic plates bring rock to the surface of
the Earth. At the Earth’s surface, rocks are altered by other forces. The
Earth’s surface is continually battered by wind and scoured by running
water, moving rocks around and changing their appearance. Chemical
weathering wears down rocks, making them smoother as time passes, and
erosion transports the materials elsewhere. The older a mountain range
Figure 1.9 is, the longer the forces of weathering and erosion
have acted on it. This knowledge helped geologists
Forces of Erosion Over long periods of time, erosion can learn that the rounded Appalachian Mountains in the
produce spectacular landforms on Earth’s surface. eastern United States are older than the jagged Rocky
Mountains in the west.
Water Erosion
Erosion by both rivers and oceans can produce dra-
matic changes on Earth’s surface. Waves from ocean
storms can erode coastlines to give rise to a variety
of spectacular landforms. Over time, rivers can carve
deep gorges into the landscape, as shown in Figure 1.9.
Wind Erosion
Like moving water, wind can also change the land-
scape of our planet. In places where plants grow, their
roots hold soil in place. But in places where there
are few plants, wind can blow soil away very quickly.
Beaches and deserts, which have loose, sandy soil,
©Dennis Flaherty/Photo Researchers, Inc.

are examples of places where few plants grow. Soft
rocks, such as sandstone, erode more easily than hard
rocks, such as granite, do. In parts of the world, spec-
tacular rock formations are sometimes seen where
pinnacles of hard rock stand alone because the softer
rock around them has been eroded by wind and/or
water.

1. Name and describe the physical and 5. Analyzing Processes How might the surface
compositional layers into which Earth is divided. of the Earth be different if it were not divided
2. Explain the main cause of earthquakes and into tectonic plates?
their effects. 6. Compare and Contrast Read about the
3. Describe the effects a large-scale volcanic effects of erosion on mountains on this page.
eruption can have on the global climate. From what you have read, describe the physical
Image Credits:
features you would associate with a young

4. Describe how wind and water alter Earth’s mountain range and an old mountain range.
surface.

Section 2
The Atmosphere Objectives
Describe the composition of

Earth’s atmosphere.
Earth is surrounded by a mixture of gases known as the atmosphere. Nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other gases are all parts of this mixture. Earth’s Describe the layers of Earth’s
atmosphere changes constantly as these gases are added and removed. For atmosphere.
example, animals remove oxygen from the atmosphere when they breathe in and
add carbon dioxide when they breathe out. Plants take in carbon dioxide and Explain three mechanisms
add oxygen to the atmosphere when they produce food. Gases can be added to of heat transfer in Earth’s
and removed from the atmosphere in ways other than through living organisms. atmosphere.
A volcanic eruption adds gases. A vehicle both adds and removes gases.
The atmosphere also insulates Earth’s surface. This insulation slows the rate at Explain the greenhouse effect.
which the Earth’s surface loses heat. The atmosphere keeps Earth at temperatures
at which living things can survive.
Key Terms
atmosphere
Composition of the Atmosphere troposphere
Figure 2.1 shows the percentages of gases that make up Earth’s atmosphere. stratosphere
Nitrogen makes up 78 percent of the Earth’s atmosphere. It enters the ozone
atmosphere when volcanoes erupt and when dead plants and animals de- radiation
cay. Oxygen, the second most abundant gas in Earth’s atmosphere, is pri- conduction
marily produced by plants and algae. Other gases, including argon, carbon convection
dioxide, methane, and water vapor, make up the rest of the atmosphere.
greenhouse effect
In addition to gases, the atmosphere contains many types of tiny,
solid particles, or atmospheric dust. Atmospheric dust is mainly soil
but includes salt, ash from fires, volcanic ash, particulate matter from
combustion, skin, hair, bits of clothing, pollen, bacteria and viruses, and
microscopic particles and liquid droplets called aerosols.
Air Pressure Figure 2.1

The atmosphere is pulled to-
Physical and Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere
ward Earth’s surface by gravity.
Scientists on board a research plane from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
As a result of the pull of gravity, Administration (NOAA) are making measurements of temperature, humidity, barometric
the atmosphere is denser near pressure, and wind speed.
Earth’s surface. Most of the
Nitrogen and oxygen make up 99 percent of the composition of the atmosphere.
mass of Earth’s atmospheric
gases is located within 30 km of
our planet’s surface. Because
©NOAA/Department of Commerce/NOAA Central Library U
gravity pulls the molecules of Nitrogen 78%

air downwards, the amount of
air decreases at higher alti-
tudes. The air also becomes Oxygen
less dense as elevation in- 21%
creases, so breathing at higher
elevations is more difficult.
Other 1%

Layers of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is divided into four layers based on temperature changes
that occur at different distances above the Earth’s surface. Figure 2.2
shows the four layers of Earth’s atmosphere.
The Troposphere
The atmospheric layer nearest Earth’s surface is the troposphere. The
troposphere extends to about 18 km above Earth’s surface. Almost all of
the weather occurs in this layer. The troposphere is Earth’s densest atmo-
spheric layer. Temperature decreases as altitude increases in the tropo-
sphere, as shown in Figure 2.2.
Pressure (Pa)
0 2.0 3 104 6.0 3 104 1.0 3 105
Figure 2.2
Atmospheric Layers The layers of

600
the atmosphere differ in temperature
and pressure.
500
Thermosphere
100
90
80
Temperature
Altitude (km)
70
Mesosphere
60
50
40
Ozone layer
30 Stratosphere
20
Pressure
10
Troposphere
0
–80 –70 –60 –50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20
Temperature (˚C)

The Tropopause This sunrise scene that was taken from space captures the tropopause, Auroras The aurora borealis, or
the transitional zone that separates the troposphere (yellow layer) from the stratosphere (white Northern Lights, can be seen in the
layer). The tropopause is the illuminated brown layer. skies around Earth’s North Pole.
ECOFACT
The Stratosphere
Above the troposphere is the stratosphere. The stratosphere, separated
from the troposphere by the tropopause, shown in Figure 2.4, extends from
about 18 km to an altitude of about 50 km. Temperatures rise as altitude
increases because ozone in the stratosphere absorbs the sun’s ultraviolet
(UV) energy and warms the air. Ozone, O3, is a molecule made up of three
oxygen atoms. Almost all the ozone in the atmosphere is concentrated in
the ozone layer in the stratosphere. Ozone reduces the amount of harm-
ful UV radiation that reaches Earth.
The Mesosphere
The layer above the stratosphere is the mesosphere. This layer extends ECOFACT
to an altitude of about 80 km. The mesosphere is the coldest layer of
the atmosphere. Its temperatures have been measured as low as -93°C. The Mesosphere
In geology, the term mesosphere,
which means “middle sphere,”
The Thermosphere refers to the 2,550 km thick physical
Farthest from Earth’s surface is the thermosphere. In the thermosphere, layer of the Earth that lies below the
nitrogen and oxygen absorb solar radiation, resulting in temperatures asthenosphere. The mesosphere is
also the name of the atmospheric
above 2,000°C. Despite these high temperatures, the thermosphere would
layer that extends from 50 to 80 km
not feel hot to us. Air particles that strike one another transfer heat. The
above Earth’s surface.
air in the thermosphere is so thin that air particles rarely collide, so little
(tl) ©NASA; (tr) SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
heat is transferred.
Nitrogen and oxygen atoms in the lower region of the thermosphere
(about 80 km to 550 km above Earth’s surface) absorb harmful solar
radiation, such as X rays and gamma rays. This absorption causes atoms
to become electrically charged. Electrically charged atoms are called ions. Check for Understanding
The lower thermosphere is called the ionosphere. Sometimes ions radiate Infer How does ozone in the
energy as light. This light often glows in spectacular colors in the night stratosphere affect life on the Earth’s
skies near the Earth’s North and South Poles, as shown in Figure 2.5. surface?

QUICKLAB
Energy in the Atmosphere

As shown in Figure 2.6, energy from the sun is transferred in Earth’s
QUICKLAB atmosphere by three mechanisms: radiation, convection, and conduction.
The Heat is On! Radiation is the transfer of energy across space and in the atmosphere.
Procedure When you stand before a fire or a bed of coals, the warmth you feel has
1. Select 6 places in your classroom reached you by radiation. Conduction is the transfer of energy in the
to measure the air temperature. form of heat from a warmer object to a colder object when the objects
2. Choose a spot near the ceiling, are placed in direct physical contact. Convection is the transfer of energy
one near the floor, one near a because variations in temperature move the matter making up air. For
dark-colored surface, one near a example, if you live in a colder climate, the heating vents in your home
light-colored surface, and two other are probably on or near the floor, so that the house will warm as the air
places, spaced around the room. rises upwards.
3. Write a hypothesis explaining why
temperatures might vary from
place to place within the room. Warming of the Atmosphere
4. Construct a data table to record Solar energy reaches Earth as electromagnetic radiation, which includes
your measurements. visible light, infrared radiation, and ultraviolet light. Our planet only re-
5. Measure the temperatures (in °C) ceives about two-billionths of this energy. However, this seemingly small
in all six areas. amount of radiation contains a tremendous amount of energy. As shown in
Analysis Figure 2.6, about half of the solar energy that enters the atmosphere passes
1. How is energy being transferred through and reaches Earth’s surface. The rest is absorbed or reflected in the
within the room? If more than one atmosphere by clouds, gases, and dust, or it is reflected by Earth’s surface.
mechanism is a factor, explain. On a sunny day, rocks may become too hot to touch. If Earth’s surface
2. Explain the reasons behind any continually absorbed energy, it would get hotter and hotter. This does not
differences you saw. happen, because the oceans and the land radiate some of the energy they
have absorbed back into the atmosphere.
Figure 2.6
Thermal Radiation Three important mechanisms

responsible for transferring energy in the atmosphere are
radiation, conduction, and convection.
70
You may have noticed that dark-colored objects become much hotter
in the sun than light-colored objects. Dark-colored objects absorb more ECOFACT
solar radiation than light-colored objects, so dark-colored objects have Lost Weekend
more energy to release as heat. Because of the dark color of street and Doesn’t it always seems to rain on the
parking lot services, the temperature in cities is higher than the tempera- weekends? If you live on the East Coast,
ture in the surrounding countryside. that might actually be true. Researchers
recently found that the mid-Atlantic
states have a 30 to 40 percent greater
The Movement of Energy in the Atmosphere chance of rain on the weekends than
Air that is constantly moving upward, downward, or sideways causes other states. Why? Automobile exhaust
Earth’s weather. In the troposphere, currents of less dense air, warmed by that accumulates in the atmosphere
the Earth’s surface, rise into the atmosphere, and currents of denser cold over the course of the work week has
air sink toward the ground. As a current of air rises into the atmosphere, caused weather patterns in this area
it begins to cool and condense. The air current sinks instead of continu- to shift. By Friday, the levels of exhaust
ing to rise. So, the air current moves back toward Earth’s surface until it particles are high enough to trigger rain.
is warmed, becomes less dense, and begins to rise again. This continual
process, called a convection current, moves the air in a circular pattern. A
convection current can be seen in Figure 2.6. Check for Understanding
Explain Why does cool air sink and
warm air rise in the atmosphere?
Solar Energy that Reaches Earth
20% absorbed by
ozone, clouds, and
5% reflected by atmospheric gases
the Earth’s surface
25% scattered
50% absorbed by and reflected by
the Earth’s surface clouds and air

Figure 2.7
The Greenhouse Effect The gases in

the atmosphere act like a layer of glass. Both
allow solar energy to pass through. But glass
and some of the gases in the atmosphere
absorb energy and stop the heat from
escaping into space.
critical thinking
Explain What is the relationship
between the greenhouse effect and
global climate change?
The Greenhouse Effect

The gases in Earth’s atmosphere act like the glass in the car shown in
Figure 2.7. Sunlight that penetrates Earth’s atmosphere warms the surface
and lower atmosphere of the Earth. This process, in which greenhouse
gases absorb and reradiate infrared radiation near the Earth, is known as
the greenhouse effect. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would be
too cold for life to exist.
The gases in our atmosphere that trap heat are called greenhouse
gases. None of these have a high concentration in Earth’s atmosphere.
The most abundant greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide,
FieldStudy methane, and nitrous oxide. The amounts of these gases vary consider-
Go to Appendix B to find the field study ably as a result of natural and industrial processes. Many scientists associ-
Detecting CO2 ate the addition of these gases from industry with global climate change.

1. Describe the composition of Earth’s atmosphere. 5. Analyzing Processes Write a paragraph that
explains why Earth’s atmosphere becomes less
2. Describe a characteristic of each layer of the
dense with increasing altitude above Earth.
atmosphere.
6. Analyzing Processes How does human
3. Identify the three mechanisms of energy
activity change some greenhouse-gas levels?
transfer in Earth’s atmosphere.
4. Describe the role of greenhouse gases in Earth’s
atmosphere.

Section 3
The Hydrosphere and Objectives
Biosphere
Name the three major
processes in the water cycle.
Describe the properties of

ocean water.
Life on Earth is restricted to a very narrow layer around Earth’s surface. In this layer,
Describe the two types of ocean
called the biosphere, everything that organisms need to survive can be found. One
of the requirements of all living things is liquid water.
currents.
Explain how the ocean
The Hydrosphere and Water Cycle regulates Earth’s temperature.
The hydrosphere includes all of the water on or near Earth’s surface, such Discuss the factors that confine
as the water in the oceans, lakes, rivers, wetlands, polar icecaps, soil, rock life to the biosphere.
layers beneath Earth’s surface, and clouds. Explain the difference between
The continuous movement of water into the air, onto land, and then back open and closed systems.
to water sources is known as the water cycle, which is shown in Figure 3.1.
Evaporation is the process by which liquid water is heated by the sun and
then rises into the atmosphere as water vapor. Water continually evaporates Key Terms
from Earth’s oceans, lakes, streams, and soil, but the majority of the water water cycle
evaporates from the oceans. In the process of condensation, water vapor evaporation
forms water droplets on dust particles. These water droplets form clouds, in condensation
which the droplets collide, stick together, and create larger, heavier droplets.
precipitation
These larger droplets fall from clouds as rain in a process called precipitation.
salinity
Precipitation may also take the form of snow, sleet, or hail.
fresh water
biosphere
Figure 3.1
The Water Cycle The major processes of the water cycle include evaporation,
condensation, and precipitation.
condensation
evaporation
precipitation
©Peter Wey/Fotolia

Connect to GEOLOGY Earth’s Oceans
Submarine Volcanoes We talk about the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, the Arctic Ocean, the
Geologists estimate that approximately Southern Ocean, and the Indian Ocean. However, if you look at Figure 3.2,
80 percent of the volcanic activity on you see that these oceans are all joined. This single, large, interconnected
Earth takes place on the ocean floor. body of water is called the world ocean. Its waters cover a little over 70
Most of this activity occurs as magma percent of the Earth’s surface. As we will see, the world ocean plays many
slowly flows onto the ocean floor
important roles in regulating our planet’s environment.
where tectonic plates pull away from
each other. But enormous undersea The largest ocean on Earth is the Pacific Ocean. It covers a surface
volcanoes are also common. Off the area of approximately 155,557,000 km2 and has an average depth of
coast of Hawaii, a submarine volcano 4,280 m. The deepest point on the ocean floor is in the Pacific Ocean. This
called the Loihi Seamount rises 5,185 point is called the Challenger Deep and is located east of the Philippine
m from the ocean floor. Loihi is just Islands at the bottom of the Mariana Trench and is deeper than Mount
915 m below the ocean’s surface, and Everest is tall.
in several thousand years, this volcano The second-largest ocean on Earth is the Atlantic Ocean. It covers a
may become the next Hawaiian Island. surface area of 76,630,000 km2, which is about half the area of the Pacific
Ocean. Like the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean can be divided into a
north half and a south half based on the directions of surface current flow
north and south of the equator.
CASESTUDY
Storm Surge,
Tsunamis, and
Coastal Wetlands
Coastal wetlands include mangrove forests and salt Saltmarsh cordgrass, shown in a salt marsh at the New
marshes. These ecosystems filter the water, are a home for
River Inlet, North Carolina, helps to anchor shorelines.
many species, prevent erosion, and provide recreational
and commercial opportunities for people. Coastal wetlands hurricanes or a tsunami may not travel as far. It also may
are worth billions of dollars to the economy every year, but not be as powerful. Another way that wetlands provide
in many areas of the world they have been removed for protection from disasters is by building up sediment and
human development. holding it together. By creating more land and stable
In the last several years major natural disasters have shorelines, the wetlands will reduce damage from waves
shown how vulnerable coastal areas can be. Hurricane even more.
©Norm Thomas/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Katrina along the Gulf of Mexico and tsunamis in Japan Multiple studies have found that the loss of human lives
and southeast Asia killed thousands of people and resulted and livestock as well as the economic damage inflicted on
in billions of dollars of damage. In these areas, many an area by hurricanes are less when they are protected
coastal wetlands had been removed. Could mangrove by coastal wetlands. We know less about how wetlands
forests or coastal marshes have reduced the damage? protect coastal communities from tsunamis, but one study
The plants of coastal wetlands can reduce the height found that having coastal trees reduced the loss of human
of waves, so the surge of water moving inland from life by 5%.

The Indian Ocean covers a surface area of Figure 3.2
73,762,000 km2 and is the third-largest ocean
on Earth. It has an average depth of 3,890 m. World Ocean The Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, and Arctic Oceans are
interconnected into a single body of water, the world ocean, which covers 70
In 2000, the waters that completely sur- percent of Earth’s surface.
round the continent of Antarctica were desig-
nated as the Southern Ocean. Although it has
no land mass to separate it from the others, it
can be distinguished by the rapid movement
of its waters around Antarctica, known as the
Antarctic Circumpolar Current. It encom-
passes an area of approximately 20,327,000
km2.
The smallest ocean is the Arctic Ocean,
which covers 14,560,000 km2. The Arctic
Ocean is unique because much of its surface is
SOUTHERN
covered by floating ice. This ice, which is called OCEAN
pack ice, forms when either waves or wind
drive together frozen seawater, known as sea
ice, into a large mass.
Over 80% of New Orleans was

submerged by floodwater when
Hurricane Katrina struck in
August, 2005.
Not all types of coastal wetland will provide the same Many communities have decided that protecting
amount of protection. For example, dense mangrove forests remaining coastal wetlands is not enough. They are working
are better than those with fewer trees. Also, it is important Critical
to restore Thinking
degraded wetlands or create new wetlands
that wetlands are relatively large. The tsunami in the Indian where they have been destroyed. Scientists are working
Ocean in 2004 and the oil from the Deepwater Horizon spill to find out the best ways to restore wetlands to provide
in 2010 killed large areas of wetlands, but only in a strip many benefits including increasing tourism, increasing fish
along the coast. The mangrove forests and marshes further populations, and protecting coastal communities.
inland mostly survived and allowed the wetlands to remain
largely intact.
Critical Thinking
©Vincent Laforet, POOL/AP Images
Even though coastal wetlands are a benefit during

natural disasters, they are not a substitute for other Explain A local city commission is trying to
methods of protection, like early warning systems. Because decide what should be done with a large vacant
wetlands provide many benefits other than reducing the area along the coast. Provide an argument why it
impacts of natural disasters, it is important to preserve might be a good idea to create a coastal wetland.
them.

Figure 3.3
Ocean Water
Dissolved Solids This pie graph shows the percentages by
The difference between ocean water and fresh water
weight of dissolved solids found in ocean water. Sodium and
is that ocean water contains more salts. These salts
chlorine, the two elements that form salt, are the most important
have dissolved out of rocks on land and have been
dissolved solids in ocean water.
carried down rivers into the ocean over millions of
Other 0.7%
years. Underwater volcanic eruptions also add salts
Potassium 1.1% to the ocean.
Most of the salt in the ocean is sodium chloride,
Calcium 1.2% Chlorine 55.0% which is made up of the elements sodium and chlo-
Sulfur 3.7% rine. Figure 3.3 shows the concentration of these and
other elements in ocean water. The salinity of ocean
Magnesium 7.7% water is the concentration of all the dissolved salts it
contains. The average salt content of ocean water is
Sodium 30.6% 3.5 percent by weight. The salinity of ocean water is
lower in places that get a lot of rain or in places where
fresh water flows into the sea. Salinity is higher where
water evaporates rapidly and leaves the salts behind.
Temperature Zones
Figure 3.4 shows the temperature zones of the ocean. The surface of the
ocean is warmed by the sun. In contrast, the depths of the ocean, where
sunlight never reaches, have temperatures only slightly above freezing.
HMDScience.com
Surface waters are stirred up by waves and currents, so the warm surface
Understanding Ocean zone may be as much as 350 m deep. Below the surface zone is the ther-
Currents mocline, which is a layer about 300 to 700 m deep where the temperature
falls rapidly with depth. From the bottom of the thermocline, down to the
bottom of the ocean, lies the cold, dark deep zone.
Figure 3.4
Ocean Zones Water in the ocean can be divided into three zones based on temperature.
0
Surface Zone The surface zone is the warm,
top layer of ocean water. Sunlight heats the top
200 100 m of the surface zone. Surface currents mix
the heated water with cooler water below.
400
Water depth (m)
Thermocline Water temperature in this

zone drops faster with increased depth
600 than it does in the other two zones.
800
Deep Zone This bottom layer extends
from the base of the thermocline to the
1,000 bottom of the ocean. The temperature in
this zone averages 2˚C.
1,200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Water temperature (˚C)

A Global Temperature Regulator
One of the most important functions of the world ocean is to absorb and
store energy from sunlight. This capacity of the ocean to absorb and store
energy from sunlight regulates temperatures in Earth’s atmosphere.
The world ocean absorbs over half the solar radiation that reaches the
planet’s surface. The ocean both absorbs and releases heat more slowly Check for Understanding
than land does. As a consequence, the temperature of the atmosphere Compare How does the absorption and
changes much more slowly than it would if there were no ocean on Earth. release of heat by the ocean differ from
If the ocean did not regulate atmospheric and surface temperatures, the the absorption and release of heat by
Connect to MATH
temperature would be too extreme for life on Earth to exist. land?
Local temperatures in different areas of the planet are also regulated
by the world ocean. Currents that circulate warm water cause the land
areas they flow past to have a more moderate climate. For example, the
British Isles are warmed by the Gulf Stream, which moves warm waters
from lower latitudes toward higher latitudes, as shown in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5
The Gulf Stream In this infrared satellite image, the Gulf Stream is moving warm Connect to MATH
water (shown in red, orange, and yellow) from lower latitudes into higher latitudes. The The Influence of the Gulf
British Isles are warmed by the waters of the Gulf Stream. Stream
The temperature of the British Isles
critical thinking
is moderated by the Gulf Stream.
Predict If cold water from melting polar ice were to shut down the Gulf Stream,
Plymouth, England, and Winnipeg,
what would happen to the climate of the British Isles?
Canada, are located at approximately
50° north latitude. Plymouth, which
is located in the southwest of
England near the Atlantic Ocean, has
average low temperatures of 4°C in
December, 3°C in January, and 3°C in
February. Winnipeg, which is located
in the interior of North America, has
average low temperatures of –18°C
in December, –23°C in January,
and –20°C in February. What is the
difference in average low temperatures
in degrees Celsius between Plymouth
and Winnipeg?
©Rosenstiel School of Marine & Atmospheric Science

QUICKLAB Ocean Currents
Deep Ocean Currents Streamlike movements of water that occur at or near the surface of the
Procedure ocean are called surface currents. Surface currents are wind driven and
1. Fill a large glass container or result from global wind patterns. Figure 3.6 shows the major surface cur-
aquarium with hot water. rents of the world ocean. Surface currents may be warm-water currents
2. Next, fill a 100 mL beaker with very or cold-water currents. Currents of warm water and currents of cold water
cold water, adding several drops of do not readily mix with one another. Therefore, a warm-water current like
dark food coloring. the Gulf Stream can flow for hundreds of kilometers through cold water
3. Hypothesize an explanation for without mixing and losing its heat.
what might happen when the cold Surface currents can influence the climates of land areas they flow
water is added to the hot water. past. As we have seen, the Gulf Stream moderates the climate in the
4. Holding the beaker above the larger
British Isles. The Scilly Isles in England are as far north as Newfoundland
container, carefully pour the icy
in northeast Canada. However, palm trees grow on the Scilly Isles, where it
water into the hot water.
never freezes, whereas Newfoundland has long winters of frost and snow.
Analysis Deep currents are streamlike movements of water that flow very
1. What did you observe when the slowly along the ocean floor. Deep currents form when the cold, dense
cold water was poured into the hot water from the poles sinks below warmer, less dense ocean water and
water?
flows toward the equator. The densest and coldest ocean water is located
2. Explain why this occurred and how
off the coast of Antarctica. This cold water sinks to the bottom of the
it relates to ocean currents.
ocean and flows very slowly northward to produce a deep current called
the Antarctic Bottom Water. The Antarctic Bottom Water creeps along
the ocean floor for thousands of kilometers and reaches a northernmost
point of approximately 40° north latitude. It takes several hundred years
for water in this deep current to make this trip northward.
Figure 3.6
Surface Currents The oceans’ surface currents circulate in different directions in each
hemisphere.

Fresh Water Figure 3.7
Most of the water on Earth is salt water in the ocean. A little more than River System This photo shows
3 percent of all the water on Earth is fresh water. Most of the fresh water a network of tributaries flowing into
is locked up in icecaps and glaciers that are so large they are hard to a river in the wetlands of southern
imagine. For instance, the ice sheet that covers Antarctica is as large as Louisiana.
the United States and is up to 3 km thick. The rest of Earth’s fresh water critical thinking
is found in lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, rock layers below the surface, Infer Looking at the photo-
and in the atmosphere. graph, why would pesticides
sprayed on crops near the head
of the main river be of concern
River Systems
to people near the coast?
A river system is a network of streams that drains an area of land. A river
system contains all of the land drained by a river, including the main
river and all its tributaries. As shown in Figure 3.7, tributaries are smaller
streams or rivers that flow into larger ones. Some river systems are
enormous. For example, most of the precipitation that falls between the
Rocky Mountains in the west and the Appalachian Mountains in the east
eventually drains into the Mississippi River. The Mississippi River system
covers about 40 percent of the contiguous United States.
Groundwater
Rain and melting snow sink into the ground and run off the land. Some
of this water ends up in streams and rivers, but most of it trickles down
through the ground and collects as groundwater. Groundwater fulfills
the human need for fresh drinking water and supplies water for many
agricultural and industrial uses. But groundwater accounts for less
than 1 percent of all the water on Earth.
Aquifers Figure 3.8
A rock layer that stores and Aquifers Aquifers underlie much of the United States. The brown areas are rocks that
allows the flow of ground- contain relatively little stored water.
water is called an aquifer.
The surface of the land
where water enters an aqui-
fer is called a recharge zone.
Figure 3.8 shows the location
of aquifers in the contiguous
United States.

The Biosphere
If the Earth were an apple, the biosphere would be its skin. This com-
parison illustrates how small the layer of Earth that can support life is in
relation to the size of the planet. The biosphere is the narrow layer around
Earth’s surface in which life can exist. The biosphere is made up of the
uppermost part of the geosphere, most of the hydrosphere, and the lower
part of the atmosphere. The biosphere extends about 12 km into the
ocean and about 9 km into the atmosphere.
Life exists on Earth because of several important factors. Most life
requires liquid water, moderate temperatures, and a source of energy.
The materials that organisms require must continually be cycled. Gravity
Check for Understanding allows a planet to maintain an atmosphere and to cycle materials. Suit-
Explain What makes life possible in the able combinations of the things that organisms need to survive are found
biosphere? only in the biosphere.
The biosphere is located near Earth’s surface because most of the
sunlight is available near the surface. Plants on land and in the ocean are
shown in Figure 3.9. Plants need sunlight to produce their food, and al-
most every other organism gets its food from plants and algae. Most of the
algae float at the surface of the ocean. These tiny, free-floating, marine
algae are known as phytoplankton. Except for bacteria that live at hydro-
thermal vents, most of the organisms that live deep in the ocean feed on
dead plants, animals, and protists that drift down from the surface.
Figure 3.9
The Biosphere This illustration of the biosphere shows the concentration of plant life on land and in the ocean.
The colors represent d ifferent concentrations of plant life in different regions.
©SeaWiFS Project/Goddard Space Flight Center/NASA

Energy Flow in the Biosphere Figure 3.10
When an organism in the biosphere dies, its body Closed System The Eden Project is an attempt to model the
is broken down and the matter in its body be- biosphere. In this project, plants from all over the world live in a
comes available to other organisms. This matter closed system. The Eden Project is housed within a series of domes
is continually recycled. Energy, however, must that were constructed in an old clay pit in England.
be supplied constantly. The Eden Project, shown
in Figure 3.10, is a closed system that models this
flow of matter and energy.
In a closed system, energy enters and leaves
the system, but matter does not. Earth is a closed
system because the only thing that enters in
significant amounts is energy from the sun, and
the only thing that leaves in significant amounts
is heat. Energy from the sun is used by plants
in the biosphere to make their food. When an
animal eats a plant, the energy stored in the plant
is transferred to the animal. The animal, in turn,
may be eaten by another animal. At each stage in
the food chain, some of the energy is lost to the
environment as heat, which is eventually lost into
space.
In an open system, both matter and energy are
exchanged between a system and the surround-
ing environment. Earth was once an open system.
Matter was added to the early Earth as it was hit
by comets and meteorites. Now, however, little
matter reaches Earth this way.
©Geoff Kidd/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

1. Name and describe each of the three major 5. Analyzing Processes Read about the ocean’s
processes in the water cycle. role in regulating temperature under the heading
“A Global Temperature Regulator.” How might
2. Describe the properties of ocean water.
Earth’s climate change if the land area on Earth
3. Describe the two types of ocean currents. were greater than the area of the world ocean?
4. Name two factors that confine living things to 6. Analyzing Relationships Why is the human
the biosphere. body considered an open system?

Maps in Action
Earthquake Hazard Map of the

Contiguous United States
Earthquake Hazard Levels
Map Skills
Use the earthquake-hazard map of the contiguous United States to answer the questions below.
1. Using a Key Which area of the contiguous United 4. Inferring Relationships Most earthquakes take
States has a very high earthquake-hazard level? place near tectonic plate boundaries. Based on the
hazard levels, where do you think a boundary between
2. Using a Key Determine which areas of the
two tectonic plates is located in the United States?
contiguous United States have very low earthquake-
hazard levels. 5. Forming a Hypothesis The New Madrid earthquake
zone passes through southeastern Missouri and western
3. Analyzing Relationships In which areas of the
Tennessee and has experienced some of the most widely
contiguous United States would scientists most likely
felt earthquakes in U.S. history. Yet this earthquake zone
set up earthquake-sensing devices?
lies far from any tectonic plate boundary. Propose a
hypothesis that would explain these earthquakes.

at HMDScience.com
Ocean This map shows the possible trajectory of the toys and their
Currents
estimated locations on certain dates as they floated across the
Pacific Ocean from the point of the spill to recovery points in Alaska.
Ocean currents are important in transporting heat,

water, nutrients, pollutants, and organisms around
the world. Even though they are important, ocean
currents have been hard to study. Scientists used
to drop labeled bottles in the oceans in different
places and then record where they were picked up.
Now, oceanographers attach transmitters to drifters.
These transmitters send their position to satellites
overhead, providing scientists with information
that is helpful in a variety of ways, from protecting
endangered species to making important decisions
with far-reaching effects.
Watch Out for Debris! did not form in a way to take oil south. Instead, the oil stayed
The Hawaiian monk seal is one of the most endangered relatively close to the spill. In fact, the currents kept the oil in
marine mammals in the world, with a population around a place where bacteria could help to break it down, possibly
1,200 individuals. Monk seals live in the remote Northwest reducing the impact of the spill.
Hawaiian Islands (NWHI), hundreds of kilometers from the
nearest human populations. Unfortunately, many seals have Toys Ahoy!!
still been killed when they were entangled in discarded fishing Despite more advanced methods, data that help us under
gear that was dumped into the ocean hundreds or thousands stand ocean currents sometimes come from the most unusual
of kilometers away. This is because the currents of the Pacific sources! In 1992, a container ship traveling northwest of
Ocean carry the debris to the areas where the seals feed, Hawaii ran into a storm. One of the containers that washed
rest, and have their pups. Since 1996, around 500 metric overboard held 29,000 plastic toys. Over the next few years,
tons of debris have been removed from the beaches of the the toys began washing up along the Alaskan coast from Sitka
NWHI! This has helped keep monk seals safer, but the currents to theWhat
BeringDo
Sea.You Think?
Comparing data from the toys with other
keep bringing more debris to Hawaii, so these efforts must data, the researchers concluded that, although the current
continue. across the northeast Pacific Ocean changes little from year to
year, in 1990 and 1992 the current was unusually far north.
Oil Drilling
In order to meet the energy demands of the world, it is
necessary to drill oil wells in deep ocean waters. During What Do You Think?
the summer of 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil platform
Oil fields off the north coast of Cuba are now being
exploded and sank, releasing about five million barrels of oil opened for oil drilling. People in the Florida Keys
into the Gulf of Mexico. Understanding currents was critical to and southeast Florida are concerned about this
responding appropriately to the spill. The Loop Current could drilling. Use the map of currents in Figure 3.6 as
©PhotoDisc/Getty Images
a reference to explain why. How should the U.S.

have taken oil from off of Louisiana to the Florida Keys and respond to this drilling?
even up the East Coast of the U.S. Luckily, the loop current

Chapter 3 Summary
Section 1 The Geosphere Objectives Key Terms
• The solid part of the Earth that consists of all rock, and the geosphere
soils and sediments on Earth’s surface, is the geosphere. hydrosphere
• Earth’s interior is divided into layers based on crust
composition and structure. mantle
• Earth’s surface is broken into pieces called tectonic core
plates, which collide, separate, or slip past one another. lithosphere
• Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and mountain building asthenosphere
are all events that occur at the boundaries of tectonic tectonic plate
plates. chemical
• Earth’s surface features are continually altered by the weathering
action of water and wind. erosion
Section 2 The Atmosphere Objectives Key Terms
• The mixture of gases that surrounds the Earth is called atmosphere

the atmosphere. troposphere
(t) ©Gary Braasch/Corbis; (c) ©NOAA/Department of Commerce/NOAA Central Library U; (b) ©Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science
• The atmosphere is composed almost entirely of stratosphere
nitrogen and oxygen. ozone
• Earth’s atmosphere is divided into four layers based radiation
on changes in temperature that take place at different conduction
altitudes. convection
• Heat is transferred in the atmosphere by radiation, greenhouse
conduction, and convection. effect
• Some of the gases in Earth’s atmosphere slow the
escape of heat from Earth’s surface in what is known
as the greenhouse effect.
Section 3 The Hydrosphere and Objectives Key Terms

Biosphere
• The hydrosphere includes all of the water at or near water cycle
Earth’s surface. evaporation
• Water in the ocean can be divided into three zones— condensation
the surface zone, the thermocline, and the deep zone— precipitation
based on temperature. salinity
• The ocean absorbs and stores energy from sunlight, fresh water
regulating temperatures in the atmosphere. biosphere
• Surface currents in the ocean affect the climate of the
land they flow near.
• The biosphere is the narrow layer at the surface of the
Earth where life can exist.
• Earth is a closed system because energy enters and
leaves Earth, but matter does not.

Chapter 3 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 14. The ozone layer is located in the
Use each of the following terms in a separate sentence. a. stratosphere.
1. tectonic plate b. mesosphere.
2. erosion c. thermosphere.
3. radiation d. troposphere.
4. ozone 15. Convection is defined as the
5. salinity a. transfer of energy across space.
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings of b. direct transfer of energy.
the terms differ. c. trapping of heat near the Earth by gases.
6. lithosphere and asthenosphere d. transfer of heat by currents.
7. conduction and convection
16. Which of the following gases is not a green
8. crust and mantle
house gas?
9. evaporation and condensation
a. water vapor
10. Concept Map Use the following terms to create
b. nitrogen
a concept map: geosphere, crust, mantle, core,
lithosphere, asthenosphere, and tectonic plate. c. methane
d. carbon dioxide
Reviewing Main Ideas 17. Liquid water turns into gaseous water vapor in a
process called
11. The thin layer at Earth’s surface where life exists is
called the a. precipitation.
a. geosphere. b. convection.
b. atmosphere. c. evaporation.
c. hydrosphere. d. condensation.
d. biosphere. 18. Currents at the surface of the ocean are moved
mostly by
12. The thin layer of the Earth upon which tectonic
plates move around is called the a. heat.
a. mantle. b. wind.
b. asthenosphere. c. salinity.
c. lithosphere. d. the mixing of warm and cold water.
d. outer core. 19. Which of the following statements about the
biosphere is not true?
13. Seventy-eight percent of Earth’s atmosphere is
made up of a. The biosphere is a system closed to matter.
a. oxygen. b. Energy enters the biosphere in the form of
sunlight.
b. hydrogen.
c. Nutrients in the biosphere must be
c. nitrogen. continuously recycled.
d. carbon dioxide. d. Matter is constantly added to the biosphere.

Chapter Review

20. How do seismic waves give scientists information 27. Making Predictions The eruption of Mount
about Earth’s interior? Pinatubo in 1991 reduced global temperature by
21. Explain the effect of gravity on Earth’s several tenths of a Celsius degree for several years.
atmosphere. Write a paragraph predicting what might happen
to Earth’s climate if several large-scale eruptions
22. Explain how convection currents transport heat in took place at the same time.
the atmosphere.
28. Analyzing Processes Read about the heating
23. Why does land that is near the ocean change of Earth’s surface and the absorption of incoming
temperature less rapidly than land that is located solar radiation under the heading “Warming
farther inland? of the Atmosphere.” How might the Earth be
24. Why is life on Earth confined to such a narrow different if the Earth’s surface absorbed greater or
layer near the Earth’s surface? lesser percentages of radiation?
29. Analyzing Processes Surface currents are de
flected by continental landmasses. How might
Interpreting Graphics the pattern of Earth’s surface currents change
The map below shows the different amounts of if the Earth had no landmasses? Where on the
chlorophyll in the ocean. Chlorophyll is the pigment world ocean might the majority of warm surface
that makes plants and algae green. Chlorophyll currents be located? Where would the cold
identifies the presence of marine algae. The red and surface currents be located?
orange colors on the map show the highest amounts 30. History Scientists believe that some human
of chlorophyll; the blue and purple colors on the map migration between distant landmasses may have
show the smallest amounts of chlorophyll. Use the map taken place on rafts powered only by the wind
to answer questions 25–26. and ocean currents. Look at Figure 3.6, which
25. Infer Is there a greater concentration of marine shows the Earth’s surface currents. Hypothesize
algae at location A or at location B? potential migratory routes these early seafarers
may have followed.
26. Conclude What conclusion can you reach about
conditions in the parts of the ocean where marine 31. Plotting Seismic Activity Most earthquakes
algae may prefer to live? take place near tectonic plate boundaries. Using
the encyclopedia, the Internet, or another source,
find at least 20 locations where major earthquakes
took place during the 20th century. Plot these
locations on a map of the world that shows Earth’s
tectonic plates. Did the majority of earthquakes
occur at or near tectonic plate boundaries?

Chapter Review
Analyzing Data STUDYSKILL

CASESTUDY
Use the graph below to answer questions 32–33.
37. According to the passage, what purpose
32. Analyzing Data Rearrange the oceans in order
do coastal wetlands perform to reduce the
of highest depth-to-area ratio to lowest depth-to-
damage from a storm surge?
area ratio.
38. According to the passage, what two factors
33. Making Calculations On the graph, you are
given the average depths of the four oceans. From Whyincreased
It Matters the effectiveness of wetlands in
reducing damage from tsunamis?
these data, calculate the average depth of the
world ocean.
Why It Matters
39. Explain how using
180 4,500
satellites to monitor
160 Area 4,000 weather conditions
140 Depth 3,500 benefits people
globally.
Depth of oceans (m)

(in millions of km2)
120 3,000
Area of oceans
100 2,500
80 2,000
60 1,500
40 1,000
20 500
0 0
Pacific Atlantic Indian Arctic
Ocean Ocean Ocean Ocean
STUDYSKILL
The Importance of Nouns Most multiple-choice
Making Connections questions center around the definitions of nouns. When you
study, pay attention to the definitions of nouns that appear to
34. Communicating Main Ideas Describe the be important in the text. These nouns will often be boldfaced
three important ways in which the movement of key terms or italicized secondary terms.
energy takes place in Earth’s atmosphere.
35. Writing Persuasively Write a persuasive essay
that explains why the Earth today should be
regarded as a closed system for matter rather than
an open system.
36. Outlining Topics Write a one-page outline that
describes some of the important interactions that
take place in the Earth system.
©Earth Imaging/Stone/Getty Images

ExplorationLab
Simulation
Beaches
Objectives
Almost one-fourth of all the structures that have been built within
Examine models that show
150 m of the U.S. coastline, including the Great Lakes, will be lost to beach
how the forces generated by
wave action build, shape, and
erosion over the next 60 years, according to a June 2000 report released by
erode beaches. the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The supply of sand
for most beaches has been cut off by dams built on rivers and streams
Hypothesize ways in which
that would otherwise carry sand to the sea. Waves generated by storms
beaches can be preserved
from the erosive forces of
also erode beaches. Longshore currents, which are generated by waves
wave activity. that break at an angle to a shoreline, transport sediment continuously and
change the shape of a shoreline.
Materials You will now use a series of models to help you understand how
metric ruler beaches can be both washed away and protected from the effects of waves
milk cartons, empty, small (2) and longshore currents.
pebbles
plaster of Paris Procedure
plastic container (large) 1. At least one day before you begin the investigation, make two plaster
or long wooden box lined
with plastic
blocks. Mix a small amount of water with plaster of Paris until the
mixture is smooth. Add five or six small rocks to the mixture for
rocks, small
added weight. Pour the plaster mixture into the milk cartons.
sand, 5 to 10 lb Let the plaster harden overnight. Carefully peel the milk cartons
wooden block, large away from the plaster.
2. Prepare a wooden box lined with plastic or another similar large,

shallow container. Make a model of a beach by placing a mixture
of sand and small pebbles at one end of the container. The beach
should occupy about one-fourth the length of the container. See step
2. In the area in front of the sand, add water to a depth of 2 to 3 cm.
Use the large wooden block to generate several waves by moving the
block up and down in the water at the end of the container opposite
the beach. Continue this wave action until about half the beach has
moved. Record your observations.
3. Remove the water, and rebuild the beach.

In some places, breakwaters have been built
offshore in an attempt to protect beaches
from washing away. Build a breakwater by
placing two plaster blocks across the middle
of the container. Using the metric ruler, leave
a 4 cm space between the blocks. See step 3.
Use a wooden block to generate waves.
Describe the results.
4. Drain the water, and make a new beach

along one side of the container for about
half its length. See step 4. Using the wooden
block, generate a series of waves from the
same end of the container as the end of the
beach. Record your observations.
Step 2 Use a wooden block to generate waves at the end of the container
opposite the beach.

5. Rebuild the beach along the same side of the container. Jetties or
breakwaters are structures that can be built out into the ocean to
intercept and break up a longshore current. Make a jetty by placing
one of the small plaster blocks in the sand. See step 5. As you did in
the previous steps, use the wooden block to generate waves. De-
scribe the results.
6. Remove the wet sand, and put it in a container. Dispose of the water.
(Note: Follow your teacher’s instructions for disposal of the sand
and water. Never pour water containing sand into a sink.)
Step 3 Build a breakwater by placing two plastic
blocks across the middle of the container.
Analysis
1. Describing Events In step 2 of the procedure, what happened
to the beach when water was first poured into the container? What
happened to the particles of fine sand? Predict what would happen
to the beach if it had no source of additional sand.
2. Analyzing Results In step 3 of the procedure, did the breakwater

help protect the beach from washing away?
3. Describing Events What happened to the beach that you made in

step 4 of the procedure? What happened to the shape of the waves
along the beach?
4. Analyzing Results What effect did the jetty have on the beach that
Step 4 Make a beach lengthwise along one side of
you made in step 5 of the procedure?
the container. The length of the beach should equal
one-half the length of the container.
Conclusions
5. Drawing Conclusions What can be done to preserve a beach
area from being washed away as a result of wave action and long-
shore currents?
6. Drawing Conclusions What can be done to preserve a beach area

that has been changed as a result of excessive use by people?
Extension
7. Building Models Make a beach that would be in danger of be-
ing washed away by a longshore current. Based on what you have
learned, build a model in which the beach would be preserved by Step 5 Place one of the small plaster blocks in the
a breakwater or jetties. Explain how your model illustrates ways in sand to make a jetty.
which longshore currents can be intercepted and broken up.

Ecozine
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Butterfly Ecologist
Chapter 5: society and the

environment Changing Seas

©Juniors Bildarchiv/Alamy Images
A Little Piece of Cajun

Prairie

environment Hurricane
Katrina and New Orleans
90
T
Ecology
Unit 2
E
a
Chapter 4
The Organization of Life
Chapter 5
How Ecosystems Work
H
Chapter 6
Biomes
(bc) ©Photo Researchers, Inc.; (tc) ©A. Cosmos Blank/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) ©Marty Snyderman/Corbis; (t) ©Photodisc/Getty Images
Chapter 7
Aquatic Ecosystems
This Australian plant called the Alice

sundew gets the nutrients that it needs
to survive by dissolving insects that get
stuck on its sticky tips.
91
Chapter 4
Section 1
Ecosystems: Everything
The
Organization
Is Connected
Section 2
Evolution
Section 3
of Life
The Diversity of Living Things
Why It Matters
In a coral reef ecosystem, reef-
building coral combine with
algae to produce a colony that
gathers energy from the sun,
and creates shelter for many
organisms.
Identify some of the possible
interactions between organisms
in the coral reef ecosystem in
this photo.
CASESTUDY
Learn about how organisms
adapt to environmental changes
in the case study Darwin’s
Finches on page 98.
Online
Image Credits: Images
HMDScience.com
©Photodisc/Getty

92
Section 1
Ecosystems: Objectives
Everything Is
Distinguish between the
biotic and abiotic factors in
an ecosystem.
Connected Describe how a population

differs from a species.
Explain how habitats are

important for organisms.
You may have heard the concept that in nature everything is connected. What
does this mean? Consider the following example. In 1995, scientists interested
in controlling gypsy moths, which kill oak trees, performed an experiment. The Key Terms
scientists removed most mice, which eat young gypsy moths, from selected plots
ecosystem
of oak forest. The number of gypsy moth eggs and young increased dramatically.
The scientists then added acorns to the plots. Mice eat acorns. The number of biotic factor
mice soon increased, and the number of gypsy moths declined as the mice ate abiotic factor
them as well. organism
This result showed that large acorn crops can suppress gypsy moth outbreaks. species
Interestingly, the acorns also attracted deer, which carry parasitic insects called
population
ticks. Young ticks soon infested the mice. Wild mice carry the organism that
causes Lyme disease. Ticks can pick up the organism when they bite mice. Then community
the ticks can bite and infect humans. This example shows that in nature, things that habitat
we would never think are connected—mice, acorns, ticks, and a human disease—
can be linked to each other in a complex web.
Defining an Ecosystem
The mice, moths, oak trees, deer, and ticks in the previous example are all
part of the same ecosystem. An ecosystem (EE koh sis tuhm) is all of the
organisms living in an area together with their physical environment. An
oak forest is an ecosystem. A coral reef is an ecosystem. Even a vacant lot,
as shown in Figure 1.1, is an ecosystem.
Figure 1.1
Vacant Lot Ecosystem This vacant lot is actually a small ecosystem. It includes various
organisms, such as plants and insects, as well as soil, air, and sunlight.
©Brian Nolan/iStock
Chapter 4: The Organization of Life 93

Figure 1.2
Coastal Ecosystem Like all ecosystems, this coastal region includes basic components
ECOFACT such as rock, air, and plants.
The Living Soil
Soil is formed in part by living
organisms, which break down dead
leaves and organisms. Fungi called
lichens even help break down rocks!
Figure 1.3
Cold Ecosystem This caribou is

a biotic factor in Denali National Park,
Alaska.
critical thinking
Identify List the abiotic and biotic
factors you see in the ecosystem
shown here.
Ecosystems Are Connected

People often think of ecosystems as isolated from each other, but
ecosystems do not have clear boundaries. Things move from one
ecosystem into another. Soil washes from a mountain into a lake, birds
migrate from across hundreds of miles, and pollen blows from a forest
into a field.
The Components of an Ecosystem

In order to survive, ecosystems need certain basic components. These
are energy, mineral nutrients, carbon dioxide, water, oxygen, and living
organisms. As shown in Figure 1.2, plants and soil are two of the obvious
components of most land ecosystems. The energy in most ecosystems
comes from the sun.
To appreciate how all of the things in an ecosystem are connected,
think about how a car works. The engine alone is made up of hundreds of
parts that all work together. If even one part breaks, the car might not run.
Likewise, if one part of an ecosystem is destroyed or changes, the entire
system may be affected.
Biotic and Abiotic Factors

An ecosystem is made up of both living and nonliving things. All of the
organisms, including animals, fungi, bacteria, and plants are called biotic
factors. Biotic factors include dead organisms, dead parts of organisms,
such as leaves, or an organism’s waste products. Abiotic (ay bie AHT ik)
factors are the nonliving parts of the ecosystem, including air, water,
rocks, sand, light, and temperature. Figure 1.3 shows several biotic and
©BIOS
abiotic factors in an Alaskan ecosystem.
94 Unit 2: Ecology

Figure 1.4
Organization in an Ecosystem An individual organism is part of a population, a

community, an ecosystem, and the biosphere.
Organisms
An organism is an individual living thing. You are an organism, as is an ant
crawling across the floor, an ivy plant on the w
indowsill, and a b
acterium
in your intestines. Organisms have a role in and interact in an ecosystem.
Figure 1.4 shows how an ecosystem fits into the organization of living
things. A species is a group of organisms that can mate to produce fertile
offspring. All humans, for example, are members of the species Homo
sapiens. All black widow spiders are members of the species L atrodectus
mactans. Every organism is classified as a member of a species.
Populations Figure 1.5

Members of a species may not all live in Populations Two of the populations shown here are a population of pink
the same place. Field mice in Maine and Australian strawflowers (left) and a herd of bison (right).
field mice in Florida will never interact
even though they are members of the
same species. An organism lives as part
of a population. A population is a group
(bl) ©Corbis; (br) ©Joe Austin Photography/Alamy Images
of the same species that live in the same

place. For example, all the field mice in
a corn field make up one population of
field mice. An important characteristic of
a population is that its members u sually
breed with one another rather than with
members of other p opulations. The
bison in Figure 1.5 will usually mate with
another member of the same herd, just as
the wildflowers will usually be pollinated
by other flowers in the same field.

Figure 1.6 Communities
Every population is part of a community, a group of various
Habitat Salamanders, such as this European fire species that live in the same place and interact with each
salamander, live in habitats that are moist and shaded.
other. A community differs from an ecosystem because a
community includes only the biotic components. A pond
community, for example, includes all of the populations of
plants, fish, and insects that live in and around the pond. All
of the living things in an ecosystem belong to one or more
communities.
Communities differ in the types and numbers of species
they have. A land community is often characterized by the
types of plants that are dominant. These plants determine
the other organisms that can live in this community. For
example, the dominant plant in a Colorado forest might be
its ponderosa pine trees. This pine tree community will have
animals, such as squirrels, that live in and feed on these
trees.
Habitat
The squirrels mentioned above live in a pine forest. All or-
ganisms live in particular places. The place an organism lives
is called its habitat. A howler monkey’s habitat is the rain for-
est and a cactus’s habitat is a desert. The salamander shown
in Figure 1.6 is in its natural habitat, the damp forest floor.
Every habitat has specific biotic and abiotic factors that
the organisms living there need to survive. A coral reef con-
tains sea water, coral, s unlight, and a wide variety of other
organisms. If any of these factors change, then the habitat
changes.
Organisms tend to be very well suited to their natural
©Blickwinkel/Alamy Images
habitats. Indeed, animals and plants cannot usually survive
Check for Understanding for long periods of time away from their natural habitats. For
E xplain Why is an organism’s habitat example, a fish that lives in the crevices of a coral reef will die
important for that organism? if the coral reef is destroyed.

1. Describe a population not mentioned in this 4. Recognize Relationships Write your own
section. definition of the term c ommunity, using the
terms biotic factors and abiotic factors.
2. Describe which factors of an ecosystem are not
part of a community. 5. Inferring Conclusions Why might a scientist
say that an animal is becoming rare because of
3. Explain the difference between a population
habitat destruction?
and a species.
96 Unit 2: Ecology

Section 2
Evolution Objectives
Explain the process of evolution

by natural selection.
Organisms tend to be well suited to where they live and what they do. Figure 2.1
shows a chameleon (kuh MEEL ee uhn) capturing an insect. Insects are not easy to Explain the concept of
catch, so how does the chameleon do it? Chameleons can change the color and adaptation.
pattern of their skin, and then blend into their backgrounds. Their eyes are raised
on little, mobile turrets that enable the lizards to look around without moving. An Describe the steps by which a
insect is unlikely to notice such an animal sitting motionless on a branch. When the population of insects becomes
insect moves within range, the chameleon shoots out an amazingly long tongue to resistant to a pesticide.
grab the insect.
Key Terms
Evolution by Natural Selection natural selection
In 1859, English naturalist Charles Darwin observed that organisms in a evolution
population differ slightly from each other in form, function, and behav- adaptation
ior. Some of these differences are hereditary (huh RED i ter ee)—that is, artificial selection
passed from parent to offspring. For more than 150 years, scientists have resistance
shown that the environment exerts a strong influence over which individ-
uals survive to produce offspring. The environment also influences how
many offspring individuals have. Some individuals, because of certain Connect to GEOLOGY
traits, are more likely to survive and reproduce than other individuals.
This is called natural selection–the process by which individuals that are
better adapted to their environment survive and reproduce with more
success than less well adapted individuals do.
Over many generations natural selection causes the characteristics of Check for Understanding
populations to change. A change in the genetic characteristics of a popu- Relate How is natural selection related
lation from one generation to the next is known as evolution. to the process of evolution?
Figure 2.1
Adaptations for Catching Prey A chameleon catches an unsuspecting insect that has
strayed within range of the lizard’s long and fast-moving tongue.
Connect to GEOLOGY
Darwin and Fossils
In the 1800s, fossil hunting was a
popular hobby. The many fossils that
people found started arguments about
where fossils come from. Darwin’s
theory of evolution proposed that
©Picture Press/Alamy Images
fossils are the remains of extinct

species from which modern species
evolved. When his book on the theory
of evolution was first published
in 1859, it became an immediate
bestseller.

Nature Selects
Darwin thought that nature selects for certain traits, such as sharper
claws or lighter feathers, because organisms with these traits are more
likely to survive and reproduce. For example, lions that have the trait of
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sharper claws can kill their prey more easily than lions with duller claws.
Evolution and Natural Thus, lions with sharper claws are more likely to survive and reproduce.
Selection Over time, the lion population includes a greater and greater proportion
of lions with sharper claws. As the populations of a given species change,
so does the species. Figure 2.2 summarizes the premises of the theory of
evolution by natural selection. Darwin proposed this theory after drawing
a conclusion based on these premises.
figure 2.2
Evolution by Natural Selection

Premises Conclusion
1. Individuals in a population vary in each generation. Based on these four

premises, individuals with
2. Some of these variations are genetic, or inherited. genetic traits that make
them more likely to grow
3. More individuals are produced than live to grow up
up and reproduce in the
and reproduce.
existing environment will
4. Individuals with some genes are more likely to become more common in
survive and reproduce than individuals with other the population from one
genes. generation to the next.
CASESTUDY
Darwin’s Finches
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace independently discovered
that natural selection is a mechanism leading to evolutionary
change. Organisms that live on oceanic islands inspired
both scientists. Both saw that plants and animals on islands
(cr) ©Ryan M. Bolton/Alamy Images; (tl) ©Auscape International
were often unusual species found nowhere else. Darwin was
impressed by the mockingbirds in the Galápagos Islands, an
isolated group of volcanic islands in the Pacific Ocean west
of Ecuador. There are four species of mockingbirds with even
more distinctive forms among them, each differing in subtle
Notice the beaks in the two
ways, and each island having only one form.
species of Darwin’s finches. What
Other scientists discovered that the Galápagos Islands
do you think these finches eat?
also contain 14 unique species of finch-like birds, which
have become known as Darwin’s finches. All the species
look generally similar, but different species have differently cracking big seeds, some species have slim beaks that are
specialized beaks adapted to eating different types of food. used to sip nectar from flowers, and some species have
Some species have large, parrot-like beaks adapted to become insect eaters. Recent genetic analysis indicates
98 Unit 2: Ecology

Figure 2.3
Adaptations to Climate These steps show the In the cold mountain climate, deer with
evolution of thicker fur in a population of deer. thicker fur are more likely to survive.
These deer live in a warm climate.

Some have thicker fur than others.
Some deer become As years pass, each

separated from the generation has a
rest of the group. greater proportion
of deer with thick fur.
After many generations,
most deer have thick fur.
Figure 2.3 shows an example of evolution in which a population of

deer become isolated in a cold area. Many die, but some have genes for
thicker, warmer fur. These deer are more likely to survive, and their young
with thick fur are also more likely to survive to reproduce. The deer’s thick
fur is an adaptation, an inherited trait that increases an organism’s chance
of survival and reproduction in a certain environment.
that all the Galápagos finches evolved from a single on Daphne Major were larger, on average, than they
species of seed-eating finch that came from the South had been before the drought. The Grants had observed
American mainland. As populations of the finches became evolution occurring in birds over a short period of time. The
established on the various islands, the successful finches studies of finches have documented many details about
were those able to eat what they found on their island. how one species responds to selection.
Princeton University scientists Peter and Rosemary Scientists have found other cases where organisms
Grant have spent 40 years studying Darwin’s finches on one Critical
respond rapidlyThinking
to selection. For example, bacteria acquire
of the Galápagos Islands. Here, one species, the medium resistance to antibiotics and agricultural pests develop
ground finch, has a short, stubby beak and eats seeds as tolerance to pesticides. Fish found in ponds with predators
well as a few insects. The Grants found that the main factor have different body shapes than the same species in ponds
that determined whether a finch lived or died was how without predators. On a South Pacific island, a population
much food was available. During a long drought in 1977, of butterflies developed resistance to a deadly bacteria in
many plants died and the small seeds that the finches eat one year!
became scarce. Finches that had large beaks were much
more likely to have survived. Large beaks allowed them to Critical Thinking
eat larger seeds from the larger plants that had survived the Analyzing Relationships Could the finches
drought. that evolved bigger beaks in this study evolve smaller
The finches that survived the drought passed their beaks some day?
genes for larger beaks to their offspring. Two years later,
the Grants found that the beaks of medium ground finches

Coevolution
FieldStudy Organisms evolve adaptations to other organisms and to their physical
Go to Appendix B to find the field study environment. The process of two species evolving in response to long-
Coevolution. term interactions with each other is called coevolution (koh ev uh LOO
shuhn). One example is shown in Figure 2.4. The honeycreeper’s beak
is long and curved, which lets it reach the nectar at the base of the long,
Figure 2.4 curved flower. The flower has evolved structures that cause the bird to get
Connect to MATH pollen on its head as it sips the nectar. When the bird moves to another
Coevolution This Hawaiian
honeycreeper is using its curved beak flower, some of the pollen rubs off. In this way, the bird helps lobelia
to sip nectar from a lobelia flower. plants reproduce. The honeycreeper’s adaptation for obtaining more
nectar is a long, curved beak. The plant has two adaptations for greater
pollination. One is sweet nectar, which attracts the birds. The other is a
flower structure that forces pollen onto a bird’s head when the bird sips
the nectar.
Evolution by Artificial Selection

Many populations of plants and animals do not live in the wild but are
cared for by humans. People control how these organisms reproduce
and therefore how they evolve. The two species in Figure 2.5 are closely
related. Over thousands of years, humans bred the ancestors of today’s
wolves to produce the variety of dog breeds. The selective breeding
of organisms by humans for specific characteristics is called artificial
selection.
Connect to MATH The fruits, grains, and vegetables we eat were also produced by artifi-
cial selection. By selecting for traits such as size and sweetness, farmers
Plumper Pumpkins directed the evolution of crop plants. As a result, crops produce fruits,
Each year a farmer saves and plants grains, and roots that are larger, sweeter, and easier to harvest than their
only the seeds from his largest wild relatives. Native Americans cultivated the ancestor of today’s corn
pumpkins. Suppose that he starts from a grasslike plant in the mountains of Mexico. Modern corn is very
with pumpkins that average 5 kg and
different from the wild plant that was its ancestor.
each year grows pumpkins that are
3 percent more massive, on average,
than those he grew the year before. Figure 2.5
What will be the average mass of his
pumpkins after 10 years? Artificial Selection As a result of artificial selection, the Chihuahua on the right
(bl) ©Lisa Dearing/Alamy Images; (tl) ©P. La Tourrette/VIREO; (br) ©BIOS

looks very different from its wolf ancestor on the left.
100 Unit 2: Ecology

Figure 2.6
Example of the Evolution of Resistance

Insect pests are sprayed with When the same insecticide is used
an insecticide. Only a few again, more insects survive because
resistant insects survive. more of them are resistant.
The survivors
pass the trait for
insecticide resistance
to their offspring.
Evolution of Resistance
Sometimes humans cause populations of organisms to evolve unwanted
adaptations. You may have heard about insect pests that are resistant
to pesticides and about bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics. What is
resistance, and what does it have to do with evolution?
Resistance is the ability of one or more organisms to tolerate a par-
ticular chemical designed to kill it. An organism may be resistant to a
chemical when it contains a gene that allows it to break the chemical
down into harmless substances. By trying to control pests and bacteria
with chemicals, humans promote the evolution of resistant populations.
Pesticide Resistance
Consider the evolution of pesticide resistance among corn pests, as
shown in Figure 2.6. A pesticide is sprayed on corn to kill grasshoppers.
Most of the grasshoppers die, but a few survive. The survivors happen
to have a version of a gene that protects them from the pesticide. The
surviving insects pass on the gene to their offspring. Each time the corn
is sprayed, insects that are resistant to the pesticide will have a greater Check for Understanding
chance of survival and reproduction. As a result, the insect population Identify Name two different organisms
will evolve to include more and more resistant members. that have evolved resistance?

1. Explain what an adaptation is, and provide 5. Relating Concepts Read the description of
three examples. evolution by natural selection in this section and
describe the role that the environment plays in
2. Explain the process of evolution by natural
the theory.
selection.
6. Recognizing Relationships A population
3. Describe one way in which artificial selection
of rabbits evolves thicker fur in response to
can benefit humans.
a colder climate. What is this an example of?
4. Explain how a population of insects could Explain your answer.
become resistant to a pesticide.

Section 3
Objectives
The Diversity of
Living Things
Name the three domains and
the four kingdoms of organisms
and list characteristics of each.
Explain the importance of

bacteria and fungi in the Life on Earth is incredibly diverse. Take a walk in your neighborhood, and you might
environment. see trees, birds, insects, and maybe fish in a stream. All of these organisms are
living, but they are all very different from one another.
Describe the role of protists in
Most scientists classify organisms into three domains, as described in Figure 3.1.
the ocean environment. Members of the domains Archaea and Bacteria are unicellular, which means they
consist of only one cell. Domain Eukarya is further divided into four kingdoms. The
Describe how organisms
cells of animals, plants, fungi, and protists contain a nucleus (NOO klee uhs), which
interact and depend on each consists of a membrane that surrounds a cell’s genetic material. Bacteria, fungi,
other for survival. and plants all have cell walls, structures that surround their cells and provide them
with support.
Key Terms
archaea Archaea and Bacteria
bacteria Archaea and bacteria have several features in common, even though they
fungus are not closely related. They are microscopic, unicellar organisms that
protist usually have cell walls and reproduce by dividing in half. Unlike mem-
gymnosperm bers of the domain Eukarya, they lack nuclei. Archaea are often found
angiosperm in extreme places, such as hot springs. They differ from bacteria in their
invertebrate genetics and the makeup of their cell wall. Bacteria are very common and
can be found in many places, including soil and animal bodies.
vertebrate
Figure 3.1
levels of classification
Characteristics Examples
Domain Archaea unicellular; cells lack nuclei; reproduce methanogens (live in swamps and produce methane gas)
by dividing in half; often found in harsh and extreme thermophiles (live in hot springs)
environments
Domain Bacteria unicellular; cells lack nuclei; reproduce by proteobacteria (common in soils and in animal intestines)
dividing in half; incredibly common and cyanobacteria (also called blue-green algae )
Domain Eukarya unicellular and multicellular; cells contain fungi, protists, plants, and animals
nuclei; reproduce asexually and sexually
Kingdom Fungi absorb their food through their body surface; yeasts, mushrooms, molds, mildews, and rusts
have cell walls; most live on land
Kingdom Protista most are unicellular but some are diatoms, dinoflagellates, amoebas, trypanosomes,
multicellular; most live in water paramecia, algae, and Euglena
Kingdom Plantae multicellular; make their own food by ferns, mosses, trees, herbs, and grasses
photosynthesis; have cell walls
Kingdom Animalia multicellular; no cell walls; ingest their food; corals, sponges, worms, insects, fish,
live on land and in water reptiles, birds, and mammals
102 Unit 2: Ecology

Bacteria and the Environment Figure 3.2
Bacteria play many important roles in the environment. Some kinds of
Bacteria These long, orange
bacteria break down the remains and wastes of other organisms and
objects are E. coli bacteria as they
return nutrients to the soil. Others recycle mineral nutrients, such as appear under a microscope.
nitrogen and phosphorus. For example, certain kinds of bacteria play
a very important role by converting nitrogen in the air into a form that
plants can use. Nitrogen is important because it is a main component of
proteins and genetic material.
Bacteria also allow many organisms, including humans, to extract
certain nutrients from their food. The bacteria in Figure 3.2 are Escherichia
coli, or E. coli, a bacterium found in the intestines of humans and other
animals. E. coli helps digest food and release vitamins that humans need.
A different strain, or form, of E. coli can cause severe food poisoning.
Fungi
A fungus (plural, fungi) is an organism whose cells have nuclei and cell
walls. A mushroom is the reproductive structure of a fungus. The rest of
the fungus is an underground network of fibers. These fibers absorb food
from decaying organisms in the soil.
Fungi get their food by releasing chemicals that help break down
organic matter, and then absorbing the nutrients. The bodies of most
fungi are a huge network of threads that grow through the soil, dead
wood, or other material on which the fungi are feeding. Like bacteria,
fungi play an important role in the environment by breaking down the
bodies and body parts of dead organisms.
Some fungi cause diseases, such as athlete’s foot. Other fungi add Check for Understanding
flavor to food. The fungus in blue cheese, shown in Figure 3.3, gives the Compare Name one way that bacteria
(tr) ©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (bl) ©Arco Images GmbH/Alamy Images; (br) ©Igor Kisselev/Alamy Images
cheese its strong flavor. And fungi called yeasts produce the gas that and fungi are similar and one way that
makes bread rise. they are different.
Figure 3.3
Fungi A mushroom (left) is the reproductive structure of a fungus that lives in the soil. The
cheese (right) gets its taste and its blue color from a fungus.

Figure 3.4 Protists
Protists Microscopic, unicellular Most people have some idea what bacteria and fungi are, but few could
diatoms (left) live in the plankton. define a protist. Protists are a diverse group of both unicellular and multi-
Kelp (right) are large, multicellular cellular organisms. Some, such as amoebas, are animal-like. Others, such
protists that live attached to the as the kelp and diatoms in Figure 3.4, are plantlike. Still others are more
ocean floor. like fungi. Most protists are unicellular microscopic organisms, including
critical thinking amoebas and diatoms (DIE uh tahms). Diatoms float on the ocean sur-
Recognize What do the face. The most infamous protist is Plasmodium, the unicellular organism
protists in these photos have in that causes the disease malaria. From an environmental standpoint, the
common? most important protists are probably algae. Algae are plantlike protists
that can make their own food using the sun’s energy for photosynthesis.
Green pond “scum” and seaweed are examples of algae. Algae range in
size from the giant kelp to the unicellular phytoplankton, which are the
initial source of food in most ocean and freshwater ecosystems.
Plants
Plants are multicellular organisms that have cell walls and make their
own food using energy from the sun. Most plants live on land, where the
resources a plant needs are separated between the air and the soil. Sun-
light, oxygen, and carbon dioxide are in the air, and minerals and water
are in the soil. Plants have roots that access water and nutrients in the
(inset) ©Jan Hinsch/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (br) ©Jim Steinberg/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (tl) ©Lawrence Naylor/Photo Researchers, Inc.
soil and leaves that collect light and gases in the air. Leaves and roots are
connected by vascular tissue, conducting tissue that transports water and
food. Vascular tissue has thick cell walls, so a wheat plant or a tree is like a
building supported by its plumbing.
Plants with no vascular tissue are called nonvascular plants. Because
nonvascular plants lack specialized conducting tissues as well as true
roots, stems, and leaves, water must move from the environment and
throughout the plant. As a result, nonvascular plants, such as mosses, live
in damp places, as shown in Figure 3.5.
HMDScience.com Figure 3.5

Protists
Nonvascular Plants Mosses live in damp places because they need water to reproduce.
104 Unit 2: Ecology

Gymnosperms Figure 3.6
Pine trees and other evergreens with needle-like leaves are gymnosperms
Gymnosperms This gymnosperm
(JIM noh spuhrmz). Gymnosperms are woody plants that produce seeds,
has male and female reproductive
but their seeds are not enclosed in fruits. Gymnosperms such as pine structures called cones.
trees are also called conifers because their seeds are inside cones, as
shown in Figure 3.6.
Gymnosperms have several adaptations that allow them to live in
drier conditions than lower plants can. Gymnosperms produce pollen,
which protects and moves sperm between plants. These plants also
produce seeds, which protect developing plants from drying out. And
a conifer’s needle-like leaves lose little water. Much of our lumber and
paper comes from gymnosperms.
Angiosperms
Most land plants today are angiosperms (AN jee oh spuhrmz), flowering
plants that produce seeds in fruit. All of the plants in Figure 3.7 are
angiosperms. The flower is the reproductive structure of the plant. Some
angiosperms, such as grasses, have small flowers that produce pollen that
is carried by the wind. Other angiosperms have large flowers that attract
insects or birds to carry their pollen to other plants. Many flowering QUICKLAB
plants depend on animals to disperse their seeds and carry their pollen.
For example, a bird that eats a fruit will drop the seeds elsewhere, where
they may grow into new plants.
Most land animals could not survive without flowering plants. Most Check for Understanding
of the food humans eat, such as wheat, rice, beans, oranges, and lettuce, Relate How do angiosperms depend
comes from flowering plants. Building materials and fibers, such as oak on animals, and how do animals depend
and cotton, also come from flowering plants. on angiosperms?
(bl) ©Kent Foster/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshotot; (tr) ©Daniel Zupanc/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshotot
Figure 3.7
Angiosperms This meadow contains a wide array of angiosperms, including grasses, QUICKLAB
trees, and wildflowers.
Pollen and Flower Diversity
Procedure
1. Use a cotton swab to collect pollen
from a common flowering plant.
2. Tap the cotton swab on a
microscope slide and cover the
slide with a cover slip.
3. Examine the slide under a
microscope, and draw the pollen
grains in your science journal.
4. Repeat this exercise with a grass
plant in bloom.
Analysis
1. Based on the structure of the
flower and pollen grains, explain
which plant is pollinated by insects
and which is pollinated by wind.

Animals
Animals cannot make their own food like plants can. They have to take in
Connect to MATH food from their environment. In addition, animal cells have no cell walls,
Insect Survival so animals’ bodies are soft and flexible. Some animals have evolved hard
Most invertebrates produce large skeletons against which their muscles can pull to move their bodies. As a
numbers of offspring. Most of result, animals are much more mobile than plants, and all animals move
these offspring die before reaching around in their environments during at least one stage in their lives.
adulthood. Suppose an insect lays
80 eggs on a plant. If 70 percent of
the eggs hatch and 80 percent of Invertebrates
those that hatch die before reaching Animals that lack backbones are invertebrates (in VUHR tuh brits). Many
adulthood, how many insects will reach invertebrates live attached to hard surfaces in the ocean and filter their
adulthood? food out of the water. These organisms move around only when they are
larvae (juveniles). At this early stage of life, they are part of the ocean’s
floating plankton. Filter feeders include corals, various worms, and mol-
lusks such as clams and oysters. Figure 3.8 shows a variety of invertebrates.
Other invertebrates, including squid in the ocean and insects on land,
move around actively in search of food.
More insects exist on Earth than any other type of animal. Insects
have a waterproof external skeleton that keeps them from losing water
in dry environments. Insects move quickly and they reproduce quickly.
Also, most insects can fly. Their small size allows them to live on little
food and to hide from enemies in small spaces, such as a seed or in the
hair of a mammal.
(bl) ©James Steinberg/Photo Researchers, Inc.; © ©Dr. Morley Read/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (r) ©Kjersti Joergensen/Alamy Images
Many insects and plants have evolved together and depend on each
other to survive. Insects carry pollen from male parts of flowers to female
parts of flowers to fertilize a plant’s egg, which develops into a fruit. With-
out insect pollinators, we would not have tomatoes, cucumbers, apples,
and many other crops. Insects also eat other insects that we consider
to be pests. But, humans and insects are often enemies. Bloodsucking
insects transmit human diseases, such as malaria, sleeping sickness, and
West Nile virus. Insects probably do more damage indirectly, however,
by eating crops.
Figure 3.8
Invertebrates Examples of invertebrates include the banana slug (left), the leaf-footed
bug (middle), and the cuttlefish (right).
106 Unit 2: Ecology

ECOFACT
Figure 3.9
Vertebrates Examples of vertebrates include the toco toucan (left), the blue-spotted stingray
(middle), and the snow leopard (right).
(tl) ©Ed Reschke Photo; (tc) ©Jost Klaus/Jost Images; (r) ©M. L. Hubert & J. L. Klein/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Vertebrates
Animals that have backbones are called vertebrates. Members of three
vertebrate groups are shown in Figure 3.9. The first vertebrates were fish, ECOFACT
but today many vertebrates live on land. Amphibians, which include Conserving Water
toads, frogs, and salamanders, are partially aquatic. Nearly all amphib- Arthropods and vertebrates are the
ians must return to water to lay their eggs. only two groups of animals that have
The first vertebrates to complete their entire life cycle on land were adaptations that prevent dehydration
the reptiles, which today include turtles, lizards, snakes, and crocodiles. so effectively that some of them can
These animals have an almost waterproof egg, which allows the egg to move about freely on land on a dry,
hatch on land. sunny day.
Birds are warm-blooded vertebrates with feathers. Bird eggs have hard
shells. Adult birds keep their eggs and young warm until they develop
insulating layers of fat and feathers. Mammals are warm-blooded verte-
brates that have fur and feed their young milk. The ability to maintain a
high body temperature allows birds and mammals to live in cold areas,
where many other land vertebrates cannot survive.

1. Describe how animals and angiosperms 5. Recognize Relationships Explain how
depend on each other. Write a short paragraph the large number and wide distribution of
to explain your answer. angiosperm species is related to the success
of insects.
2. Describe the importance of protists in the
ocean. 6. Comparing Structures Write a short
paragraph that compares the reproductive
3. Name the four kingdoms of Eukarya, and give
structures of gymnosperms and angiosperms.
two characteristics of each.
4. Explain the importance of bacteria and fungi in
the environment.

Making a Difference
Butterfly
Imagine millions of butterflies swirling through the air like autumn leaves,
clinging in tightly packed masses to tree trunks and branches, and covering
low-lying forest vegetation like a luxurious, moving carpet. According to
Ecologist
Alfonso Alonso, this is quite a sight to see.
For many winters Alonso would climb up to the few remote sites in central
Mexico where anywhere from 23 million to over 170 million monarch butterflies
spend the winter depending on the site. His interest in monarchs came from a
desire to help preserve their habitat and the butterflies themselves. His work
helped him earn a Ph.D. in zoology from the University of Florida.
Monarchs are famous for their long-distance migration. The butterflies
that eventually find their way to Mexico come from as far away as the
northeastern United States and southern Canada. Some of them travel up to
4,828 km before reaching central Mexico.
Wintering Habitat at Risk

Unfortunately, the habitat that the monarchs travel long distances to reach
is increasingly threatened by illegal logging and other human activities.
Logging reduced the size of the wintering region by approximately 44 percent
between 1971 to 1999. Mexico has set aside several of the known butterfly
sites as sanctuaries, but even these are endangered by people who cut down
fir trees for fuel or money.
Alonso’s work and the work of other ecologists after him has helped
Mexican conservationists better understand and protect
monarch butterflies. Especially important is
Alonso’s discovery that the monarchs
depend on bushlike vegetation,
called understory vegetation,
A Sea of Orange At their overwintering that grows beneath the fir
sites in Mexico, millions of monarchs trees.
cover trees and bushes in a fluttering
carpet of orange and black.
Butterfly Man Alonso examines

a monarch as part of his efforts to
understand its ecology.
Brower
Image Credits:
©Lincoln
108 Unit 2: Ecology

ECOZine
at HMDScience.com
Monarch Sanctuaries Monarch

butterflies spend the winter at
forested sites just above Mexico City.
Keeping Warm Now that he has completed his Ph.D., Alonso is devoting
Alonso’s research showed that when the temperature falls himself to preserving monarchs and other organisms. He
below freezing, as it often does in the mountains where works as assistant director for conservation and development
the monarchs winter, understory vegetation can mean the for the Smithsonian Institution’s Monitoring and Assess
difference between life and death for some monarchs. These ment of Biodiversity (MAB) program. He is developing several
conditions are life threatening to the monarchs because new projects in collaboration with others including a forest
low temperatures (–1°C to 4°C, or 30°F to 40°F) limit their conservation project in Madagascar, and conservation projects
movement. In fact, the butterflies are not able to fly at such low in Panama and Mexico that combine cultural values with natural
temperatures. They can only crawl. At even colder temperatures values to preserve threatened areas.
(–7°C to –1°C, or 20°F to 30°F), monarchs resting on the forest
floor may freeze to death. But if the forest has understory vege Information...
tation, the monarchs can slowly climb the vegetation until they If you are interested in learning more about monarchs,
are at least 10 cm above the ground, where it is warmer. This including their spectacular migration, visit the Web site for
tiny difference in elevation can provide a microclimate that is Monarch Watch. Monarch Watch is an organization based at the
warm enough to ensure the monarchs’ survival. University of Kansas that is dedicated to educating people about
The importance of understory vegetation was not known Whatand
the monarch Dopromoting
You Think? its conservation.
before Alonso did his research. Now, thanks to his work,
Mexican conservationists will better protect the understory
vegetation. And the Mexican government has passed a new
decree that protects monarchs in areas the butterflies are
known to use.
What Do You Think?
The Need for Conservation As a migrating species, monarchs spend part of
their lives in the United States and part in Mexico.
Although the monarchs continue to enjoy the forests where Should the U.S. and Mexico cooperate in their efforts
they overwinter, those forests are still threatened. There is little to understand and manage the monarch? Should
Brower
forest left in this area, and the need for wood increases each nations set up panels to manage other migrating
Image Credits:
year. Alonso hopes his efforts will help protect the monarch both species, such as many songbirds?
©Lincoln
now and in the future.

Chapter 4 Summary
Section 1 E cosystems: Everything Objectives Key Terms

Is Connected
• Ecosystems are composed of many interconnected ecosystem
parts that often interact in complex ways. biotic factor
• An ecosystem is all the different organisms living in an abiotic factor
area as well as the physical environment. organism
• Organisms live as populations of one species in com- species
munities with other species. Each species has its own population
habitat, or type of place that it lives. community
habitat
Section 2 Evolution Objectives Key Terms
• Natural selection is the process by which organisms natural selection

with particular traits are better adapted to their environ- evolution
ment to survive and reproduce more successfully. adaptation
• Natural selection is responsible for evolution—a artificial selection
change in the genetic characteristics of a population resistance
from one generation to the next.
• By selecting which domesticated animals and plants
breed, humans cause evolution by artificial selection.
• We have unintentionally selected for pests that are
resistant to pesticides and for bacteria that are resistant
to antibiotics.
Section 3 The Diversity of Living Objectives Key Terms

Things
• Organisms can be divided into three domains and four archaea
kingdoms, which are distinguished by the types of cells bacteria
(t) ©BIOS; (c) ©P. La Tourrette/VIREO; (b) ©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

they possess and how they obtain their food. fungus
• Bacteria and fungi play the important environmental protist
roles of breaking down dead organisms and recycling gymnosperm
nutrients.
angiosperm
• Gymnosperms, which include the conifers, are the invertebrate
earliest plants with seeds. Angiosperms are flowering
vertebrate
plants.
• Insects, invertebrates that are the most successful
animals on Earth, affect humans in both positive and
negative ways.
• Vertebrates, or animals with backbones, include fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
110 Unit 2: Ecology

Chapter 4 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 14. Some snakes produce a powerful poison that
paralyzes their prey. This poison is an example of
a. resistance.
1. adaptation
b. an adaptation.
2. invertebrate
c. a reptile.
3. abiotic factor
d. an abiotic factor.
4. habitat
5. species 15. Angiosperms called roses come in a variety of
shapes and colors as a result of
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings of
a. natural selection.
the terms differ.
b. coevolution.
6. community and population
c. different ecosystems.
7. evolution and natural selection
d. artificial selection.
8. gymnosperm and angiosperm
9. bacteria and protists 16. Unicellular organisms that live in swamps and
10. Concept Map Use the following terms to create a produce methane gas are
concept map: ecosystem, abiotic factor, biotic factor, a. protists.
population, species, community, and habitat.
b. archaea.
c. fungi.
Reviewing Main Ideas d. bacteria.
11. Which of the following pairs of organisms belong 17. Which of the following statements about protists
to the same population? is not true?
a. a dog and a cat a. Most of them live in water.
b. a marigold and a geranium b. Some of them cause diseases in humans.
c. a human mother and her child c. They contain genetic material.
d. a spider and a cockroach d. Their cells have no nucleus.
12. Which of these phrases does not describe part of 18. Which of the following statements about plants is
the process of evolution by natural selection? not true?
a. the environment contains limited resources a. They make their food from oxygen and water
b. organisms produce more offspring than will through photosynthesis.
survive to reproduce b. Land plants have cell walls that help hold their
c. communities include populations of several stems upright.
species c. They have adaptations that help prevent water
d. organisms in a population differ in their traits loss.
d. Plants absorb nutrients through their roots.
13. Which of the following components of an
ecosystem are not abiotic factors?
a. wind
b. small rocks
c. sunlight
d. tree branches

Chapter Review

19. List five components that an ecosystem must 26. Analyzing Ideas Can a person evolve? Read
contain to survive. the description of evolution in this chapter and
20. What is the difference between biotic and abiotic explain why or why not.
factors in an ecosystem? 27. Making Inferences A scientist applies a strong
21. What is the difference between adaptation and fungicide, a chemical that kills fungi, to an area
evolution? of forest soil every week during October and
November. How might this area look different
22. Describe the three steps by which a population of from the surrounding ground at the end of the
insects becomes resistant to a pesticide. experiment?
23. List the four kingdoms of organisms in the 28. Drawing Conclusions In what building in your
Domain Eukarya and the characteristics of each community do you think bacteria are evolving
kingdom. resistance to antibiotics most rapidly? Explain
your answer.
29. Evaluating Viewpoints Many people assume
Interpreting Graphics that the human population is no longer evolving.
Below is a graph that shows the number of aphids on a Do you think these people are right? Explain
rose bush during one summer. The roses were sprayed your answer.
with a pesticide three times, as shown. Use the graph to 30. Analyzing Information Find out how the
answer questions 24 and 25. isolation of populations on islands has affected
24. What evidence is there that the pesticide killed their evolution. Research a well-known example,
aphids? such as the animals and plants of Madagascar, the
25. Aphids have a generation time of about 10 days. Galápagos Islands, or the Hawaiian Islands. Write
Is there any evidence that the aphids evolved a short report on your findings.
resistance to the pesticide during the summer? 31. Observe Observe an ecosystem near you, such
Explain your answer. as a pond or a field. Identify biotic and abiotic
factors and as many populations of organisms
600 as you can. Do not try to identify the organisms
precisely. Just list them, for example, as spiders,
Spraying 1
500
ants, grass, not as a specific type. Make a poster
showing the different populations. Put the
organisms into columns to show which of the
400 Spraying 3 kingdoms they belong to.
Aphid population
Spraying 2
300
200
100
0
May June July August
112 Unit 2: Ecology

STUDYSKILL Chapter Review
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
Use the graph below to answer questions 32–33.
36. How does environmental change affect the
32. Analyzing Data The graph below shows the
survival of a species?
mass of different types of organisms found in a
meadow. How much greater is the mass of the 37. What is the relationship between natural
Why It Matters
plants than that of the animals? selection and adaptation?
33. Analyzing Data What is the ratio of the mass of
the bacteria to the mass of the fungi? Why It Matters
38. What might happen
Mass of Organisms in a Meadow to a population of
5,000 fish if a predator
moved to the coral
reef?
4,000
3,000
Kilograms
2,000
1,000 STUDYSKILL
Make an Outline After reading each section, summarize
the main ideas into a short outline, leaving space between each
0
entry. Then write the key terms under the subsection in which
Bacteria Plants Fungi Animals Protists
they are introduced, followed by a short definition for each.
Making Connections
34. Communicating Main Ideas Why is evolution
considered to be such an important idea in
biology?
35. Outlining Topics Outline the essential steps in
the evolution of pesticide resistance in insects.
©Photodisc/Getty Images

InquiryLab
Behavior Analysis
How Do Brine Shrimp
Objectives
Observe the behavior of
Select a Habitat?
brine shrimp.
Different organisms are adapted for life in different habitats. For example,
Identify a variable, and
brine shrimp are small crustaceans that live in saltwater lakes. Organisms
design an experiment to test
the effect of the variable on
select habitats that provide the conditions, such as a specific temperature
habitat selection by brine range and amount of light, to which they are best adapted. In this
shrimp. investigation, you will construct a chamber to explore habitat selection by
brine shrimp and determine which environmental conditions they prefer.
Materials
aluminum foil
brine shrimp culture
Procedure
corks sized to fit tubing Establish a Control Group
Detain™ or methyl cellulose 1. To make a test chamber and establish a control group, divide a piece
fluorescent lamp or grow light of plastic tubing into four sections by making a mark at 10 cm, 20 cm,
funnel and 30 cm from one end. Label the sections “1,” “2,” “3,” and “4.”
graduated cylinder or beaker
2. Place a cork in one end of the tubing. Then transfer 50 mL of brine
hot-water bag shrimp culture to the tubing. Place a cork in the other end of the
ice bag tubing. Set the tube aside, and let the brine shrimp move about the
magnifying glass or tube for 30 min.
dissecting microscope
metric ruler 3. After 30 min, divide the tubing into four sections by placing a screw
clamp at each mark on the tubing. While someone in your group
Petri dish
holds the corks firmly in place, tighten the middle clamp at 20 cm and
pipet then tighten the other two clamps.
plastic tubing, 40 cm × 1 cm,
clear, flexible 4. Remove the cork from the end of section 1 and pour the contents of
screen, pieces section 1 into a test tube labeled “1.” Repeat this step for the other
screw clamps sections by loosening the screw clamps and pouring the contents of
each section into their corresponding test tubes.
tape
test-tube rack 5. To get an accurate count for the number of brine shrimp in each
test tubes with stoppers test tube, place a stopper on test tube 1, and invert the tube gently
to distribute the shrimp. Use a pipet to transfer a 1 mL sample of the
culture to a Petri dish. Add a few drops of Detaintm to the sample so
that the brine shrimp move slower. Count and record the number of
brine shrimp in the Petri dish. Place the Petri dish under a dissecting
microscope or use a magnifying glass for better observation.
Making a Test Chamber Use a screw clamp to

divide one section of tubing from another.
114 Unit 2: Ecology

HMDScience.com
6. Empty the Petri dish, and take two more 1 mL samples of brine
shrimp from test tube 1. Calculate the average of the three samples
recorded for test tube 1.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 for each of the remaining test tubes to count
the number of brine shrimp in each section of tubing.
Ask a Question
8. Write a question you would like to explore about brine shrimp
habitat selection. For example, you can explore how temperature
or light affects brine shrimp. To explore the question, design an
experiment that uses the materials listed for this lab.
9. Write a procedure and a list of safety precautions for your group’s

experiment. Have your teacher approve your procedure and pre-
cautions before you begin the experiment.
10. Set up and conduct your group’s experiment.
Brine Shrimp These crustaceans have specific

Analysis habitat preferences.
1. Constructing Graphs Make a bar graph of your data. Plot the
environmental variable on the x-axis and the number of brine shrimp
on the y-axis.
2. Evaluating Results How did the brine shrimp react to changes in

the environment?
3. Evaluating Methods Why did you need a control in your experi-

ment?
4. Evaluating Methods Why did you record the average of three

samples to count the number of brine shrimp in each test tube in
steps 6 and 7?
Conclusions
5. Drawing Conclusions What can you conclude from your results
about the types of habitat that brine shrimp prefer?
Extension
6. Formulating Hypotheses Now that you have observed brine shrimp,
©Ted Kinsman/Photo Researchers, Inc.
write a hypothesis about how brine shrimp select a habitat that could be
explored with another experiment, other than the one you performed in
this lab. Formulate a prediction based on your hypothesis.

How
Chapter 5
Section 1
Energy Flow in Ecosystems
Ecosystems
Section 2
The Cycling of Matter
Section 3
How Ecosystems Change
Why It Matters
Work
This frog gets the energy it
needs to survive by eating other
organisms, such as damselflies.
Frogs and damselflies are both
consumers in an aquatic food
chain.
How does energy continue
to be transferred in this food
chain?
CASESTUDY
Learn how pollutants, like the
pesticide DDT, are transferred
through a food chain in the case
study DDT in an Aquatic Food
Chain on page 120.
©A. Cosmos Blank/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Online
HMDScience.com

116
Section 1
Energy Flow in Objectives
Ecosystems
Describe how energy is
transferred from the sun
to producers and then to
consumers.
Organisms need energy to survive, grow, and reproduce. Different organisms Describe one way in which
get energy from different sources, but the ultimate source of energy for almost all consumers depend on producers.
organisms on Earth is the sun.
Identify two types of consumers.
Life Depends on the Sun Explain how energy transfer in a

food web is more complex than
Energy from the sun enters an ecosystem when organisms use sunlight energy transfer in a food chain.
to make sugar in a process called photosynthesis. During photosynthesis,
plants, algae, and some bacteria capture light energy from the sun and Explain why an energy pyramid
use it to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugar and oxygen, as is a representation of trophic
shown in Figure 1.1. The result of photosynthesis is the production of levels.
sugar molecules known as carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are energy-
rich molecules that organisms use to move, grow, and reproduce. As
organisms consume other plants or animals, energy is transfered from Key Terms
one organism to another. photosynthesis
Plants, such as sunflowers, produce carbohydrates in their leaves. producer
When an animal eats a plant, or the fruit or seeds of a plant, some energy consumer
is transferred from the plant to the animal. When animals are consumed decomposer
by other organisms, energy is again transferred. cellular respiration
food chain
Figure 1.1 food web
trophic level
Photosynthesis During photosynthesis, plants use light energy from the sun to make
carbohydrates. The chloroplasts in the leaves and stems of these sunflowers contain a green
chemical called chlorophyll. Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy needed for photosynthesis.
solar
energy
Chapter 5: How Ecosystems Work 117

Figure 1.2
Transfer of Energy Almost all organisms

depend on the sun for energy. Plants like the
clover shown above get energy from the sun.
Animals such as the rabbit and coyote get their
energy by eating other organisms.
(cl) ©BIOS; (tl) ©Comstock/Getty Images; (tr) ©Comstock/Getty Images; (c) ©William Leaman/Alamy Images; (bc) ©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (bl) ©Ron & Valerie Taylor/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot
From Producers to Consumers
When a rabbit eats a clover plant, the rabbit gets energy from the carbo-
hydrates produced in the plant through photosynthesis. If a coyote eats
the rabbit, some of the energy is transferred from the rabbit to the coyote.
As shown in Figure 1.2, the clover, rabbit, and coyote ultimately get their
energy from the sun. The clover is a producer, an organism that makes
its own food. Producers are also called autotrophs, or self-feeders. The
rabbit and the coyote are consumers, organisms that get their energy by
eating other organisms. Consumers are also called heterotrophs, or other-
Check for Understanding feeders. Producers, such as plants, most algae, and some bacteria, absorb
elate How do producers and
R light energy directly from the sun. Consumers get energy indirectly from
consumers get energy from the sun? the sun by eating producers or other consumers.
Figure 1.3 An Exception: Deep-Ocean Ecosystems

In the depths of the ocean where there is no sunlight, you
Deep-Ocean Ecosystem These tube worms depend on
might not expect to find much life. But scientists have found
bacteria that live inside them to survive. The bacteria (right)
large communities of worms, clams, crabs, mussels, and
use energy from hydrogen sulfide to make their own food.
barnacles living near thermal vents in the ocean floor. These
deep-ocean communities exist in total darkness, where
photosynthesis cannot occur. So where do these organisms
get their energy? One source of energy comes from
organic matter that drifts down from above as organisms
die. Another source comes from bacteria, such as those
pictured in Figure 1.3, that live in some of these organisms.
These bacteria use hydrogen sulfide to make their own
food. Hydrogen sulfide is present in the hot water that
escapes from the thermal vents. These sulfur-metabolizing
bacteria produce carbohydrates using energy obtained
from the chemical hydrogen sulfide in a process called
chemosynthesis. The bacteria are eaten by other underwater
organisms and thus support a thriving ecosystem.
118 Unit 2: Ecology

What Eats What Connect to MATH
Organisms can be classified by the source of their energy, as shown in A Meal Fit for a Grizzly Bear
Figure 1.4. Consumers that eat only plants are called herbivores. Rabbits Grizzly bears are omnivores that can
are herbivores as are cows, sheep, deer, grasshoppers, and many other eat up to 15 percent of their body
animals. Consumers, such as lions and hawks, that eat only other ani- weight per day when eating salmon
mals are called carnivores. You already know that humans are consum- and up to 33 percent of their body
ers, but what kind of consumers are we? Because humans can eat both weight when eating fruits and other
plants and animals, we are called omnivores. Bears, pigs, and cock- vegetation. How many pounds of
roaches are other examples of omnivores. salmon can a 200 lb grizzly bear eat
Consumers that get their food by breaking down organic matter in one day? How many pounds of
from dead organisms are called decomposers. Some bacteria and fungi fruits and other vegetation can the
are decomposers. The decomposers allow the nutrients in the rotting same bear eat in one day?
material to return to the soil, water, and air.
figure 1.4
What Eats What in an Ecosystem
Energy source Examples
Producer makes its own food using light energy grasses, ferns, cactuses, flowering plants, trees, algae, and
(photosynthesis) or chemical sources some bacteria
(chemosynthesis)
Consumer gets energy by eating producers or other consumers mice, starfish, elephants, turtles, humans, and ants
Types of Consumers in an Ecosystem

Energy source Examples
Herbivore producers cows, sheep, deer, and grasshoppers
Carnivore other consumers lions, hawks, snakes, spiders, sharks, and whales
Omnivore both producers and consumers bears, pigs, gorillas, rats, raccoons, cockroaches, some
insects, and humans
Decomposer breaks down organic matter from dead organisms fungi and bacteria
Consumers Bears, such

as this grizzly bear, are
omnivores. Grizzly bears eat
other consumers, such as
salmon, but they also eat
©Roberta Olenick/All Canada Photos/Alamy Images
various plants.
119
Cellular Respiration: Burning the Fuel
So far, you have learned how organisms get energy. But how do they use
HMDScience.com the energy they get? To understand the process, use yourself as an example.
Photosynthesis and Cellular Suppose you have just eaten a large meal. The food you ate contains a lot
Respiration of energy. Your body gets the energy out of the food by using the oxygen
you breathe to break down the food. By breaking down the food, your
body obtains the energy stored in the food.
The process of breaking down carbohydrates to yield energy is called
cellular respiration, which occurs inside the cells of organisms. This
process is different from breathing, another form of respiration. During
cellular respiration, cells absorb oxygen and use it to release energy from
food. As you can see in Figure 1.5, the chemical equation for cellular respi-
ration is essentially the reverse of the equation for photosynthesis. During
cellular respiration, sugar molecules are broken down in the presence of
oxygen, yielding energy. Water and carbon dioxide are waste products.
Figure 1.5
Cellular Respiration Through cellular

respiration, cells use sugar and oxygen to
produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy.
CASESTUDY
DDT in an Aquatic
Food Chain
In the 1950s and 1960s, something strange was happening in the
estuaries near Long Island Sound, near New York and Connecticut.
Birds of prey, such as ospreys and eagles, that fed on fish in the
estuaries had high concentrations of the pesticide DDT in their
bodies. But when the water in the estuaries was tested, it had low
concentrations of DDT.
What accounted for the high levels of DDT in the birds? Poisons
that dissolve in fat, such as DDT, can become more concentrated
as they move up a food chain in a process called biological
magnification. When the pesticide enters the water, algae and
bacteria take in the poison. When fish eat the algae and bacteria, the
poison dissolves into the fat of the fish rather than diffusing back into
©Harry Engels/Photo Researchers, Inc.
the water. Most of the poison remains in an animal’s body once it is

eaten. Each time a bird feeds on a fish, the bird accumulates more
DDT in its fatty tissues. In some estuaries on Long Island Sound, DDT
concentrations in fatty tissues of organisms were magnified almost 10
million times from the bottom to the top of the food chain. A high concentration of DDT decreases the
thickness and the strength of eggshells of many
Large concentrations of DDT may kill an organism, weaken its
birds of prey.
immune system, cause deformities, or impair its ability to reproduce.
120 Unit 2: Ecology

You use a part of the energy you obtain through cellular respiration Connect to CHEMISTRY
to carry out your daily activities. Every time you walk, breathe, sleep,
think, or play a sport, you use energy. The energy you obtain is also used
Chemical Equations
A chemical equation is a shorthand
to make more body tissues and to fight diseases so that you grow and stay
description of a chemical reaction
healthy. Excess energy you obtain is stored as fat or sugar. All living things
using chemical formulas and symbols.
use cellular respiration to get the energy they need from food molecules.
The starting materials in a reaction are
Even organisms that make their own food through photosynthesis use
called reactants, and the substances
cellular respiration to obtain energy from the carbohydrates they pro- formed from a reaction are called
duce. products. The number of atoms
of each element in the reactants
Energy Transfer equals the number of atoms of those

elements in the products to make a
Each time one organism eats another organism, a transfer of energy balanced equation.
occurs. In order to understand and manage ecosystems, environmental
scientists must be able to trace the flow of energy through ecosystems.
They also need to know how much energy flows to different parts of the
ecosystem. By knowing how energy flows within an ecosystem and how
much energy different species use, scientists can find out how organisms
depend on one another to survive.
Poisons such as DDT have the

greatest effect on organisms
at the top of food chains. For
example, the osprey shown
here would have a greater
concentration of DDT in its body
than the perch it’s about to eat.
Critical Thinking
DDT can also weaken the shells of bird eggs. When eggs in large quantities to eliminate mosquitoes that carry the
break too soon, bird embryos die. Therefore, the effects disease malaria.
of these chemicals cause a huge drop in the population of
Critical Thinking
©Fritz Polking/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot
carnivorous bird species.

The U.S. government recognized DDT as an
1. Analyzing Processes DDT does not dissolve
environmental contaminant and in 1972 banned its
readily in water. If it did, how would the
sale except in emergencies. The aquatic food chains accumulation of the pesticide in organisms be
immediately started to recover, and the populations of affected?
ospreys and eagles started to grow.
2. Evaluate Even though DDT is harmful to
Food chains are still not free of DDT. DDT is still legal in
the environment, why is it still used in some
some countries where, for example, it is sometimes used countries?

Figure 1.6 Food Chains and Food Webs
A food chain is the path in which energy is transferred from one organism
Food Chain Energy is transferred
to the next as each organism eats another organism. Figure 1.6 shows a
from one organism to another in a food
chain. Algae are the producers in this
typical food chain in an ocean ecosystem. Algae are eaten by krill, which
ocean food chain. are eaten by fish, such as the Antarctic toothfish. These fish, in turn, are
eaten by leopard seals, which are eaten by killer whales.
In natural ecosystems, energy does not flow in simple chains. Most
organisms eat more than one kind of food, and many species are eaten
by more than one predator. A food web, such as the one shown in Figure
1.7, is a better depiction of energy flow in ecosystems. A food web includes
more organisms and shows the feeding relationships between organisms
that are possible in an ecosystem.
Killer whale
Trophic Levels
Each step through which energy is transferred in a food chain is known
as a trophic level. In Figure 1.6, the algae are in the bottom trophic level
Leopard seal
(trophic level 1), the krill are in the next level (trophic level 2), and so on.
Each time energy is transferred from one organism to another, less energy
is available to organisms at the next trophic level. Some of the energy is
lost as heat. Organisms use much of the remaining energy to carry out life
Antarctic toothfish functions, such as cellular respiration and moving.
Figure 1.7
Krill
Food Web This food web shows how the largest organisms depend on the smallest
organisms in an ocean ecosystem.
Killer whale
Crabeater
seal
Algae Elephant
seal
Leopard
seal Antarctic
toothfish
Adélie Squid
penguin
Krill
Small animals
Algae and one-celled
organisms
122 Unit 2: Ecology

Because organisms require energy for all of their Figure 1.8
life functions, only about 10 percent of the energy from
one trophic level is stored in the bodies of organisms at Energy Pyramid This energy pyramid shows how energy is
the next level. This 10 percent that is stored is all that lost from one trophic level to the next. The grass at the bottom level
stores 1,000 times more energy than the hawk at the top level.
is available to the next trophic level when one
organism consumes another organism. Tertiary
consumers
Energy Pyramids
One way to visualize the loss of energy from one Secondary
trophic level to the next is to draw an energy pyra- consumers
mid like the one shown in Figure 1.8. Each level in
Primary
the energy pyramid represents one trophic level. consumers
Producers form the base of the pyramid, the low-
est trophic level, which contains the most energy.
Energy lost
Herbivores make up the second level. Carnivores
that feed on herbivores form the next level, and Producers
carnivores that feed on other carnivores make up
the top level. The higher the trophic level, the less
stored energy there is to be passed on.
How Energy Loss Affects an Ecosystem

The decreased amount of energy at each trophic level affects the organiza-
tion of an ecosystem. First, because so much energy is lost at each level, HMDScience.com
there are fewer organisms at the higher trophic levels. For example, zebras
and other herbivores vastly outnumber lions and other predators on the Ecosystems and Energy
Pyramids
African savanna. In this example, there simply are not enough herbivores
EV_CNLESE904016_669a
to support more carnivores.
Second, the loss of energy between trophic levels limits the number of
trophic levels in an ecosystem. Ecosystems rarely have more than four or
five trophic levels because the ecosystem does not have enough energy left
to support higher levels. For example, a lion typically needs up to 250 km2
of land to hunt for food. Killer whales may have to move across hundreds
or thousands of kilometers during their foraging. The organisms that feed
on organisms at the top trophic level are usually small, such as parasitic
worms and fleas that require a very small amount of energy.

1. Describe how energy is transferred from one 5. Interpreting Graphics Explain the feeding
organism to another. relationships of the crabeater seal in Figure 1.7.
2. Describe the role of producers in an ecosystem. 6. Inferring Relationships Could more people
be supported by 20 acres of land if they ate
3. Explain the difference between an herbivore
only plants instead of both plants and animals?
and an omnivore.
4. Compare energy transfer in a food chain to
energy transfer in a food web.

Section 2
Objectives
Describe the short-term and

The Cycling of Matter
long-term process of the
carbon cycle. Everything is made of matter. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.
Organisms need both energy and matter to live, grow, and reproduce. Energy and
Identify one way that humans matter are constantly moving through ecosystems. The law of conservation of
are affecting the carbon cycle. energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy changes forms.
For example, producers change light energy to chemical energy in sugars. The
List the three stages of the law of conservation of matter states that matter cannot be created or destroyed.
nitrogen cycle. Instead, matter moves through the environment in different forms. Ecosystems
do not have clear boundaries, so some energy and matter can leave them. In this
Describe the role that nitrogen- section, you will read about three cycles by which matter and energy are reused—
fixing bacteria play in the the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, and the phosphorus cycle.
nitrogen cycle.
Explain how the excess use of The Carbon Cycle

fertilizer can affect the nitrogen Carbon is an essential component of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates,
and phosphorus cycles. which make up all organisms. The carbon cycle is a process by which
carbon is cycled between the atmosphere, land, water, and organisms.
As shown in Figure 2.1, carbon enters a short-term cycle in an ecosystem
Key Terms
when producers, such as plants, convert carbon dioxide in the atmo-
carbon cycle
sphere into carbohydrates during photosynthesis. When consumers eat
nitrogen-fixing bacteria producers, the consumers obtain carbon from the carbohydrates. As
nitrogen cycle the consumers break down food during c ellular respiration, some of the
phosphorus cycle carbon is released back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Producers
also release carbon dioxide during cellular respiration.
Some carbon enters a long-term cycle. For example, carbon may be
converted into carbonates, which make up the hard parts of bones and
shells. Bones and shells do not break down easily. So, over millions of
years, carbonate deposits have produced huge formations of limestone
rocks. Limestone is one of the largest carbon sinks, or carbon reservoirs,
on Earth.
Figure 2.1
The Carbon Cycle

Atmospheric carbon
dioxide, CO2
RESPIRATION
COMBUSTION
RESPIRATION PHOTOSYNTHESIS
EROSION
Natural
gas DECOMPOSITION
CO2 dissolved in water Plant and animal Coal
Oil remains
Limestone Marine plankton
remains Natural gas
Oil
124 Unit 2: Ecology

QUICKLAB
Some carbohydrates in organisms are converted into fats, oils, and QUICKLAB
other molecules that store energy. The carbon in these molecules may be
released into the soil or air after an organism dies. These molecules can Make Every Breath Count
Procedure
form deposits of coal, oil, and natural gas underground. The deposits are
1. Pour 100 mL of water from a
known as fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are made up of carbon compounds from
graduated cylinder into a 250
the bodies of organisms that died millions of years ago.
mL beaker. Add several drops of
bromthymol blue to the beaker of
How Humans Affect the Carbon Cycle water. Make sure you add enough
to make the solution a dark blue
When we burn fossil fuels, carbon is released into the atmosphere as
color.
carbon dioxide. Cars, factories, and power plants rely on fossil fuels to
2. Exhale through a straw into the
operate. In the year 2009, vehicles, such as the truck in Figure 2.2, were the
solution until the solution turns
source of just over one-third of all carbon dioxide emitted in the United
yellow. (CAUTION: Be sure not to
States. Each year, about 8.4 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide are re-
inhale or ingest the solution.)
leased into the atmosphere by the burning, or combustion, of fossil fuels 3. Pour the yellow solution into a
and the natural burning of wood in forest fires. About half of this carbon large test tube that contains a
dioxide remains in the atmosphere. As a result, the amount of carbon sprig of Elodea.
dioxide in the atmosphere has steadily increased. 4. Stopper the test tube, and place it
Increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are the main a sunny location.
jor contributor to climate change. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. 5. Observe the solution in the test
Greenhouse gases, including water vapor and other gases, absorb and re- tube after 15 minutes.
radiate infrared energy, warming Earth. Plants absorb some of the carbon Analysis
dioxide, but scientists estimate that, each year, over a billion metric tons 1. What do you think happened to the
of carbon dioxide dissolves into the ocean, a carbon sink. The increase in carbon dioxide that you exhaled
carbon dioxide can lower the pH, which can impact marine organisms. into the solution?
2. What effect do plants, such
as the Elodea, have on the
Figure 2.2
carbon cycle?
Carbon Emissions This truck releases carbon into the atmosphere when it burns fuel
to operate.
critical thinking
Relate Explain how the carbon emission from this truck enters and exits producers,
such as the trees shown in this photo.
©Ted Spiegel/Corbis
Chapter 5 125
Figure 2.3
The Nitrogen Cycle
The Nitrogen Cycle

All organisms need nitrogen to build proteins, which are used to build
new cells. Nitrogen makes up 78 percent of the gases in the atmosphere.
Figure 2.4 However, most organisms cannot use atmospheric nitrogen. It must
be altered, or fixed, before organisms can use it. Only a few species of
Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria The
bacteria, called nitrogen-fixing bacteria, can fix atmospheric nitrogen
swellings on the roots of this soybean
into a useful form called ammonia. All other organisms depend upon
plant are called nodules. Nitrogen-fixing
these bacteria to supply nitrogen. As shown in Figure 2.3, nitrogen-fixing
bacteria, shown magnified at the top right,
live inside the nodules of some plants.
bacteria are a crucial part of the nitrogen cycle, a process in which ni-
trogen is cycled between the atmosphere, soil, and organisms. Some
nitrogen enters the soil through fixation by lightning. Energy in lightning
breaks apart nitrogen molecules in the air, which recombine with oxygen
molecules to form nitrogen oxide. Rainwater combines with nitrogen
oxide to form nitrates that enter the soil.
(inset) ©Garry DeLong/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (bl) ©G.R. Roberts Photo Library
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, shown in Figure 2.4, live in nodules on the
roots of plants called legumes. Legumes include beans, peas, and clover.
The bacteria use sugars provided by the legumes to produce nitrogen-
containing compounds such as nitrates. The excess nitrogen fixed by the
bacteria is released into the soil. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in
the soil. Plants that do not have nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their roots
get nitrogen from the soil. Animals get nitrogen by eating plants or other
animals, both of which are sources of usable nitrogen.
Decomposers and the Nitrogen Cycle

In the nitrogen cycle, nitrogen moves between the atmosphere and
living things. Some of the nitrogen that cycles from the atmosphere to
living things is released to the soil with the help of bacteria. These de-
composers are essential to the nitrogen cycle because they break down
126 Unit 2: Ecology

wastes, such as urine, dung, leaves, and decaying plants and animals
and return the nitrogen from these wastes to the soil. If decomposers did ECOFACT
not exist, much of the nitrogen in ecosystems would be stored forever in Minerals in Your Mouth
wastes, corpses, and other parts of organisms. After decomposers return Phosphorus is the 11th most
the nitrogen to the soil, bacteria transform a small amount of the nitro- abundant element in the Earth’s crust
gen into nitrogen gas, which then returns to the atmosphere. So, most and occurs naturally as phosphate
of the nitrogen that enters an ecosystem stays within the ecosystem. It in the mineral apatite. Apatite can
cycles between organisms and the soil, and is constantly reused. exist in igneous, metamorphic, and
sedimentary rocks as well as in your
teeth and bones.
The Phosphorus Cycle
The element phosphorus is part of many molecules that make up the
cells of living organisms. For example, phosphorus is needed to form
bones and teeth in animals. Plants get the phosphorus they need from
soil and water, while animals get their phosphorus by eating plants
or other animals that have eaten plants. The phosphorus cycle is the
movement of phosphorus from the environment to organisms and then
back to the environment. This cycle does not include the atmosphere
because phosphorus rarely occurs as a gas.
Phosphorus enters soil and water in many ways, as shown in Figure
2.5. When rocks erode by weathering, some phosphorus dissolves as
phosphate in soil, water, and groundwater. Plants absorb phosphates
in the soil through their roots. Phosphorus also leaches into soil and
water when phosphate is excreted in waste from organisms and when
organisms die and decompose. Some phosphorus also washes off the
land and ends up in bodies of water. Many phosphates are not soluble
in water, so they sink to the bottom of water bodies, and accumulate as
sediment. Over many thousands of years, the sediments become rock.
Figure 2.5
The Phosphorus Cycle Weathering of

phosphate from
Rain rocks
Fertilizer
containing
phosphate
Runoff
Phosphate
in water Decomposition of
Leaching plants and animals
Rocks
Phosphate
in soil

Figure 2.6
Fertilizers and Algal Blooms More than 30 percent of fertilizer may flow with runoff
from farmland into nearby waterways. Large amounts of fertilizer in water can cause an
excessive growth of algae (right).
Fertilizers and the Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycles

People often apply fertilizers to stimulate and maximize plant growth.
Fertilizers contain both nitrogen and phosphorus. If excessive amounts
of fertilizer are used, the fertilizer can enter terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems through runoff. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus in an
(l) ©Nigel Cattlin/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (r) ©G.R. Roberts Photo Library
aquatic ecosystem or nearby waterway can cause rapid and overabundant
growth of algae, which results in an algal bloom. An algal bloom, as
shown in Figure 2.6, is a dense, visible patch of algae that occurs near
the surface of water. Algal blooms, along with other plants and the
bacteria that break down dead algae, can deplete an aquatic ecosystem
of important nutrients such as oxygen. Fish and other aquatic organisms
need oxygen to survive.
Humans add so much nitrogen to the environment, that we have
Check for Understanding doubled the amount of fixed nitrogen entering ecosystems on land. This
Recognize How do algal blooms harm can lead to long-term problems in soil fertility because other nutrients
aquatic ecosystems? are lost. Plants that are adapted to low nitrogen levels no longer thrive.

1. Describe the two processes of the carbon 5. Making Comparisons Write a short
cycle. paragraph that describes the importance
of bacteria in the carbon, nitrogen, and
2. Describe how the burning of fossil fuels affects
phosphorus cycles. What role do bacteria
the carbon cycle.
play in each cycle?
3. Explain how the excessive use of fertilizer
6. Applying Ideas What is one way that a person
affects the nitrogen cycle and the phosphorus
can help to reduce the level of carbon dioxide
cycle.
in the atmosphere? Can you think of more than
4. Explain why the phosphorus cycle occurs one way?
more slowly than both the carbon cycle and
the nitrogen cycle.
128 Unit 2: Ecology

Section 3
How Ecosystems Objectives
Change
List two types of ecological
succession.
Explain how a pioneer species

contributes to ecological
Ecosystems are constantly changing. A forest hundreds of years old may have succession.
been a shallow lake a thousand years ago. A dead tree falls and lets sunlight reach
the forest floor. The sunlight allows dormant or new seeds to germinate, and soon
Describe how lichens
wildflowers and shrubs cover the forest floor. Mosses, shrubs, and small trees contribute to primary
cover the concrete of a demolished city building. These are all examples of an succession.
environmental change called ecological succession.
Explain what happens during
old-field succession.
Ecological Succession
Ecological succession is a gradual process of change and replacement of Key Terms
some or all of the species in a community. Ecological succession may take ecological succession
hundreds or thousands of years. Each new community that arises makes primary succession
it harder for the previous community to survive. If given enough time, secondary succession
communities may stop changing for long periods of time. Small changes
pioneer species
will continue to happen, but eventually a community can become stable.
climax community
American beech trees, shown in Figure 3.1, are a species found in a stable
community.
Succession can occur in areas that previously did not support
life, such as on rocks or sand dunes. This type of succession is called
primary succession. A more common type of succession, called
secondary succession, occurs in areas where an ecosystem has previously
existed. For example, ecosystems that have been disturbed or disrupted Check for Understanding
by humans or animals, or by natural processes such as storms, floods, Compare How is secondary succession
and earthquakes can regrow through secondary succession. different from primary succession?
Figure 3.1
Ecological Succession American beech trees are a stable community species,

establishing themselves in a given region.
©Hans Reinhard/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot
Chapter 5 129
Figure 3.2 Primary Succession
Primary succession can occur on new islands created by volcanic
Pioneer Species Over a long period of time,
eruptions, in areas exposed when a glacier retreats, or on any
lichens can break down rock into soil.
other surface that has not previously supported life. Primary
succession is much slower than secondary succession because
primary succession begins where there is no soil. It can take
several hundred to several thousand years to produce fertile soil
naturally. Imagine that a glacier melts and exposes an area of bare
rock. The first species to colonize the bare rock will most likely
be bacteria and lichens, which can live without soil. A species
that colonizes an uninhabited area and begins the process of
ecological succession is called a pioneer species. Lichens, shown
in Figure 3.2, are important pioneer species in primary succession.
They are the colorful, flaky patches that you see on trees and
rocks. A lichen is a producer that is actually composed of two
different species, a fungus and green algae or cyanobacteria. The
algae or the cyanobacteria photosynthesize, while the fungus
absorbs nutrients from rocks and holds water. Together, they
begin to break down the rock.
CASESTUDY
Communities
Maintained by Fire
Fires set by lightning or human activities occasionally
sweep through large areas. Burned areas undergo Fireweed is one type of plant that colonizes
secondary succession. In the forests of the Rocky Moun land after the land has been burned by fire.
tains, for example, burned areas are rapidly colonized by
fireweed, which clothes the slopes with purple flowers.
(b) ©Radius Images/Alamy Images; (t) ©Imagebroker/Alamy Images

In some places, fire determines the nature of the climax Longleaf pines have a strange growth pattern. When
community. In the United States, ecological communities they are young, they have long needles that reach down
that are maintained by fire include the chaparral of to the ground. The trees remain only about a half of a
California, the temperate grassland of the Midwest, and meter high for many years, while they store nutrients. If a
many southern and western pine forests. fire occurs, it sweeps through the tops of the tall trees that
Plants native to these communities are adapted to living survived the last fire. The young longleaf pines near the
with fire. A wildfire that is not unusually hot may not harm ground may escape the fire. Then, the young pines use
fire-adapted pine trees, but it can kill deciduous trees— their stored food to grow very rapidly. A young pine can
those trees that lose their leaves in winter. Seeds of some grow as much as 2 m each year. Soon the young pines are
species will not germinate until exposed to temperatures tall enough so that a fire near the ground would not harm
of several hundred degrees. When a fire sweeps through a them.
forest, the fire kills plants on the ground and stimulates the If regular fires are prevented in a fire-adapted
seeds to germinate. community, deciduous trees may invade the area. These
130 Unit 2: Ecology

As the growth of the lichen breaks down the rock, water Figure 3.3
may freeze and thaw in cracks, which further breaks up the
rock. Soil slowly accumulates as dust particles in the air are Primary Succession in Urban Areas Plants
trapped in cracks in the rock. that grow through cracks in city sidewalks can also be
described as pioneers of primary succession.
Dead remains of lichens and bacteria add to the soil in the
cracks. Mosses may increase in number and break up the rock
even more. When the mosses die, they decay and add nutri-
ents to the growing pile of soil. Thus, fertile soil forms from
the broken rock, decayed organisms, water, and air. Primary
succession can also be seen in any city street, as shown in
Figure 3.3. Mosses, lichens, and weeds can establish them-
selves in cracks in a sidewalk or building. As well, fungi and
mosses can invade a roof that needs repair. Even a big city,
such as New York City, would eventually turn into a cement-
filled woodland if it were not constantly maintained.
(t) ©Norman Owen Tomalin/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot; (br) ©B.G. Wilson Fire/Alamy Images; (bl) ©Ken M. Johns/Photo Researchers, Inc.
These young lodgepole pine trees

have started growing after a
devastating forest fire.
trees form a thick barrier near the ground. In addition,

their dead leaves and branches pile up on the ground and
form extra fuel for fires. When a fire does occur, it is hotter This firefighter is helping to maintain a
and more severe than usual. The fire destroys not only the
Critical Thinking
controlled fire in South Dakota.
deciduous trees but also the pines. It may end up as a
devastating wildfire.
Although it may seem odd, frequent burning is essential Critical Thinking
to preserve many plant communities and the animals that
1. Understanding Processes Explain how
depend on them. This is the reason the U.S. National Park
a longleaf pine tree might be more likely to
Service adopted the policy of letting fires in national parks
survive a forest fire than a deciduous tree,
burn if they do not endanger human life or property.
such as a maple or oak tree.
This policy caused a public outcry when fires burned
2. Understanding Concepts Why must
Yellowstone National Park in 1988, because people did not
controlled fires be set in some ecosystems?
understand the ecology of fire-adapted communities. The
What are the advantages? What are the
fires later became an opportunity for visitors to learn about
disadvantages?
the changes in an ecosystem after a fire.

Figure 3.4
Secondary Succession This illustration shows

what an abandoned farm area might look like during
old-field succession, a type of secondary succession.
critical thinking
Infer Why do you think smaller plants disappear
after pine trees begin to grow?
Secondary Succession
When a community is partially or completely destroyed by a natural or a
human-caused disaster, another community eventually takes its place.
For example, when fire destroys a forest, new communities begin to grow
in place of the old ones. Pioneer species colonize the area first and, over
time, more stable species become established. A climax community is a
final and stable community. Even though a climax community continues
to change in small ways, this type of community may remain the same
through time if it is not disturbed.
Old-field Succession
When farmland is abandoned, a type of secondary succession called
old-field succession occurs. When a field is no longer cultivated, pioneer
species such as grasses and weeds quickly grow and cover the abandoned
land. The grasses and weeds produce many seeds to cover large areas.
Over time, taller plants grow in the area and shade the ground, keeping
FieldStudy light from the shorter plants. The long roots of the taller plants also ab-
Go to Appendix B to find the field study sorb most of the water in the soil. The pioneer plants soon die from lack
Investigating Succession. of sunlight and water. As succession continues, growing trees deprive the
taller plants of light and water. Finally, slower-growing trees, such as oaks,
hickories, beeches, and maples, take over the area and block sunlight to
the smaller trees. As shown in Figure 3.4, the area can eventually establish
a climax community dominated by a mature oak forest. The field in Figure
3.5 was once used as farm land, but has since been abandoned.
132 Unit 2: Ecology

Figure 3.5
Old-Field Succession This field was once plowed, but has since been abandoned for one or more growing
seasons. It is slowly becoming forested land.
Fire and Secondary Succession

Fires caused by lightning are a natural cause of secondary succession in
some communities, as discussed in the Case Study. Some species of trees,
such as the Jack pine, can release their seeds only after they have been
exposed to the intense heat of a fire. Minor forest fires remove accumula-
tions of brush and deadwood that would otherwise contribute to major HMDScience.com
©Stephen Collins/Photo Researchers, Inc.
fires that burn out of control. Fire is important in helping forests return Protecting Natural
nutrients to the soil. Secondary succession uses these nutrients to grow. Resources
After a fire, heavy growth of small plants near the ground often occurs
and new trees flourish. Some animal species also depend on occasional
fires because they feed on the vegetation that sprouts after a fire has Check for Understanding
cleared the land. Therefore, foresters sometimes allow natural fires to Identify List two ways that fire can be
burn unless the fires are a threat to human life or property. beneficial to a forest community.

1. Compare primary and secondary succession. 5. Analyzing Processes Over a period of 1,000
years, a lake becomes a maple forest. Is this
2. Describe what role a pioneer species plays
process primary or secondary succession?
during the process of ecological succession.
3. Explain why putting out forest fires may be
6. Analyzing Relationships How are lichens
damaging in the long run.
similar to the pioneer species that colonize
4. Describe the role lichens play in primary abandoned farm areas? How are they different?
succession. Write a short paragraph to explain
your answer.

Maps in Action
Tracking Bats and Insects in Texas

These images of bat and insect concentration in Central Texas were created using Doppler radar on the evening of May 19,
2002. Doppler radar can track the movement of objects in the air by bouncing electromagnetic energy off of them.
Map Skills
Doppler radar can track the movment of objects in the air by bouncing electromagnetic energy off of them. Use these Doppler
radar images from May 19, 2002 of bats and insects in Central Texas to answer the questions below.
1. Analyzing Data At what time was the bat and insect 4. Inferring Relationships Bracken Cave is home to
concentration the lowest? At what time was the bat 20 million bats that eat millions of pounds of insects
and insect concentration the highest? nightly. Approximately how far is Bracken Cave from
the city of San Antonio? If the bat population in the
2. Interpreting Graphics Use the concentration key to
cave drastically decreased, what effect would this
determine which area of Central Texas has the highest
decrease have on the people living in San Antonio?
concentration of bats and insects at 8:14 p.m.
5. Predicting Patterns These Doppler radar images
3. Analyzing Data Approximately how many kilometers
of bats and insects were taken in the beginning of the
wide is the concentration of bats and insects at
summer season. How might these four images look in
7:27 p.m.? at 8:14 p.m.?
the month of December?
134 Unit 2: Ecology

at HMDScience.com
Changing Seas
Most of the food we eat comes from agriculture and farming,
but we also rely on the fishing industry. About 15% of the
animal protein consumed in the world comes from fish and
other marine and aquatic organisms. But many fish species
have been overharvested. The swordfish and cod fisheries of
the North Atlantic and the salmon fishery off the northwestern
coast of the United States are examples of depleted fisheries.
In many parts of the world, sharks are disappearing rapidly
because of the demand for shark fin soup. Some fisheries now
contain so few fish that harvesting them is not economical.
And the size of some of the harvested fish that remain are
now smaller because they don’t survive long enough to grow. Despite the challenges of catching large fish, the demand
outweighs the cost.
Fishing Down the Food Chain
$700,000! At prices that high, it is economical to keep fishing
Fish such as sharks, tuna, and cod are top carnivores in
even after populations are scarce.
ocean food chains and food webs. As populations of these fish
Scientists are working to determine what species are most
have declined, species from lower trophic levels that were
at risk of overfishing and what will happen to ecosystems if
once swept back into the sea have become more common
overfishing continues. If the food webs of ocean ecosystems
in fish markets. Organisms from lower trophic levels such as
are altered too much, the commercial fishing industry will be
mullet, squid, and herring, which often are used as bait, now
in trouble so it makes economic sense for fishers to protect
appear on restaurant menus. Also, the high prices for large
the oceans.
fish have encouraged fisheries to catch these predators. In
2012, one bluefin tuna weighing almost 273 kg sold for over
Creating Sustainable Fisheries
Overfishing from higher trophic levels means One aim of environmental science is to determine how
commercial fishers must harvest from lower fisheries can be managed so that they are sustainable or
trophic levels to meet demand . capable of supplying the same number of fish to be harvested
each year. One solution is to establish “no-take” zones.
These are areas of the sea where no fishing is permitted. Fish
populations grow rapidly in these zones. When a population
grows in a “no-take
What Do You zone,” some organisms leave the zone
Think?
and become available to fishers. “No-take” zones help
populations recover and allow food chains and food webs to
(bl) ©Stephen Rose/Rainbow; (t) ©MIXA Co. Ltd./Getty Images
remain intact.
What Do You Think?

The next time you go to a fish market or seafood
restaurant, take note of the different types of
species for sale. Write down the names of the
species, and try to assign each species to a
trophic level. How many of the species for sale
belong to lower trophic levels? How many belong
to higher trophic levels? How do prices differ
between the species for sale?

Chapter 5 Summary
Section 1 Energy Flow in Ecosystems Objectives Key Terms
• Most organisms depend on the sun for energy. Produc- photosynthesis

ers harness the sun’s energy directly through photosyn- producer
thesis, while consumers use the sun’s energy indirectly consumer
by eating producers or other consumers.
decomposer
• The paths of energy transfer can be followed through cellular respiration
food chains, food webs, and trophic levels.
food chain
• Only about 10 percent of the energy that an organism food web
contains is transferred to the next trophic level when
trophic level
the organism is eaten.
Section 2 The Cycling of Matter Objectives Key Terms
• Materials in ecosystems are recycled and reused by carbon cycle

natural processes. nitrogen-fixing
• Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are essential for life. bacteria
Each of these elements follows a cycle. nitrogen cycle
(t) ©Fritz Polking/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot; (c) ©G.R. Roberts Photo Library; (b) ©Hans Reinhard/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot
• Humans can affect the cycling of materials in an phosphorus cycle
ecosystem through activities such as burning fossil
fuels and applying fertilizer to soil.
Section 3 How Ecosystems Change Objectives Key Terms
• After a disturbance, organisms in an environment follow ecological

a pattern of change over time, known as ecological succession
succession. primary
succession
• Primary succession occurs on a surface where no
ecosystem existed before. Secondary succession secondary
succession
occurs on a surface where an ecosystem existed before.
pioneer species
• Climax communities are made up of organisms that
climax
take over an ecosystem and remain until the ecosystem community
is disturbed again.
136 Unit 2: Ecology

Chapter 5 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 14. Which of the following pairs of organisms
probably belong to the same trophic level?
a. humans and bears
1. photosynthesis
b. bears and deer
2. trophic level
c. humans and cows
3. carbon cycle
d. both (a) and (c)
4. nitrogen-fixing bacteria
5. decomposers 15. The energy lost between trophic levels
a. can be captured only by parasitic organisms.
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings
of the terms differ. b. cools the surrounding environment.
6. producer and consumer c. is used in the course of normal living.
7. primary succession and secondary succession d. evaporates in the atmosphere.
8. nitrogen cycle and phosphorus cycle
16. From producer to secondary consumer, about
9. food chain and food web what percentage of energy is lost?
10. Concept Map Use the following terms to a. 10 percent
create a concept map: algae, humans, solar
b. 90 percent
energy, carnivores, consumers, producers, directly,
herbivores, indirectly, and omnivores. c. 99 percent
d. 100 percent
Reviewing Main Ideas 17. Which of the following statements about the
11. Which of the following statements is not true nitrogen cycle is not true?
of consumers? a. Animals get nitrogen by eating plants or other
a. They get energy indirectly from the sun. animals.
b. They are also called heterotrophs. b. Plants generate nitrogen in their roots.
c. They make their own food. c. Nitrogen moves back and forth between the
atmosphere and living things.
d. They sometimes eat other consumers.
d. Decomposers break down waste to yield
12. Which of the following is correctly arranged from ammonia.
the lowest trophic level to the highest trophic level?
a. bacteria, frog, eagle, raccoon 18. Which of the following are most likely to be the
pioneer organisms on an area of bare rock?
b. algae, deer, wolf, hawk
a. trees
c. grass, mouse, snake, eagle
b. shrubs
d. grass, bass, minnow, snake
c. lichens
13. Communities of bacteria have been found living d. perennial grasses
thousands of feet underwater. Which of the
following statements is a proper conclusion to 19. Excessive use of fertilizer that contains nitrogen
draw about these bacteria? and phosphorus
a. Somehow they are conducting photosynthesis. a. affects the carbon cycle.
b. They are living on borrowed time. b. may cause algal blooms in waterways.
c. They were somehow introduced by human c. causes soil erosion.
activities.
d. contributes to primary succession.
d. They use an energy source other than sunlight.

Chapter Review

20. Explain the relationship between cellular 28. Comparing Functions How are producers and
respiration and photosynthesis. decomposers opposites of each other?
21. Why is the number of trophic levels that can exist 29. Inferring Relationships Abandoned fields in
limited? the southwestern part of the United States are
22. Why are decomposers an essential part of an often taken over by mesquite trees, which can
ecosystem? grow in nutrient-poor soil. If the land is later
cleared of mesquite, the soil is often found to
23. Write a short paragraph that explains why the be enriched with nitrogen and is more suitable
phosphorus cycle occurs slower than the carbon for crops. What might be the reason for this
and nitrogen cycles. phenomenon?
24. Describe what happens to carbon dioxide in the 30. Understanding Concepts Read the description
carbon cycle. under the head “What Eats What” in this chapter,
and explain why decomposers are considered to
be consumers.
Interpreting Graphics 31. Drawing Conclusions Suppose that a
Use the diagram to answer questions 25–27. plague eliminates all the primary consumers
25. How many organisms depend on the squid as a in an ecosystem. What will most likely happen
source of food? to organisms in other trophic levels in this
ecosystem?
26. If the population of Adélie penguins decreased
drastically, what effect would this have on 32. Interpreting Data If a lake contains 600,000
elephant seals? kg of plankton and the top consumers are a
population of 40 pike, which each weigh an
27. What role do algae play in this food web? average of 15 kg, how many trophic levels does
the lake contain? Make a graph or pyramid that
illustrates the trophic levels.
Killer whale 33. Compare and Contrast Do a special project
on succession. Find areas in your community
Crabeater that have been cleared of vegetation and left
seal
Elephant unattended at different times in the past. Ideally,
seal
you should find several areas that were cleared at
different times, including recently and decades
ago. Photograph each area, and arrange the
Leopard pictures to show how succession takes place in
seal Antarctic
toothfish
your geographic region.
Adélie Squid
penguin
Krill
Small animals
Algae and one-celled
organisms
138 Unit 2: Ecology

Chapter Review
STUDYSKILL
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
Use the data in the table below to answer questions
34–35. 38. Compare energy transfer in a food chain and
a food web with the transfer of pollutants in a
food chain and a food web.
Percentage of Fertilizer
Use per Year 39. How can a change in an ecosystem impact
the biogeochemical cycles, for example the
Region of the World Percentage Whycarbon
It Matters
cycle?
North America 17
Why It Matters
Asia 48
40. How does a change
Africa 2 in a food web relate
Europe 14 to energy flow within
an ecosystem?
Latin America and the
18
Caribbean
Oceania 1
34. Making Calculations If 137.25 million metric

tons of fertilizer is used worldwide per year, how
many million metric tons does Asia use?
35. Graphing Data Make a bar graph that compares
the percentage of fertilizer use in different regions
worldwide per year. STUDYSKILL
Taking Multiple-Choice Tests When you take
multiple-choice tests, be sure to read all of the choices before
Making Connections you pick the correct answer. Be patient, and eliminate choices
36. Communicating Main Ideas Describe that are obviously incorrect.
the importance of the carbon, nitrogen, and
phosphorus cycles to humans.
37. Writing from Research Research information
on how countries regulate carbon dioxide
emissions. Write an essay that describes the
laws regulating carbon dioxide emissions and
the solutions some countries have devised to
decrease the amount of carbon dioxide emitted.
©A. Cosmos Blank/Photo Researchers, Inc.

ExplorationLab
Data Analysis
Factors that Influence
Objectives
Hypothesize how
Ecosystems
precipitation and altitude
affect the types of vegetation Ecosystems are communities of plants, animals, and other organisms
in an ecosystem. that live and interact with each other and with nonliving environmental
Graph and analyze
factors. The nonliving factors, or conditions, include temperature,
ecosystem data to confirm or precipitation, altitude, and latitude, among others. These factors play
refute your hypothesis. an important role in determining what types of vegetation can live in an
ecosystem.
Materials Latitude, for example, has a strong influence on an area’s temperature,
colored pencils resulting in climates such as polar, tropical, and temperate. These
metric ruler climates determine different natural biomes that have characteristic
species of plants. However, a careful look at a map reveals that ecosystems
existing at the same latitude often have different climates. Why? In this
laboratory activity, you will hypothesize how other nonliving factors
influence the characteristics of ecosystems within the same latitude range.
Then you will analyze and graph data from different areas of the United
States to test your hypotheses.
Procedure
1. Form two hypotheses—one that relates differences in ecosystem
vegetation to rainfall and another that relates differences in ecosystem
vegetation to altitude. Complete the following sentences to form your
two hypotheses.
a. Ecosystem distribution is related to precipitation; regions that
receive large amounts of precipitation are wet and therefore _____.
b. Ecosystem distribution is related to altitude; regions at high
elevations are cold and therefore _____.
2. Look at the data table. The table lists major U.S. cities and weather
stations between 36° and 41° north latitude. It also lists the altitude,
average annual precipitation, and ecosystem for each location.
Construct a graph with two y-axes to plot the data in the table. Plot
altitude on the left-hand y-axis and annual rainfall on the right-hand
y-axis. Plot distance on the x-axis. Use one of your colored pencils to
connect the data points for altitude. Use another color to connect the
data points for annual rainfall. You may also find it useful to label the
location names on the grid above your data points. Your completed
line graph will help you interpret any relation among rainfall, altitude,
and biome type.
140 Unit 2: Ecology

Characteristics of Locations Across the U.s.
Location Distance from Altitude above Average Biome or
San Francisco sea level (feet) rainfall ecosystem
(miles) (in/yr)
San Francisco, CA 0 250 23 redwood forest
Sacramento, CA 100 26 19 grassland
Donner Pass, CA 200 7,000 69 coniferous forest
Reno, NV 250 4,400 8 cool desert
Salt Lake City, UT 650 4,200 16 cool desert
Loveland Pass, CO 900 11,000 38 coniferous forest
Denver, CO 950 5,325 12 short grass prairie
Topeka, KS 1,450 925 34 tall grass prairie
St. Louis, MO 1,750 567 37 broadleaf forest
Cincinnati, OH 2,100 488 40 broadleaf forest
Washington, D.C. 2,500 9 39 broadleaf forest
Analysis
1. Identifying Patterns Which types of ecosystems occur in areas of
high and low precipitation?
2. Examining Data Is there a trend in the amount of precipitation from

Denver to San Francisco or from Denver to Washington, D.C.?
3. Analyzing Results How do mountain ranges affect precipitation?

Give an example that supports your answer.
Conclusions
4. Evaluating Data Which is the more important factor in determining
an area’s ecosystem, the amount of precipitation or altitude? Is there
an interaction between these two factors?
5. Defending Conclusions Does the data support or refute your

hypotheses about the effects of precipitation and altitude on an
ecosystems type?

Biomes
Chapter 6
Section 1
What Is a Biome?
Section 2
Forest Biomes
Section 3
Grassland, Desert, and
Tundra Biomes
Why It Matters
The sloth is just one of the
many organisms found in
the tropical rain forest, which
contains more plant and animal
species than any other biome.
Why might it be important to
study such a diverse biome?
CASESTUDY
Learn about the connection
between deforestation and
floods in the case study
Deforestation, Climate, and
Floods on pages 150–151.
Online
©Photo Researchers, Inc.
HMDScience.com

142
Section 1
What Is a Biome? Objectives
Describe why vegetation is

used to describe a biome.
Earth is covered by many types of ecosystems. Ecologists group these ecosystems
into larger areas known as biomes. A biome is a large region characterized by a Explain how temperature and
specific type of climate and certain types of plants and animal communities. The precipitation determine which
map in Figure 1.1 shows the locations of the world’s major land, or terrestrial, plants grow in an area.
biomes. In this chapter, you will take a tour through these terrestrial biomes—from
lush rain forests to water-starved deserts and the frozen tundra. When you read Explain how latitude and
about each biome, notice the adaptations the species that live there have to survive altitude affect which plants
in each biome’s very different environments.
grow in an area.
Biomes and Vegetation Key Terms

Biomes are described by their vegetation because the plants that grow biome
in a certain region are the most noticeable characteristics of that region. climate
The plants, in turn, determine the other organisms that can live there.
latitude
For example, mahogany trees grow in tropical rain forests because they
altitude
cannot survive cold, dry weather. Organisms that depend on mahogany
trees live where these trees grow.
Plants in a particular biome have adaptations that let them survive
there. These adaptations include size, shape, and how they manage wa-
ter. For example, plants that grow in the tundra tend to be short because
they cannot obtain enough water to grow larger. They also have a short
summer growing season. Desert plants, such as cactuses, have modi- Check for Understanding
fied leaves. These specialized structures enable cactuses to conserve and Explain How are ecosystems related to
retain water. biomes?
Figure 1.1
Biome Map The ecosystems of the world can be grouped into regions called biomes.
These biomes, shown below, are named for the vegetation that grows there.
30° N
Polar ice
Equator
Tropical rain forest
Temperate forest
Temperate rain forest
Taiga
Tropical savanna/
Seasonal forest 30° S
Temperate grassland
Chaparral
Desert
Tundra
Mountains
Chapter 6: Biomes 143

Figure 1.2 Biomes and Climate
Growing Season Soil in the Biomes are defined by their plant life, but what factors determine which
tundra is frozen most of the year. plants can grow in a certain area? The main factor is climate. Climate
Small plants such as these have refers to the weather conditions, such as temperature, precipitation,
about two months in summer to grow humidity, and winds, that occur in an area over a long period of time.
and reproduce before temperatures Temperature and precipitation are the two most important factors that
become too cold again.
determine a region’s climate.
Temperature and Precipitation

Most organisms are adapted to live within a certain range of temperatures
and will not survive at temperatures too far outside of that range. The
length of the growing season, or the period when temperatures are high
enough for plants to grow, also affects plants, as shown in Figure 1.2.
Precipitation is another factor that limits the organisms that are found
in a biome. All organisms need water. The larger an organism is, the more
water it needs. For example, biomes that do not receive enough rainfall
to support large trees support communities dominated by small trees,
shrubs, and grasses. In biomes where rainfall is not frequent, the vegeta-
tion is mostly made up of cactuses and desert shrubs. In extreme cases,
lack of rainfall results in no plants, no matter what the temperature is. As
shown in Figure 1.3, the higher the temperature and precipitation are, the
taller and denser the vegetation is. Notice how much more vegetation ex-
ists in a hot, wet tropical rain forest than in a dry desert.
Figure 1.3
Temperature and Precipitation As temperature ld

Co
and precipitation decrease, the climate of an area
becomes drier and vegetation becomes sparser.
Arctic
Tundra
re
atu Subarctic
p er
tem
g Taiga
in
e as
cr
De
Temperate
Temperate forest Temperate grassland Desert

©Chris Fragassi/Alamy Images
Tropical
t
Ho
Tropical rain forest Savanna Desert
Wet Dry
Decreasing moisture
144 Unit 2: Ecology

Figure 1.4
Latitude and Altitude As latitude and altitude increase, biomes and vegetation change.
Latitude and Altitude

Climate varies with both latitude and altitude, and so do biomes. Lati-
tude is the distance north or south of the equator and is measured in
degrees, with the equator equal to 0°. Altitude is the height of an object
above sea level. Climate gets colder as either latitude or altitude in-
crease. This explains why biomes at high altitudes are similar to those at
high latitudes.
Figure 1.4 shows that as latitude and altitude increase, biomes and
vegetation change. For example, the trees of tropical rain forests usually
grow closer to the equator at low altitudes, while the mosses and lichens
of the tundra usually grow closer to the poles. The land located in the
temperate region, between about 30° and 60° north latitudes and 30° and
60° south latitudes, includes biomes such as temperate forests and grass-
lands, which usually have the moderate temperatures and fertile soil that
are ideal for agriculture.

1. Describe how plants determine the 5. Making Inferences The equator passes
description of a biome. through the country of Ecuador. But the climate
in Ecuador can range from hot and humid
2. Explain how temperature affects which plants
to cool and dry. Write a short paragraph that
grow in an area.
explains what might cause this range in climate.
3. Explain how precipitation affects which plants
6. Analyzing Relationships Look at Figure 1.1,
grow in an area.
and locate the equator and 30° north latitude.
4. Define latitude and altitude. How is latitude Which biomes are located between these two
different from altitude? How do these factors lines?
affect the organisms that live in a biome?

Section 2
Objectives
List three characteristics of

Forest Biomes
tropical rain forests.
The air is hot and heavy with humidity. You walk through the shade of the tropical
Name and describe the main rain forest, step carefully over tangles of roots and vines, and brush past enormous
layers of a tropical rain forest. leaves. Life is all around you, but you see little vegetation on the forest floor. Birds
call, and monkeys chatter from far above.
Describe one plant in a
temperate deciduous forest and
an adaptation that helps the Tropical Rain Forests
plant survive. Of all the biomes in the world, forest biomes are the most widespread
Describe one adaptation that and are home to the greatest diversity of plants, animals, and other
may help an animal survive in organisms. Trees need a lot of water, so forests exist where precipitation
the taiga.
is plentiful. Tropical forests, temperate forests, and taiga are the main
types of forest biomes.
Name two threats to the world’s Tropical rain forests are always humid and warm and get about 200
forest biomes. to 450 cm of rain a year. They help regulate world climate and play vital
roles in the nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon cycles. The tropical climate is
Key Terms ideal for a wide variety of plants and animals, as shown in Figure 2.1. The
tropical rain forest warm, wet conditions also nourish more species of plants than does any
emergent layer other biome. While one hectare (10,000 m2) of temperate forest usually
canopy contains two dozen species of trees, the same area of tropical rain forest
epiphyte may contain more than 250 species of trees. Tropical rain forests are
understory located in a belt around Earth near the equator, as shown in Figure 2.2.
temperate rain forest Because they are near the equator, tropical rain forests receive strong
temperate deciduous forest sunlight and maintain a relatively constant temperature year-round.
(bl) ©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (c) ©SteveStone/Vetta/Getty Images; (r) ©David Kirkland/Photolibrary/Getty Images
taiga
Figure 2.1
Species Diversity Tropical rain forests contain a larger number of species than any other biome.
Tropical rain forests receive large amounts of Glasswing butterflies live in the rain forests of The Rafflessia keithii flower grows in the
precipitation all year long. Costa Rica. rain forests of Borneo.
146 Unit 2: Ecology

Figure 2.2
Tropical Rain Forest
(Limon, Costa Rica)
Tropical Rain Forest The world’s tropical rain forests have heavy rainfall during 50 40
much of the year and fairly constant, high temperatures.
45 30
40 20
35 10
Precipitation (cm)
Temperature (˚C)
30 0
25 –10
20 –20
15 –30
10 –40
5 –50
0 –60
Nutrients in Tropical Rain Forests J FMAMJ J A S O N D
Months
You might think that the diverse plant life in a tropical rain forest grows
Source: The Washington Post
on rich soil, but it does not. Most nutrients are found within the tropical
plants, and not within the soil. Organic matter decays quickly in hot, wet
conditions. Decomposers on the rain-forest floor break down organic
matter and return the nutrients to the soil, but plants quickly absorb the
nutrients. Some trees in a tropical rain forest support fungi that feed on
dead organic matter on the rain-forest floor. In this relationship, the fungi
transfer the nutrients from the dead organic matter directly to the tree.
The nutrients are removed so efficiently from the soil in a tropical
rain forest that water running out of the soil may be as clear as distilled
water. Many of the trees form above-ground roots, or lateral supports
called buttresses, that grow sideways from the trees and provide the
trees with extra support in the thin soil.
(l) ©Vladimir Melnik/Fotolia; (br) ©BIOS
Red-and-green macaws live in the Mountain gorillas live in the rain forests of Rwanda.
trees of the Amazon rain forest.

Figure 2.3
Rain Forest Layers The plants in tropical rain forests form distinct layers. The plants in each layer are adapted to a particular level of light.
The taller trees absorb the most light, while the plants near the forest floor are adapted to growing in the shade.
Emergent
layer Bright
light
Upper
canopy
Filtered
light
Lower
canopy
Understory Dense
shade
Connect to CHEMISTRY
Layers of the Rain Forest
In tropical rain forests, different types of plants grow in different
layers, as shown in Figure 2.3. The four main layers above the forest
floor are the emergent layer, the upper canopy, the lower canopy,
and the understory. The top layer is the emergent layer. It consists
of the tallest trees, which reach heights of 60 to 70 m. Trees in the
emergent layer grow above the tops of most other trees in the forest.
The next layer, considered the primary layer of the rain forest,
is called the canopy. Trees in the canopy can grow more than 30 m
tall. The tall trees form a dense layer that absorbs up to 95 percent
of the sunlight. The canopy can be split into an upper canopy and
a lower canopy. The lower canopy receives less light than does the
upper canopy. Plants called epiphytes, such as the orchid in Figure
2.4, use the entire surface of a tree as a place to live. Epiphytes grow
Connect to CHEMISTRY on trees instead of on the ground. Some grow high in the canopy,
where their leaves can reach the sunlight needed for photosynthe-
Medicines from Plants sis. Growing on tall trees also allows them to absorb the water and
Many of the medicines we use come nutrients that run down the tree after it rains. Most animals that
from plants native to tropical rain live in the rain forest live in the canopy because they depend on the
forests. Chemists extract and test abundant flowers and fruits that grow there.
chemicals found in plants to determine
if the chemicals can cure or fight Below the canopy, very little light reaches the next layer, called
diseases. Rosy periwinkle, a plant the understory. Trees, shrubs, and other plants that are adapted to
that grows in the tropical rain forests shade grow here. Most plants in the understory do not grow more
of Madagascar, is the source of two than 3.5 m tall. Herbs with large, flat leaves grow on the forest floor.
medicines, vinblastine and vincristine. These plants capture the small amount of sunlight that penetrates
Vinblastine is used to treat Hodgkin’s the understory. Most of our house plants are native to tropical rain-
disease, a type of cancer, and vincristine forest floors. Because they are adapted to low levels of light, they
is used to treat childhood leukemia. are able to grow indoors.
148 Unit 2: Ecology

Species Diversity in Rain Forests ECOFACT
The tropical rain forest is the biome with the largest number of species. A Little Land, A Lot of Species
The species diversity of rain forest vegetation has led to the evolution of Tropical rain forests cover less than
a diverse community of animals. Most rain-forest animals are specialists 7 percent of Earth’s land surface but
that use specific resources in particular ways. Some rain forest animals contain at least 50 percent of all the
have amazing adaptations for capturing prey, and other animals have plant and animal species in the world.
adaptations that they use to escape predators. For example, the giant
anteater in Figure 2.4 uses its long tongue to reach insects in small cracks
and holes where other animals cannot reach. The great hornbill (shown
below) uses its strong, curved beak to crack open nutshells. Insects, such
as the Costa Rican hooded praying mantis in Figure 2.4, use camouflage to
avoid predators. These insects may be shaped like leaves or twigs.
Figure 2.4
Adaptations Plant and animal adaptations in the tropical rain forest include the long
tongue of a giant anteater, the strong, curved beak of a great hornbill, the shape of a
Costa Rican hooded praying mantis, and an orchid attached to a tall tree.
(tl) ©Michel & Christine Denis-Huot/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (bl) ©DLILLC/Corbis; (br) ©Walter H. Hodge; (tr) ©Fotolia

Threats to Rain Forests
Tropical rain forests once covered about 20 percent of Earth’s land area.
Today, they cover less than 7 percent. Every 60 seconds, nearly 150 acres
of tropical rain forest are cleared for logging operations, agriculture,
cattle ranching, or oil exploration. Habitat destruction occurs when land
inhabited by an organism is destroyed or altered. This destruction is the
usual reason for a species becoming extinct. Warming temperatures and
changes in precipitation from climate change also threaten rain forests.
An estimated 50 million people live in tropical rain forests. These
people are also threatened by habitat destruction. Their food, building
materials, culture, and traditions come from and are uniquely
connected to the rain forest. Habitat loss also destroys their way of life.
Plants and animals that live in rain forests are also threatened by
trading. Many plant species found only in tropical rain forests are valu-
Check for Understanding able and marketable to industries. Animals are threatened by exotic-pet
Identify What are two main threats to the trading. Some exotic-pet traders illegally trap animals, such as parrots,
organisms that live in tropical rain forests? and sell them in pet stores at high prices.
CASESTUDY
Deforestation,
Climate, and Floods
A plant absorbs water from the soil through its roots and
transports the water to its stems and leaves. Water then
evaporates from pores in plant leaves into the atmosphere
through a process called transpiration. A large tree may A man makes his way past flooded buildings in
transpire as much as five tons of water on a hot day. his street on a makeshift raft after the Yangtze
CASESTUDY
Water absorbs heat when it evaporates. Therefore, the River reached record-high levels in July 1998.
temperature is much cooler under a tree on a hot day than
under a wood or brick shelter. flooded, the water poured into a flood plain where over
When rain falls on a forest, much of the rain is absorbed 400 million people lived. Serious flooding occurred again
by plant roots and transpired into the air as water vapor. in 2010 and 2011. It is estimated that 85 percent of the
Water vapor forms rain clouds. Much of this water will fall forest in the Yangtze River basin has been cut down. The
as rain downwind from the forest. Because of the role trees millions of tons of water that these trees once absorbed
play in transpiration, deforestation, the clearing of trees, now flow freely down the river and spread across fields and
can change the climate. If a forest is cut down or replaced into towns during the seasonal monsoon rains. In response
by smaller plants, much of the rainfall is not absorbed to data from environmental scientists, the Chinese
©Greg Baker/AP/Wide World Photos
by plants. Instead, the rain runs off the soil and causes government is now instituting massive reforestation efforts.
flooding as well as soil erosion. The climate downwind from Deforestation has also caused major floods in places
the forest becomes drier. such as Bangladesh. The Ganges River starts high in
Deforestation led to the disastrous flooding of the Himalaya Mountains and flows through Bangladesh.
the Yangtze River in China in 1998. More than 2,000 Deforestation of the Himalaya Mountains left few trees to
people died in the floods, and at least 13 million people stop the water from flowing down the mountain. Therefore,
had to leave their homes. When the Yangtze River most of the water flows into the river when it rains. Heavy
150 Unit 2: Ecology

Figure 2.5
Temperate Rain Forests Pacific Northwest The only
Temperate rain forest occurs in North America, Australia, and New Zealand. temperate rain forest in North America
Temperate rain forests have large amounts of precipitation, high humidity, is located in the Pacific Northwest, such
and moderate temperatures. The Pacific Northwest houses North as the one shown below in Olympic
America’s only temperate rain forest, shown in Figure 2.5. There, tree National Park.
branches are draped with mosses and tree trunks are covered in lichens.
The forest floor is blanketed with lush ferns. Evergreen trees that are 90
m tall, such as the Sitka spruce and the Douglas fir, dominate the forest.
Other large trees, such as western hemlock, Pacific silver fir, and red-
wood, can also be found in temperate rain forests.
Even though some temperate rain forests are located at high latitudes,
they still maintain moderate temperatures year-round because nearby
ocean waters blow cool ocean wind over the forest. As ocean winds meet
coastal mountains, a large amount of rainfall is produced. Rainfall and
ocean breezes keep temperatures cool in the summer, but warmer than
might be expected in the winter. These wet and warm conditions mean
that trees have long growing seasons and plenty of water to grow very tall.
Deforestation reduces the amount

of water that is absorbed by plants
after it rains. The more trees that are
cleared from a forest, the more likely a
flood will occur in that area.
(tr) ©Jim Steinberg/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (cl) ©Wayne G. Lawler/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Critical Thinking
rains have eroded and carried away so much soil from the
slopes of the mountains that the soil has formed a new Critical Thinking
island in the Bay of Bengal.
1. Identifying Relationships How might
People are beginning to understand the connection
deforestation in China and other countries
between deforestation and floods. People held protests in
affect the overall climate of Earth?
northern Italy in 2000 after floods covered a town that had
never been flooded before. The townspeople claimed that
2. Analyzing a Viewpoint Imagine that you
are a city council member and must vote on
authorities had permitted developers to cover the hills with
whether to clear a forest so that a mall can be
homes. These developers cut down most of the trees and
built. List the pros and cons of each viewpoint.
covered much of the land with asphalt. After heavy rains, After reviewing your list, how would you vote?
the water was no longer absorbed by trees and soil, so the Explain your answer.
water flowed down the hills and flooded the town.

Figure 2.6
Temperate Deciduous Forest The

difference between summer and winter
temperatures in temperate deciduous forests
is extreme.
Temperate Deciduous Forests

If you walk through a North American deciduous forest in the fall, you
will be awash in color. Leaves in every shade of orange, red, and yellow
crackle beneath your feet. Most birds have flown south. The forest is qui-
eter than it was in the summer. You see mostly chipmunks and squirrels
gathering and storing the food they will need during the long, cold winter.
In temperate deciduous forests, trees drop their broad, flat leaves each
fall. These forests once dominated vast regions of Earth, including parts
of North America, Europe, and Asia. Today, temperate deciduous forests
are generally located between 30° and 50° north latitudes, as shown in
Figure 2.6. The range of temperatures in a temperate deciduous forest
can be extreme, and the growing season lasts for only four to six months.
Summer temperatures can soar to 35°C. Winter temperatures often fall
below freezing, so little water is available for plants and growing seasons
tend to be shorter than in the temperate rain forests. Just as temperatures
change with the seasons, so does the vegetation, as shown in Figure 2.7.
Although there is enough moisture for decomposition, temperatures
are low during the winter. As a result, organic matter decomposes fairly
slowly. This means that the soil contains more organic matter and nutri-
ents than the soil in a tropical rain forest.
Figure 2.7
Distinct Seasons The change of Plants of Temperate Deciduous

seasons in a temperate deciduous Forests
forest is shown here. Like the plants of tropical rain forests, the plants
in deciduous forests grow in layers. Tall trees,
such as maple, oak, and birch, dominate the
forest canopy. Small trees and shrubs cover
©Kathy Collins/Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images
the understory. Because the floor of a decidu-

ous forest gets more light than does the floor of
a rain forest, more plants such as ferns, herbs,
and mosses grow in a deciduous forest.
Temperate-forest plants are adapted to sur-
vive seasonal changes. In the fall, most decidu-
ous trees begin to drop their leaves. In the win-
ter, soil moisture changes to ice, which causes
the remaining leaves to fall to the ground.
152 Unit 2: Ecology

Herb seeds, bulbs, and rhizomes (underground stems) be- Figure 2.8
come dormant in the ground and are insulated by the soil, leaf
litter, and snow. In the spring, when the sunlight increases and Deciduous Forest Animals Woodpeckers and deer
the temperature rises, trees grow new leaves, seeds germinate, are among the many animals that live in the temperate
and rhizomes and roots grow new shoots and stems. deciduous forest.
Animals of Temperate Deciduous Forests

The animals of temperate deciduous forests are adapted to
use the forest plants for food and shelter. Squirrels eat the
nuts, seeds, and fruits in the treetops. Bears feast on insects
and the tubers and berries of the forest plants. Grasshoppers
eat almost all types of vegetation found throughout the forest.
Deer, such as the one shown in Figure 2.8, and other herbivores
nibble leaves from trees and shrubs.
Many birds nest in the relative safety of the canopy. Most of
these birds are migratory. Because many birds cannot survive
harsh winters, each fall they fly south to find warmer weather
and more food. Each spring, they return north to nest and
feed. Animals that do not migrate use various strategies for
surviving the winter. For example, some mammals reduce their activity
during the cold winter months so that they do not need as much food
for energy.
Taiga
The taiga is the northern coniferous forest that stretches in a broad band
across the Northern Hemisphere just below the Arctic Circle. As shown
in Figure 2.9, winters in the taiga are long (6 to 10 months) and have aver-
age temperatures that are below freezing and often fall to –20°C. Many
trees seem like straight, dead shafts of bark and wood—until you look
up and see their green tops. Plant growth is most abundant during the
summer months because of nearly constant daylight and larger amounts
of precipitation.
(tr) ©William Leaman/Alamy Images; (inset) ©Don Johnston/All Canada Photos/Corbis
Taiga
(Edmonton, Canada)
50 40
Figure 2.9
45 30
Taiga The taiga has long, cold winters and small amounts of precipitation, as shown in the 40 20
climatogram at right.
35 10
Precipitation (cm)
Temperature (˚C)
30 0
25 –10
20 –20
15 –30
10 –40
5 –50
0 –60
J F MA MJ J A S O N D
Months

Figure 2.10 Plants of the Taiga
A conifer is a tree with needle-like leaves and seeds that develop in cones.
Taiga Plant Adaptations The
The shape of the leaves and their waxy coating prevent the tree from los-
seeds of conifers are protected inside
tough cones like the one below. Also,
ing too much water. This is especially important when the ground is fro-
the narrow shape and waxy coating zen and the roots cannot replace lost water by absorbing more from the
of conifer needles help the tree retain soil. As Figure 2.10 shows, many conifers are shaped like a large cone. The
water. cone-like shape helps to prevent snow from building up on the branches
and causing the branches to break under the weight.
Conifer needles contain substances that make the soil acidic when the
needles fall to the ground. Most plants cannot grow in acidic soil, which
is one reason the forest floor of the taiga has few plants. In addition, soil
forms slowly in the taiga because the climate and acidity of the fallen
needles slow decomposition.
Animals of the Taiga
(tl) ©Walter H. Hodge; (inset) ©Stuart Cobley/Alamy Images; (bl) ©Paul E Tessier/Photodisc/Getty Images
The taiga has many lakes and swamps that in summer attract birds that
feed on aquatic organisms. Many birds migrate south to avoid winter
in the taiga. Because food is scarce during the winter, some year-round
residents, such as jumping mice, burrow underground to hibernate.
As shown in Figure 2.11, some animals, such as snowshoe hares, have
adapted to reduce the risk of predation by lynxes, wolves, and foxes by
shedding their brown summer fur and growing white fur that camou-
flages them in the winter snow.
Figure 2.11
Taiga Animal Adaptations In the

taiga, a snowshoe hare’s fur changes
color according to the seasons to help
camouflage the animal from predators.

1. List three characteristics of tropical rain forests. 5. Evaluating Information Which would be
better suited for agricultural development:
2. Name the main layers of a tropical rain forest.
the soil of a tropical rain forest or the soil of a
What kinds of plants grow in each layer?
temperate deciduous forest? Explain your answer.
3. Describe two ways in which tropical rain
6. Identifying Relationships How does a
forests of the world are being threatened.
snowshoe hare avoid predation by other animals
4. Describe how a plant survives the change of during the winter in a taiga biome? How might
seasons in a temperate deciduous forest. Write a this affect the animal that depends on the
short paragraph to explain your answer. snowshoe hare for food?
154 Unit 2: Ecology

Section 3
Grassland, Desert, Objectives
and Tundra Biomes

Describe the difference
between tropical and temperate
grasslands.
Describe the climate in a

In areas with too little precipitation or too many fires for large trees or shrubs to chaparral biome.
survive, smaller plants dominate biomes. Where there is almost no rainfall at all,
few plants can grow and we find desert. Thus, warm areas with little precipitation
Describe two desert animals
are characterized by savanna and desert biomes. Temperate areas have grassland, and the adaptations that help
chaparral, and desert biomes. Fire can play an important role in determining what them survive.
biome is found in warm regions. Cold areas have tundra and desert biomes.
Describe one threat to the
tundra biome.
Savannas and Tropical Seasonal Forests
Parts of Africa, India, Australia, and South America are covered by grass- Key Terms
lands called savanna. A savanna is a tropical biome dominated by grasses, savanna
shrubs, and small trees. Tropical seasonal forests have larger growths of temperate grassland
trees. Compared to savannas, tropical seasonal forests have slightly wetter
chaparral
conditions and less frequent fires. As Figure 3.1 shows, rain falls mainly
desert
during the wet season, which lasts for only a few months of the year. This
is the only time that plants can grow. African savannas support an amaz- tundra
ing variety of herbivores, such as antelopes, giraffes, and elephants, as permafrost
well as the predators that hunt them, such as cheetahs, lions, and hyenas.
Plants of the Savanna and Tropical Seasonal Forests

Because most of the rain falls during the wet season, plants must be able
to survive long periods of time without water. In the dry season, plants
lose their leaves or die back. When the rain returns, they start to grow
again. Many plants have large, horizontal root systems so they can draw
water from as large an area as possible. The coarse savanna grasses have
vertical leaves that expose less of their surface area to the hot sun to fur- Tropical Savanna
ther help the grasses conserve water. Trees and shrubs often have thorns (Nairobi, Kenya)
or sharp leaves that keep hungry herbivores away. 50 40
45 30
Figure 3.1 40 20
35 10
Tropical Savanna and Seasonal Forests Wet and dry seasons characterize this biome.
Precipitation (cm)
Temperature (˚C)
30 0
25 –10
20 –20
15 –30
10 –40
5 –50
0 –60
J FMAMJ J A S O N D
Months

Figure 3.2
Migratory Animals Herbivores of

the savanna, such as the elephants
shown here, range widely in search of
food.
Animals of the Savanna

Grazing herbivores, such as the elephants shown in Figure 3.2, have
adopted a migratory way of life. They follow the rains to areas of newly
sprouted grass and watering holes. Some predators follow and stalk
migratory animals for food. Many savanna animals give birth only dur-
ing the rainy season, when food is most abundant and the young are
more likely to survive. Also, some species of herbivores eat vegetation
at different heights than do other species. For example, small gazelles
graze on grasses, black rhinos browse on shrubs, and giraffes feed on
tree leaves.
Temperate Grasslands
Temperate grassland covers large areas of the interior of continents, where
there is moderate rainfall but trees and shrubs cannot be established
because there is not enough rain or fires are too frequent. The prairies
in North America, the steppes in Asia, the veldt in South Africa, and the
pampas in South America are temperate grasslands. Their locations are
Temperate Grassland
Figure 3.3 (Wichita, Kansas)
50 40
Temperate Grassland Small amounts of rainfall, periodic droughts, and high temperatures in 45 30
the summer characterize this biome.
40 20
35 10
Precipitation (cm)
Temperature (˚C)
30 0
25 –10
20 –20
©Tim Davis/Photo Researchers, Inc.
15 –30
10 –40
5 –50
0 –60
J FMAMJ J A S O N D
Months
156 Unit 2: Ecology

Mountains often play a crucial role in maintaining grasslands. For Figure 3.4
example, in North America, rain clouds moving from the west release
most of their moisture as they pass over the Rocky Mountains. As a re- Grasses The steppes in Asia (top)
sult, the shortgrass prairie just east of the Rockies receives so little rain and the pampas in South America
that it looks almost like a desert. The amount of rain increases as you (bottom) are dominated by grasses
move east, which lets taller grasses and some shrubs grow. Grassland and other plants that are adapted to
plants dry out in the summer, so lightning strikes often start fires. Figure temperate grasslands.
3.4 shows two examples of temperate grasslands.
Plants of Temperate Grasslands

Temperate grassland vegetation consists of grasses and wildflowers.
Although there is only a single layer of vegetation, many species may be
present. Shrubs and trees grow only where the soil contains extra water,
usually on the banks of streams.
Periodic fires are an important part of temperate grassland ecosys-
tems. In fact, some plants have adapted to fire by producing fire-resistant
seeds that need the fire’s heat to begin the process of germination. The
root systems of grassland plants form dense layers that survive drought
and fire. Figure 3.5 shows how the heights of grasses and the depths of
their roots vary.
Grasslands are highly productive because of their fertile soil. The
summer is hot and the winter is cold, so the plants die back to their roots
in the winter. Low temperatures in the winter slow decomposition. As a
result, the rate at which dead plants decay is slower than the rate at which
new vegetation is added each year. Over time, organic matter accumu-
lates in the soil. This means that grasslands have the most fertile soil in
the world. Most grasslands have been converted to farmland for growing
crops such as wheat and corn.
Figure 3.5
Grass Height and Root Depth The height of grassland plants and the depth of their roots
depend on the amount of rainfall that the grasslands receive.
critical thinking
Apply What would you expect the root length to be for a plant that grows in a prairie that
receives 20 cm of precipitation annually?
Shortgrass prairie Mixed or Tallgrass prairie

(about 25 cm middlegrass prairie (up to 88 cm
rain per year) (about 50 cm rain per year)
rain per year)
(t) ©Joel Bennett; (b) ©blickwinkel/Alamy
Soil always dry Soil ranges from Soil always moist

dry to moist
Figure 3.6
Underground Burrows Prairie

dogs, such as the one shown here,
live in temperate grasslands. Prairie
dogs live in colonies and burrow in the
ground to build mounds, holes, and
tunnels.
Animals of Temperate Grasslands

Grazing animals, such as pronghorn and bison, have large, flat back teeth
for chewing the coarse prairie grasses. Other grassland animals, such as
badgers, prairie dogs, and burrowing owls, live protected in underground
QUICKLAB
QUICKLAB burrows as shown in Figure 3.6. The burrows shield the animals from fire
Plant Adaptations and weather and protect them from predators.
Procedure
1. Working in a small group, use a
hand lens or binocular microscope Threats to Temperate Grasslands
to closely examine the leaves, Farming and overgrazing have changed the grasslands. Grain crops can-
stems, and roots of various plants not hold the soil in place as well as native grasses can because the roots of
provided by your teacher. crops are shallow and the soil is ploughed regularly, so soil erosion even-
2. Based on the characteristics of the tually occurs. Erosion is also caused by overgrazing. When grasses are
plants and the descriptions of the constantly eaten and trampled, the grasses cannot regenerate or hold the
biomes given in the text, predict soil. This constant use can change fruitful grasslands into less productive,
what type of biome each plant desertlike biomes. The Dust Bowl era, which affected the Great Plains in
comes from. the 1930s, is a dramatic example of what can happen when temperate
3. Construct a data table where grasslands are converted to agricultural land and improperly managed.
you can record each plant name,
a description of its physical
characteristics, and your biome
predictions for each.
Chaparral
Temperate woodland biomes have fairly dry climates but receive enough
Analysis rainfall, or mists from the ocean, to support more plants than do deserts.
1. What common characteristic did One type of temperate woodlands consists of scattered tree communities
you observe in the plants from made up of coniferous trees such as piñon pines and junipers.
dry climates and those from cold
©Bob Stefko/The Image Bank/Getty Images
climates? Why do you think the The chaparral is a temperate shrubland biome that is found in all parts
plants from two very different of the world with a Mediterranean climate. These areas have moderately
climates share this characteristic? dry, coastal climates, with little or no rain in the summer. Look at the
2. Choose a characteristic you famous white letters that spell Hollywood across the California hills in
observed in one particular plant Figure 3.7. Now imagine the scrub-covered settings common in old west-
and explain how that adaptation erns. Both of these landscapes are part of the chaparral biome. As shown
might help the plant to better in Figure 3.8, chaparral is located in the middle latitudes, about 30° north
survive in its biome. and south of the equator.
158 Unit 2: Ecology

Figure 3.7
Chaparral Plants The chaparral in

the Hollywood hills is home to plants
such as the manzanita, which is shown
at right.
Plants of the Chaparral

Most chaparral plants are low-lying evergreen shrubs and small trees
that tend to grow in dense patches. Common chaparral plants include
chamise, manzanita, scrub oak, olive trees, and herbs, such as bay laurel.
These plants have small, leathery leaves that retain water. The leaves also
contain oils that promote burning, which is an advantage because natural
fires destroy trees that might compete with chaparral plants for light and
space. Chaparral plants are so well adapted to fire that they can resprout
from small bits of surviving plant tissue.
Animals of the Chaparral

A common adaptation of chaparral animals is camouflage, which is shape
or coloring that allows an animal to blend into its environment. Animals
such as quail, lizards, chipmunks, and mule deer have a brownish-gray
coloring that lets them move through the brush without being noticed.
Threats to the Chaparral

Worldwide, the greatest threat to chaparral is human development.
Because chaparral biomes get a lot of sun, are near the oceans, and have
a mild climate year-round, humans tend to develop the land for commer- Chaparral
cial and residential use. (Santa Barbara, California)
50 40
45 30
Figure 3.8 40 20
Chaparral A Mediterranean climate characterizes this biome. 35 10

Precipitation (cm)
Temperature (˚C)
30 0
©Bobbi Lane/Tony Stone Images/Getty Images
25 –10
20 –20
15 –30
10 –40
5 –50
0 –60
J FMAMJ J A S O N D
Months

Figure 3.9
Desert A lack of precipitation characterizes this biome. Deserts typically

receive less than 25 cm of precipitation a year.
Desert
(Cairo, Egypt)
50 40
45 30
40 20
35 10
Precipitation (cm)
Temperature (˚C)
30 0
25 –10
20 –20
15 –30
10 –40 Deserts
5 –50 When some people think of a desert, they think of the hot sand that sur-
rounds the Egyptian pyramids. Other people picture the Sonoran Desert
0 –60
J FMAMJ J A S O N D and its mighty saguaro cactuses, or the magnificent rock formations of
Months Monument Valley in Arizona and Utah. Many kinds of deserts are located
Source: The Washington Post throughout the world, but one characteristic that they share is that they
are among the driest places on Earth.
Deserts are areas that have widely scattered vegetation and receive
very little rain. In extreme cases, it never rains and there is no vegetation.
The distribution of Earth’s deserts is shown in Figure 3.9. Even in hot des-
erts near the equator, there is so little insulating moisture in the air that
the temperature changes rapidly during a 24-hour period. The tempera-
ture may go from 40°C (104°F) during the day to near-freezing at night.
Deserts are often located near mountain ranges, which block the passage
of rain clouds.
Plants of the Desert

All desert plants have adaptations for obtaining and conserving water,
FieldStudy which allow the plants to live in dry, desert conditions. Plants called
Go to Appendix B to find the field study
succulents, such as cactuses, have thick, fleshy stems and modified leaves
Xeriscaping.
called spines that store water. Their spines also have a waxy coating that
prevents water loss. Sharp spines on cactuses keep thirsty animals from
devouring the plant’s juicy flesh. Rainfall rarely penetrates deeply into the
soil, so many plants’ roots spread out just under the surface of the soil to
absorb as much rain as possible.
Many desert shrubs drop their leaves during dry periods and grow
new leaves when it rains again. When conditions are too dry, some plants
die and drop seeds that stay dormant in the soil until the next rainfall.
Then, new plants quickly germinate, grow, and bloom before the soil
becomes dry again. Some desert plants have adapted so that they can
survive even if their water content drops to as low as 30 percent of their
mass. Water levels below 50 to 75 percent are fatal for most plants.
160 Unit 2: Ecology

Figure 3.10
Desert Adaptations Desert plants survive harsh conditions by having specialized

structures that limit the loss of water. Desert animals bury themselves underground or
burrow in cactuses to avoid extreme temperatures and predators.
(bl) ©Thorsten Milse/Robert Harding World Imagery/Getty Images; (br) ©Anthony Bannister/NHPA; (tl) ©George H. H. Huey/Corbis; (tr) ©Craig Lorenz/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Elf owls burrow in cactuses to

avoid hot temperatures during
the day.
The Sonoran Desert in Arizona appears lush with plant life just after the winter rains.
The flapnecked chameleon lives in the

deserts of Namibia.
This sidewinder has a unique way of moving so that only small portions of its body are in
contact with the hot sands at any one time.
Animals of the Desert

Reptiles, such as Gila monsters and rattlesnakes, have thick, scaly skin
that prevents water loss. Amphibians, such as the spadefoot toad, sur-
vive scorching desert summers by estivating—burying themselves in the
ground and sleeping through the dry season. Some animals, such as the
elf owl shown in Figure 3.10, nest in cactuses to avoid predators. Desert
insects and spiders are covered with body armor that helps them retain
water. In addition, most desert animals are nocturnal, which means they
are active mainly at night or at dusk, when the air is cooler.

Figure 3.11
Tundra The precipitation that the

tundra biome receives remains frozen
much of the year. Yakutsk,
Russia
30° N
Tundra
(Yakutsk, Russia)
Equator
50 40
45 30 Tundra
30° S
40 20
35 10
Precipitation (cm)
Temperature (˚C)
30 0
25 –10
Tundra
20 –20
The tundra biome is located in northern arctic regions, as shown in
15 –30 Figure 3.11. The winter is too cold and dry to permit the growth of trees in
10 –40 this biome. In many areas of the tundra, the deeper layers of soil, called
permafrost, are permanently frozen throughout the year. As a result, the
5 –50
topsoil is very thin. In the summer, when the thin topsoil layer thaws, the
0 –60
J FMAMJ J A S OND
tundra landscape becomes quite moist and spongy and is dotted with
Months bogs. These wet areas are ideal breeding grounds for enormous numbers
Source: NASA of swarming insects, such as mosquitoes and black flies, and for the many
birds that feed on the insects.
Vegetation of the Tundra

Over 400 species of wildflowers, such as the fireweed shown in Figure 3.12,
grow in the tundra during the summer. Mosses and lichens, which can
grow without soil, cover vast areas of rocks in this biome. The soil is thin,
so plants have wide, shallow roots to help anchor them against the icy
winds. Most flowering plants of the tundra, such as campion and gentian,
are short. Growing close to the ground keeps the plants out of the wind
and helps them absorb heat from the sunlit soil during the brief sum-
mer. Woody plants and perennials such as willow and birch have evolved
dwarf forms and grow flat or grow along the ground.
Figure 3.12
Short Growing Season During its

brief summer, the Alaskan tundra is
covered by flowering plants and lichens.
©WorldFoto/Alamy Images
162 Unit 2: Ecology

Figure 3.13
Breeding Grounds Many migratory animals, such as snow geese (left) and caribou
(right), return to the tundra each year to breed.
Connect to MATH
Animals of the Tundra

Millions of migratory birds fly to the tundra to breed in the summer.
Food is abundant in the form of plants, mollusks, worms, and especially
insects. Caribou, shown in Figure 3.13, migrate throughout the tundra in
search of food and water. Wolves roam the tundra and prey on caribou,
moose, and smaller animals, such as lemmings, mice, and hares. These
animals burrow underground during the winter but they are still active.
Many animals that live in the tundra year-round, such as arctic foxes, lose
their brown fur and grow white fur that camouflages them with the winter
snow. These animals are also extremely well insulated.
Threats to the Tundra Connect to MATH

(r) ©Nick Laing/JAI/Corbis; (l) ©David Tipling/Alamy Images
The tundra is one of the most fragile biomes on the planet. Its food U.S. Oil Production
webs are relatively simple, so they are easily disrupted. Because condi- On average, the United States produces
tions are so extreme, the land is easily damaged and slow to recover. an estimated 8.1 million barrels of oil
Until recently, the tundra was undisturbed by humans. But oil has been per day. How many millions of barrels
located in some tundra regions, such as in northern Alaska. Oil explora- of oil does the United States produce
tion, extraction, and transport can disrupt the habitats of the plants and in 1 year? If all of the oil-producing
animals in many parts of the tundra. Global climate change is the most countries of the world produce an
widespread threat to tundra, partly because the largest warming trends estimated 74.13 million barrels of oil
are in the arctic region. Warming lowers the level of permafrost, promot- per day, what percentage of worldwide
ing the growth of shrubs and small trees. oil does the United States produce?

1. Describe two desert animals and the 5. Making Inferences Former grasslands are
adaptations that help them survive. among the most productive farming regions.
Read the description of temperate grasslands
2. Describe how savannas differ from temperate
in this section and explain why this statement
grasslands.
is true.
3. Compare the plants that live in deserts with
6. Analyzing Relationships Explain why
the plants that live in the tundra biome.
elephants and caribou, which live in very
4. Describe one threat to the tundra biome. different biomes, both migrate.

Making a Difference
A Little
Cajun prairie is a distinct grassland, named for the settlers who lived there.
It once covered more than 2.5 million acres of southwest Louisiana. Today,
only about 100 acres of Cajun prairie remain. If the work of two biologists and
Piece of
many volunteers pays off, however, a little piece of Cajun prairie will always
exist in Louisiana.
“I think that saving Cajun prairie is important because once it is gone, you
cannot bring it back,” says Charles Allen, a retired professor from the University
Cajun
of Louisiana and the botanist for Louisiana’s Fort Polk. “There are plants and
animals there that have never been tested for uses by humans. We could be
losing a plant that would cure cancer, or provide food or fiber,” he says.
Prairie
Allen and biologist Malcolm Vidrine, a professor of biology at Louisiana
State University in Eunice, have been working for almost two decades to
restore Cajun prairie.
Although Cajun prairie and the tallgrass prairies of the Midwest both
belong to the temperate grassland biome, Cajun prairie soil has unique
characteristics. It is made of tight, heavy clays that formed as a result of
coastal flooding and rains. This soil, combined with frequent lightning fires,
makes it difficult for trees to grow but easy for prairie plants to flourish.
Settling on the Prairie

In the mid-1700s, many French Acadians, later known as Cajuns, arrived
in Louisiana from Nova Scotia, Canada. They sustained themselves for over
100 years by fishing, hunting, and some farming. They also sustained their
environment because their lifestyle caused little damage to the prairie.
The establishment of the railroad in the late 1800s brought new settlers
to farm the rich land. These settlers brought with them new, more intensive
Charles Allen is shown here collecting agricultural practices and established herds of cattle that overgrazed the
seeds from a compass plant at a Cajun vegetation. By the early 20th century, most of the Cajun prairie had disappeared.
prairie remnant. The leaves of the
Today, the Cajun prairie ecosystem is labelled as “imperiled globally” by
compass plant face east to catch the sun.
the Nature Conservancy, an organization
dedicated to preserving natural
communities. There are now fewer than
100 acres of Cajun prairie left in Louisiana.
The railroad led to the near disappearance
of the prairie, but it has also played an
important role in saving the last remaining
Cajun prairie, preserved on this

(r) ©Dr. Charles Allen
10-acre site, once covered nearly

10 percent of Louisiana.
164 Unit 2: Ecology

ECOZine
at HMDScience.com
Volunteers such as these students

used seeds and sod gathered from
remnants to create a new Cajun
prairie habitat in Eunice, Louisiana.
To maintain the habitat, volunteers

remove nonnative vegetation such as
this vasey grass.
pieces of prairie. The remaining prairie is mostly in remnants of planting day, the students spread the seeds they had collected.
small, narrow strips along railroad right-of-ways. Because the The site was then lightly tilled. Sod was removed from the
railroad owned these pieces of land, they were never farmed. remnant strips and replanted at the Eunice site during the next
three seasons.
The Eunice Cajun Prairie Restoration Restoration is an ongoing effort. Yearly controlled burns
Project maintain the habitat. The fires destroy shrubs and trees, but
In the late 1980s, Allen and Vidrine located as many remnant do not kill most of the prairie plants. Spot herbicides are used
strips as they could. They chose 10 of the strips and studied on the more pervasive nonnative species, such as the Chinese
them carefully. They found almost 600 species of plants in the tallow tree, the most threatening nonnative species for the
10 strips. prairie. The seeds of this tree are easily spread when birds eat
The Eunice Cajun Prairie Restoration Project began in the the seeds and deposit them in droppings.
summer of 1988. Its goal was to restore and preserve a small Today, nearly 300 native Cajun prairie species, including
Cajun prairie in the city of Eunice, Louisiana. little bluestem, Eastern gama grass, blazing stars, and hairy
A 10-acre site in Eunice was mowed, and herbicide was sunflower, have been reestablished at the site. As well, the rare
used to destroy the nonnative vegetation. Volunteers from local What
wild coco Do(Pteroglossaspis
orchid You Think?ecristata) has been found
elementary and high schools collected bags of seeds from at the site. This is a very positive sign because few of these
Cajun prairie plants growing in the remnant strips. That winter, orchids have been found in the remnant strips or in Louisiana.
controlled burns were used to prepare the site. On a designated Much of the Eunice site is now almost completely Cajun prairie.
What Do You Think?

Are there threatened habitats in your area? What
factors do you think led to the loss of these
habitats? Is it possible for people to settle in a
habitat without having a negative impact? How
©Dr. Charles Allen
were the Cajuns able to sustain themselves on the

prairie without destroying the habitat?

Chapter 6 Summary
Section 1 What Is a Biome? Objectives Key Terms
• Scientists classify the ecosystems of the world into biome

large areas called biomes. climate
• Biomes are described by their plant life because latitude
specific climate conditions support the growth of altitude
specific types of vegetation.
• Climate determines which plants can grow in an area.
Latitude and altitude affect climate in similar ways.
Section 2 Forest Biomes Objectives Key Terms
• Major forest biomes include tropical rain forest, tropical rain

temperate rain forest, temperate deciduous forest, forest
and taiga. emergent layer
• Tropical rain forests have high rainfall and high canopy
temperatures throughout the year. They contain the epiphyte
most species diversity of all biomes. understory
• Temperate forests experience seasonal variations temperate rain
in precipitation and temperature. Their vegetation is forest
adapted to surviving these changes. temperate
deciduous
(t) ©Chris Fragassi/Alamy Images; (c) ©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) ©Tim Davis/Photo Researchers, Inc.
• Forest biomes are threatened by deforestation through
forest
logging, ranching, and farming.
taiga
Section 3 Grassland, Desert, and Objectives Key Terms

Tundra Biomes
• Savannas are located north and south of tropical rain savanna
forests and have distinct wet seasons. temperate
• Temperate grasslands get too little rainfall to support grassland
trees. Grasslands are dominated mostly by different chaparral
types of grasses and flowering plants. desert
• Deserts are the driest biomes on Earth. tundra
• Plant and animal species found in each biome adapt permafrost
to the environment in which they live.
166 Unit 2: Ecology

Chapter 6 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 14. Spadefoot toads survive the dry conditions of
the desert by
a. migrating to seasonal watering holes.
1. biome
b. finding underground springs.
2. climate
c. burying themselves in the ground.
3. epiphyte
d. drinking cactus juice.
4. tundra
5. permafrost 15. The tundra is most suitable to a vertebrate that
a. requires nesting sites in tall trees.
of the terms differ. b. is ectothermic.
6. understory and canopy c. has a green outer skin for camouflage.
7. latitude and altitude d. can migrate hundreds of kilometers each
summer.
8. chaparral and desert
9. tropical rain forest and temperate deciduous forest 16. A biome that has a large amount of rainfall, high
10. Concept Map Use the following terms to create temperatures, and poor soil is a
a concept map: threats to an ecosystem, erosion, a. temperate woodland.
overgrazing, logging, grasslands, rain forests,
b. temperate rain forest.
tundra, deserts, oil extraction, and irrigation.
c. tropical rain forest.
d. savanna.
Reviewing Main Ideas
11. Approximately what percentage of the Earth’s 17. The two main factors that determine where
species do tropical rain forests contain? organisms live are
a. 7 percent a. soil type and precipitation.
b. 20 percent b. temperature and precipitation.
c. 40 percent c. altitude and precipitation.
d. 50 percent d. temperature and latitude.
12. Animal species of the tropical rain forest 18. Which of the following biomes contains
large trees?
a. compete more for available resources than
species native to other biomes do. a. savanna
b. have adaptations that minimize competition. b. temperate rain forest
c. have adaptations to cope with extreme c. chaparral
variations in climate. d. desert
d. are never camouflaged.
19. The most common types of plants in the taiga
13. Migration of animals in the savanna is mostly a biome are
response to a. deciduous trees.
a. predation. b. short shrubs.
b. altitude. c. coniferous trees.
c. rainfall. d. grasses.
d. temperature.

Chapter Review

20. Unlike the jungles you see in movies, the floor of 28. Comparing Processes American prairies and
an undisturbed tropical rain forest usually has Asian steppes contain different plant species but
little vegetation. Explain why it lacks vegetation. are dominated by grasses. Write a short paragraph
21. What is the relationship between root systems and that explains why the two grasslands contain
erosion in a grassland ecosystem? different species but the same types of plants.
22. How might a mountain affect where particular 29. Classifying Information Read the description
types of biomes are located? of tropical rain forests in this chapter, and list two
factors that are responsible for the biodiversity of
23. Well-preserved mammoths have been found this biome. Describe two reasons for the decline
buried in the tundra. Explain why the tundra of tropical rain forests.
preserves animal remains well.
30. Analyzing Relationships If you took a
24. In what ways does deforestation contribute to population of squirrels from the southeastern
a change in climate and increase the chance of United States and introduced them into a Central
floods in a biome? American rain forest, they would probably not
survive. Why do you think the squirrels would not
survive even though they are naturally adapted to
Interpreting Graphics life in a forest?
Use the diagram below to answer questions 25–27. 31. Making Inferences How might prairie fires set
25. Determine Why are tall trees found in the taiga from natural and human causes have affected the
but not in the tundra? evolution of fire resistance in prairie grasses?
26. Analyze As moisture decreases, what happens to 32. Geography Use a world map to find locations
the amount of vegetation in an area? of the various biomes. Then, make a poster that
contains photos or illustrations of plants and
27. Analyze What does the diagram tell you about animals native to each biome.
the temperature of and precipitation in temperate
grasslands? 33. Food Webs In Your Biome Do a special project
on the ecosystems in your biome. Use field guides
ld to find out what plants and animals live in your
Co
biome. Then, draw a food web that shows how
Arctic organisms in each ecosystem could be related.
Tundra
e
t ur
ra Subarctic
pe
tem
g Taiga
sin
ea
cr
De
Temperate
Temperate forest Temperate grassland Desert
Tropical
t
Ho
Tropical rain forest Savanna Desert
Wet Dry
Decreasing moisture
168 Unit 2: Ecology

Chapter Review
STUDYSKILL
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
38. Why does deforestation often result in
flooding?
Amount of Tropical Rainforest
WhyHow
39. It Matters
does deforestation affect the climate?
Amount of tropical Amount of annual
Country deforestation
rain forest (km2)
(km2/y)
Why It Matters
A 1,800,000 50,000
40. How does the
B 55,000 3,300 presence of the rain
forest affect your life?
C 22,000 6,000
D 530,000 12,000
E 80,000 700
34. Calculate What percentage of tropical rain

forest is being destroyed each year in country A?
What percentage of tropical rain forest is being
destroyed in country D?
35. Interpreting Data According to the table, which
STUDYSKILL
country’s tropical rain forest will be completely
destroyed first? Which country’s rain forest will be Concept Maps Remembering words and understanding
completely destroyed last? concepts are easier when information is organized in a way
that you recognize. For example, you can use key terms
and key concepts to create a concept map that links them
Making Connections together in a pattern you will understand and remember.
36. Communicating Main Ideas Describe the

importance of conserving the biomes of the
world. What can you do to help conserve the
world’s biomes?
37. Writing From Research Choose one biome
and research the threats that exist against it.
Write a short essay that describes the threats
and any actions that are being taken to help save
the biome.
©Photo Researchers, Inc.

ExplorationLab
Field Activity
Identify Your Local
Objectives
Collect information from
Biome
international, national, and
local resources about the In what biome do you live? Do you live in a temperate deciduous forest, a
biome in which you live. desert, or a temperate grassland, such as a prairie or savanna? In this lab,
Perform field observations
you will explore certain characteristics of the biome in which you live. With
to identify the name of the the information you gather, you will be able to identify which biome it is.
biome in which you live.
Materials Procedure
binoculars (optional) 1. Use a globe or atlas to determine the latitude at which you live. Record
field guide to local flora and this information.
fauna
2. Consider the topography of the place where you live. Study the con
globe or atlas
tour lines on a map or surface variations on a globe. What clues do
graph paper (optional) you find that might help identify your biome? For example, is your
notebook area located near a mountain or an ocean? Record your findings.
pencil or pen
ruler 3. Prepare a climatogram of your area. A climatogram is a graph that
shows average monthly values for two factors: temperature and pre
cipitation. Temperature is expressed in degrees Celsius and is plotted
as a smooth curve. Precipitation values are given in centimeters and
are plotted as a histogram.
o make a climatogram, obtain monthly averages of precipitation and

T
temperature for one year from an online resource such as the National
Weather Service (NWS). Make a data table, and record these values.
Next, draw the vertical and horizontal axes of your climatogram in your
notebook or on graph paper. Then, show the temperature scale along
the vertical axis on the right side of the graph and the precipitation
scale along the vertical axis on the left side of the graph. Show months
of the year along the horizontal axis. Finally, plot your data.
Austin, Texas (2011)

50 40
45 30
40 20
35 10
Precipitation (cm)
Temperature (˚C)
30 0
25 –10
20 –20
15 –30
10 –40
Climatograms The temperature and
precipitation for Austin, Texas is shown 5 –50
in this climatogram. 0 –60
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Months
Source: NOAA
170 Unit 2: Ecology
4. Go outside to observe the plants growing in your area. Bring a field
guide, and respond to the following items in your notebook.
a. Sketch or describe as many plants that are common in your area
as you can. Use your field guide to identify each of these species.
b. Describe three or more adaptations of each plant to the local
climate.
c. Which of the plants that you observed are native to your area?
Which have been introduced by humans? Which of the intro
duced plants can survive on their own in local conditions? Which
of the introduced plants require extensive care by humans to
remain alive?
d. Look for evidence that animals have left behind—footprints,
nests, dens or burrows, hair or feathers, scratches, or urine mark
ings. Sketch or describe as many different animal species as pos
sible. Identify each species by using your field guide.
e. Describe three or more adaptations that each animal has devel
oped in order to survive in local climatic conditions.
Analysis
1. Analyzing Data Compare your local climatogram to the biome clim
atograms shown in this chapter. Which biome has a climatogram
most similar to the data you graphed?
2. Analyzing Results Consider your latitude, topographical findings,

and observations of local plants and animals. Combine this infor
mation with your climatogram, and determine which biome best
matches the area in which you live.
Conclusions Different Biomes These two cities are

located in two different biomes. East Orange
3. Evaluating Results Does your climatogram match any of the Village, Vermont (top) is located in a temperate
seven major terrestrial climatograms shown in the chapter? deciduous forest, and Tucson, Arizona (bottom)
Describe any differences between your biome and the biome it is located in a desert.
best matches. Why do these differences occur?
(b) ©D. Boone/Corbis; (t) ©Robert Harding Picture Library Ltd/Alamy Images
4. Applying Conclusions Species are adapted to the climate of the

biome in which they live. What might happen to these species if
climate conditions change?
Extension
5. Classifying Information Name the three plant adaptations and
the three animal adaptations that you observed. Explain in detail
how each of these adaptations meets the conditions of your biome.

Aquatic
Chapter 7
Section 1
Freshwater Ecosystems
Ecosystems
Section 2
Marine Ecosystems
Why It Matters
Gentle, slow-moving manatees
are often called sea cows
because they spend their
days lazily grazing on aquatic
vegetation. In North America,
most manatees are found in
the estuaries, bays, and coastal
ecosystems of places like
Florida. Manatees are 3–4 m
in length, weigh 360 to 545 kg,
and can live up to 60 years.
Unfortunately, even though the
slow-moving manatees have
few natural enemies, they are
often hit and killed or injured by
boats.
How might boaters help to
protect the manatee?
CASESTUDY
Learn more about how the
restoration of Chesapeake
Bay is helping the plants and
wildlife that are dependent on
its ecosystem in the case study
Restoration of Chesapeake Bay
on page 180.
Online
©Marty Snyderman/Corbis
HMDScience.com

172
Section 1
Freshwater Objectives
Ecosystems
Describe the factors that
determine where an organism
lives in an aquatic ecosystem.
Describe the littoral zone and

The types of organisms in an aquatic ecosystem are mainly determined by the the benthic zone that make up a
water’s salinity—the amount of dissolved salts the water contains. As a result, lake or pond.
aquatic ecosystems are divided into freshwater ecosystems and marine ecosystems.
Describe two environmental
Freshwater ecosystems include the sluggish waters of lakes and ponds, such
as the lake shown in Figure 1.1, and the moving waters of rivers and streams. They
functions of wetlands.
also include areas where land, known as a wetland, is periodically under water. Describe one threat against
Marine ecosystems include the diverse coastal areas of marshes, bays, and coral
river ecosystems.
reefs as well as the deep, vast oceans.
Key Terms
Characteristics of Aquatic Ecosystems wetland
Factors such as temperature, sunlight, oxygen, nutrients, and the nature plankton
of the bottom determine which organisms live in which areas of the nekton
water. For instance, sunlight reaches only a certain distance below the benthos
surface of the water, so most photosynthetic organisms live on or near the littoral zone
surface.
benthic zone
Aquatic organisms are grouped by location and by their adaptations. eutrophication
There are three groups of aquatic organisms. Plankton are organisms that
cannot swim against currents, so they are drifters. Drifting algae, called phy-
toplankton, are the food base for most aquatic ecosystems. Most phyto-
plankton are microscopic. Drifting animals, which may be microscopic or
as large as a jellyfish, are called zooplankton. Nekton are free-swimming
organisms, such as fish and whales. Benthos are bottom-dwellers, such as
mussels, worms, and barnacles. Many benthic organisms live attached to
hard surfaces or burrow into softer sediments. Decomposers, which break
down dead organisms, also live in aquatic ecosystems.
Figure 1.1
Freshwater Ecosystems Lake

Louise in Alberta, Canada, is an
example of a freshwater ecosystem.
©Jan-Peter Lahall/Peter Arnold, Inc./Getty Images
Chapter 7: Aquatic Ecosystems 173

Figure 1. 2 Lakes and Ponds
Pond Dwellers Amphibians, such Lakes, ponds, wetlands, rivers, and streams make up the various
as this bullfrog, live in or near lakes types of freshwater ecosystems. Lakes, ponds, and wetlands can form
and ponds. naturally where groundwater reaches the Earth’s surface. As well, beavers
can create ponds by damming up streams. Humans intentionally create
artificial lakes by damming flowing rivers and streams to use them for
power, irrigation, water storage, and recreation.
Life in a Lake
Lakes and ponds can be structured into horizontal and vertical zones.
In the nutrient-rich littoral zone near the shore, aquatic life is diverse
and abundant. Plants, such as cattails and reeds, are rooted in the mud
underwater, and their upper leaves and stems emerge above the water.
Plants that have floating leaves, such as water lilies, are rooted here also.
Farther from the shore, in the open water limnetic zone, there are no
rooted plants. Here, phytoplankton make their own food by photosynthe-
sis. As shown in Figure 1.3, nutrients and sunlight influence the location
and types of organisms in a pond or lake ecosystem.
Some bodies of fresh water have areas so deep that there is too little
light for photosynthesis. In these deep areas, bacteria and other decom-
Figure 1.3
posers live on dead plants and animals that drift down from above. Fish
Surface Life In a pond or lake adapted to cooler water also live there. Eventually, dead and decaying
ecosystem, the most diverse and organisms reach the benthic zone, the bottom of a pond or lake, which is
abundant life occurs near the shore, inhabited by decomposers, insect larvae, and clams.
(t) ©altrendo nature/Stockbyte/Getty Images; (bl) ©Scimat/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (br) ©M. I. Walker/Photo Researchers, Inc.
where sunlight and nutrients are
Some animals that live in lakes and ponds have interesting adapta-
plentiful. In the open water, sunlight at
tions that help them obtain what they need to survive. Water beetles use
and near the surface supports drifting
the hairs under their bodies to trap surface air so that they can breathe
phytoplankton.
during their dives for food. Barbels help catfish sense food as they swim
over dark lake bottoms. In regions where lakes partially freeze in winter,
amphibians (Figure 1.2) burrow partway into the mud to hibernate.
174 Unit 2: Ecology

Figure 1. 4
How Nutrients Affect Lakes
Eutrophication A eutrophic lake, like the one below,
Nutrients in aquatic ecosystems determine the amount of
contains large amounts of plants as a result of high levels
plant and algal growth. Eutrophication is an increase in the of nutrients.
amount of nutrients. Lakes with large amounts of algae
and plant growth from excessive nutrients are eutrophic
lakes (Figure 1.4). As the plants and algae multiply, the
number of bacteria feeding on the decaying organisms
also grows. These bacteria use the oxygen dissolved in
the lake water. Eventually, the reduced amount of oxygen
kills oxygen-loving organisms. Lakes naturally become
eutrophic over time, but the process can be accelerated
by runoff. Runoff is precipitation that can carry pollutants
like fertilizers from land into bodies of water.
Freshwater Wetlands
Freshwater wetlands are areas of land, with special soils and plants, that are
covered with fresh water for at least part of the year. The two main types are
marshes and swamps. Marshes contain nonwoody plants, such as cattails,
while swamps are dominated by woody plants, such as flood-tolerant trees
and shrubs.
Wetlands perform several important environmental functions (Figure
1.5). Wetlands act as filters or sponges because they absorb and remove
pollutants from the water that flows through them. Therefore, wetlands Check for Understanding
improve the water quality of lakes, rivers, and reservoirs downstream. E xplain How can wetlands reduce
Wetlands also control flooding by absorbing extra water when rivers over- damage that is caused by flooding?
flow, which protects farms and urban and residential areas from dam-
age. Many of the freshwater game fish caught in the United States each
year use the wetlands for feeding and spawning. In addition, wetlands
provide a home for native and migratory wildlife, including ducks and
Figure 1.6
blue herons (Figure 1.6). Wetland vegetation also traps carbon that would
otherwise be released as carbon dioxide, which has been linked to rising Wetland Dwellers Wetlands
atmospheric temperatures.
(tr) ©David Overcash/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot; (b) ©Prisma Bildagentur AG/Alamy
provide habitat for many plants and

animals, including the great blue
herons shown below.
Figure 1.5
Environmental Functions of Wetlands
trapping and filtering sediments, nutrients, and pollutants, which keep these
materials from entering lakes, reservoirs, and oceans
r educing the likelihood of a flood, protecting agriculture, roads, buildings, and human
health and safety
buffering shorelines against erosion
providing spawning grounds and habitat for commercially important fish and shellfish
providing habitat for rare, threatened, and endangered species
p roviding recreational areas for activities such as fishing, birdwatching, hiking,

canoeing, photography, and painting

Figure 1. 7
Connect to HISTORY U.S. Wetlands This map shows the locations of large freshwater wetlands in the
United States, which constitute less than half of those present in the 1600’s.
The Florida Everglades
Because of the work of many writers,
conservationists, and naturalists,
former U.S. President Truman
dedicated the Everglades National Park
in 1947. The park was established
to protect the wildlife and habitat of
the Florida Everglades. The Florida
Everglades is one of only three sites
on Earth declared an International
Biosphere Reserve, a World Heritage
Site, and a Wetland of International
Importance. The other two sites are
located in Tunisia and Bulgaria.
Marshes
As shown in Figure 1.7, most large freshwater wetlands in the United
States are located in the Southeast. The Florida Everglades is the largest
Figure 1.8
freshwater wetland in the United States. Fresh-
water marshes tend to occur on low, flat lands
Marsh A marsh is a type of wetland that contains nonwoody plants. and have few, if any, woody trees or plants. In
shallow waters, plants such as reeds, rushes, and
critical thinking
cattails root themselves in the rich bottom sedi-
Compare How is a swamp different from a marsh?
ments. As shown in Figure 1.8, the leaves of these
and other plants stick out above the surface of
the water year-round.
The benthic zones of marshes are nutrient-
rich and contain plants, algae, many types of
decomposers, and scavengers. Waterfowl, such as
grebes and ducks, have flat beaks adapted for sift-
ing through the water for fish and insects. Water
birds have spear-like beaks that they use to grasp
small fish and to probe for frogs buried in the
mud. Marshes are also home to migratory birds
from temperate and tropical habitats.
©DENIS-HUOT/hemis.fr/Getty Images
The salinity of marshes varies. Some marshes

have fresh water, some have slightly salty (brack-
ish) water. Salt marshes have water that is as
salty as ocean water. The organisms that live in
and around a marsh are generally adapted to the
specific range of salinities of the marsh’s water.
176 Unit 2: Ecology

Swamps Figure 1.9
Swamps occur on flat, poorly drained, wooded Connect to MATH
Swamp The American alligator is a common reptile that lives in
land, often near streams. The species of trees
marshes and swamps.
and shrubs in a swamp depend on the salinity of
the water and the climate of the area. Freshwater
swamps include acidic bogs, filled with sphagnum
or peat moss, which are found in colder climates,
and cypress swamps, which are found in warmer
areas. These, along with alkaline fens, are the
ideal habitat for many amphibians, such as frogs,
because of the continuously moist environment.
Swamps also attract birds, such as wood ducks
that nest in hollow trees near or over the water.
Reptiles, like the American alligator in Figure 1.9,
are the major predators of swamps and will eat
almost any organism that crosses their path.
Connect to MATH
Human Impact on Wetlands Wetland Conversion
Wetlands were previously considered to be wastelands that provided From 1982 to 1992, approximately
breeding grounds for disease-carrying insects. Many have been drained, 1.6 million acres of wetlands on
filled, and cleared for farms or residential and commercial development, nonfederal lands in the United States
as shown in Figure 1.10. For example, the Florida Everglades once covered were converted for other uses. Fifty-
8 million acres of south Florida, but now covers less than 2 million acres. seven percent of the wetlands were
The important role of wetlands as purifiers of wastewater and in flood pre- converted into land for development.
vention is now recognized. Wetlands are vital habitats for wildlife. The fed- Twenty percent of the wetlands were
converted into land for agriculture. How
eral government, as well as international treaties, protect many wetlands,
many acres of land were converted
and most U.S. states now p rohibit the destruction of certain wetlands.
into land for development? How many
acres of land were converted into land
for agriculture?
Figure 1.10
Wetland The wetland on the right has been drained for agricultural purposes. Wetlands
such as this typically serve as breeding areas for ducks. The oil rig on the left is located in a
marsh along the coast of Louisiana.
(bl) ©Eye Ubiquitous/Alamy; (br) ©Leroy Francis/hemis.fr/Getty Images

Figure 1.11 Rivers
Water Flow A river changes dramatically as it Rivers can originate from underground springs, snow melt in
flows from a mountaintop to flat land. mountains, or where smaller streams merge together. At its
headwaters, a river is usually cold and full of oxygen and runs
swiftly through a shallow riverbed. Further along, it becomes
warmer, wider, and slower, containing more vegetation and
less oxygen. Figure 1.11 compares the water flow of two sections
of two different rivers. A river changes with the land and the
climate through which it flows. Runoff, for example, may wash
nutrients and sediment from the surrounding land into a river,
which eventually drains into the ocean. These materials affect
the growth and health of the organisms in the river.
Life in a River
Near the headwaters, mosses anchor themselves to rocks by
using rootlike rhizoids. Trout and minnows are also adapted
to the cold, oxygen-rich waters. Trout are powerful swimmers
and have streamlined bodies that present little resistance to the
(b) ©Michal Sleczek/Flickr/Getty Images; (t) ©Design Pics/Bilderbuch/Getty Images

strong current. Downstream, in the calmer waters, plants such
as the crowfoot set roots in the river’s rich sediment. Fish such
as catfish and carp thrive where the water slows and deepens.
Rivers in Danger
Communities and industries affect the health of rivers. People
draw water from rivers to use in homes and manufacturing.
People also use rivers to dispose of their sewage and garbage.
These practices have polluted rivers with toxins. The toxins have
Check for Understanding killed river organisms and have made river fish unsuitable for
redict What effect can runoff have on
P eating. Today, runoff from the land deposits pesticides and other
the health of organisms that live in and poisons into rivers and coats riverbeds with toxic sediments. In
around a river? addition, dams alter the ecosystems in and around a river.

1. List two factors that determine where an 5. Identifying Relationships A piece of garbage
organism lives in an aquatic ecosystem. that is thrown into a stream may end up in a
river or an ocean. What effects might one piece
2. Compare the littoral zone of a lake with the
of garbage have on an aquatic ecosystem? What
benthic zone of a lake.
effects might 100 pieces of garbage have on an
3. List two environmental functions that wetlands aquatic ecosystem?
provide. How do these functions affect you?
6. Analyzing Processes Write a short paragraph
4. Describe one threat against river ecosystems. that explains how fertilizing your yard and
applying pesticides can affect the health of a
river ecosystem.
178 Unit 2: Ecology

Section 2
Marine Ecosystems Objectives
Explain why an estuary is a very

productive ecosystem.
Marine ecosystems are ecosystems that contain salt water. Such ecosystems are
found in and around the world’s oceans. In the open water, the amount of sunlight Compare salt marshes and
and available nutrients vary from one part of an ocean to another. In coastal areas, mangrove swamps.
the water level and salinity usually change during the day.
Describe two threats to coral
reefs.
Coastal Wetlands Describe two threats to ocean
Coastal land areas that are covered by salt water for all or part of the time organisms.
are known as coastal wetlands. Coastal wetlands provide habitat and
nesting areas for many fish and wildlife. Coastal wetlands also filter out
pollutants and sediments, protect shorelines from erosion, and provide Key Terms
recreational areas for boating, fishing, and hunting. Wetlands absorb estuary
excess rain, which protects areas from flooding: a crucial ecological service.
salt marsh
mangrove swamp
Estuaries barrier island
Many coastal wetlands form in estuaries. An estuary is an area in which coral reef
fresh water from a river mixes with salt water from the ocean. As the two
bodies of water meet, currents form and cause mineral-rich mud and
dissolved nutrients to fall to the bottom. Figure 2.1 illustrates how the
waters mix in such a way that the estuary becomes a nutrient trap. These
nutrients then become available to producers, and in some shallow areas,
marsh grass will grow in the mud. Estuaries tend to be very productive
ecosystems because they constantly receive fresh nutrients from the river.
The surrounding land, such as the mainland or a peninsula, protects
estuaries from the harsh force of ocean waves.
Figure 2.1
Estuary The mixing of fresh water and salt water at the mouth of a river creates a nutrient-rich estuary.

QUICKLAB Plants and Animals of Estuaries
Estuaries For a week each spring, horseshoe crabs, shown in Figure 2.2, crawl out
Procedure of the ocean and onto the beaches of Delaware Bay. In the shallow areas
1. Fill a clean fish bowl two-thirds full along the shore, the crabs mate and lay billions of eggs. Many migrating
with tap water. shorebirds depend on these eggs for food.
2. Pour 200 mL of ocean saline Estuaries support many marine organisms because estuaries receive
solution into a 250 mL beaker and plenty of light for photosynthesis and abundant nutrients for plants and
add 5 drops of red food coloring. animals. Rivers supply nutrients that have been washed from the land,
3. Slowly pour the saline solution into and because the water is shallow, sunlight can reach all the way to the
the water in the bowl. bottom of the estuary. The light and nutrients support large populations
4. Record your observations. of rooted plants as well as plankton. The plankton in turn provide food
5. Repeat using the estuary solution.
for larger animals, such as fish. Dolphins, manatees, otters, and other
Analysis mammals often feed on fish and plants in estuaries. Oysters, barnacles,
1. What do your observations tell you and clams live anchored to marsh grass or rocks and feed by filtering
about how fresh water and sea plankton out of the water. Organisms that live in estuaries are able to
water interact in an estuary? tolerate variations in salinity because the salt content of the water varies
2. Why is this interaction so important as fresh water and salt water mix when tides go in and out.
to species that live in the estuary?
CASESTUDY
Restoration of the
Chesapeake Bay
The Chesapeake Bay is the largest estuary in the United States. The bay
produces large amounts of seafood each year, supports many species of
wildlife, and provides recreation for millions of people.
However, the ecosystems of the bay are threatened by several
environmental problems. Pollution builds up because only a very narrow
opening joins the bay and the ocean. Because of this the small tide
flushes pollutants out of the bay very slowly. By 1980, the Chesapeake
Bay was severely polluted with toxic industrial chemicals. Pesticides as
well as excess nutrients ran into the bay from housing developments,
farms, and wastewater (including sewage). Marsh grasses and plankton
were dying, and fish, oysters, and crabs were disappearing. Birds of prey,
such as bald eagles, had almost vanished. Therefore, environmentalists
and residents became alarmed and launched campaigns to save the bay.
Restoring Chesapeake Bay habitats and water quality is not easy.
Maryland and Virginia, the main bordering states of the bay, have
different environmental laws. Also, the bay’s watershed covers parts
The Chesapeake Bay forms where the
of four other states. Interested groups would have to work together if
Potomac, Rappahannock, and other
they were to restore the bay. The Chesapeake Bay Program was set rivers meet the Atlantic Ocean.
up as a partnership between the Environmental Protection Agency, the
180 Unit 2: Ecology

Estuaries provide protected harbors, access to the Figure 2.2
ocean, and connection to a river. As a result, many of
the world’s major ports are built on estuaries. Of the Estuary Life Horseshoe crabs go to the Delaware Bay, an
10 largest urban areas in the world, 6 were built on es- estuary between New Jersey and Delaware, to lay their eggs.
tuaries. These 6 cities are Tokyo, New York, Shanghai,
Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, and Mumbai.
Threats to Estuaries
Estuaries in populated areas were often used as solid
waste landfills. The landfills were then developed and
used as building sites. This practice occurred widely
in California, which now has plans to restore some
of its estuary wetlands. The pollutants that damage
estuaries are the same pollutants that damage other
aquatic ecosystems: sewage, industrial waste, and
runoff from agricultural, domestic, and urban sources.
Most of these pollutants eventually break down over
time, but estuaries cannot cope with the excessive
amounts produced by dense human populations.
increasing and development is reducing forests at the

rate of 100 acres per day. Also because of development,
forested areas are becoming fragmented, reducing their
ability to improve water quality and provide habitat for
wildlife.
Concerned citizens have formed the Chesapeake
Bay Program to study, preserve, and restore the bay’s
(b) ©Bill Garrett/America 24-7/Getty Images; (t) ©Paul Sutherland/National Geographic Society/Corbis
ecosystems. Many other parts of the United States have

This great egret lives developed similar stewardship programs to protect their
in one of the estuaries
waterways.
that borders the
Learn more about the watershed where you live and
Chesapeake Bay.
what you can do to help protect it. Participate in river, creek,
and beach clean-ups and promote sustainable development
District of Columbia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, in your community that will improve the future quality of life
and citizen advisory groups. Goals included reducing
Critical Thinking
for people and the environment.
chemical pollution, removing dams that prevented fish from
migrating, and reforesting river banks to reduce soil erosion.
Remarkable progress has been made in the last 30 years. Critical Thinking
As of 2010, around twenty-eight percent of the tidal waters
1. Predicting Consequences If the Chesapeake
that were analyzed showed no impairment from chemical
Bay Program had never been founded, what
contaminants. Blue crabs, for which the bay is famous,
might have happened to the Chesapeake Bay?
have rebounded from an average of 192 million in 1990 to Select one organism and explain how it might
315 million in 2010. Planting trees has restored forested have been affected.
buffers to about 60 percent of the watershed, and
2. Identifying Relationships How may the use
populations of fish, such as striped bass, are increasing.
of less fertilizer on plants and lawns help the
However, the number of people in the bay area is Chesapeake Bay and other estuaries?

Figure 2.3
ECOFACT Salt Marshes
Mangroves Mangrove swamps are
found along warm, tropical coasts In estuaries, where rivers deposit their load of mineral-rich mud, salt
and are dominated by salt-tolerant marshes form. Here, thousands of acres of salt marsh support a com-
mangrove trees. munity of clams, fish, and birds. The marsh also acts as a nursery in
which many species of shrimps, crabs, and fishes find protection when
they are small. As they grow to maturity and migrate to the sea, they are
eaten by larger fish or caught by commercial fisheries. Salt marshes, like
other wetlands, absorb pollutants and protect inland areas.
Mangrove Swamps
Mangroves, such as those shown in Figure 2.3, are several species of
small trees adapted for growing in shallow salt water. Most mangroves
have wide, above-ground root systems for support. Dense growths of
mangrove trees in swampy areas called mangrove swamps are found in
tropical and subtropical zones. Mangrove swamps help to protect the
coastline from erosion and reduce the damage from storms. They pro-
ECOFACT vide habitat for about 2,000 animal species. Like salt marshes, mangrove
swamps have been filled with waste or used for development projects in
Mangrove Swamps
many parts of the world.
Mangroves cover 180 billion square
meters of tropical coastlines around
the world. The largest single mangrove Rocky and Sandy Shores
swamp is 5.7 billion square meters,
Rocky shores have many more plant and animal species than sandy
located in the Sundarbans of
shores do. The rocks anchor seaweed and the many animals that live on
Bangladesh. This single mangrove
swamp provides habitat for the Bengal
it, such as sea anemones, mussels, and sponges. Life on sandy shores,
tiger and helps supply approximately although less diverse, is abundant in the water and in the sand and sedi-
300,000 people with food, fuel, ments. In the water and on land, animals are adapted to the effects of
building materials, and medicines. drying and exposure at low tide. At low tide, birds poke and prod about
for animals that have not attached themselves firmly enough or buried
themselves deeply enough to escape the tidal pull. Barrier islands, such as
Check for Understanding the one in Figure 2.4, often run parallel to sandy shores. These islands help
ame two things that a salt marsh has in
N to protect the mainland and the coastal wetlands from storms and ocean
common with a mangrove swamp. waves and often provide habitat for wildlife.
Figure 2.4
Barrier Islands This barrier island is located off the coast of Long Island, New York. Barrier (t) ©Jack Cox in Mexico/Alamy; (b) ©Thomas R. Fletcher/Alamy
islands are separated from the mainland and help protect the shore of the mainland from erosion.
critical thinking
Explain How do barrier islands protect the main shoreline from erosion?
182 Unit 2: Ecology

Figure 2.5
Coral Reefs Coral

reefs are found in warm,
shallow waters, where
there is enough light for
photosynthesis. Coral reefs
support a great diversity of
species.
Coral Reefs Figure 2.6
Coral reefs are limestone ridges built by tiny coral animals called coral Polyps Coral reefs (bottom) are
polyps and the algae that live inside them. Coral polyps secrete skeletons built by tiny coral animals called
of limestone (calcium carbonate), which slowly accumulate and form coral polyps. The stinging polyps of
coral reefs. Thousands of species of plants and animals live in the cracks fire coral (top) capture animals by
of coral reefs, which makes coral reefs, like Australia’s 1600-mile-long poisoning them.
Great Barrier Reef, among the most diverse ecosystems on Earth.
Because reef-building corals live only in warm salt water where there
is enough light for photosynthesis, coral reefs are found in shallow, clear
tropical seas. Figure 2.5 shows the locations of coral reefs. Only the outer
layer of a reef contains living corals, which build their rock homes with
the help of the photosynthetic algae that live within them. Some coral
reefs have been building for hundreds of thousands of years. Corals, such
as those shown in Figure 2.6, are predators that never chase their prey.
Their stinging polyps capture small animals that float or swim close to the
reef. Because of their convoluted shape, coral reefs provide a habitat for a
magnificent variety of fish, snails, clams, sponges, anemones, and many
other types of marine organisms.
Coral Reefs in Danger

(inset) ©imagebroker/Alamy; (b) ©Borut Furlan/WaterFrame/Getty Images
Coral reefs are fragile ecosystems. If the surrounding water is too hot or
cold for too long, or if it is too muddy, polluted, or high in nutrients, the
algae that live in the corals will leave or die. As a result, the corals turn
white, a condition called coral bleaching. If coral bleaching occurs often
or long enough, coral animals and the reefs they build will die.
Since the twentieth century, bleaching events have been occurring
more frequently, mainly due to human activities. About 50 percent of the
world’s coral reefs are now in danger of destruction. In addition, climate
change, oil spills, and polluting runoff have been linked to the destruction
of coral reefs. Overfishing also upsets the balance of a reef ecosystem by
devastating fish populations. Because coral reefs grow slowly, a reef may
not be able to repair itself when parts of it are stressed or destroyed.

Oceans
Because water absorbs light, sunlight that plants can use for photosynthe-
sis penetrates only about 100 m (330 ft) into the ocean. As a result, much
of the ocean’s life is concentrated in the shallow, coastal waters. Here,
sunlight penetrates to the bottom and rivers wash nutrients from the
land. Seaweed and algae grow anchored to rocks, and phytoplankton drift
on the surface. Invertebrates and fish that feed on these plants are also
concentrated near the shore.
Plants and Animals of Oceans

In the open ocean, phytoplankton grow only in areas where there is
enough light and nutrients. As a result, the open ocean is one of the least
FieldStudy productive of all ecosystems. Phytoplankton have buoyancy devices, such
Go to Appendix B to find the field study as oil bubbles, that prevent them from sinking into deep water, which is
Once Upon a Time. too dark for photosynthesis. The sea’s smallest herbivores are the zoo-
plankton, which live near the surface with the phytoplankton they eat.
The zooplankton include jellyfish, tiny shrimp, and the larvae of fish and
bottom-dwelling animals, such as oysters and lobsters. Fish feed on the
plankton as do marine mammals such as whales.
Figure 2.7 The depths of the ocean are perpetually dark, so most food at
the ocean floor consists of dead organisms that fall from the surface.
Layers of the Ocean The amount Decomposers, filter feeders, and the organisms that eat them live in
of sunlight available determines which the deep areas of the ocean, along with chemosynthetic organisms that
organisms can live in each layer of the derive nutrients from chemicals in the water or substrate. Figure 2.7
ocean.
184 Unit 2: Ecology

Figure 2.8
illustrates the types of organisms that may be found in the layers of the
ocean at various depths, depending on available sunlight. Wildlife Threats This sea lion
was strangled by a fishing net off the
coast of California.
Threats to the Oceans
Although oceans are huge, they are steadily becoming more polluted.
Most ocean pollution arises from activities on land. For example, runoff
from fertilized fields, golf courses, or suburban lawns may cause algal
blooms, some of which are poisonous. Waste from cities and indus-
tries, fertilizers, and sewage running off the land are the main sources of
coastal pollution in the United States.
Overfishing and certain fishing methods are also destroying some
fish populations. Immense trawl nets can entangle organisms that are
larger than the holes in the nets. Marine mammals such as dolphins, and
animals like sea turtles, which must breathe air, can drown in the nets if
the nets are not equipped with escape mechanisms. Some ships illegally
discard fishing lines into the ocean, where they can strangle and kill ani-
mals such as the sea lion in Figure 2.8. Check for Understanding
hat are two threats to organisms that
W
live in the ocean?
Arctic and Antarctic Ecosystems
The arctic ecosystems at the North and South Poles are marine ecosys-
(cr) ©Image Life/Corbis; (t) ©Photo Researchers/Photo Researchers/Getty Images
tems because nearly all the food comes from the ocean and seas. Figure 2.9
The Arctic Ocean is rich in nutrients from the surrounding land Arctic Dweller Beluga whales
masses. It supports large populations of plankton, which feed a rich inhabit the Arctic Ocean.
diversity of fish in the open water and under the ice. The fish are food for
ocean birds, whales, and seals. Beluga whales, shown in Figure 2.9, feed on
nearly 100 different arctic organisms. Fish and seals also provide food for
polar bears and people on land.
The Antarctic is the only continent never colonized by humans. Even
during the summer, only a few plants grow at the rocky edges of the
continent. As in the Arctic, plankton form the basis of the Antarctic food
web. They nourish large numbers of fish, whales, and birds such as pen-
guins, which cannot fly because their wings have evolved for swimming.

1. Explain why estuaries are very productive 5. Predicting Consequences Suppose that the
ecosystems. Why are estuaries vulnerable to the sea level suddenly rose by 100 m. What would
effects of pollution? happen to the world’s coral reefs? Explain.
2. Compare salt marshes with mangrove swamps. 6. Analyzing Processes Read the description of
estuaries in this section, and explain why cities
3. Describe two factors that can damage coral reefs.
are often built on estuaries. How would building
4. List two ways in which animals of the oceans a city on an estuary affect the plants and animals
are threatened. living in the estuary?

Maps in Action
Viewing Wetlands Historically

WETLANDS IN THE UNITED STATES,
Wetlands 1780s
In The Vs.
United 1980s
States, 1780's Vs. 1980's
Percent Wetland
1780s
1 to 5
6 to 12
13 to 25
26 to 50
51 to 55
Percent Wetland
1980s
1 to 5
6 to 12
13 to 25
26 to 50
51 to 55
Alaska and Hawaii are not drawn to scale. Source: U.S. Geological Survey
MAP SKILLS
Use the maps of wetland loss in the United States to answer the questions below.
1. Using a Key Use the key to determine how many 4. Making Inferences What might have caused
states had a decrease in wetland distribution from 6 to Florida’s and Louisiana’s wetlands to decrease in
12 percent to 1 to 5 percent. distribution?
2. Analyzing Data Is there any state on the map of 5. Using a Key Use the key to determine how many
wetland distribution in the 1980s that has the same states had a decrease in wetland distribution from 26 to
percentage of wetland distribution as it did in the 50 percent to 13 to 25 percent.
1780s? If so, how many?
6. Identifying Trends If these trends of wetland loss
3. Interpreting Data Are these maps an accurate continued as shown, what would a map of United States
indicator of wetland distribution change? Explain. wetland distribution look like today?
186 Unit 2: Ecology

at HMDScience.com
Hurricane Katrina
and New Orleans
Over 80 percent of New Orleans was submerged by
floodwater when Hurricane Katrina struck in August, 2005.
The city of New Orleans was built on the Mississippi River

Delta, about 160 kilometers upriver from the Gulf of Mexico.
This city is vulnerable to flooding from the Mississippi River,
Lake Pontchartrain to the north, and heavy rainfall from
tropical storms. In addition, hurricanes that pass over the
coast can create storm surges—waves up to 9 meters.
To help protect New Orleans from flooding, engineers and
city planners built levees and flood walls along the river banks
and lakeshore. They constructed pumps to move floodwater
from lower-lying areas through canals into Lake Pontchartrain.
Despite these measures, Hurricane Katrina overwhelmed the
city in late August, 2005. Why was the damage so severe?
Analyses of the catastrophe concluded that human-made
changes in the natural environment were partly responsible
for the damage. vegetation that had helped to hold the banks in place. The
increased speed and volume of the water in the canals
Protection from the Sea washed away more soil from the barrier islands. As the barrier
islands eroded, the marshes and land behind them were left
The Mississippi River Delta formed from sediment carried
exposed and were washed away.
down the river over several thousand years. It consists of
saltwater and freshwater marshes, mud flats, and creeks,
collectively known as coastal wetlands. Winds and currents The Impact of Katrina
move loose sediment to build up barrier islands. These islands Most of the damage from Hurricane Katrina was caused by
shelter the coastal wetlands and mainland from the ocean. rising water that overflowed or broke through the levees.
Plants growing in the wetlands trap sediment and help to A wide shipping canal funneled a 4.6 meters storm surge
stabilize the land. The Louisiana coast has about 40 percent of from the ocean into the city. The storm surge broke through
all the coastal marshes in the continental United States. These the banks of the canal. Other canals, built to drain water into
coastal wetlands are an important habitat for crustaceans, Lake Pontchartrain, had their flow reversed as the water level
mollusks, fish, and birds. As well, they filter out pollutants from in theWhat
lake rose.
DoEventually,
You Think?the city’s drainage system failed
the river, absorb floodwater, and help to supply fresh water to when most of the pumping stations were submerged.
aquifers. As a result of these factors, an estimated 300,000 homes
were destroyed or damaged beyond repair. More than 1300
Eroding the Barrier Islands people, 70 percent of whom were elderly, died.
As levees were constructed to confine the flow of the

Mississippi River, sediment carried by the river was flushed What Do You Think?
farther out into the Gulf of Mexico. The sediment was no Many engineers and environmental scientists had
©Vincent Laforet, POOL/AP Images
longer deposited to build up more land. predicted that the risk of flooding in New Orleans
Canals that were built through the barrier islands to handle had been increased by poorly designed levees
and canals, and by massive erosion. Should a city
river traffic increased the erosion of the coastal wetlands.
have been built in an environment known to be so
Soil dug from the canals was piled on the banks, smothering unstable?

Chapter 7 Summary
Section 1 Freshwater Ecosystems Objectives Key Terms
• Aquatic ecosystems can be classified as freshwater wetland

ecosystems or marine ecosystems. The plants and plankton
animals in aquatic ecosystems are adapted to specific nekton
environmental conditions.
benthos
• Freshwater ecosystems include lakes, ponds, freshwa- littoral zone
ter wetlands, rivers, and streams. The types of fresh-
benthic zone
water ecosystems are classified by the depth of the
water, the speed of the water flow, and the availability eutrophication
of minerals, sunlight, and oxygen.
• Freshwater wetlands serve many functions within
ecosystems. They trap and filter sediments and
pollutants; reduce the likelihood of a flood; and buffer
shorelines against erosion.
Section 2 Marine Ecosystems Objectives Key Terms
• Marine ecosystems are identified by the presence of estuary

salt water and include coastal wetlands, coral reefs, salt marsh
oceans, and polar ecosystems. mangrove swamp
• Estuaries are among the most productive of ecosystems barrier island
because they constantly receive fresh nutrients from a coral reef
river and from an ocean. Estuaries provide habitat for a
multitude of plants and animals.
• Coral reefs are susceptible to destruction because they
must remain at tropical temperatures and they must
receive a large amount of sunlight. Coral reefs provide
habitat for approximately one-fourth of all marine
species.
• Almost every person has an impact on aquatic
ecosystems. Through understanding how we affect
(t) ©altrendo nature/Stockbyte/Getty Images; (b) ©Image Life/Corbis
aquatic ecosystems, we can reduce the negative effects
we have on them.
188 Unit 2: Ecology

Chapter 7 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 14. Arctic ecosystems are considered marine
ecosystems because
a. arctic ecosystems contain an enormous
1. wetland amount of frozen sea water.
2. mangrove swamp b. arctic ecosystems are inhabited by few organisms.
3. estuary c. sunlight is limited.
4. eutrophication d. phytoplankton form the basis of arctic
5. benthos food webs.
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings of 15. Which of the following statements does not
the terms differ. describe a function of wetlands?
6. littoral zone and benthic zone a. Wetlands buffer shorelines against erosion.
7. plankton and nekton b. Wetlands provide spawning grounds for
8. salt marsh and barrier island commercially important fish and shellfish.
9. wetland and coral reef c. Wetlands filter pollutants.
10. Concept Map Use the following terms to d. Wetlands make good hazardous waste dumpsites.
create a concept map: lakes, estuaries, aquatic
ecosystems, coral reefs, freshwater wetlands, 16. Tiny animals, called coral polyps, that
freshwater ecosystems, rivers, oceans, marshes, secrete limestone create
marine ecosystems, swamps, coastal ecosystems, a. barrier islands.
and mangrove swamps.
b. coral reefs.
c. swamps.
Reviewing Main Ideas d. salt marshes.
11. Wetlands are most important to fisheries in the
United States because 17. Mangrove trees grow
a. wetlands are the easiest place to catch fish. a. along riverbanks.
b. wetlands are the breeding grounds for insects b. in freshwater wetlands.
that are eaten by fish. c. in tropical areas and in subtropical areas.
c. wetlands provide the most desirable species d. in the benthic zones of lakes.
of fish.
d. many of the fish caught each year use wetlands 18. The Florida Everglades
for feeding and spawning. a. is the largest freshwater marsh in the
United States.
12. Animals that live in estuaries
b. protects threatened and endangered wildlife.
a. tend to produce few offspring.
c. provides habitat for migratory birds.
b. are usually found in unpolluted environments.
d. All of the above
c. must be adapted to varying levels of salinity.
d. are adapted to cold-water conditions. 19. Which of the following actions is an example of
how humans affect wetlands?
13. Bacteria can kill organisms in eutrophic lakes by a. draining a wetland to create farmland
a. feeding on decaying plants and animals. b. clearing a wetland to build a housing
b. reducing oxygen dissolved in the water. development
c. Both (a) and (b) c. using a wetland as a landfill
d. Neither (a) nor (b) d. All of the above

Chapter Review

20. How does the phrase “the best of both worlds” 28. Analyzing Relationships Write a short
relate to an estuary? paragraph that explains the relationship between
the speed of a river and the oxygen content of a
21. Explain the difference between the types of
river.
organisms that make up these classes: plankton,
nekton, and benthos. 29. Determining Cause and Effect Explain what
may happen if the use of fertilizer on farms and
22. List three functions of wetlands.
lawns around an estuary is not controlled.
23. Describe what happens when a lake is considered
30. Making Comparisons Read the paragraph
to be eutrophic.
under the heading “Threats to Estuaries” in this
24. What type of vegetation dominates mangrove chapter. How do these threats compare with those
swamps? described under the heading “Threats to the
Oceans?”
Interpreting Graphics 31. Analyzing Relationships Explain why planting
trees along a riverbank might benefit a river
The pie graph below shows the percentage of coral ecosystem.
reefs at risk in the world. Use the pie graph to answer
32. Demography Six out of 10 of the largest urban
questions 25–27.
areas were built on estuaries. Three of these cities
25. Compute What percentage of coral reefs are still are Tokyo, New York, and Rio de Janeiro. Research
living? the population of each of these cities, and predict
26. Calculate If there is a total of 255,300 km2 of what may happen if population numbers continue
coral reefs in the world, how many square kilo- to increase.
meters of coral reefs are at a high risk of being 33 Research a Local Aquatic
destroyed? Ecosystem Observe an aquatic ecosystem near
27. Determine How many square kilometers of coral your school or home. This ecosystem can be as
reefs are at a medium risk of being destroyed? simple as a pond or stream or as complex as a
Assume there is a total of 255,300 km2 coral reefs lake or estuary. Observe the color of the water
in the world. and the types of plants and animals. Record
any interactions among the organisms that you
Status of the World’s observe. When you have recorded all of your data
Coral Reefs and observations, write a one-page report on the
aquatic ecosystem.
high risk destroyed

24% 20%
medium
low risk
risk
30%
26%
Source: Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network
190 Unit 2: Ecology

Chapter Review
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
Use the graph below to answer questions 34–35. STUDYSKILL
38. After reading the passage, explain how
Threatened Freshwater Fish Species estuaries show characteristics and wildlife of
40 both freshwater and marine ecosystems.
35 39.
WhyDescribe
It Matterstwo environmental conditions that
threaten the existence of aquatic organisms.
Percentage threatened
30
25
Why It Matters
20
40. Describe the ways
15
in which humans
10 impact aquatic
5 ecosystems.
0
A B C D E
Country
34. Analyzing Data The graph above illustrates

the percentage of freshwater fish species that are
threatened in specific countries. What percentage
of freshwater fish species are threatened in
country B? in country D?
35. Evaluating Data If the number of freshwater fish
STUDYSKILL
species in country C totals 599 different species,
how many of these species are threatened? Graph Skills Taking the following steps when reading
a graph will help you correctly interpret the information. Be
sure to read the title so that you understand what the graph
Making Connections represents. If the graph has axes, read the titles of both the
36. Communicating Main Ideas What effect does x- and the y-axis. Examine the range of values on both the
overfishing have on estuaries? What effect does x- and the y-axis. Finally, examine the data on the graph,
overfishing have on oceans? reading them from left to right, and put into words what you
37. Writing from Research Research endangered think the graph represents.
marine mammals of ocean and polar ecosystems.
Write a one-page report on the factors that have
caused these mammals to become endangered.
©Marty Snyderman/Corbis

ExplorationLab
Observation
Eutrophication: Too
Objectives
Observe the effects of
Much of a Good Thing?
nitrates and phosphates on
an aquatic ecosystem. Plants depend on nutrients such as phosphates and nitrates to survive.
However, when people release large amounts of these nutrients into rivers
Compare the growth of
organisms in different levels
and lakes, artificial eutrophication can occur. In artificial eutrophication,
of nutrients. nutrients cause algae and plant life to grow rapidly and then die off and
decay. When microorganisms decompose the algae and plant matter,
Predict possible effects
they use up oxygen in the water, which causes the death of fish and other
nitrates and phosphates
would have on an aquatic
animals that depend on oxygen for survival. Eutrophication is commonly
ecosystem in your area. caused by phosphates, which are often found in detergents, and by
nitrates, which are found in animal wastes and fertilizers. In this lab, you
Materials will observe artificial eutrophication in an aquatic ecosystem.
distilled water
eyedropper
Procedure
fertilizer, household use
1. Working with your team, use a marker to label one of your three
fluorescent lamp
bottles (or jars) as your “Control,” a second bottle “Fertilizer,” and a
graduated cylinder third bottle “Excess fertilizer.”
uide to pond life
g
identification 2. Put 750 mL of distilled water in each of the three bottles. Read the
jars or plastic soda bottles, label on the fertilizer container to determine the recommended dilu-
1 L (3) tion of fertilizer for watering plants. To the “Fertilizer” bottle, add the
microscope amount of fertilizer recommended for a quart of water. To the “Excess
icroscope slides with
m
fertilizer” bottle, add 10 times this amount of fertilizer. Stir the con-
coverslips tents of each bottle thoroughly to dissolve the fertilizer.
permanent marker
3. Obtain a sample of pond water. Stir it gently but thoroughly to ensure
plastic wrap that the organisms in it are evenly distributed. Measure 100 mL of
ond water that contains
p pond water into each of the three bottles.
viable organisms
stirring rod 4. Cover each bottle loosely with plastic
wrap. Place all three bottles about 20 cm
from a fluorescent lamp. (Do not place the
bottles in direct sunlight, as this may cause
them to heat up too much.)
5. Observe a drop of pond water from your

sample, under the microscope. On a sheet
of paper, draw at least four different organ-
isms that you see. Determine whether the
organisms are algae (usually green) or
consumers (usually able to move). Describe
the total number and type of organisms
that you see.
Step 5 Observe a drop of pond water

under the microscope.
192 Unit 2: Ecology

6. Based on what you have learned about eu-
trophication, make a prediction about how
the pond organisms will grow in each of the
three bottles.
7. Observe the bottles when you first set Step 7 Record your
them up and at least once every three days observations of the
for the next 3 weeks. Make a data table to bottles every 3 days
record the date, color, odor, and any other for 3 weeks.
observations you make for each bottle.
8. When life-forms begin to be visible in the

bottles (probably after a week), use an eye-
dropper to remove a sample of organisms
from each bottle and observe the sample
under the microscope. Record your obser-
vations.
9. At the end of your 3-week observation

period, again remove a sample from each
bottle and observe it under the microscope.
Draw at least four of the most abundant
organisms that you see, and describe how
the number and type of organisms have
changed.
Analysis
1. Describing Events After three weeks, which bottle shows the most
abundant growth of algae? What may have caused this growth?
2. Analyzing Data Did you observe any effects on organisms other

than algae in the bottle that had the most abundant algae growth?
Explain.
Conclusions
3. Applying Conclusions Did your observations match your predic-
tions? Explain.
4. Drawing Conclusions How can artificial eutrophication be pre-

vented in natural water bodies?
Extension
5. Designing Experiments Modify the experiment by using household
dishwashing detergent instead of household fertilizer. Are the results
different?
6. Research and Communications Research the watersheds that are

located close to your area. How might activities such as farming and
building affect watersheds?

Ecozine
HMDScience.com


environment Conserving Top
Predators
Chapter 9: society and

the environment Lost
Populations: What
Happened?
©Prisma/SuperStock
Chapter 10: making a

difference Dr. E. O.
Wilson:
Champion of Biodiversity
194
E
Populations
Unit 3
a
H
Chapter 8
Understanding Populations
Chapter 9
The Human Population
Chapter 10
Biodiversity
This school of young striped eel catfish

gathers into a huge, writhing ball to
defend against predators. Forming a
ball makes the fish look like one large
organism, and the fish’s stripes may
(tr) ©Still Pictures; (tc) ©Syndicated Features Limited/The Image Works; (br) ©Photoshot USA/Canada
make it hard for a predator to see

individual fish.
195
Chapter 8
Section 1
How Populations Change
Understanding
Populations
in Size
Section 2
How Species Interact with
Each Other
Why It Matters
Killer whales hunt and eat sea
lions. Would a change in the
numbers of sea lions have an
effect on the killer whales?
CASESTUDY
Learn more about the
relationships between predators
and their prey in the case study
Predator-Prey Adaptations on
pages 206–207.
Online
HMDScience.com

©Still Pictures

196
Section 1
How Populations Objectives
Change in Size
Describe the three main
properties of a population.
Describe exponential population

growth.
Two hundred years ago, no quagga mussels inhabited Lake Michigan, and
Describe how the reproductive
blue whales numbered 275,000 in our oceans. Today, nearly a billion quagga
mussels disrupt the ecology of Lake Michigan, and blue whale numbers are barely
behavior of individuals can
recovering from a low of 2,000 individuals reached under the pressure of whaling. affect the growth rate of their
These are opposite extremes of environmental problems expressed at the level population.
of populations, where the balance between births and deaths can lead either to
stability or major changes. Explain how population sizes in
nature are regulated.
What Is a Population?
Key Terms
A population is the set of individuals within a species living in the same
population
place at the same time. All the bass in an Iowa lake make up one popu-
lation. Figure 1.1 shows other examples of a population and part of a density
population. The adults within a population form a reproductive group dispersion
because, by definition, organisms breed with members of their own growth rate
population. For example, bass in one lake will breed with each other and reproductive potential
will not breed with bass from other lakes. exponential growth
carrying capacity
Figure 1.1
Populations All the palm trees on an island is a population, and a school of fish in a
(r) ©Paul & Paveena Mckenzie/Oxford Scientific/Getty Images; (l) ©Sylvain Sonnet/Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images
body of water is part of a population.
Chapter 8: Understanding Populations 197

Figure 1.2
Population Density Populations may have very different sizes, densities, and
dispersions. Flamingos (right) are usually found in huge, dense flocks, whereas most
snakes (left) are solitary and are dispersed randomly.
Properties of Populations
Populations may be described in terms of size, density, and dispersion,
QUICKLAB as shown in Figure 1.2. Population size is the total number of individuals,
whereas density is the number of individuals per unit area or volume,
QUICKLAB
such as the number of bass per cubic meter of water in a lake. A popula-
Population Growth tion’s dispersion describes the arrangement of its individuals in space. A
Procedure population’s dispersion may be even, clumped, or random.
1. Model the change in size of
a population by applying the
following equation: change in How Does a Population Grow?
population size = births – deaths.
A population gains individuals with each new offspring or birth and loses
2. Start with 100 g (3.5 oz) of dry
beans. Count out five beans to
them with each death. The resulting population change over time can be
represent the starting population of represented by the equation below. The percentage change in the size of
(tr) ©Norman Tomalin/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot; (l) ©Design Pics/Jack Goldfarb/Getty Images
a species. a population over a given period of time is that population’s growth rate.
3. Assume that each year 20 percent The growth rate is the birth rate minus the death rate.
of the beans each have two
offspring. Also assume that 20
percent of the beans die each year.
4. Calculate the number of beans
to add or subtract for 1 year.
Round your calculations to whole
numbers. Add to or remove
beans from your population as Over time, the growth rate of a population changes because birth rates
appropriate. and death rates increase or decrease. “Growth” rates can be positive,
5. Continue modeling your population
negative, or zero. For a population’s growth rate to be zero, the average
changes over the course of 10
number of births must equal the average number of deaths. A population
years. Record each change.
would remain the same size if each pair of adults produced exactly two
Analysis offspring, and each of those offspring survived to reproduce. If the adults
1. Make a graph of your data. in a population are not replaced by new births, the growth rate will be
Describe the changes in your negative and the population will decrease.
population.
198 Unit 3: Populations

Figure 1.3
How Fast Can a Population Grow? Reproductive Potential Most organisms have a
A female sea turtle may lay 2,000 eggs in her lifetime. reproductive potential that far exceeds the number of their
Figure 1.3 shows newly hatched sea turtles leaving offspring that will survive. Very few of these baby sea turtles will
their nests for the ocean. If all of them survived, the survive long enough to breed.
turtle population would grow rapidly. But many
young turtles are eaten by crabs or fish, and others
starve. All populations experience deaths, but death
rates can differ among species and populations. To
understand the fastest hypothetical growth rate, sci-
entists first consider what might happen when death
rates are very low.
Reproductive Potential
A species’ biotic potential is the fastest rate at which
its populations can grow. This rate is limited by
the maximum number of offspring that each mem-
ber of the population can produce, which is called
its reproductive potential. Some species have much
higher reproductive potentials than others. A bacterium can produce 19
million descendants in a few days or weeks. A pair of bowhead whales
would take hundreds of years to leave that many descendants!
Reproductive potential is higher when individuals produce more
offspring at one time, reproduce more often, and reproduce earlier in life. Figure 1.4
Reproducing earlier in life has the greatest effect on reproductive poten-
tial. Reproducing early shortens the generation time, the average time it Population Growth Population
takes a member of the population to reach the age when it reproduces. growth is graphed by plotting population
size over a period of time. Exponential
Small organisms, such as bacteria, have short generation times. Some population growth will look like the curve
bacteria can reproduce when they are only twenty minutes old. As a shown here.
result, their populations can grow quickly. In contrast, large organisms,
such as elephants and humans, become sexually mature only after a critical thinking
number of years. The human generation time is about 20 years, so hu- Explain Under what conditions
mans have a much lower reproductive potential than bacteria. does exponential population
growth take place?
Exponential Growth
Exponential Growth 800,000
Populations sometimes undergo exponential growth, which means 700,000
they grow faster and faster. For example, if a pair of dogs gives birth to
600,000
6 puppies, there will be 6 dogs in one generation. If each dog in that
Number of individuals
generation mates and has a litter of 6 puppies, there will be 36 dogs in 500,000
©David Hughes/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot
the next generation. The following generation will contain 216 dogs, and 400,000
so on. If the number of dogs is plotted on a graph versus time, the graph
300,000
will have the shape shown in Figure 1.4.
200,000
Exponential growth occurs in nature only when populations have
plenty of food and space, and have little or no competition or predators. 100,000
For example, populations of quagga mussels imported into the United 0

0 4 8 12 16 20
States initially underwent exponential growth. Similar population explo-
Number of months
sions occur when bacteria or mold grow on a new source of food.

ECOFACT What Limits Population Growth?
Carrying Capacity of Islands Because natural conditions are neither ideal nor constant, populations
Islands are good places to study cannot grow forever and rarely grow at their reproductive potential.
carrying capacity because islands have Eventually, resources are used up or the environment changes, and deaths
clear boundaries. The Pribilof Islands
increase or births decrease. Under the forces of natural selection in a given
off the coast of Alaska were the site
environment, only some members of any population will survive and re-
of a well-studied population explosion
produce. Thus, the properties of a population tend to change over time.
and crash. In 1911, 25 reindeer were
introduced on one of the islands. By
1938, the herd had grown to 2,000 Carrying Capacity
animals. The reindeer ate mostly
The blue line in Figure 1.5 represents a population that seems to approach
lichens, which grow back very slowly.
a particular size over time. This theoretical limit, the dashed yellow line,
By 1950, there were only 8 reindeer
is called carrying capacity. At high densities, populations move toward
alive on the island.
lower birth rates or higher death rates (this is called density dependence).
Carrying capacity is the population size where birth rates and death rates
are equal. Another definition of carrying capacity for a particular species
is the maximum population that its ecosystem can support indefinitely.
A population may increase beyond its carrying capacity, but it can-
not stay at an increased size for long. If a population is larger than the
carrying capacity, it may use up its resources, and fewer individuals will
survive to reproduce. Carrying capacity is difficult to predict or calculate.
However, it can be estimated by looking at average population sizes or by
observing a population crash after a certain size has been exceeded.
The history of rabbits in Australia demonstrates both exponential
growth and carrying capacity. Originally, there were no rabbits in the native
ecosystems of Australia. When rabbits were introduced there in 1859,
their numbers increased rapidly because they had plenty of vegetation to
eat, no competition, and no predators. But eventually, disease and star-
vation caused the rabbit population to crash. Over time, the vegetation
recovered, and the rabbit population increased again.
Figure 1.5
Carrying Capacity An example Population overshoots

carrying capacity
of carrying capacity is shown by the
dashed yellow line in the graph (right). Population runs out of
When rabbits were introduced into Carrying resources and declines
capacity
Australia (below), their population
quickly exceeded the carrying capacity
Population size
of the area. Rabbits have eaten all the

vegetation around this water hole.
Population recovers
and stabilizes
Exponential
growth
Population crashes
©Bettmann/Corbis
Time

Figure 1.6
Competition Members of a population often compete with each other. These plants
(below) are growing over each other as they compete for light. These wolves (right) are
competing for food and for social dominance.
Connect to MATH
Resource Limits Connect to MATH

A species reaches its carrying capacity when it consumes a particular Growth Rate
natural resource at the same rate at which the ecosystem produces the A growth rate is a change in a
resource. That natural resource is then called a limiting resource for the population’s size over a specific period
species in that area. For example, plant growth is limited by supplies of of time.
water, sunlight, and mineral nutrients. The supply of the most severely
growth change in population
limited resources determines the carrying capacity of an environment =
rate time
for a particular species at a particular time.
Imagine a starting population of 100
individuals. If there were 10 births and
Competition Within a Population 5 deaths in a given year, what was the
The members of a population tend to use the same resources in the same population’s growth rate for the year?
(r) ©Charles Mauzy/Corbis; (l) ©Ronald Wittek/Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images
ways, so they will eventually compete with one another as the population In the next year, if there were 20 births
approaches its carrying capacity. An example is mealworm larvae in a and 10 deaths, what would the new
sack of flour. Adults of this beetle will lay their eggs in a sack of flour, and growth rate be? If births increased by
10 and deaths increased by 5 for each
leave. Most of the first larvae to hatch will have plenty of flour to eat and
of the next 5 years, how would you
will grow to adulthood. However, the sack has a limited amount of food,
describe the growth of this population?
and mealworms from eggs that were laid later may not have enough food
to survive to adulthood.
Instead of competing directly for a limiting resource, members of a
species may compete indirectly for a resource by competing for social
dominance or for a territory. A territory is an area defended by one or
more individuals against other individuals. The territory is of value not
only for the space but also for the shelter, food, or breeding sites it con- Check for Understanding
tains. Many organisms expend a large amount of time and energy com- Describe Describe one example
peting with members of the same species. Some examples of competition of competition among members of
within species are shown in Figure 1.6. a population.

Figure 1.7
Density-Dependent Change
The way a disease spreads through
a population is affected by the
population’s density. These pine trees
have been infected by a disease carried
by the southern pine beetle. This
disease has spread rapidly through
timber forests in the United States.
Figure 1.8 Patterns of Population Change

Density-Independent Change Rates of birth or death in a population may be density dependent or
(cl) ©Wendell Metzen/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot; (t) ©Science Photo Library/Alamy

Weather events usually affect density independent. Density-dependent deaths occur more quickly in a
every individual in a similar way, crowded population than in a sparse population. Limited resources, pre-
so such events are considered dation, and disease often result in higher rates of death in dense popula-
density‑independent regulation. tions than in sparse populations. The pine trees in Figure 1.7 are infected
with a disease that is spreading in a density-dependent pattern. Many of
the same kind of pine tree are growing close to each other, so a disease-
carrying beetle easily spreads the disease from one tree to another.
When a cause of death is density independent, a certain proportion
of a population dies regardless of the population’s density. This type of
regulation affects all members of a population in a general or uniform
way. Severe weather and natural disasters are often density-independent
causes of death. The winter storm shown in Figure 1.8 froze crops and
fruiting trees regardless of the density of plants in the area. Populations
can show alternating periods of exponential growth and population
crashes with density-independent death rates. Many species of animals
in unpredictable environments show this pattern of population change.

1. Compare two populations in terms of size, 5. Making Predictions How accurately do you
density, and dispersion. Choose any populations think the future size of a population can be
you know of. predicted? What information might be needed
to make a prediction?
2. Describe exponential population growth.
6. Compare and Contrast Read the description
3. Describe three methods by which the
of the populations of rabbits in Australia
reproductive behavior of individuals can affect
and reindeer in the Pribilof Islands. List the
the growth rate of a population.
similarities and differences between these two
4. Explain how population sizes in nature are histories.
regulated.

Section 2
How Species Interact Objectives
with Each Other

Explain the difference between
niche and habitat.
Give examples of parts of a

niche.
Organisms in the wild interact with many different species. For example, in the
Describe the five major types of
African savanna, lions hunt zebras, fight with hyenas, and are fed upon by fleas and
ticks. Negative interactions between species, like competition and predation, aren’t
interactions between species.
the only type of interactions. Sometimes different species help each other. For
example, cleaner fish remove parasites from fish living on coral reefs.
parasitism and predation.
Explain how symbiotic

An Organism’s Niche relationships may evolve.
Many ecologists are interested in understanding species’ role in ecosys-
tems and requirements for survival. To do this they measure a species’
niche. There are several ways to define a niche. A niche (NICH) can be
Key Terms
the range of conditions in which a species can survive. For example, a niche
plant may only be able to survive in a particular range of temperatures, competition
with a certain amount of rainfall, and with access to enough nutrients. predation
Other scientists are interested in the ecological role of a species. These parasitism
scientists define a species’ niche by the resources they use, or the species mutualism
they feed on. For example, zebras are large herbivores on African grass- commensalism
lands. Kangaroos occupy a similar niche in Australia. Herbivores often symbiosis
interact with carnivores, like lions, if they both exist in the same habitat.
Some parts of a lion’s niche are shown in Figure 2.1. A niche is different
from a habitat. An organism’s habitat is a location. However, an organ-
ism’s pattern of use of its habitat is part of its niche.
(bc) ©Beverly Joubert/National Geographic Society; (bl) ©Y. Arthus-Bertand; (r) ©uwesSERENGETI/Alamy
Figure 2.1
A Lion’s Niche Parts of a lion’s niche are shown here. Can you think of other parts?

Figure 2.2 Types of Interactions Between Two Species
Species Interactions There are five Interaction Species A Species B Description

major types of species interactions.
Competition harmed harmed Each species negatively affects the other.
Predation and benefited harmed Species A feeds on species B.

COMMENSALISM Wren
makes nest without
parasitism
affecting cactus Mutualism benefited benefited Each species is helpful to the other.
Commensalism benefited unaffected Species A benefits from species B, but B

is unaffected.
COMPETITION Fox and

coyote are predators of
same prey
MUTUALISM Yucca moth PREDATION Kit fox

pollinates and lays eggs on hunts and feeds on
yucca flowers; moth larvae kangaroo rat
spread yucca seeds
Ways in Which Species Interact

The five major types of species interactions, summarized in Figure 2.2,
are competition, predation, parasitism, mutualism, and commensal-
ism. These categories are based on whether each species causes benefit
or harm to the other species in a given relationship. Not all interactions
Check for Understanding occur directly. For example, a tiger shark may cause sea turtles to not use
Identify What determines how a species certain areas. Seagrasses in these areas are not grazed as heavily. Tiger
interaction is categorized? sharks have a positive indirect interaction with the seagrass!
Competition
For most organisms, competition is part of daily life. Seed-eating birds
compete with each other for seeds under a bush, and the bush competes
with the tree next to it for nutrients in the soil. Competition is a relation-
ship in which different individuals or populations attempt to use the
same limited resource. Each individual has less access to the resource
and is harmed by the competition.
Competition can occur both within and between species. Members of
the same species compete with each other because they require the same
resources—they occupy the same niche. When members of different spe-
FieldStudy cies have niches that overlap they may compete for some resources. If two
Go to Appendix B to find the field study species have requirements that are too similar, one species may eliminate
Observing Competition. the other from a habitat. This is called competitive exclusion.

Types of Competition ECOFACT
Species may compete in different ways. Sometimes, individuals try to A Wide Niche
get as many resources as they can but do not fight over resources or get Coyotes live in a wide range of habitats
in each other’s way. In this type of scramble competition, the winner is and are willing to get close to human
the individual or species that gets the most resources the fastest. Some settlements. Coyotes are also known
examples of scramble competition are fish feeding on plankton or sea to eat a wide variety of animals and
turtles and sea cows feeding on seagrass. In interference competition, plants, including food that humans
individuals fight over resources or get in each others’ way when feeding. throw away. Thus, coyotes have a
For example, lions will steal kills from wild dogs and hyenas. broad and varied niche. Coyotes take
advantage of those parts of their niche
that are easiest to use and that present
Adaptations to Competition less competition.
If two species have identical resource needs in the same ecosystem, the
more successful species might drive out the less successful species. The
individuals that do best and leave the most offspring will be those that ei-
ther feed on slightly different resources or use resources in different ways.
One way competition can be reduced between species is by dividing
up the niche. Niche restriction occurs when each species uses less of the
niche than it is capable of using. Niche restriction is observed in closely
related species that use the same limited resources within a habitat. For
example, two similar barnacle species compete for space in the intertidal
zone of rocky shorelines. One of the species, Chthamalus stellatus, is HMDScience.com
found only in the upper level of the zone when the other species is pres- Populations and
ent. But when the other species is removed from the area, C. stellatus is Communities
found at deeper levels, as shown in Figure 2.3. In the presence of competi-
tion, the actual niche used by a species may be smaller than the potential
niche. Ecologists have observed various other ways of dividing up a niche
among groups of similar species.
Figure 2.3
Niche Restriction The barnacle species Chthamalus stellatus uses less of its potential
niche when competing for space with a similar barnacle species, Semibalanus balanoides.
HIGH TIDE
Chthamalus stellatus
Chthamalus niche
Semibalanus balanoides
size when
competition
is present
©Nature Picture Library/Britain On View/Getty Images
Chthamalus
niche size when
competition
is absent
LOW TIDE
205
Figure 2.4
Predation This predatory bird had Predation

to outrun its prey. Many organisms An organism that feeds on another organism is called a predator, and the
are adapted to avoid predation. organism that is fed upon is the prey. This kind of interaction is called
predation. Examples of predation include sharks eating fish, bats eating
insects, or wolves eating deer. Figure 2.4 shows a predatory bird with its
captured prey.
Predators come in many shapes and sizes. Tiny spiders, lizards, lions,
and blue whales are all predators. Some predators eat only specific types
of prey. For example, the Canadian lynx feeds mostly on snowshoe hares
during the winter. In this kind of close relationship, the sizes of each
population tend to increase and decrease in linked patterns, as shown
in Figure 2.5. Other predators will feed on many types of prey or switch
between different types of prey.
Most predators are themselves prey of other predators. For example,
lizards are predators of insects, but are prey of hawks. Because almost
all species (including blue whales) have predators, most organisms have
evolved some mechanisms to avoid or defend against predators.
CASESTUDY
Predator-Prey Patterns of black and
Adaptations
red, orange, or yellow are
common warning signs.
Understanding predator-prey interactions is very

important for predicting how ecosystems will respond
to human activities or environmental changes. Most
(tl) ©Tierbild Okapia/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (cr) ©Joseph Collins/Photo Researchers, Inc.
organisms, including blue whales, are at risk from
predators. That means there is strong selective
pressure for adaptations that help them stay safe. Some Some prey animals contain toxic chemicals that harm or
adaptations are physical features of prey. Some are deter predators. Many animals that have chemical defenses
behaviors that help them avoid running into predators or have a striking coloration. This warning coloration alerts
get away when they have been spotted. But predators also potential predators to stay away. Patterns with black stripes
have physical features and behaviors that help them catch and red, orange, or yellow are common in many species
their prey. of bees, wasps, skunks, snakes, and poisonous frogs.
Many animals are camouflaged—disguised so that they Warning coloration works well against predators that can
are hard to see. An animal’s camouflage usually disguises learn and that have good vision.
its recognizable features. Most camouflage helps the During the course of evolution, members of several
animal blend into its surroundings. Many predators are well-protected species have come to resemble each other.
camouflaged too. Wobbegong sharks look like a piece of For example, both bees and wasps often have black and
coral and lunge off the bottom at fish that don’t recognize yellow stripes. This is an example of mimicry of one species
them. Lions blend into the grasslands where they hunt so by another. The advantage of mimicry is that the more
they can sneak up on their prey. individual organisms that have the same pattern, the less

Figure 2.5
Predator-Prey Populations
160
Snowshoe hare
120
Population (in thousands)
Lynx
80
40
0
1855 1865 1875 1885 1895 1905 1915 1925
Year
Populations of predators depend on populations of prey, so changes in one of these populations
may be linked to changes in the other. This graph shows population estimates over time for
Canadian lynx and their favorite food, snowshoe hares.
Both predators and prey may exhibit

an adaptation such as camouflage or
mimicry. The wobbegong (left) sits in
wait for its prey. The protective quills
of this porcupine (right) are a simple
but effective way to repel predators.
chance any one individual has of being killed. Predators Anti-predator behaviors are an important way animals
learn to avoid all animals that have similar warning patterns. stay safe. Prey may form large groups, move away from
(r) ©Digital Vision/Getty Images; (l) ©Borut Furlan/WaterFrame/Getty Images
Occasionally, a harmless species is a mimic of a species Critical

dangerous Thinking
habitats, use impressive escape behavior
that has chemical protection. You have probably tried to get when attacked, or even attack a predator! To counter prey
away from insects that you thought were wasps or bees. In defenses, predators may work together to catch prey,
fact, some of them were probably flies. Several species of carefully attack dangerous prey, or change how they hunt to
harmless insects have evolved to mimic wasps and bees. be more successful.
On the other hand, sometimes a predator may look like
another, less threatening species. Some species of spiders
may be mistaken for ants or other types of insects. Critical Thinking
Other prey defenses include protective coverings. The 1. Making Comparisons For each of these types
quills of a porcupine, the spines of a cactus, and the shell of adaptations, give an additional example.
of a turtle are all examples of protective covering. Some 2. Determining Cause and Effect Write
defenses, including spines of stingrays and horns of buffalo, a paragraph to explain how one of these
are very dangerous for predators. adaptations might have evolved.

Figure 2.6
Parasitism Parasites such as ticks (left) and intestinal worms (right) could be harmful to you.
People try to avoid these parasites, almost as if they were predators. In what ways are parasites
like predators?
Parasitism
An organism that lives in or on another organism and feeds on it is
(tr) ©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (tl) ©John Shaw/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot; (b) ©Carol Farneti-Foster/Oxford Scientific/Getty Images
a parasite. The organism the parasite takes its nourishment from is
known as the host. The relationship between the parasite and its host
Figure 2.7 is called parasitism. Examples of parasites are ticks, fleas, tapeworms,
bloodsucking leeches, and mistletoe. Some photos of parasites are shown
Mutualism These acacia trees in
Central America have a mutualistic
in Figure 2.6.
relationship with these ants. The trees Unlike predators, parasites usually do not kill their hosts. Therefore,
provide food and shelter to the ants, some people consider vampire bats to be parasites. In fact, a parasite can
and the ants defend the tree from have an evolutionary advantage if it allows its host to live longer. How-
herbivores. ever, the host is often weakened or exposed to disease by the parasite.
critical thinking
Describe Why is the rela-
tionship between ants and
Mutualism
acacia trees categorized as Many species depend on another species for survival. In some cases,
mutualistic? neither organism can survive alone. A close relationship between two
species in which each species provides a benefit to the other is called
mutualism. Certain species of bacteria in your intestines form a mutualis-
tic relationship with you. These bacteria help break down food that you
could not otherwise digest or produce vitamins that your body cannot
make. In return, you give the bacteria a warm, food-rich habitat.
Another case of mutualism happens in the bull-thorn acacia trees of
Central America. Most acacia trees have spines that protect them against
plant-eating animals, but the bull-thorn acacias have an additional
protection—an ant species that lives only on these trees. The trees
provide these ants shelter within hollow thorns. The trees also supply
sugary nectar glands, shown in Figure 2.7, and nutrient-rich leaf tips.
In turn, the ants defend the tree against herbivores.

Figure 2.8
Commensalism Some orchids have a

commensal relationship with certain species of
trees. The orchid benefits from growing on the
tree, because the orchid is exposed to more rain
and sunlight than if it grew on the ground. The
tree is not harmed or helped by the orchid.
Connect to BIOLOGY
Commensalism
A relationship in which one species benefits and the other species is
neither harmed nor helped is called commensalism. An example is the
relationship between certain orchids and trees, shown in Figure 2.8. The
orchid grows around the tree’s branches without harming the tree. The
height exposes the orchid to rain and sunlight. Another example of com-
mensalism is pilot fish swimming in front of a shark or sea turtle. The
small fish get protection and access to food. The shark is not affected by
the fish, and they are too small to bother eating.
Symbiosis and Coevolution

A relationship in which two species live in close association is called Connect to BIOLOGY
symbiosis. Many types of species interactions are considered symbiotic.
In some cases a symbiotic relationship is parasitic. In some cases, it is An Ecosystem in Your Body
commensalism or mutualism. For example, the symbiotic mutualism Our health is affected by our
relationships with microorganisms in
between corals and the small algae living inside them that make food for
our digestive system, skin, and other
corals allows huge reefs to form!
©Kenneth W. Fink/Photo Researchers, Inc.
parts of our body. For example, live-

Over time, species in close relationships may coevolve. These species culture yogurt is considered a healthy
may evolve adaptations in response to one another. For example, coevo- food because the kinds of bacteria
lution can be seen in the relationships of flowering plants and their polli- it contains are beneficial to us. The
nators. Many types of flowers seem to match the feeding habits of certain bacteria assist our digestion of dairy
species of insects or other animals that spread pollen. Predators and prey products and also compete with other
also can coevolve, with prey evolving better ways to escape and predators microorganisms, such as yeast, that
evolving to be better hunters. might cause infections.

1. List as many parts as you can of the niche of an 4. Making Comparisons Read the definition of
organism of your choice. parasites and predators, and then explain how
parasites differ from predators.
2. Give examples of species that have the same
habitat but not the same niche that a lion has. 5. Analyzing Relationships Choose an example
of mutualism, and then describe the long
3. Describe the five types of species interactions.
process by which the relationship could have
evolved.

Society and the Environment
Conserving Top Predators

Successful reintroduction of wild wolves in the American Return of Wolves
West has led to significant changes in the ecosystem. By the early 1900s wolves had been virtually eliminated
from most of their native range in the United States. They
were hunted vigorously because they killed livestock.
In Yellowstone National Park, wolves were hunted
to extinction.
When the wolves disappeared, populations of elk—a
favorite food of wolves—began to increase. As early as
the 1930s, environmental scientists were worried that elk
overgrazing was harming the park.
In 1995, the first wolves were reintroduced into
Yellowstone, and their populations have been increasing
in the park and other areas of the American West. In
Yellowstone, wolf populations grew to over 170 animals,
but subsequently declined to around 100. The population
decline appears to be partially due to decreases in
populations of elk—the favorite food of wolves. Elk also
changed their behavior to stay safer from wolves.
The return of wolves to Yellowstone has triggered other
changes in the ecosystem. Plant communities changed
in response to less grazing from elk. For example, willow
trees near rivers have increased. Willow is a tree beavers
need to survive the winter, so populations of beavers have
increased. The beavers have changed streams and ponds, creating habitat for
many other species.
Changes in ecosystems after the reintroduction of wolves have been
so large that some scientists have suggested that predators should be
reintroduced to more areas to improve ecosystem health.
Ocean Predators
While wolves are making a comeback on land, large predators
in the ocean are in trouble. One example of ocean
predators in trouble is sharks. Sharks are being
overfished around the world, mainly to fill
demand for shark fin soup. In many places,
(t) ©DLILLC/Corbis; (b) ©Fuse/Getty Images
The impact of tiger

sharks on ocean
ecosystems is a subject
of study for the Shark
Bay Ecosystem Research
Project in Australia.

ECOZine
at HMDScience.com
valuable fins are removed from the shark, and the rest of
This graph depicts the early-winter population of wolves in
the body is thrown back into the sea. Tens of millions of Yellowstone Park since reintroduction. The population has been
sharks are killed each year. Unlike other fish, sharks take impacted by many factors, including disease and decreases in the
years before they can reproduce and they only have a few populations of elk (a favorite food).
young each year. That means that they cannot survive
heavy fishing. It is estimated that populations of sharks
Yellowstone National Park
may have declined by more than 90% in some cases! Wolf Population
Should we worry about the disappearance of sharks? 200
Recent studies say yes! Work in Western Australia by the 180
Florida International University–led Shark Bay Ecosystem 160
Number of wolves
Research Project has shown that tiger sharks may be as 140
important to ocean ecosystems as wolves are on land. By 120
100
changing where and how marine herbivores like turtles
80
and sea cows feed, tiger sharks protect seagrass. This
60
seagrass is food and habitat for many species of fish
40
and invertebrates, including many species people eat.
20
Scientists also have found that having healthy shark 0
populations is associated with healthy ecosystems in
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
other parts of the world.
Year
People also have found out that living sharks are more
Source: National Park Service
valuable than dead sharks. Not only do living sharks
help keep ecosystems healthy, but scuba divers will
travel from all over the world to see them in their natural Ongoing Challenges
habitat. If there are enough sharks, each one may be worth Even though things are looking up for wolves in North America
more than $1 million in tourism over its lifetime! and sharks in some places of the world, there are still major
Some environmental scientists and conservation groups challenges. Throughout most of the world, predators on land
are now trying to convince governments that sharks should are still in trouble. They are being killed because they eat
be protected and efforts be made to help their populations livestock and their habitat is being destroyed. In the oceans,
increase where they have been overfished. Good science and species of large sharks and other marine predators that may
economics have caused some governments to listen. be among the most important to ecosystems can swim for
In some places, trade in shark fins is now illegal. In others, thousands of miles. That means they often leave even large
including the USA, sharks must be brought to shore with their sanctuaries and can be caught in fisheries. Environmental
fins attached. That means that fewer sharks can be caught on
a single fishing trip. Also, species that are most in trouble are
What
scientists areDo Youhard
working Think?
to understand these challenges
and to find solutions that balance having healthy populations
now protected in many areas. and ecosystems with people’s needs.
In other areas, shark sanctuaries have been created.
Inside these sanctuaries, no sharks can be caught and killed.
Palau created the first shark sanctuary in 2009. Since then, What Do You Think?
Honduras, The Bahamas, the Maldives, Tokelau, and the
Some people argued that wolves should not
Republic of the Marshall Islands have set aside huge areas of be reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park.
ocean as shark sanctuaries. Although wolves were endangered in most of
Environmental scientists are now studying how ocean the United States, there were still many wolves
in Alaska and in Canada. They also thought that
ecosystems respond to the protection of sharks. Perhaps the wolves would kill livestock if their populations
same benefits seen on land with the return of wolves will grew large. Do you think reintroducing wolves was
occur in the oceans. a good idea? Why or why not?

Chapter 8 Summary
Section 1 ow Populations Change

H Objectives Key Terms
in Size
• Each population has specific properties, including size, population
density, and pattern of dispersion. density
• When a population has few limits on its growth, it may dispersion
undergo exponential growth. This is the fastest possible growth rate
growth rate of the population. reproductive
• When a population has few limits to its growth, it may potential
have an exponential growth rate. Usually, popula- exponential
tion growth is limited by factors such as disease and growth
competition. carrying capacity
• Carrying capacity is the maximum population a habitat
can support over a long period of time.
• Populations may be subject to density-dependent
regulation.
Section 2 ow Species Interact with

H Objectives Key Terms
Each Other
• The niche of an organism is its requirements for sur- niche
vival and/or its feeding relationships. competition
• Interactions between species are categorized based on predation
the relative benefit or harm that one species causes parasitism
(t) ©Norman Tomalin/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot; (b) ©Tierbild Okapia/Photo Researchers, Inc.
the other. The categories are competition, predation, mutualism
parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism.
commensalism
• Competition between species occurs when their niches symbiosis
overlap. The competition may be direct or indirect.
• Pairs of species that have close relationships often
evolve adaptations in response to one another.

Chapter 8 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 13. The growth rate of a population of geese will
probably increase within a year if
a. more birds die than are hatched.
1. reproductive potential
b. several females begin laying eggs at younger
2. carrying capacity ages than their mothers did.
3. competition c. most females lay two eggs instead of three
4. symbiosis during a nesting season.
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings of d. some birds get lost during migration.
the terms differ.
14. Which of the following is an example of
5. niche and habitat competition between species?
6. predator and prey a. two species of insects feeding on the same
7. predation and parasitism rare plant
8. mutualism and commensalism b. a bobcat hunting a mouse
9. Use the following terms to create a concept map: c. a lichen, which is an alga, and a fungus
symbiosis, predation, predator, prey, parasitism, living as a single organism
parasite, host, mutualism, and commensalism. d. a tick living on a dog
15. Which of the following statements about

Reviewing Main Ideas parasitism is true?
10. In which of the following pairs do both organisms a. The presence of a parasite does not affect the
belong to the same population? host.
a. a rose and a carnation b. Parasitism is a cooperative relationship
b. a zebra and a horse between two species.
c. two residents of New York City c. Parasites always kill their hosts.
d. two similar species of monkeys d. Parasites benefit while their hosts are harmed.
11. A population of some species is most likely to 16. Ants and acacia trees have a mutualistic
grow exponentially relationship because
a. if the species is already very common in the a. they are both adapted to a humid climate.
area. b. they are part of the same ecosystem.
b. when the species moves into a new area of c. they benefit each other.
suitable habitat.
d. the ants eat parts of the acacia tree.
c. when it uses the same habitat as a similar
species. 17. Which of the following is an example of
d. if the population size is already large. coevolution?
a. flowers that can be pollinated by only one
12. A population will most likely deplete the species of insect and insects adapted to use
resources of its environment if the population only that flower
a. grows beyond carrying capacity. b. rabbits that invade a new habitat
b. must share resources with many other species. c. wolves that compete with each other for
c. moves frequently from one habitat to another. territory
d. has a low reproductive potential. d. bacteria that suddenly mutate in a lab

Chapter Review

18. A tapeworm lives in the intestines of a cow and 25. Analyzing Relationships Read the explanations
feeds by absorbing food that the cow is digesting. of competition and predation. If one species
What kind of relationship is this? Explain your becomes extinct, and then soon after, another
answer. species becomes extinct, was their relationship
19. Explain how two species can compete for the most likely competition or predation? Explain
same resource even if they never come in contact your answer.
with each other. 26. Evaluating Hypotheses Scientists do not all
20. Snail kites are predatory birds that feed only on agree on the specific carrying capacity of Earth
snails. The kites use their hooked, needlelike for humans. Why might this carrying capacity be
beaks to pull snails from their shells. Explain how difficult to determine?
these specialized beaks might have evolved in 27. Evaluating Conclusions A scientist finds no
these birds. evidence that any of the species in a particular
21. What would happen to the population of snail community are competing and concludes
kites mentioned in question 20 if the snails’ that competition never played a role in the
habitat was destroyed? Explain your answer. development of this community. Could this
conclusion be valid? Write a paragraph to explain
your answer.
Interpreting Graphics 28. Health Viruses are the cause of many infectious
diseases, such as common colds, flu, and
The graph below shows the population of some chickenpox. Viruses can be passed from one
reindeer that were introduced to an Alaskan island in person to another in many different ways. Under
1910. Use the graph to answer questions 22–24. what conditions do you think viral diseases will
22. Describe this population’s changes over time. spread most rapidly between humans? What can
23. What might have happened in 1937? be done to slow the spread of these viruses?
24. Is it possible to estimate the island’s carrying 29. Create a Habitat and Interaction Map Create
capacity for reindeer? Explain your answer. a visual representation of the habitat and
interactions of an organism of your choice.
Research the organism’s habitat, behaviors,
2,000
and interactions with other species. If possible,
observe the organism (without disturbing it) for
a day or more. Create a piece of art to show all of
the interactions that this organism has with its
1,500 environment.
Number of individuals
1,000
500
0
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950
Year

Chapter Review
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
Use the equation below to answer questions 30–31.
35. Both predators and prey use camouflage.
STUDYSKILL
Describe how they each use a similar
adaptation in different ways.
36. Some adaptations of both predators and prey
involve group behaviors. Describe an example
30. Extending an Equation The equation gives the of a prey animal using a group behavior. Also,
change in a population over a given amount of describe an example of predators working
time (for example, an increase of 100 individuals Whytogether.
It Matters
in one year). Use the two parts on the right side of
the equation to write an inequality that would be Why It Matters
true if the population were increasing. Rewrite the 37. Killer whales hunt
inequality for a decreasing population. and eat a variety
31. Analyzing an Equation Suppose you are of prey, not just
studying the small town of Hill City, which had sea lions. Research
a population of 100 people in the first year of and describe three
your study. One year later, 10 people have died, adaptations that
and only 9 mothers have given birth. Yet the make killer whales
population has increased to 101. How could this effective predators.
increase happen?
Making Connections
32. Communicating Main Ideas Why do
population sizes not grow indefinitely?
33. Creative Writing Write a science fiction story STUDYSKILL
about life without competition. Review with a Partner To review the main ideas of
34. Writing from Research Find information in the text, try summarizing with a partner. Take turns reading
encyclopedias or natural history references about a passage, and then try to summarize aloud what you have
different kinds of mutualism. Summarize the read. Try not to look back at the text. Then, discuss and review
similarities and differences between the various the text with your partner to check your understanding.
relationships. Focus on the ways in which each
species benefits from the other species.
©Still Pictures

ExplorationLab
Observation
Calculating Generation
Objectives
Experiment on organism
Rate
competition.
Organisms compete for resources as they interact with their environment.
Predict the effects of
Resources include foods, open spaces, and hiding places. When
competition on number
differences between
organisms compete for resources, populations may be limited.
competing populations. Many studies of competing organisms, including microorganisms, were
performed. The studies’ results were summarized into what is known as
Design an experiment to test
the competitive exclusion principle. This principle states that two species
the effects of competition on
changing an environmental
cannot coexist indefinitely on the same limited resource. Organisms that
condition. are more adaptive tend to grow and displace those that do not adapt as
well to changing conditions.
Materials The generation rate, or generation number, is the number of
distilled water, boiled and generations of an organism that have been produced during a specified
cooled (stock) amount of time. This can be calculated using the equation:
microorganisms, Blepharisma
( log B - log A)
(stock in glass bowl) Generation number ( g)= __
    
  
microorganisms, Euplotes
log 2
(stock in glass bowl)
microscope, stereoscopic Procedure
dissecting 1. Label each well of a plastic well plate with the numbers 1 through 6.
micropipettes, Pasteur, glass, Fill each of the wells with 5 mL of bottled spring water. Add 0.5 mL of
fine-tipped, fitted with rubber wheat germ kernel to each well.
bulbs
plastic well plate, six-well 2. Place one Blepharisma in each well. Place covers on each of the six
with cover (3) wells and label the well plate “Blepharisma Only.”
paper, graph (2)
water, bottled spring (stock) 3. Repeat step 1 using a separate well plate. Place one Euplotes in
each well. Place covers on each of the six wells and label this plate
wheat germ kernel
“Euplotes Only.” Before beginning the experiment, make and record
a hypothesis.
4. Count the number of cells per well daily for five days. Perform the
count using a stereoscopic dissecting microscope. With some prac-
tice, you should be able to estimate the number of cells for each genus
by scanning the contents of each well. Slow-moving ciliates such as
Blepharisma are easy to count by eye. You can also use the micropi-
pettes to do manual counts. Remove each organism as it is counted
to another container while viewing through the stereoscopic dissect-
ing microscope. When finished counting a well, be sure to return all
organisms to the same well from which you removed them.
5. Record the results of the counts of step 4 in a table.
6. Repeat step 1 using a separate well plate. Place one individual cell of
each of the two genera into each of wells 1 through 4.
7. Place two cells of the Blepharisma in well 5. This is a control popula-

tion for the Blepharisma.

8. Place two cells of the Euplotes in well 6. This is the control population
for the Euplotes.
9. Place covers on each of the six wells and label this culture dish
“Mixed/Control.”
10. Count the number of cells per well daily for five days. Follow the in-
structions of step 4 on how to perform a count. Construct data tables
for each of the three plates. Each data table should record the counts
for each well for five days. Record the results each day.
Analysis
1. Constructing Graphs Use a separate sheet of graph paper to
plot growth curves for the Blepharisma populations. Place the title
“Blepharisma Populations” at the top of the graph paper. Using data
from your tables, plot the average number of Blepharisma you observe
each day on the y-axis and the number of days on the x-axis. Label the
curve “No competition.” On this same graph, use the data from your
tables to plot a curve of the average number of Blepharisma you ob-
serve each day in the mixed environments. Label this curve “Competi-
tion.” On this same graph, use the data from your tables to plot a curve
of the number of Blepharisma you observe each day in the control
environment. Label this curve “Control.” Use the data in your tables
and another piece of graph paper to plot growth curves for Euplotes
populations. All averages are to be calculated by adding the counts in
each well for a given day and dividing by the number of wells.
2. Organizing Data Calculate a generation rate for each of the six

curves on your graphs. Show all calculations.
Conclusions
Light microspcopy of Blepharisma (top) and
3. Drawing Conclusions Draw conclusions as to which organism will
Euplotes (bottom)
outcompete the other in the mixed environment. What do the gen-
(t) ©Eric V. Grave/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) ©M.I. Walker/Photo Researchers, Inc.
eration rates for each of the six population curves suggest about this
competition? How does this compare to your hypothesis?
4. Making Predictions Imagine that you created a mixed environment

starting with five times more of the organism with the lower genera-
tion rate. Do you think this would change the results of a competition?
Explain.
Extension
5. Designing Experiments Design an experiment (objective, materi-
als, and procedure) that tests the effect of a change in environmental
conditions on the two microorganisms. Decide which condition you
will change compared to the experiment you already performed.
Make sure that you include unmixed, mixed, and control populations
in your experiment.

The Human
Chapter 9
Section 1
Studying Human Populations
Population
Section 2
Changing Population Trends
Why It Matters
China, with one of the world’s
largest populations, had a
70 percent increase in energy
use from 2000–2005. This
resulted in a corresponding rise
in air pollution. During the same
five-year period, 54 percent of
the seven major rivers in China
contained water unfit for human
consumption.
How do population issues in
China affect people elsewhere
in the world?
CASESTUDY
Learn more about what
Thailand is doing to solve their
population issues in the case
study Thailand’s Population
Challenges on page 228.
©Syndicated Features Limited/The Image Works
Online
HMDScience.com

218
Section 1
Studying Human Objectives
Populations
Describe how the size and
growth rate of the human
population has changed in the
last 200 years.
The human population of Earth grew faster in the 20th century than it ever has Define four properties that
before. This rapid growth has led to environmental problems around the globe. scientists use to predict
We therefore must try to understand and predict changes in human populations. population sizes.
Demography is the study of populations. For human populations,
Make predictions about
demographers study the processes that influence the populations of countries to
make comparisons and predictions. These include human behavior, economics, and
population trends based on age
social structure. Countries have been grouped by demographers into two general structure.
categories, which define the ends of a continuum in patterns of development.
Developed countries have higher average incomes, slower population growth, and
Describe the four stages of the
diverse industrial economies. Developing countries have lower average incomes, demographic transition.
simple agriculture-based economies, and rapid population growth.
Explain why different countries
may be at different stages of
The Human Population Over Time the demographic transition.
After growing slowly for thousands of years, the industrial and scientific
revolutions in the 1800s brought a period of exponential growth, meaning Key Terms
that population growth rates increased during each decade (Figure 1.1). demography
This growth was mostly due to increases in food production and im-
age structure
provements in hygiene. However, it is unlikely that Earth can sustain this
growth for much longer. Some scientists believe that we cannot indefi-
survivorship
nitely sustain the current world population at today’s standards of living. fertility rate
migration
life expectancy
Figure 1.1
demographic transition
Exponential Growth Curve After growing slowly for thousands of years, the human
population began to grow rapidly in the 1800s.
World Population Over Time
Bronze and Middle Modern
Neolithic Iron Ages Ages Age
8
2025
Stone Ages [<3500 BCE] (projected)
7
Bronze & Iron Ages [3500 BC – 500 AD] 2011
Middle Ages [500 AD – 1500 AD]
6
Modern Age [1500 AD – present (2011)] 1999

Future [2011+]
5
Year population reaches another billion 1987
4
1974
3 Black Death
Domestication 1960
of plants and First large Roman
2
animals empire(s) Empire 1930
1
1850
0
10,000 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1000 2000
Year BCE CE
Chapter 9: The Human Population 219

Figure 1.2
Age-Structure Diagrams These graphs allow demographers to compare the distribution

of ages and sexes in a population. Each graph shows a typical shape for a population with a
particular rate of growth.
Rapid Growth— Slow Growth— Zero or Declining Growth—

Least Developed Nations Transitional Nations Most Developed Nations
80+
75–79 Males
70–74 Females
65–69
60–64
55–59 Reproductive
50–54 years
Age
45–49
40–44
35–39
30–34
25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Percent of population Percent of population Percent of population
Forecasting Population Size

How will your community change in the next 20 years? Will it need more
schools or more retirement centers? Will more people move in and create
demand for more roads and utility services? Demographers look at many
properties of populations to predict such changes.
Age Structure
Demographers can make many predictions based on age structure—the
Figure 1.3 distribution of ages in a specific population at a certain time. For example,
if a population has more young people than older people, the population
Survivorship Curve Human
size will likely increase as the young people grow up and have children.
populations in general tend to show
Type I survivorship curves, although
Age structure can be graphed in a population pyramid, a type of double-
they may vary in infant mortality sided bar graph. Figure 1.2 shows typical age structures for countries that
or the advanced age at which have different rates of growth. Countries that have high rates of growth
survivorship drops rapidly. usually have more young people than older people. Countries that have
slow growth or no growth usually have an even distribution of ages.
Typical Survivorship Curves
100
Survivorship
Percent of population surviving
Type I
80 Survivorship is the percentage of members of a group that are likely to
survive to any given age. To predict survivorship, a demographer studies a
60 Type II group of people born at the same time and notes when each person dies.
The results plotted on a graph might look like one of the types of survivor-
40
ship curves in Figure 1.3. A Type I survivorship curve shows a population
where most individuals live to an advanced age. Type II curves show pop-
20
Type III
ulations where all ages have a similar death rate. Populations that have a
Type III curve are those in which many offspring die. Human populations
0
generally show Type I curves, although they may vary in infant mortality
Time or the age at which survivorship drops rapidly. In nonhuman popula-
tions, some animals in zoos show Type I curves, songbirds show Type II
curves, and insects and fish show Type III curves.
Figure 1.4
Connect to MATH
Fertility Rate The total fertility rate in the United States went through many changes
from 1900 to 2000. The baby boom was a period of high fertility rates, and the Extending the Equation
baby bust was a period of decreasing fertility. for Population Change
Baby boom Baby bust The following equation is a simple way
4.0 to calculate the change in a population
over a period of time:
3.5 change in
= (births − deaths)
population
Total fertility rate
3.0
However, this equation does not
Replacement account for changes due to migration.
2.5 level
Rewrite the equation to include
immigration and emigration.
2.0
Next, create an example word
problem that would require the use
1.5
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 of this new equation. Trade problems
Year
with a classmate, and try to solve the
Source: National Center for Health Statistics.
classmate’s new word problem.
Fertility Rates
The number of babies born each year per 1,000 people in a population is Check for Understanding
called the birthrate. Demographers also calculate the fertility rate, or the Predict How can a population pyramid
average number of children a woman gives birth to in her lifetime. help demographers predict changes in a
population over time?
A graph of historical fertility rates for the United States is shown in
Figure 1.4. In 1972, the fertility rate dropped below replacement level for
the first time in U.S. history. Replacement level is the average number of
children two parents must have in order to “replace” themselves in the
population. This number is about 2.1, or slightly more than 2, because not
all children born will survive and reproduce.
Fertility rates in the United States remained below replacement level
for most of the 1990s. However, due to births and immigration, the popu-
lation continued to grow (Figure 1.5.)
Fertility in the U.S. since 2000 has Figure 1.5
increased to around 2.06.
U.S. Population Growth The population of the United States has continued to
grow in the last half-century because of births as well as immigration.
Migration
Net U.S. Population Increases
The movement of individuals from 35
Increase due to immigration
one area to another is migration. 30
Increase due to births
population (in millions)
Movement into an area is immigra- 25

Number added to
tion and movement out of an area 20

is emigration. Migration between 15
and within countries is a significant
10
part of population change. If not
5
for immigration, the populations of
0
many developed countries might be 1950–1960 1960–1970 1970–1980 1980–1990 1990–2000
decreasing. Decade
Source: U.S. Census Bureau.

Figure 1.6
Increasing Life Expectancy Preventive medicine, sanitation, and better

nutrition have increased life expectancy in many parts of the world.
Declining Death Rates

The dramatic increase in Earth’s human population in the last 200 years
has happened because death rates have declined more rapidly than birth
rates. Death rates have declined mainly because more people now have
access to adequate food, clean water, and safe sewage disposal. The dis-
covery of vaccines in the 18th century also contributed to declining death
rates, especially among infants and children. These factors are illustrated
in the images shown in Figure 1.6.
(c) ©Tetra Images/Getty Images; (tr) ©Paul Harris/Stone/Getty Images; (tl) ©Marcel & Eva Malherbe/The Image Works
Figure 1.7
Average Life Expectancy Since Life Expectancy

1900, average life expectancy has The average number of years members of a population are likely to live is
increased worldwide (red line), their life expectancy. Life expectancy is most affected by infant mortality,
although it remains lower in less the death rate of infants less than a year old. In 1900, life expectancy was
developed countries (blue and purple about 30 years worldwide, and the infant mortality rate was very high.
lines). By 2000, the rate of infant mortality was less than one-third of the rate in
1900. The graph in Figure 1.7 illustrates that average life expectancy has
Average Life Expectancy
by Region increased to more than 67 years worldwide. For people in a number of
90 developed countries, life expectancy is 80 years or more.
80 More developed regions
Expensive medical care is not necessarily helpful in preventing infant
70
60 World deaths. The infant mortality rate differs greatly among countries. In fact,
with the highest average income in the world, the U.S. ranks only 48 out
Age
50
40 of 221 countries for infant mortality. Infant health is affected more by the
Less developed regions parents’ access to education, food, fuel, and clean water. If these basic
30
Least developed regions
20 needs are met, most children will have a good chance of surviving.
10 Meanwhile, new threats to life expectancy arise as populations be-
0 come more dense. Contagious diseases such as AIDS and tuberculosis
1955 1975 1995 2015
Year (projected) are a growing concern in a world where such diseases can spread quickly.
Life expectancy in many south African countries has decreased in recent
Source: UN Population Division.
decades as a result of the AIDS epidemic.

The Demographic Transition ECOFACT
Populations in most developed countries are growing at fairly low rates. The Population Clock
How can populations quadruple in one century, then stop growing or The Earth’s human population is
shrink in the next century? The demographic transition is a model that de- increasing by 2.4 people each second,
scribes how economic and social changes affect population growth rates. which accounts for births and deaths.
This means Earth gains over 200,000
The model is based on observations of the histories of developed coun-
people per day, or over 75 million
tries. The graph in Figure 1.8 compares trends in birth rates, death rates,
per year.
and population sizes during the four stages of the transition.
Stages of the Transition

In the first stage of the demographic transition, a society is in a preindus-
Check for Understanding
trial condition. The birth rate and the death rate are both at high levels
Interpret Which stage of the
and the population size is stable. Most of the world was in this condition
demographic transition is characterized
until about 1700, when the scientific and industrial revolutions began.
by a high birth rate and a declining death
In the second stage, death rates decline as hygiene, nutrition, and rate?
education improve. But birth rates remain high, so the population grows
very fast. In this stage, the population can double in less than 30 years.
In the third stage of the demographic transition, population growth
slows because the birth rate decreases. As the birth rates and death rates
grow closer, the population size stabilizes at a point that is higher than
before the demographic transition. In most countries that have passed
through the transition, the population quadrupled during the 1900s.
In the fourth stage, the birth rate drops below replacement
level, so the size of the population begins to decrease. It has taken from
one to three generations for the demographic transition to occur in most
developed countries. Recent studies suggest that more stages may occur
where birth rates rebound.
Figure 1.8
Demographic Transition The four stages of the demographic transition are shown here from left to right. Note the changes
in population size with changing birth and death rates. Do you think that all countries will fit this pattern?
critical thinking
Predict Do you think that all countries will fit this pattern?
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
Preindustrial Transitional Industrial Postindustrial
High Large
Population size
Birth rate and death rate
Population size
Birth rate
Replacement level birth rate
Death rate
Low Small
Low Increasing Very high Decreasing Low Zero Negative
growth rate growth rate growth rate growth rate growth rate growth rate growth rate
Time
Connect to BIOLOGY Women and Fertility
Female Influence The factors most clearly related to a decline in birth rates are increasing
Females have the primary influence education and economic independence for women. In the demographic
over reproductive rates in most species transition model, the lower death rate of the second stage is usually the
of animals, because they invest more result of increased levels of education. Educated women find that they do
energy in reproduction than males do. not need to bear as many children to ensure that some will survive. Also,
Females usually produce and lay eggs the women may learn family planning techniques. They are able to con-
or carry the fetus and give birth, and tribute to their family’s increasing prosperity by working, while spending
care for the offspring. The time and less energy bearing and caring for children. Some countries that want to
resources a female invests in each reduce birth rates have placed a priority on the education of females, as
successful offspring is usually greater shown in Figure 1.9.
than the energy a male must invest.
Large families are valuable in communities in which children work or
take care of older family members. But as countries modernize, parents
are more likely to work away from home. If parents must pay for child
care, children may become a financial burden rather than an asset. The
elderly will not need the support of their children if pensions are avail-
able. All of these reasons contribute to lower birth rates. Today, the total
fertility rate in developed countries is about 1.85 children per woman,
while in developing countries, the rate is about 4.2 children per woman.
Figure 1.9
Educating Women These women

in Bolivia are learning to read. Many
countries include the education of
women in development efforts.
critical thinking
Explain why some countries
©Sean Sprague/The Image Works

might be reluctant to educate
women, even though it might
improve the overall quality of
living for a country.

1. Describe how the size and growth rate of 5. Analyzing Relationships Read the description
the human population has changed in the last of life expectancy in this section. Explain why
200 years. the oldest people in a population may be much
2. Define four properties that scientists use to older than the average life expectancy.
predict population sizes. 6. Evaluating Theories Do you think that
3. Explain what we can predict about a all countries will follow the pattern of the
population’s likely growth rates based on its demographic transition? Explain your answer.
current age structure.
4. Describe the four stages of the demographic
transition.

Section 2
Changing Population Objectives
Trends
Describe three problems caused
by rapid human population
growth.
Compare population growth

Some countries have followed the model of the demographic transition—they have problems in more-developed
reached large and stable population sizes and have increased life expectancies. countries and less-developed
But in many parts of the world, populations continue to have high rates of countries.
growth, which creates environmental problems. A rapidly growing population uses
resources at an increased rate and can overwhelm the infrastructure of a community. Analyze strategies countries
Infrastructure is the basic facilities and services that support a community, such may use to reduce their
as public water supplies, sewer lines, power plants, roads, schools, and hospitals. population growth.
The symptoms of overwhelming population growth include suburban sprawl,
overcrowded schools, polluted rivers, barren land, and inadequate housing, as Describe worldwide population
shown in Figure 2.1. projections into the next century.
Problems of Rapid Growth Key Terms

People cannot live without sources of clean water, fuel, and land that can infrastructure
be used to acquire and produce food. A rapidly growing population can ECOFACT
arable land
use resources faster than the environment can renew them, unless re-
urbanization
sources come from elsewhere. Standards of living decline in an area when
least developed countries
wood is removed from local forests faster than it can grow back, or when
wastes overwhelm local water sources. Vegetation, water, and land are the
resources most critically affected by rapid population growth.
Figure 2.1
Resource Depletion Rapid population growth can put pressure on water sources,
land, and materials used for fuel or shelter. The makeshift housing shown here is one
consequence of unmanaged growth.
ECOFACT
Land Area per Person
If each person alive on Earth in the
©Adrian Murrell/Stone/Getty Images
year 2000 was given an equal portion

of existing surface land, each person
would get about 0.025 km2 (7.3 acres,
or about four football fields), In the year
2050, each person might get 0.017
km2 of land (4.2 acres, or about three
football fields).

Figure 2.2
Fuelwood Gathering fuel is part

of daily survival in many developing
countries. If there is not enough wood
to use for fuel, people may have to
burn crop residue. This can lead to
soil erosion and lower agricultural
productivity.
A Shortage of Fuelwood
Women in Myanmar gathering firewood are shown in Figure 2.2. In many
of the poorest countries, wood is the main fuel source. When populations
are low, people can use fallen tree limbs for fuel, which does not harm the
trees. When populations grow rapidly, deadwood does not accumulate
fast enough to provide enough fuel. People begin to cut down living trees.
Parts of Africa, Asia, and India have been cleared of vegetation by people
collecting fuelwood.
A supply of fuel ensures that a person can boil water and cook food. In
many parts of the world, water taken directly from wells or public sup-
plies is not safe to drink because it carries parasites or diseases. The water
can be sterilized by boiling it, but fuel is needed to do so. Also, food is
often unsafe or harder to digest unless it is cooked.
Figure 2.3 Without enough fuelwood, many people suffer from
Unsafe Water This woman is washing clothes in the Rio Grande disease and malnutrition.
on the U.S.-Mexico border. In areas that have no sewage or water
treatment systems, people may use the same water supply for Unsafe Water
(t) ©Robert Harding/Robert Harding World Imagery/Corbis; (b) ©Feije Riemersma/Alamy

drinking, bathing, washing, and sewage disposal.
In places that lack infrastructure, the local water
supply may be used not only for drinking and wash-
ing but also for sewage disposal. As a result, the
water supply becomes a breeding ground for organ-
isms that cause diseases such as dysentery, typhoid,
and cholera.
Many cities have populations that are doubling
every 15 years, and water systems cannot be ex-
panded fast enough to keep up with this growth.
In 2001, over 1 billion people worldwide lacked
safe drinking water and more than 3 million died
of diseases that were spread through water. The Rio
Grande, shown in Figure 2.3, is one example of an
unsafe water source used by many people.

Lima, Peru, is another example of an area with unsafe water. More than
half of the population of Lima is housed in slums or shantytowns that have
no plumbing. The bacteria that cause cholera thrived in Lima’s unmanaged
water sources in 1991. In that year, Lima’s population suffered the first chol-
era epidemic that had occurred in the Western Hemisphere in 75 years.
Impacts on Land
People prefer to live where they have easy access to resources. Growing
populations may have a shortage of arable land, which is land that can be FieldStudy
used to grow crops. Growing populations also make trade-offs between Go to Appendix B to find the field study
competing uses for land such as agriculture, housing, or natural habitats. Population Issues.
For example, Egypt’s population of approximately 83 million is growing at
1.92 percent per year. For food and exportable products, Egypt depends
on farming within the Nile River valley, shown in Figure 2.4. Most of the
country is desert, and less than 4 percent of Egypt’s land is arable. How-
ever, the Nile River valley is also where most Egyptians live. Egyptians Check for Understanding
continue to build housing on what was once farmland, which reduces the Infer How has rapid population growth
amount of land Egypt has available for agricultural purposes. affected arable land in Egypt?
Much of the world’s population is undergoing urbanization, the move-
ment of people from rural areas to cities. In the United States, many
people work in the cities but move into suburban areas around the cities.
This suburban sprawl leads to traffic jams, inadequate infrastructure, and
the reduction of land for farms and wildlife habitat. Meanwhile, housing
within cities becomes more costly, more dense, and in shorter supply.
Figure 2.4
Urbanization A large proportion of the United States is arable land, but suburban
sprawl (left) creates many problems. Most of Egypt’s population is crowded into the
narrow Nile River valley.
(l) ©Kevin Fleming/Corbis; (br) ©Johnson Space Center/NASA
Nile River valley

Connect to LAW A Demographically Diverse World
International Development As you have seen, demographers may categorize countries as either
The United Nations (UN) has an
developed or developing. However, some demographers may prefer the
important role in understanding and
terms more developed and less developed to describe countries or regions,
assisting the development of nations.
because the reality of development is complex and politically sensitive.
The UN holds conferences, publishes
research, creates treaties, manages Not every country in the world is progressing through each stage of the
international programs, and dispenses demographic transition according to the model. Some countries now have
funds. modern industries, but incomes remain low. A few countries have achieved
The UN also creates formal stable and educated populations with very little industrialization. Some
designations, such as least developed countries seem to remain in the second stage of the model. These countries
countries. Demographers, foreign aid have rapid population growth but are unable to make enough educational
programs, and international treaties and economic gains to reduce the birth rate and move into the third stage.
may use these designations.
In recent years, the global community has begun to focus on the least
developed countries. These countries show few signs of development and
in some cases have increasing death rates while birth rates remain high.
Least developed countries are officially identified by the United Nations
using three criteria: low income, weak human assets, and economic
vulnerability. The low income criterion is based on a three-year average
of gross national income per person of less than $750. Human assets that
are considered include nutrition, health, education, and adult literacy.
CASESTUDY
Thailand’s Population
Challenges
Population growth is a major concern for many developing
countries. But the options are limited for a country that has a poor
economy and growing demands for limited resources. Thailand
is one country that has effectively and purposefully slowed its
population growth.
Around 1970, Thailand’s population was growing at a rate of
more than 3 percent per year, and the average Thai family had
6.3 children. The country had increasing environmental problems,
including air pollution in major cities and unsafe water supplies.
Thailand’s emissions of carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels
almost doubled between 1990 and 1997. In Thailand’s capital,
Bangkok, one-ninth of residents have respiratory problems, and
many people die of waterborne diseases each year. Bangkok, Thailand, is one of the
©Jodi Cobb/Getty Images
In 1971, Thailand’s government adopted a policy to reduce most crowded and polluted cities
Thailand’s population growth. The policy included increased in the world. However, population
education for women, greater access to health care and growth is slowing in Thailand, and
some environmental problems
are starting to be solved.

Figure 2.5
The third criterion, economic vulnerability,
is based on such indicators as the instability Growth Rates Growth rates vary in different parts of the world.
of agricultural production and the export of critical thinking
goods and services. Some of these least devel- Identify Which regions will contribute the most growth?
oped countries that have been identified by
the United Nations include Haiti, Madagascar, World Population Growth by Region
9,000
Malawi, Somalia, Samoa, Afghanistan, Ban-
gladesh, and the Sudan. These countries may 8,000
Asia
be given priority for foreign aid and develop- 7,000 Africa
World population (in millions)

ment programs to address both their popula- Latin America
6,000
tion problems and environmental issues. Europe
5,000 Northern America
Growth rates for different parts of the (U.S., Canada,
world are shown in Figure 2.5. Populations are 4,000 Greenland)
relatively stable in Europe, the United States, 3,000

Canada, Russia, South Korea, Thailand, 2,000
China, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand. In
1,000
contrast, populations are still growing rapidly
in less developed regions. Most of the world’s 0
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 1999 2050
population is now within Asia. (projected)
Year
Thailand’s Population Strategies

improved health care for mothers and children
openness of the people, government, and community leaders to changing
social traditions
cooperation of private and nonprofit organizations with the government
increases in women’s rights and ability to earn income
economic incentives such as building loans for families who participated in
family planning programs
creative family planning programs promoted by popular government leaders
Critical
high literacy rates of women (80 percent in 1980 and 94 Thinking
percent in 2000)
contraceptives, and economic incentives to parents who

Critical Thinking
have fewer children. Fifteen years later, the country’s
population growth rate had been cut to about 1.6 percent. 1. Applying Ideas For what reasons could
By 2012, the growth rate had fallen to 0.54 percent and the Thailand be described as a developing country
average Thai family had 1.7 children. The infant mortality in the 1970s? In what ways was it able to change?
rate had also declined by 2012. 2. Expressing Viewpoints Do you approve of all
How did Thailand make such major changes with limited of the strategies that the government of Thailand
resources? Demographers believe the changes are due to employed in order to reduce their population
the combination of strategies shown in the table above. growth? Do the goals justify the strategies they
used? Write a persuasive paragraph to defend
your opinion.

Figure 2.6
Reducing Population China has

implemented a long campaign to reduce
birth rates. Strategies have included
economic rewards for single-child
families and advertising such as the
billboard shown here.
Managing Development and Population Growth

Check for Understanding Humans throughout history have witnessed the negative effects of
ecognize What are two examples of
R population growth. Today, less-developed countries know that continued
strategies that a government might use population growth can limit their economic development. The govern-
to try to limit population growth? ments of some countries, such as China, Thailand, and India, have tried
to reduce birth rates using public advertising, as shown in Figure 2.6,
Figure 2.7
family planning programs, economic incentives, or legal punishments.
MDG by 2015 In 1994, the United Nations held the International Conference on
Provide universal access to a full Population and Development (ICPD). This conference involved debates
range of safe and reliable family- relating population, development, and the environment. Achievement of
planning methods and related the Millenium Development Goals (MDG), as seen in Figure 2.7, that re-
reproductive health services. sulted from the ICPD is targeted for 2015. Many countries favor stabilizing
population growth, especially through improvements in women’s status.
Reduce infant mortality rates to
In fact, worldwide fertility rates are dropping, as shown in Figure 2.8.
below 35 infant deaths per 1,000
live births and mortality rates of
children under five years old to Figure 2.8
below 45 deaths per 1,000 live
births. Worldwide Trends in Fertility Most countries’ fertility rates are dropping toward
replacement level.
Close the gap in maternal mortality 7
between developing and developed Least developed regions
countries. Achieve a maternal 6
Total fertility (children per woman)
mortality rate below 60 deaths per Less developed regions

5
100,000 live births.
World
4
Increase life expectancy at birth to
more than 75 years. In countries 3
with the highest mortality, increase
life expectancy at birth to more than 2
70 years.
©Louise Gubb/The Image Works
More developed regions

1
Increase universal access to and
0
completion of primary education, 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
and redress gender imbalances at Year
(projected)
higher levels of education. Source: UN Population Division.
Source: UN Population Fund.

Growth Is Slowing QUICKLAB
QUICKLAB
The human population of the world is now more than 7 billion and is Estimating Population Growth
still increasing. The worldwide population growth rate peaked at about Procedure
87 million people per year between 1985 and 1990. In contrast, the 1. Using statistics based on United
Nations figures (below), construct
population grew by 81 million people per year from 1990 to 1995.
a line graph showing the growth of
Fertility rates have declined since about 1970 in developed and less- the world’s population from the year
developed regions. However, rates are still much higher in less-developed 1000 until the year 2011.
regions. Demographers predict that this trend will continue and that 2. If the world’s population continues
global population growth will be slower in this century than in the last to grow at its current rate, use your
century. If current trends continue, most countries will have replacement graph to predict what the global
level fertility rates by 2050. If so, world population growth would even population will be in the years
tually stop. However, ways must be found to make fewer resources stretch 2100 and 2200.
much further, in order for Earth to sustain its human population. Year Population (in billions)
1000 0.31
1100 0.35
Projections to 2050 1200 0.38
Figure 2.9 shows United Nations projections of population growth to 2050. 1300 0.43
The medium-growth line, predicted by most demographers, assumes that 1400 0.47
global fertility rates will decline to replacement level by 2050. The high- 1500 0.50
and low-growth lines would result from higher or lower fertility rates. 1600 0.65
1700 0.70
Figure 2.9 1800 0.98
1900 1.65
Projections Current fertility trends will result in a world population of about 9 billion in 2000 6.06
2050 (middle line). Economic or political changes could lead to higher or lower numbers. 2011 7.00
World Population Projection for Different Growth Rates
12 Analysis
High growth rate 1. Based on your graph, is the
10 population of the world still
Medium growth rate
growing at the rate it was in the
World population (in billions)
8 year 1000? Explain.
6
Low growth rate
0
1950 2000 2050
Year (projected)

Source: UN Population Division.

1. Describe three problems caused by rapid 4. Analyzing a Viewpoint Write a comparison of
human population growth. the pros and cons of the strategies nations have
used to reduce population growth.
2. Compare population growth in more-
developed countries to population growth 5. Analyzing Relationships Do you think that
in less-developed countries. changing birth rates will by themselves cause a
nation to undergo further development?
3. Describe worldwide population projections for
the next 50 years.

Maps in Action
Fertility Rates and Female Literacy

in Africa
Female literacy vs fertility rates
MAP SKILLS
Use the map of Africa to answer the questions below.
1. Describing Locations Which regions of Africa have 3. Comparing Data Worldwide, the average total
the highest female literacy (percentage of females who fertility rate is about 2.8 children per woman, and the
can read and write)? the lowest female literacy? Which average female literacy is 74 percent. How does Africa
regions have the highest fertility rates? the lowest compare with the rest of the world in both aspects?
fertility rates?
2. Analyzing Data Choose 20 countries and make a
graph comparing the total fertility rates and female
literacy of each country.

at HMDScience.com
Lost Populations: These large stone figures found on Easter Island were
What Happened? made by a civilization that has disappeared.
At various points in human history, entire populations have

disappeared and left mysterious remains such as the Egyptian
pyramids and the Anasazi pueblos in the southwestern United
States. Why did these people and their civilizations disappear?
Archeologists sometimes find evidence that environmental
destruction was one of the reasons the populations disappeared.
Rapa Nui (Easter Island)

On the island of Rapa Nui, in the Pacific Ocean, the first
European visitors were amazed to find huge stone heads that
were kilometers from the quarries where the heads had been
made. It seemed impossible that the islanders could have
moved the heads. There were no horses, oxen, or carts on
the island and there were also no trees, that could have been
used as rollers to move the heads. The islanders were using
grass and reeds to make fires because the island was barren which are used to identify plants, show that the island was
grassland. once covered by a forest that contained many species found
nowhere else in the world.
A Changed Environment But by 1600 ce trees were rare and the Easter Island palm
Researchers have now shown that Rapa Nui was very tree was extinct. The palm seeds were probably eaten by
different when it was first colonized by Polynesians rats that the Polynesians had brought to the island. With the
around 1200 ce. In the oldest garbage heaps on the island, destruction of the forest, every species of native land bird also
archaeologists have found that one-third of the bones came became extinct. With the added stress of disease carried by
from dolphins. To hunt dolphins, the islanders must have had the European visitors, the local human population crashed.
strong canoes made of wood from tall trees. Pollen grains, The people of Easter Island destroyed their environment by
overusing its natural resources and introducing new species
(b) ©Walter Rawlings/Robert Harding World Imagery/Getty Images; (t) ©Getty Images
such as chickens and rats. The people were reduced from a

What
complex Do You
civilization to aThink?
primitive lifestyle. Easter Island is a
small-scale example of what ecologists worry could happen to
Earth’s entire human population.
What Do You Think?

Industrialized countries have started to invest
in environmental improvements, such as
replanting forests that have been destroyed and
protecting endangered species. Do you think
These ruins in New Mexico were built by the Chaco this makes these countries safe from the kind of
Anasazi civilization around 900 ce. Environmental changes environmental disasters that destroyed the Easter
are thought to have affected this population. Island civilization?

Chapter 9 Summary
Section 1 S tudying Human Objectives Key Terms

Populations
• Human population growth has accelerated in the demography
last few centuries. The main reasons for this growth age structure
were improvements in hygiene and increases in food survivorship
production, which accompanied the industrial and
fertility rate
scientific revolutions.
migration
• Demographers try to predict population trends using
life expectancy
data such as age structure, survivorship, fertility rates,
migration, and life expectancy. demographic
transition
• In the demographic transition model, countries
progress through four stages of change in birth rates,
death rates, and population size. Not all countries
closely follow this model, so it is important to examine
each region individually.
Section 2 C hanging Population Objectives Key Terms

Trends
• When a growing population uses resources faster than infrastructure
they can be renewed, the resources most critically arable land
affected are fuelwood, water, and arable land. urbanization
• In this century, countries may be labeled more least developed
developed or less developed. Not all countries are going countries
through the demographic transition in the same way
that the more-developed countries did.
• Some countries attempt to reduce birth rates directly
through public advertising, family planning programs,
economic incentives, or legal punishments for their
citizens.
(t) ©Paul Harris/Stone/Getty Images; (b) ©Louise Gubb/The Image Works

Chapter 9 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 13. The demographic transition is a(n)
Use each of the following terms in a separate sentence. a. untested hypothesis.
1. demography b. natural law.
2. demographic transition c. model based on observed patterns.
3. infrastructure d. international law.
4. least developed countries 14. A country in the second stage of the demographic
transition may have all of the following except
the terms differ. a. increasing agricultural production.
5. age structure and survivorship b. improving healthcare and education.
6. infant mortality and life expectancy c. decreasing population size.
7. death rate and fertility rate d. decreasing death rates.
8. urbanization and migration
15. Which of the following resources is likely to
9. Concept Map Use the following terms to be impacted the most by a rapidly growing
create a concept map: rapid human population population?
growth,demographic transition, survivorship,
a. clothing
fertility rate, fuelwood, water, and land.
b. food
c. housing
Reviewing Main Ideas d. water
10. Age structure data include all of the following except
16. Which of the following diseases is often spread
a. the number of members of a population who through unsafe public water sources?
are between 5 and 11 years old.
a. dysentery
b. the ratio of males to females in a population.
b. flu
c. the amount of population change due to
immigration or emigration. c. chickenpox
d. the ratio of older people to younger people in d. AIDS
a population.
17. Which of the following uses of wood is the most
11. Human population growth accelerated in recent important for basic human needs?
centuries mostly because of a. heating the home
a. the bubonic plague. b. boiling water
b. better hygiene and food. c. making tools
c. the discovery of electricity. d. building shelter
d. improved efficiency of fuel use.
18. In this century, the world population is likely to
12. Which countries have Type I survivorship? a. remain the same.
a. the most developed countries b. continue to grow exponentially.
b. the least developed countries c. decline rapidly because fertility rates are
c. countries in the second stage of the already below replacement level.
demographic transition d. stabilize after fertility rates fall below
d. countries in the first stage of the demographic replacement level.
transition

Chapter Review

19. What are the main reasons that life expectancy 28. Analyzing Predictions Why are human
has increased worldwide? population trends difficult to predict? Describe
an example of an event that would change most
20. How does the age structure of a population help
demographic predictions.
predict future population growth?
29. Analyzing Methods In what ways does the
21. What is the relationship between education and
study of human populations differ from the study
fertility rates in a human population?
of wildlife ecology?
22. Which properties of a population change during
30. Identifying Relationships What other factors,
the demographic transition?
besides those already mentioned, might have an
23. Which key resources are impacted the most by effect on fertility rates in a given population?
rapidly growing populations?
31. Evaluating Models Write an evaluation of
24. Which regions of the world are generally more the demographic transition model of how
developed? less developed? populations will develop. How useful is the
demographic transition model in predicting
the future? What assumptions are made by the
Interpreting Graphics model? What criticisms could be made of the
The graph below shows each region’s contribution model?
to world population growth. Use the graph to answer 32. Careers Demographers are employed by many
questions 25–27. kinds of organizations including governments,
25. Determine Which region(s) are projected to health organizations, and insurance companies.
increase in population size? How can their skills be useful to each of these
26. Predict Which region(s) are projected to decline organizations?
in population size? 33. Social Studies Find out the demographic
27. Explain Can you assume that all the countries history, for the last 100 years, of a developing
within each region have the same growth country of your choice. Explain how closely this
patterns? Explain your answer. country’s pattern of development follows the
demographic transition model.
34. Research Demographic Trends Look up
World Population Growth by Region
9,000 population statistics for your local city, county,
or state. Read and take notes about recent
8,000 demographic trends and predictions for the next
Asia
7,000 Africa few decades. Make a summary of your findings.
World population (in millions)
Latin America
6,000
Europe
5,000 Northern America
(U.S., Canada,
4,000 Greenland)
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 1999 2050
Year (projected)

Chapter Review
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
Use the graph below to answer questions 35–37. STUDYSKILL
40. According to the article, for what reasons
35. Analyzing Data At which times did the fertility
did Thailand decide to reduce the size of its
rate change most drastically in the United States?
population?
36. Graphing Data Sketch a copy of the graph
41. After reviewing the case study, explain the
below. Smooth the bumps to give an idea of
relationship it indicates between reducing
general trends.
Whypopulation
It Matters size and improving the lives of
37. Drawing Conclusions On your new graph, women.
draw a second line to show the changes in
population size that you would predict to result Why It Matters
from the given fertility rates over time. 42. Why should people
in the United States
Baby boom Baby bust be concerned about
4.0
population size in
3.5
other countries?
Total fertility rate
3.0
Replacement
2.5 level
2.0
1.5
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year
Source: National Center for Health Statistics.
STUDYSKILL
Making Connections Quantitative Terms Look for key terms in the graphs
38. Writing Persuasively Write an opinion article in this chapter. In your science journal, copy the graphs and
for a newspaper or magazine. Argue either for or write brief descriptions of how key terms may relate to the
against a policy related to immigration or family graphs and to other key terms. For example, copy Figure 3,
planning. and write “Low infant mortality corresponds to high life
expectancy in a Type I survivorship curve.”
39. Writing Using Research Look up recent census
data from your city, county, or state. Write a
paragraph that describes the major demographic
trends of the last few years.
©Syndicated Features Limited/The Image Works

ExplorationLab
Data Analysis
How Will Our
Objectives
Predict which variable has a
Population Grow?
greater effect on population
growth rates. If you were a demographer, you might be asked to determine how a
population is likely to change in the future. You have learned that the rate
Calculate changes for
a given population over a
of population growth is affected by both the number of children per family
50-year period. and the age at which people have children. But which factor has a greater
effect? To explore this question, you will use age-structure diagrams—also
Graph the resulting
called population pyramids—such as the one shown below.
population’s age structure
by creating a population
pyramid.
Procedure
Compare the effects 1. In this lab you will calculate future population trends for an imaginary
of fertility variables on city. To compare how fertility variables may affect population growth,
population growth rates. each group of students will test the effects of different assumptions.
Assume the following about the population of this city:
Materials
calculator or computer
Assumptions About the Population
colored pencils or markers
graph paper • Half the population is male and half is female.
notebook • Every woman will have all of her children during a given
pen or pencil five-year period of her life.
ruler • Everyone who is born will live to the age of 85 and then die.
• No one will move into or out of the city.

2. Your teacher will divide the class into four groups. Each group will
project population growth using the following assumptions:
United States, 2000 Assumptions About the Women

80+ in the Population
75–79 Males Females
70–74 Group Each Woman Gives Birth to While in the Age Range of
65–69
60–64
55–59 A 5 children 15–19
50–54
Age
45–49 B 5 children 25–29

40–44
35–39
30–34 C 2 children 15–19
25–29
20–24 D 2 children 25–29
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
3. Predict which of the four groups will have the greatest population
12 8 4 0 4 8 12
growth in 50 years. Write down the order you would predict for
Population (in millions)
the relative size of the groups from largest population to smallest
population.
Age Structure You will make an age-
structure diagram, such as this graph
of the U.S. population in 2000.
4. The table at right shows the population of our imaginary city for the
year 2000. Use the data in the table to make an age-structure diagram
(population pyramid) for the city. Use the example diagram at left to
help you.

5. Make a table similar to the one shown at right. Add columns for the Population in Each Age
years 2005, 2010, and for every fifth year until the year 2050. Group, 2000–2050
6. Calculate the number of 0- to 4-year-olds in the year 2005. To do this, Age 2000 2005 2010
first determine how many women will have children between 2000
and 2005. Remember that half of the population in each age group is 80+ 100
female, and that members of the population will reproduce at specific
ages. Multiply the number of childbearing women by the number of 75–79 500
children that each woman will have. For example, Group A will have
12,500 new births by 2005. 70–74 600
65–69 700
7. Fill in the columns for the years 2005 and 2010. Determine the num-
ber of people in each age group by “shifting” each group from 2000. 60–64 800
For example, the number of 5- to 9-year-olds in 2005 will equal the
number of 0- to 4-year-olds in 2000. 55–59 900
8. Calculate the total population for each five-year period. 50–54 1,000
9. Repeat the process described in steps 3–8 for each column to 45–49 1,250
complete the table through the year 2050.
40–44 1,500
Analysis 35–39 2,000

1. Constructing Graphs Plot the growth of the population on
30–34 2,500
a line graph. You may want to use a computer to graph the results.
25–29 3,000
2. Constructing Graphs Make a population pyramid for the popula-
tion in 2050. 20–24 4,000
15–19 5,000
Conclusions
3. Evaluating Data Compare your graphs with the graphs of the other 10–14 6,500
three groups. Were your predictions correct?
5–9 8,000 10,000
4. Drawing Conclusions Which variable had a greater effect on popu-
0–4 10,000 12,500
lation growth—the number of children each woman had or the age at
which each woman had children?
Total 48,350
5. Interpreting Information Did any of the groups show no growth in Females
the population? Explain these results. that give 2,500
birth
New
Extension 12,500
births
6. From the age-structure diagram on the previous page, what would you
predict to happen to the U.S. population in the next 20 years? in the Sample Population Data Use this table as
next 50 years? What parts of the age structure are most important to an example to calculate the age structure for
these predictions? each generation of your imaginary population.
Add columns for five-year periods up to 2050.
Examples of some of Group A’s results are
shown in red.

Chapter 10
Biodiversity
Section 1
What Is Biodiversity?
Section 2
Biodiversity at Risk
Section 3
The Future of Biodiversity
Why It Matters
Ecosystems around the
world are home to unique
communities of species.
Scientists discover new species
every year, and some species
go extinct before they are
known to science.
Why is it important to maintain
biodiversity in an ecosystem?
CASESTUDY
Learn about scientists’ quests
to discover new species in the
Amazonian rain forest in the
case study A Genetic Gold
Rush in the Rain Forests on
pages 248–249.
©John Shaw/Bruce Coleman, Inc.
Online
Environmental Science
HMDScience.com

240
Section 1
What Is Biodiversity? Objectives
Describe the diversity of

species on Earth, and relate
Every day, somewhere on Earth, several unique species of organisms become the difference between known
extinct as the last members of the species die—often because of human actions.
numbers and estimated
Scientists are not sure how many species are becoming extinct or even how many
species there are on Earth. How much extinction is natural? Can we—or should
numbers of species.
we—prevent extinctions? The study of biodiversity helps us think about these
List and describe three levels of
questions, but does not give us all the answers.
biodiversity.
Explain four ways in which

A World Rich in Biodiversity biodiversity is important to
The term biodiversity, which is short for “biological diversity,” usually ecosystems and humans.
refers to the number of different species in a given area. Certain areas of
Analyze the potential value of a
the planet, such as tropical rain forests, contain an extraordinary variety
single species.
of species. The complex relationships between so many species are hard
to study, but humans may need to understand and preserve biodiversity
for our own survival.
Key Terms
biodiversity
Unknown Diversity gene
The study of biodiversity starts with the unfinished task of cataloging keystone species
all the species that exist on Earth. As shown in Figure 1.1, the number of ecotourism
species known to science is about 1.9 million, most of which are insects.
However, the actual number of species on Earth is unknown. Scientists
agree that we have not studied Earth’s species adequately. Recently, it was
estimated that there are around 9 million species of eukaryotes, which
includes protists, animals, and plants. New species are considered known
when they are collected and described scientifically. Unknown species
may exist in remote wildernesses, deep in the oceans, and even in cities.
Figure 1.1
Number of Species on Earth

About 1.9 million species on Earth are known to science. Many more species are estimated
to exist, especially species of smaller organisms. Scientists continue to revise these estimates.
Insects
Fungi
Arachnids
Nematodes
Bacteria
Plants
All others
Mollusks
Algae
Protozoans
Total known
Crustaceans
Additional estimated
Vertebrates
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000 8,000
Number of species (in thousands)
Source: World Conservation Monitoring Center.
Chapter 10: Biodiversity 241

Levels of Diversity
Biodiversity can be studied and described at three levels. Species diversity
refers to the number of different species in an area. This kind of diver-
sity has received the most attention and is most often what is meant by
biodiversity. Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of habitats, commu-
nities, and ecological processes within and between ecosystems. Genetic
diversity refers to all the different genes contained within all members of a
population. A gene is a piece of DNA that codes for a specific trait that can
be inherited by an organism’s offspring.
Benefits of Biodiversity
Biodiversity can affect the stability of ecosystems and the sustainability
of populations. In addition, there are many ways that humans clearly use
and benefit from the variety of life forms on Earth. Biodiversity may be
more important than we realize.
Figure 1.2
Species Are Connected to
Keystone Species The sea otters of North America are an example of a Ecosystems
keystone species, upon which a whole ecosystem depends.
We depend on healthy ecosystems to
ensure a healthy biosphere that has
(bl) ©David Courtenay/Oxford Scientific/Getty Images; (br) ©Jeffrey L. Rotman/Peter Arnold, Inc.; (t) ©Mark Conlin/Oxford Scientific/Getty Images
balanced cycles of energy and nutrients.
Species are part of these cycles. Many
species play important roles in ecosys-
tems. Every species is probably either de-
pendent on or depended upon by at least
one other species in ways that are not
always obvious. When one species
disappears from an ecosystem, a strand
in a food web is removed. How many
threads can be pulled from the web
before it collapses? We often do not know
the answer until it is too late. In general,
the more species there are, the more
stable an ecosystem is.
But some species are so clearly critical
to the functioning of an ecosystem that
they are called keystone species. One
example of a keystone species is the sea
otter. Figure 1.2 shows how the loss of sea
otter populations led to the loss of the
kelp beds along the Pacific coast of the
In the 1800s, sea otters were hunted for their fur. They disappeared from the United States and how the recovery of ot-
Pacific coast of the U.S. Sea urchins, with no more predators, multiplied and ate ter populations led to the recovery of the
the kelp. The kelp beds began to disappear from the area. In 1937, a small group kelp populations.
of surviving otters was discovered. With protection and scientific efforts, the otter
populations grew. The otters once again preyed on the sea urchins. The kelp
beds regenerated.

Figure 1.3
Species and Population Survival
Bottleneck When a population
Genetic diversity within populations is important to species survival. If
is reduced to a few members, this
there is high genetic diversity, it is more likely that some individuals will creates a bottleneck of reduced
be adapted to survive new diseases or environmental changes. When a genetic diversity. The genetic diversity
population shrinks, its genetic diversity decreases as though it is pass- of the population is greater before the
ing through a bottleneck, as shown in Figure 1.3. Even if the population bottleneck than after it.
can increase again, its genetic diversity will be reduced, putting it at risk.
Then, members of the population may become more likely to inherit
genetic diseases. Bottleneck
Medical, Industrial, and Agricultural Uses
Population size
People throughout history have used the variety of organisms on Earth for
food, clothing, shelter, and medicine. Of the top 150 prescription drugs
used in the United States, 74 percent are derived from plants. Almost all
antibiotics are derived from chemicals found in fungi. Figure 1.4 lists some
plants from which medicines are derived.
For some industries, undiscovered and poorly studied species
represent a source of potential products. New chemicals and industrial
materials may be developed from chemicals discovered in all kinds
of species. The scientific community continues to find new uses for Time
biological material and genetic diversity.
Genetic types
Figure 1.4
Common Medicines Derived from Plants
Medicine Origin Use
Neostigmine calabar bean treatment of glaucoma and basis for

(Africa) synthetic insecticides
Turbocurarine curare vine surgical muscle relaxant; treatment
Explain Why is genetic diversity
(South America) of muscle disorders; and poison for
important for the survival of a species?
arrow tips
Vincristine, rosy periwinkle treatment of pediatric leukemia and
vinblastine (Madagascar) Hodgkin’s disease
Bromelain pineapple treatment to control tissue inflammation
(South America)
Taxol Pacific yew anticancer agent
(North America)
Novacaine, coca plant local anesthetic and basis for many other
cocaine (South America) anesthetics
Cortisone wild yam hormone used in many drugs
(Central America)
L-dopa (levodopa) velvet bean treatment of Parkinson’s disease
(tropical Asia)
Reserpine Indian snakeroot treatment to reduce high blood pressure
(Malaysia)

Figure 1.5
Humans benefit from biodiversity every time
Crop Origins A produce market in Bolivia shows a diversity they eat. Most of the crops produced around the
of native foods. Many crops that are grown in the United States world originated from a few areas of high biodi-
originated elsewhere. versity. Some examples of crop origins are shown
in Figure 1.5. Most new crop varieties are hybrids,
Food Origins
or crops developed by combining genetic material
North America, Central America, and South America from more than one population. Depending on too
few plant varieties for food is risky. For example,
corn (maize), tomato, bean (pinto, green, and lima), peanut,
famines have resulted when an important crop was
potato, sweet potato, avocado, pumpkin, pineapple, cocoa,
wiped out by disease. But some crops have been
vanilla, and pepper (green, red, and chile)
saved from diseases by being crossbred with wild
Northeastern Africa, Central Asia, and Near East plant relatives. In the future, new crop varieties
may come from species not yet discovered.
wheat (several types), sesame, chickpea, fig, lentil, carrot,
pea, okra, date, walnut, coffee, cow, goat, pig, and sheep
India, East Asia, and Pacific Islands Ethics, Aesthetics, and Recreation
Some people believe that we should preserve bio-
soybean, rice, banana, coconut, lemon, lime, orange, diversity for ethical reasons. They believe that spe-
cucumber, eggplant, turnip, tea, black pepper, and chicken cies and ecosystems have a right to exist whether
or not they have any other value. To people of some
cultures and religions, each organism on Earth is a
gift with a higher purpose.
People also value biodiversity for aesthetic or
personal enjoyment—keeping pets, camping, pho-
tographing wildflowers, or watching wildlife. Some
regions earn the majority of their income from eco-
tourism, which is a form of tourism that supports
the conservation and sustainable development of
ecologically unique areas.
©Lineair/Peter Arnold, Inc.

1. Describe the general diversity of species on 4. Analyzing a Viewpoint Is it possible to put a
Earth in terms of relative numbers and types of price on a single species? Explain your answer.
organisms. Compare known numbers of species
5. Predicting Consequences What is your
to current estimates.
favorite type of organism? If this organism
2. Describe three levels of biodiversity. Which were to go extinct, how would you feel? What
level is most commonly meant by biodiversity? would you be willing to do to try to save it from
extinction? Write a short essay describing your
3. Explain how biodiversity is important to
reaction.
ecosystems, and give examples of how it is
important to humans.

Section 2
Biodiversity at Risk Objectives
Define and give examples of

endangered and threatened
About 65 million years ago, about half the species on Earth—including dinosaurs species.
(with the exception of birds)—disappeared. The extinction of many species in a
relatively short period of time is called a mass extinction. Earth has experienced Describe several ways that
several mass extinctions, as shown in Figure 2.1. It takes millions of years for species are threatened with
biodiversity to rebound after a mass extinction.
extinction globally.
Explain which types of threats

Current Extinctions are having the largest impact
Scientists warn that we are in the midst of another mass extinction. The on biodiversity.
rate of extinction is estimated to have increased by a multiple of 50 since
List areas of the world that have
1800. Between 1800 and 2000, up to 25 percent of all species on Earth may
high levels of biodiversity and
have become extinct. The current mass extinction is different from those of
many threats to species.
the past because humans are the primary cause of the extinctions.
Compare the amount of
biodiversity in the United States
Species Prone to Extinction
to that of the rest of the world.
Cockroaches and rats are not likely to become extinct because they have
large populations that adapt easily to many habitats. But species with
small populations in limited areas can easily become extinct. Species that Key Terms
are especially at risk of extinction include those that migrate, those that
endangered species
need large or special habitats, and those that are exploited by humans.
threatened species
An endangered species is a species that is likely to become extinct exotic species
if protective measures are not taken immediately. A threatened species
poaching
is a species that has a declining population and that is likely to become
endangered if it is not protected. Additional categories of risk exist for
endemic species
certain legal and biological purposes.
Figure 2.1
Extinction Events 20
When extinction rate is
plotted against time, mass
extinctions appear as
15
periodic peaks rising above
(families per million years)
background extinction levels.

Extinction rate
10
5
Approximate
background
extinctions
0
600 400 200 0
Millions of years ago
Source: University of California Berkeley.

Figure 2.2
Species Known to Be Threatened or Extinct Worldwide
Number Threatened (all Percent of Species that May be
Type of Species Number Extinct (since ~1800)
categories of risk) Threatened
Mammals 1,130 87 26
Birds 1,183 131 12
Reptiles 296 22 3.3
Amphibians 146 5 3.1
Fishes 752 92 3.7
Insects 555 73 0.054
Other crustaceans 408 9 1.03
Mollusks and worms 938 303 1.3

Plants 30,827 400 20
Source: UN Environment Programme.
How Do Humans Cause Extinctions?

In the past two centuries, human population growth has accelerated and
so has the rate of extinctions. The numbers of worldwide species known
to be threatened, endangered, or recently extinct are listed in Figure 2.2.
The major human causes of extinction today are the destruction of habi-
tats, the introduction of nonnative species, pollution, and the overhar-
vesting of species.
Figure 2.3
Habitat Destruction and Fragmentation
Florida Panther Range The purple area on the map shows
As human populations grow, we use more land to
the range of the Florida panther when settlers first arrived in the
construct buildings and harvest resources. In the
southeastern United States.
process, we destroy and fragment the habitats of
other species. It is estimated that habitat loss causes
almost 75 percent of the extinctions that are now
occurring.
Due to habitat loss, the Florida panther is one
of the most endangered animals in North America.
The panther and its historical range are shown in
Figure 2.3. Two hundred years ago, cougars—a spe-
cies that includes panthers and mountain lions—
ranged from Alaska to South America. Cougars
require expansive ranges of forest habitat and large
©Thomas Kitchin & Victoria Hurst/Corbis
amounts of prey. Today, much of the cougars’ habi-

tat has been destroyed or broken up by roads, canals,
and fences. In 2011, only about 150 Florida panthers
made up the only remaining wild cougar population
east of the Mississippi River.
Source: Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission

Invasive Exotic Species Connect to ECOLOGY
An exotic species is a species that is not native to a particular region. Extinction and Global Change
Even such familiar organisms as cats and rats are considered to be exotic Scientists have worried for some
species when they are brought to regions where they never lived before. time that environmental pollutants
Exotic species can threaten native species that have no natural defenses might cause drastic changes in our
against them. The invasive fire ants in Figure 2.4 threaten livestock, atmosphere and biosphere. However,
people, and native species throughout the southeastern United States. it is difficult to draw a direct link from
global changes to specific extinctions.
In recent decades, scientists
Harvesting, Hunting, and Poaching have observed a worldwide decline
Excessive hunting and harvesting of species can also lead to extinction. In in amphibian species. Unlike most
the United States in the 1800s and 1900s, two billion passenger pigeons cases of habitat loss or overhunting,
were hunted to extinction and bison were hunted nearly to extinction. there is no single clear cause for these
Thousands of rare species worldwide are harvested and sold for use as extinctions, which are occurring more
pets, houseplants, wood, food, or herbal medicine. than 100 times faster than the average
extinction rate. Pollution of water
Many countries now have laws to regulate hunting, fishing, harvesting,
sources with hormone-like chemicals,
and trade of wildlife. However, these activities continue illegally, a crime
increased UV radiation exposure,
known as poaching. In poor countries especially, local species are an ob-
climate change, and fungal disease are
vious source of food, medicine, or income. In addition, not all threatened
all likely culprits.
species are legally protected.
Pollution
Pesticides, cleaning agents, drugs, and other chemicals used by humans
are making their way into food webs around the globe. The long-term
effects of chemicals may not be clear until after many years of use. The bald
eagle is a well-known example of a species that was endangered because
of a pesticide known as DDT. Although DDT is now illegal to use in the
United States, it is still manufactured here and used around the world.
Figure 2.4
Invasive Species Mounds made

by fire ants cover many fields in the
southeastern United States. As with
other invasive exotic species, these
ants had no natural predators and little
competition from native species when
they were first brought into the country
by accident.
©M. Timothy O’Keefe/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot

Connect to MATH Areas of Critical Biodiversity
Estimating Species Loss Some parts of the world contain a greater diversity of species than others.
The annual loss of tropical An important feature of such areas is that they have a large portion of
forest habitat is estimated at about 1.8 endemic species, which are species that are native to and found only
percent per year. Some scientists
within a limited area. Ecologists often use the numbers of endemic
estimate that this habitat loss results in
species of plants as an indicator of overall biodiversity, because plants
a loss of about 0.5 percent of species
form the basis of ecosystems on land. Ecologists increasingly point out
per year. Given a low estimate of
the importance of biodiversity in oceans, and have identified particular
only 5 million species on Earth, how
areas where biodiversity is greatest and also at risk, such as the coral reefs
many years would it take for 1 million
of Indonesia and the Philippines.
species to be lost, if current rates
of tropical rain forest habitat loss
continue? Tropical Rain Forests
The remaining tropical rain forests cover less than 7 percent of the Earth’s
land surface. Yet biologists estimate that over half of the world’s species live
in these forests. Most of these species have never been described. Unknown
numbers of species are disappearing as tropical rain forests are cleared for
farming or cattle grazing. Meanwhile, tropical forests are among the few
places where some native people maintain traditional lifestyles and an in-
timate knowledge of their forest homes. The case study below explains the
increasing value of such knowledge in the global marketplace.
CASESTUDY
A Genetic Gold Rush

in the Rain Forests
Environmental scientists have found that societies benefit from the
services that are provided by ecosystems, such as cleaning water
and air and reducing flooding. People also can learn how to take
advantage of the diverse characteristics of the species that form
ecosystems. This aspect has been especially true in the tropics,
which contain two-thirds of the world’s species of plants.
The diversity of tropical plants and animals is important to local
people for food, shelter, and medicine. Because native peoples of the
tropics have depended on their local environment for thousands of
years, they have an incredible knowledge of the uses of organisms
that live there. In the Amazon, the Yanomamö are still living a lifestyle
of intimate connection to their forest home. The Yanomamö make use
©Alison Wright/Photo Researchers, Inc.
of thousands of plants, fungi, and animals for food, drugs, weapons,

and art. Amazonian natives such as the Yanomamö are probably best
known for their use of poison dart frog skin excretions for hunting.
Over the past several decades, scientists have been exploring the This botanist is researching the uses
tropics to learn more about the potential uses of tropical plants and of rain forest plants and other species
animals. The application of biological science to create new products with the help of this local person.
such as drugs is part of the modern biotechnology industry.

Coral Reefs and Coastal Ecosystems ECOFACT
Coral reefs occupy a small fraction of the marine environment yet contain
The World’s Largest Reef
the majority of the biodiversity there. Reefs provide millions of people with The Great Barrier Reef of Australia is
food and tourism revenue. They protect coasts from waves and flooding the largest and probably the oldest reef
and are sources of new chemicals. But reefs are poorly studied and are not system in the world. It stretches for
well protected by laws. Nearly 60 percent of Earth’s coral reefs are threat- 2,000 km (1,250 mi) and consists of
ened by human activities such as overfishing and pollution. Similar threats 3,400 individual reefs.
affect coastal ecosystems, such as swamps, marshes, shores, and kelp beds.
Coastal areas are travel routes for many migrating species as well as links to
ecosystems on land. Check for Understanding
Explain Why is the biodiversity of
coral reefs and coastal ecosystems
Islands threatened?
When an island rises from the sea, it is colonized by a limited number of
species from the mainland. These colonizing species may then evolve into
several new species. Thus, islands often hold a very distinct but limited
set of species. For example, the Hawaiian Islands have 28 species of an
endemic family of birds called honeycreepers. Honeycreepers and many
other island species are endangered by competition from exotic species.
The Yanomamö are among the few native peoples of the

tropical rain forests who still live traditional lifestyles
and use their knowledge of the forests to meet all of
their needs.
This industry applies what they learn from Earth’s
biodiversity—especially in terms of the chemicals in
their bodies and their genetic material—to research and
development. Governments of tropical countries have
taken notice of the increased international interest in their
biological assets. For example, the government of Brazil
has claimed the right to tax or patent any genetic material
that is harvested from within its borders.
Researchers work with native people, especially those
who work as healers, to identify species that may be useful Critical Thinking
as medicines. Biochemists study the structure and uses
of chemicals found within these species. They have been
amazed by the complex combinations of new chemicals
they have discovered in many rain-forest species. Some of
these chemicals are already being used in medicines today.
The biodiversity of the tropics is at risk and forests are Critical Thinking
©Still Pictures/Peter Arnold, Inc.
disappearing rapidly. Many scientists are concerned that

we are losing species that could have been important crops 1. Expressing Viewpoints To whom do you
or could have provided life-saving medicines. When we
think the genetic material of the rain forests
should belong? What are some ways this benefit
protect rain forests, we are not only protecting important
of biodiversity might be shared with the whole
ecosystems, but also species that may help to make the
world?
lives of millions—or even billions—of people better.

Biodiversity Hotspots
The most threatened areas of high species diversity on Earth have been
labeled biodiversity hotspots. Thirty-five of these areas, shown in Figure 2.5,
have been identified by international conservationists. The hotspot
label was developed by ecologists in the late 1980s to identify areas that
have high numbers of endemic species but that are also threatened by
human activities. Most of these hotspots have lost at least 70 percent
of their original natural vegetation. The hotspots include mostly tropi-
cal rain forests, coastal areas, and islands. In Madagascar, for example,
only 18 percent of the original forests remain. More than 80 percent
(bl) ©Merlin D. Tuttle/Bat Conservation International; (br) ©Jacana/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (cl) ©Jack Jeffrey Photography; (tc) ©Sally A. Morgan/Ecoscene/Corbis; (cr) ©Tom McHugh/Photo Researchers, Inc.
of Madagascar’s 10,000 flowering plant species are endemic, as are 91
percent of its 300 reptile species. All 33 species of lemur, which make up a
tenth of the world’s primate species, are found only in Madagascar.
Figure 2.5
Hotspots Conservationists have identified these 35 biodiversity hotspots (green).

Examples of endangered species from some areas are shown.
Philippines
Mediterranean Basin Mountains of
Gray’s monitor lizard
Dragon tree South-Central China
Caucasus
Polynesia and Micronesia
Akiapolaau Western Ghats
and Sri Lanka Indo-Burma
California
floristic
province
Caribbean
Brazilian
Mesoamerica Cerrado
Guinea New
Sundaland Caledonia
forests of
Tropical West Africa Wallacea
Andes
Succulent
Choco-Darien and Karoo Madagascar and
Western Ecuador Atlantic
Indian Ocean Islands
Marinkelle’s sword-nosed bat forest Cape Lesser mouse lemur
region floristic
New Zealand
Central province
Chile Southwest
Eastern Arc
Australia
Mountains
and coastal
forests
of Tanzania
and Kenya

Figure 2.6
At-Risk Species Examples of at-risk species and populations in the United States include
the cecropia moth, (declining populations), the tulip poplar tree (limited distribution),
the desert pupfish (endangered), and the northern spotted owl (threatened).
(tcl) ©Tim Gainey/Alamy Images; (tl) ©Millard H. Sharp/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (tr) ©Stone Nature Photography/Alamy Images; (tcr) ©Tom McHugh/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Biodiversity in the United States

You may notice that three of the biodiversity hotspots in Figure 2.5 are
partly within U.S. borders. The United States includes a wide variety
of unique ecosystems, including the Florida Everglades, the California
coastal region, Hawaii, the Great Plains prairies, and the forests of the
Pacific Northwest. The United States holds unusually high numbers of
species of freshwater fishes, mussels, snails, and crayfish. Species diver-
sity in the United States is also high among groups of land plants such as
pine trees and sunflowers. Some examples of the many species and popu-
lations that are at risk of being lost are shown in Figure 2.6.
The California Floristic Province, a biodiversity hotspot, is home to
3,488 native plant species. Of these species, 2,124 are endemic and 565
are threatened or endangered. The threats to this area include the use
of land for agriculture and housing, dam construction, overuse of water,
destructive recreation, and mining—all stemming from local human
population growth.

1. Describe four ways that species are being 5. Interpreting Graphics The biodiversity
threatened with extinction globally. hotspots shown in Figure 2.5 share several
characteristics besides a great number of
2. Define and give examples of endangered species
species. Look at the map, and name as many
and threatened species.
shared characteristics as you can.
3. List areas of the Earth that have high levels of
6. Expressing Opinions Which of the various
biodiversity and many threats to species.
threats to biodiversity do you think will be most
4. Compare the amount of biodiversity in the difficult to stop? Which are hardest to justify?
United States to that of the rest of the world. Write a paragraph to explain your opinion.

Section 3
Objectives
The Future of
Biodiversity
List and describe four types
of efforts to save individual
species.
Explain the advantages of

protecting entire ecosystems Slowing the loss of species is possible, but to do so we must develop new
rather than individual species. approaches to conservation and sensitivity to human needs around the globe.
In this section, you will read about efforts to save individual species and to protect
Describe the main provisions of entire ecosystems.
the Endangered Species Act.
Discuss ways in which efforts

to protect endangered species
Saving Species One at a Time
can lead to controversy. When a species is clearly on the verge of extinction, concerned people
sometimes make extraordinary efforts to save the last few individuals.
Describe three examples of These people hope that a stable population may be restored someday.
worldwide cooperative efforts
to prevent extinctions.
Captive-Breeding Programs
Sometimes, wildlife experts may attempt to restore the population of
Key Terms a species through captive-breeding programs. These programs involve
germ plasm breeding species in captivity, with the hope of reintroducing populations
Endangered Species Act to their natural habitats. One example of a captive-breeding program
habitat conservation plan involves the California condor, shown in Figure 3.1.
Biodiversity Treaty Condors are scavengers. They typically soar over vast areas in search
of dead animals to eat. Habitat loss, poaching, and lead poisoning
brought the species near extinction. In 1986, the nine remaining wild
California condors were captured by wildlife experts to protect the birds
and to begin a breeding program. Birds bred in captivity were released
into the wild in the hope that they would breed there. By 2011, there were
210 condors in the wild, several of them juveniles that had hatched from
eggs laid in the wild. But, the survival of this species remains doubtful.
Figure 3.1
Captive Breeding The California condor (left) nearly became extinct in the 1980s. A
captive-breeding program (right) is returning some condors to the wild.
©David Clenenden/U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
252
Preserving Genetic Material Figure 3.2
One way to save the essence of a species is by preserving its genetic mate- Seed Banks Seeds are stored in
rial. Germ plasm is any form of genetic material, such as that contained controlled conditions. The samples
within the reproductive, or germ, cells of animals and plants. Germ- may be able to reproduce organisms
plasm banks store germ plasm for future use in research or species- many years from now.
recovery efforts. Material may be stored as seeds, sperm, eggs, or pure
DNA. Millions of seeds are being preserved in the Millennium Seed Bank
in West Sussex, England. These seeds are stored in special controlled
environments, as shown in Figure 3.2, to keep the genetic material intact
for many years. Farmers and gardeners also preserve germ plasm when
they save and share seeds.
Zoos, Aquariums, Parks, and Gardens

The original idea of zoos was to put exotic animals on display. However,
in some cases, zoos now house the few remaining members of a species
and are perhaps the species’ last hope for survival. Zoos, wildlife parks,
aquariums, and botanical gardens are living museums of the world’s
biodiversity. Botanical gardens, such as the one shown in Figure 3.3, house
about 90,000 species of plants worldwide. Even so, these kinds of facili-
ties rarely have enough resources to preserve more than a fraction of the
world’s rare and threatened species.
More Study Needed

Ultimately, saving a few individuals does little to preserve a species.
Captive species may not reproduce or survive again in the wild. Also,
small populations are vulnerable to infectious diseases and genetic dis-
orders caused by inbreeding. Conservationists hope that these strategies
are only used as a last resort to save species.
Figure 3.3
Botanical Gardens This botanical

garden is contained within a clear dome
(b) ©Cameramann International; (t) ©James King-Holmes/Photo Researchers, Inc.
in Queen Elizabeth Park in Vancouver,

Canada. The dome houses over 500
species of plants from all over the world
as well as over 100 species of tropical
birds.

Figure 3.4
QUICKLAB
QUICKLAB
Sustainable Land Use Another conservation strategy is to promote more creative and
Habitat Degradation sustainable land uses. This coffee crop is grown in the shade of native tropical trees. This
Procedure practice is restoring habitat for many migrating songbirds.
1. To determine possible effects of
oil spills on shoreline organisms,
you will observe how oil acts
when deposited on different types
of sediment.
2. Using the bottom halves of three
clean, 20-oz plastic soda bottles,
fill one two-thirds full with gravel,
one with sand, and the third with
clay or mud.
3. At the same time, pour equal
volumes of simulated “oil” onto the
surface of each sediment type.
4. Observe the immediate action of
the oil. Wait 5 min. Use a plastic
spoon to carefully dig down and Preserving Habitats and Ecosystems
measure how many centimeters
The most effective way to save species is to protect their habitats. But a
the oil penetrated each sediment
species confined to a small area could be wiped out by a single natural
type. Record your results.
disaster. Some species require a large range to find food, a suitable mate,
Analysis and rear their young. Therefore, protecting the habitats of endangered
1. Compare your results with other and threatened species often means preserving or managing large areas.
groups. Did all of the oils that were
tested act the same?
2. What consequences could spills of Conservation Strategies
different types of oils have for living Most conservationists now give priority to protecting entire ecosystems
organisms? rather than individual species. By protecting entire ecosystems, we may be
able to save most of the species in an ecosystem instead of only the ones that
have been identified as endangered. The public has begun to understand
that Earth’s biosphere depends on all its connected ecosystems.
To protect biodiversity worldwide, conservationists focus on the hot-
spots described in the previous section. However, protecting hotspots is
Check for Understanding not enough. One strategy is to identify areas of native habitat that can be
Summarize Why does protecting the preserved, restored, and linked into large networks. Another promising
habitat of threatened and endangered strategy is to promote products that have been harvested with sustainable
species involve large areas? practices, such as the shade-grown coffee shown in Figure 3.4. ©Andy Nelson/Christian Science Monitor/Getty Images
More Study Needed

Conservationists emphasize the need for more detailed studies of eco-
systems. Only in recent decades has there been research into such basic
questions as, How large does a protected preserve have to be to maintain
a certain number of species? How much fragmentation can a particular
ecosystem tolerate? What are the key species needed to maintain ecosys-
tem functions? Important progress has been made to answer these ques-
tions that allows informed decisions affecting biodiversity to continue to
be made while further studies are conducted.

Figure 3.5
Legal Protections for Species Major Provisions
of the Endangered
Many nations have laws and regulations designed to prevent the extinc-
Species Act
tion of species, and those in the United States are among the strongest.
Even so, there is controversy about how to enforce such laws and about The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
how effective they are. must compile a list of all endangered
and threatened species in the United
States.
U.S. Laws
Endangered and threatened animal
In 1973, the U.S. Congress passed the Endangered Species Act and has
species may not be caught or killed.
amended it several times since. This law, summarized in Figure 3.5, is
Endangered and threatened plants
designed to protect plant and animal species in danger of extinction. on federal land may not be uprooted.
Under the first provision, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) must No part of an endangered and
compile a list of all endangered and threatened species in the United threatened species may be sold or
States. As of 2012, 1,383 species of plants and animals were listed as traded.
endangered or threatened. Dozens more are considered for the list each
year. The second main provision of the act protects listed species from The federal government may
human harm. Anyone who harms, buys, or sells any part of these species not carry out any project that
is subject to a fine. The third provision prevents the federal government jeopardizes endangered species.
from carrying out any project that jeopardizes a listed species. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
must prepare a species recovery
plan for each endangered and
Recovery and Habitat Conservation Plans threatened species.
Under the fourth main provision of the Endangered Species Act, the
USFWS must prepare a species recovery plan for each listed species. These
plans often propose to protect or restore habitat for each species. How-
ever, attempts to restrict human uses
of land can be controversial. Real Figure 3.6
estate developers may be prohibited
This region of San Diego, California, is home to several endangered species.
from building on their own land
A habitat conservation plan attempts to protect these species by managing a large
because it contains critical habitat for group of lands in the area.
a species. People may lose income
when land uses are restricted and
may object when their interests are
placed below those of another spe-
cies.
Although battles between de-
velopers and environmentalists are
widely publicized, in most cases com-
promises are eventually worked out.
One form of compromise is a habitat
conservation plan—a plan that at-
tempts to protect one or more species
across large areas of land through
trade-offs or cooperative agreements.
©Chuck Place/Alamy Images
The region of California shown in

Figure 3.6 is part of a habitat conserva-
tion plan.

Figure 3.7
Poaching Scenes like this one of elephant tusk poaching were common before the
worldwide ban on the sale of ivory as part of CITES.
Connect to MATH
International Cooperation
At the global level, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources (IUCN) facilitates efforts to protect species and
habitats. This organization is a collaboration of almost 200 government
agencies and over 700 private conservation organizations. The IUCN
publishes Red Lists of species in danger of extinction around the world.
The IUCN also advises governments on ways to manage their natural
resources, and works with groups such as the World Wildlife Fund to
sponsor conservation projects.
International Trade and Poaching

Connect to MATH
One product of the IUCN has been an international treaty called CITES
Measuring Risk (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species). The
There are many ways to categorize a CITES treaty was the first effective effort to stop the slaughter of African
species’ degree of risk of extinction. elephants. Elephants were being killed by poachers who would sell the
The IUCN and the Nature Conservancy ivory tusks. Efforts during the 1970s and 1980s to limit the sale of ivory did
have multiple ranks for species of
(tl) ©Robert Caputo/Aurora; (tr) ©Louise Gubb/J.B. Pictures/Image Works

little to stop the poaching. Then in 1989, the members of CITES proposed
concern, ranging from “presumed
a worldwide ban on all trade in ivory, hoping to prevent scenes like those
extinct” to “secure.” According to one
study of 20,500 species in the United
States, 1,400 of those species were Some people worried that making ivory illegal might increase the
at some risk. Calculate this number rate of poaching instead of decrease it. They argued that illegal ivory, like
of species at risk as a percentage. illegal drugs, might sell for a higher price. But after the ban was enacted,
Use this percentage to estimate how the price of ivory dropped, and elephant poaching declined dramatically.
many species may be at risk around
the world.
The Biodiversity Treaty
One of the most ambitious efforts to tackle environmental issues on a
worldwide scale was the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development, also known as the first Earth Summit. More than 100 world
leaders and 30,000 other participants met in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Figure 3.8
An important result of the Earth Summit was an
international agreement called the Biodiversity Treaty. Activism These Greenpeace activists are blocking the path of
The treaty’s goal is to preserve biodiversity and ensure a nuclear submarine.
the sustainable and fair use of genetic resources in critical thinking
all countries. However, the treaty took many years to Decide Do you think this is an effective way to protect species?
be adopted into law by the U.S. government. Some Explain.
political groups objected to the Treaty, especially to
the suggestion that economic and trade agreements
should take into account any impacts on biodiversity
that might result from the agreements. The interna-
tional community will thus continue to have debates
like those that have surrounded the Endangered Spe-
cies Act in the United States.
Private Conservation Efforts

Many private nonprofit organizations work to protect
species worldwide, often more effectively than gov-
ernment agencies. The World Wildlife Fund encour-
ages the sustainable use of resources and supports
wildlife protection. The Nature Conservancy has
helped purchase millions of hectares of habitat preserves in more than 30
countries. Conservation International helps identify biodiversity hotspots
and develop ecosystem conservation projects in partnership with other
organizations and local people. Greenpeace International organizes
direct and sometimes confrontational actions, such as the one shown in
Figure 3.8, to counter environmental threats.
Balancing Human Needs

Attempts to protect species often come into conflict with the interests of
©Steve Morgan/Alamy Images
the world’s human inhabitants. Sometimes, an endangered species repre-

sents a source of food or income. In other cases, a given species may not
seem valuable to those who do not understand the species’ role in an eco- FieldStudy
system. Many conservationists feel that an important part of protecting Go to Appendix B to find the field study
species is making the value of biodiversity understood by more people. Simple Biodiversity Assessment.

1. Describe four types of efforts to save individual 5. Analyzing Methods Read the headings in this
species. section. Which type of effort to preserve species
do you think is most worthwhile?
2. Explain the advantages of protecting entire
ecosystems rather than individual species. 6. Comparing Viewpoints Discuss ways in
which efforts to protect species can lead to
3. Describe the main provisions of the
controversy.
Endangered Species Act.
7. Inferring Relationships Why was a complete
4. Give examples of worldwide cooperative efforts
ban of ivory sales more effective than a limited
to prevent extinctions.
ban?

Making a Difference
Dr. E. O. Wilson:
Champion of Biodiversity
Dr. Edward Osborne Wilson deserves some of the credit for the fact that
this book includes a chapter called “Biodiversity.” Just a few decades ago,
the word biodiversity was used by few scientists and wasn’t found in many
dictionaries. Dr. Wilson has helped make the concept and value of biodiversity
widely recognized, through his extensive research, publishing, organizing, and
social advocacy.
Since his early career as a pioneer in the fields of entomology and
sociobiology, Dr. Wilson has gained recognition for many additional
accomplishments. He has written two Pulitzer Prize-winning nonfiction books
and has received the National Medal of Science and dozens of other scientific
awards and honors. Wilson is widely recognized as one of the most influential
scientists and citizens of our time.
It All Started with Bugs

Even before his scientific career, Wilson developed a fascination with
insects and the natural world. He always had high expectations of himself
Dr. Wilson with one of his favorite
subjects—ants. but made the best of circumstances. Although his parents were divorced
and his father’s government career required frequent moves, Wilson found
companionship in the woods of the southern United States or the museums
of Washington, D.C. After injuries damaged his vision and hearing, Wilson
focused his scientific skills on the smaller forms of life.
By the time he earned his master’s degree at the University of Alabama
at the age of 20, Wilson was well known as a promising entomologist—
an expert on the insect world. His specialty is the study of ants and their
complex social behaviors. So it makes sense that Wilson next went to study
at Harvard University, home to the world’s largest ant collection. While at
Harvard, he earned his Ph.D., conducted field research around the world,
collected more than 100 previously undescribed species, and wrote several
(b) ©Odilon Dimier/PhotoAlto/Alamy Images; (t) ©AP Images
books on insect physiology and social organization. He eventually

became curator of the Museum of Entomology at Harvard.
Clearly, Wilson has a passion for insects. “There is a very
special pleasure in looking in a microscope and saying I am
the first person to see a species that may be millions of years
old,” he says. Some of Wilson’s research has focused on
the social behavior of ants. Among other important scientific
findings, Wilson was the first to demonstrate that ant behavior
and communication is based mostly on chemical signals.

ECOZine
at HMDScience.com
From Insects to Humans Dr. Wilson (center) speaks to politicians and the public
In 1971, Wilson published The Insect Societies, which about the need to conserve our planet’s biodiversity.
surveyed the evolution of social organization among wasps,
ants, bees, and termites. Wilson began to extend his
attempts to understand the relationship of biology and social
behavior to other animals, including humans. In 1975, Wilson
published a controversial book exploring these new ideas,
called Sociobiology. Now an accepted branch of science,
sociobiology is the study of the biological basis of social
behavior in animals, including humans.
During Wilson’s studies of the behavior of ants and other
social insects, he became interested in the insects’ role in the
ecosystems where he studied them. Some of his research
involved camping for months at a time in a remote wilderness
such as the Amazon basin, carefully studying the activities
of certain species. His writings include amazing tales of Urgent Work
watching huge colonies of “driver” ants swarm out over an Despite his fame, Wilson is a soft-spoken fellow who would
area, capturing and killing a great many other species in prefer to live a quiet life with his research and with his family
their path. in their home in the woods of Massachusetts. But the urgent
In 1990, Wilson received his second Pulitzer Prize for problem of species loss makes Wilson willing to face the
co-authoring The Ants, an enormous encyclopedia of the ant public. “Humanity is entering a bottleneck of overpopulation
world. In addition to describing 8,800 known species of ants, and environmental degradation unique in history. We need
the book details the great variations among ant species in to carry every species through the bottleneck . . . Along with
terms of anatomy, biochemistry, complex social behaviors, culture itself, they will be the most precious gift we can give
and especially their critical role in many ecosystems. Wilson future generations.”
reminds us that ants “are some of the most abundant and In the early 2000s, Dr. Wilson began promoting the need
diverse of the Earth’s 1.4 million species. They’re among for a global biodiversity survey. This project would involve an
the little creatures that run the Earth. If ants and other small international scientific effort on par with the Human Genome
animals were to disappear, the Earth would rot. Fish, reptiles, Project.
birds—and humans—would crash to extinction.” This vision for a global biodiversity survey led to the
Encyclopedia of Life (EOL) project. The EOL is a free, online
Onward to Biodiversity collaborative encyclopedia with the goal of providing
As with many great scientists, each thing Dr. Wilson studies information about all 1.9 million species that have been
leads him to new questions and new ideas. During his What
What
described. Do
WilsonDo You Think?
Youthat
states Think?
“to describe and classify all
research, Wilson spent time reflecting and writing on the of the species of the world deserves to be one of the great
nature of ecosystems, the importance of biodiversity, and the scientific goals of the new century.” As of September 2011,
role of humans in relation to these. In 1992, he put many of hundreds of partners have added more than 700,000 species
these ideas into another popular book called The Diversity to EOL and Wilson’s vision is moving toward being fulfilled.
of Life. This book combined Wilson’s engaging writing style
©Marc Halevi/Harvard Photographic Services
and personal expertise with the latest ecological research. What

WhatDo
DoYou
YouThink?
Think?
The book showed both how such incredible biodiversity has
Do you find insects interesting? Could you imagine
evolved on Earth and how this asset is being lost because of yourself as an entomologist? Do you think that
current human activities. The book clearly explained for the Dr. Wilson made a goal early in his life to be an
general public many of the problems and potential solutions internationally famous conservationist? What has
regarding biodiversity that we have studied in this chapter. led him to take on this role?

Chapter 10 Summary
Section 1 What Is Biodiversity? Objectives Key Terms
• Biodiversity usually refers to the number of different biodiversity

species in a given area. gene
• The study of biodiversity starts with the unfinished keystone species
task of identifying and cataloging all species on Earth. ecotourism
Although scientists disagree about the probable number
of species on Earth, they do agree that we need to
study biodiversity more thoroughly.
• Humanity benefits from biodiversity in several ways and
perhaps in some unknown ways.
Section 2 Biodiversity at Risk Objectives Key Terms
• Many scientists are now concerned that loss of endangered

biodiversity is the most challenging environmental species
issue we face. threatened
species
• The most common cause of extinction today is the
destruction of habitats by humans. Unregulated exotic species
hunting and the introduction of nonnative species also poaching
(t) ©David Courtenay/Oxford Scientific/Getty Images; © ©Millard H. Sharp/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) ©Chuck Place/Alamy Images
contribute to extinctions. endemic species
• Certain areas of the world contain a greater diversity
of species than other areas. An important feature
of such areas is that they have a large portion of
endemic species.
• The United States has a very important role in
preserving biodiversity through laws and regulations.
Section 3 The Future of Biodiversity Objectives Key Terms
• Most major conservation efforts concentrate on protect- germ plasm

ing entire ecosystems rather than individual species. Endangered
• The Endangered Species Act establishes protections Species Act
for endangered and threatened species in the United habitat
States. The act has generated some controversy and conservation
plan
has been amended several times.
Biodiversity
• International cooperation has led to increased Treaty
recognition and protection of biodiversity worldwide.
• The desire to protect biodiversity often conflicts with
other human interests.

Chapter 10 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 12. When sea otters disappeared from the Pacific
coast of North America,
a. the area became overrun with kelp.
1. keystone species
b. the number of fish in the kelp beds increased.
2. ecotourism
c. the number of sea urchins in the kelp beds
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings of increased.
the terms differ.
d. the area became overrun with brown seaweed.
3. hunting and poaching
4. endemic species and exotic species 13. Which of the following statements about the
5. endangered species and threatened species Endangered Species Act is not true?
6. gene and germ plasm a. Parts of an endangered animal, such as feathers
or fur, may be traded or sold but only if the
7. CITES and Biodiversity Treaty animal is not killed.
8. Concept Map Use the following terms to b. A species is considered endangered if it is
create a concept map: biodiversity, species, gene, expected to become extinct in the near future.
ecosystem, habitat loss, poaching, exotic species,
germ plasm, captive breeding programs, and c. The federal government cannot carry out a
habitat preservation. project that may jeopardize an endangered
plant.
d. A recovery plan is prepared for all animals that
Reviewing Main Ideas are listed as endangered.
9. The term biodiversity refers to
14. Because of efforts by the Convention on
a. the variety of species on Earth. International Trade in Endangered Species
b. the extinction of the dinosaurs. (CITES),
c. habitat destruction, invasive exotic species, and a. the poaching of elephants increased.
poaching. b. the cost of ivory worldwide increased.
d. the fact that 40 percent of prescription drugs c. the international trade of ivory was banned
come from living things. worldwide.
10. Most of the living species known to science d. a captive-breeding program for elephants was
established.
a. are large mammals.
b. live in deserts. 15. Emphasizing the preservation of entire
c. live in the richer countries of the world. ecosystems will
d. are insects. a. cause the economic needs of farmers to suffer
in order to save a single species.
11. Some species are so important to the functioning b. decrease biodiversity, especially in tropical rain
of an ecosystem that they are called forests, coral reefs, and islands.
a. threatened species. c. throw the food webs of many ecosystems out of
b. keystone species. balance.
c. endangered species. d. save many unknown species from extinction.
d. extinct species.

Chapter Review

16. When was hunting a major cause of extinctions in 24. Comparing Processes Read the passage in this
the United States? chapter that describes current extinctions. How
17. What are exotic species, and how do they are the extinctions that are occurring currently
endanger other species? different from most extinctions in the past?
18. Why do biologists favor using an ecosystem 25. Analyzing Methods With unlimited funding,
approach to preserve biodiversity? could zoos and captive-breeding programs restore
most endangered animal populations? Explain
19. Describe three ways that preserving biodiversity your answers.
can come into conflict with human interests.
26. Determining Cause and Effect How might the
loss of huge tracts of tropical rain forests have an
Interpreting Graphics effect on other parts of the world?
The graph below shows the numbers of various types 27. Literature Try to remember or find some
of species that are officially listed as endangered or children’s stories that include wild animals that
threatened in the United States and internationally. are currently endangered, threatened, or extinct.
Use the graph to answer questions 20–23. Write a description of how these animals are
portrayed in the stories. In your description,
Threatened and Endangered compare the animals in the stories to what you
Species By Type
know about the real animals.
Mammals 28. Geography Obtain a list of the plants and
animals that are endangered in your state. Find
Birds
out where these species live, and mark the
locations on a map of your state. Research the
Reptiles
effects of habitat loss on species in your county or
in surrounding areas.
Amphibians
29. Analyzing Limits In 2010 the United Nations
Fishes reported that governments were largely ignoring
the Biodiversity Treaty, allowing the extinction
Mollusks of species to continue at an alarming rate. What
World
United States
does this fact reveal about the limitations of
Arthropods international treaties?
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Number of Identified Species
Source: U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

20. Critique Do these numbers necessarily reflect
all species that may be in danger? Explain your
answer.
21. Assess Which types of species might be
underrepresented in the graph?
22. Analyze Compare the United States and world
listings. What trends do you see in the types of
species listed in the graph?
23. Evaluate Given this information, which types of
species might need further research worldwide?

Chapter Review
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
STUDYSKILL
34. Why might scientists want to consult with
indigenous cultures when searching an area
Estimates of Knowledge of Earth’s
for new species?
Species
35. Describe the controversy regarding who
Number Described Number Accuracy should profit from the discovery of new
Type of
of Species Species as Threatened of
Species
Described % of Total or Extinct Estimates Whyspecies. Who do you think should profit from
It Matters
such discoveries? Explain your answer.
Bacteria 4,000 0.40 (unknown) very poor
Why It Matters
Vertebrates 52,000 94.55 3,843 good
36. Why should we
Crustaceans 40,000 26.67 628 moderate strive to maintain
biodiversity?
Plants 270,000 84.38 31,277 good
37. Why is it of particular
importance to
30. Analyzing Data Which of the types of species protect hotspots?
in the table are most accurately described? What
do the numbers indicate about how well various
species are studied?
31. Applying Quantities Which of the types of
species may represent the greatest unknown
loss of biodiversity? Which type of species is
probably least important for further research into
biodiversity? STUDYSKILL
Use a Map As you review the chapter, refer to an atlas,
Why It Matters
Making Connections to the maps in the Appendix, or to previous chapters about
biomes to compare information. Draw your own map or make
32. Writing Persuasively Write a letter to the editor
a Why
list ofItthe locations of some of the interesting species and
Matters
of a publication or to an elected representative
ecosystems that you learn about.
in which you express your opinion regarding
protections of endangered species that might
affect your local area.
33. Outlining Topics Outline the major strategies for
protecting biodiversity that have been described
in this chapter. List pros and cons of each strategy.
©John Shaw/Bruce Coleman, Inc.

ExplorationLab
Field Activity
Differences in Diversity
Objectives
Biodiversity is most obvious and dramatic in tropical rain forest and
Observe and measure
coral reef ecosystems, but you do not have to travel that far to observe
differences in species diversity
between two locations.
differences in species diversity or to see the effects that humans can have
on biodiversity.
Graph and analyze data Recall that biodiversity is most often defined as the number of different
collected to reflect differences
species that are present in a given area. This measure can be estimated
in species diversity.
by making a sample count of species within a representative area. It is
Evaluate the possible often easiest and most effective to collect or observe small organisms,
reasons for observed such as insects and soil dwellers, or stationary organisms, such as plants
differences in biodiversity.
and trees. In this activity, you will investigate the differences in species
Infer other human activities diversity in two areas that are close to each other, but that are affected
that may influence local differently by humans. You may work in teams or groups.
biodiversity.
Materials Procedure
graph paper 1. Choose two sites for your analysis. Site 1 should be an area that has
hand lens been greatly affected by humans, such as your school building and
meterstick or tape measure the surrounding sidewalks, parking area, or groomed lawns. Site 2
pen or pencil should be an area within view of site 1 but that is less affected by
humans, such as a wooded area or a vacant lot overgrown with weeds.
string or chalk line
If directed by your teacher, you may choose more than two sites. Also
optional materials: local- ask your teacher about your sample square size.
area field guides for plants,
animals, and soil organisms;
shovel or trowel 2. At each site, measure a 5 m × 5 m square area using the meterstick or
tape measure. You might use the edge of a building as a side of your
square, or you might use trees as the corners. Mark the measurement
of the area with string or a chalk line, as shown in the photograph.
3. Observe each site carefully, and record a detailed description of each

site. Include as many features as possible, such as location, soil condi-
tion, ways the area is used, amount of sun or rain exposure, and other
factors that might affect the organisms that exist there.
4. For each site, create a table similar to the one shown below.
Species Counts Per Site

Species Type Site Number ___ Site Number ___
Animals
Plants
Fungi and other soil

organisms

Procedure Step 2 Measure and mark off

sample areas for your observation and counts
of species diversity.

5. Using your hand lens, find as many different species as possible within
the site. Record each new species by placing a slash or tick mark in the
column for each different species identified in each general category.
You do not need to identify every organism by scientific name, but
using a set of field guides may help you have an idea of what you are
finding. You may also make more specific categories (such as birds,
insects, grasses, and trees) if you are able. Be careful not to disturb the
area unnecessarily.
6. Repeat steps 2–5 for each site. If directed by your teacher, compare
your data with those of other groups.
7. After you have made and recorded all of your observations, put away
your materials and restore anything you disturbed at the sites.
Analysis
1. Constructing Graphs Create a bar graph of the number of species
counted at each site. As directed by your teacher, you may combine all Procedure Step 5 Observe and record how
species counts into one total per site or graph each category of organ- many different types of organisms you find
isms separately. within each sample area.
2. Analyzing Results Based on your observations of the organisms

found at the sites, which area reflected a higher level of biodiversity?
3. Interpreting Results What factors may have contributed to the

differences in biodiversity at the sites?
Conclusions
4. Drawing Conclusions What can you conclude about the effect of
human activities on biodiversity?
5. Applying Conclusions What other human activities, besides those

you observed directly, could have affected the biodiversity present at
your sites?
6. Evaluating Methods Do you feel that the method used in this lab
was an effective way to identify biodiversity in an area? Why or why
not? How could it have been improved?
Extension
7. Research and Communications If you were able to use local field
guides, what can you generalize about the organisms that you were
able to identify? Pay attention to aspects such as how easily recogniz-
able each organism is, how common it is in your local area, where it
is found outside of your area, or what other unique facts are known
about the biology or habitat needs of the organism.

Ecozine
HMDScience.com

Chapter 11: points of view The

Three Gorges Dam

environment Killer Smog

difference Climate Scientist
©Yann Layma/Stone/Getty Images

difference Restoring the
Range
Chapter 15: points of view

Genetically Modified Foods
266
Water, Air,
Unit 4
and Land Chapter 11

Water
T
Chapter 12
E
a
Air
H
(t) ©Ralph A. Clevenger/Corbis; (tc) ©Deborah Davis/Getty Images(c) ©NASA; (b) ©David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc./Alamy; (bc) ©Jim Wark/Airphoto
Chapter 13
Atmosphere and Climate
Change
Chapter 14
Land
Chapter 15
Food and Agriculture
For thousands of years, humans have

altered the environment to grow food.
These rice paddies in China are built to
trap water from the monsoon rains.
267
Water
Chapter 11
Section 1
Water Resources
Section 2
Water Use and Management
Section 3
Water Pollution
Why It Matters
Approximately 800 million
people across the world do not
have access to safe drinking
water. This access is directly
related to poverty and some
6000 children die every day.
These deaths are mostly from
disease associated with lack
of clean drinking water, poor
sanitation, and poor hygiene.
What could be done to help
alleviate these problems?
CASESTUDY
Learn more about one of the
world’s largest known aquifers
in the case study The Ogallala
Aquifer: An Underground
Treasure on page 272.
Online
©Ralph A. Clevenger/Corbis
HMDScience.com

268
Section 1
Water Resources Objectives
Describe the distribution of

Earth’s water resources.
The next time you drink a glass of water, think about where the water came from.
Did you know that some of the water in your glass may have been part of a Explain why fresh water is one
rainstorm that pounded Earth long before life existed? Or that the water you of Earth’s limited resources.
washed your car with may have been part of a dinosaur that lived millions of years
ago? The water we use today has been around since water first formed on Earth Describe the distribution of
billions of years ago. Water is essential to life on Earth. Humans can survive for Earth’s surface water.
more than a month without food, but we can live for only a few days without water.
Two kinds of water are found on Earth. Fresh water—the water that people
Describe the relationship
can drink—contains little salt. Salt water—the water in oceans—contains a higher between groundwater and
concentration of dissolved salts and minerals. Most human uses for water, such as surface water in a watershed.
drinking and agriculture, require fresh water.
Key Terms
The Water Cycle surface water
Earth is often called “the Water Planet” because it has an abundance of river system
water in all forms: solid, liquid, and gas. Water is a renewable resource watershed
because it is circulated in the water cycle, as shown in Figure 1.1. In the groundwater
water cycle, water molecules travel between Earth’s surface and the atmo- aquifer
sphere. Water evaporates at the surface and leaves behind salts and other
porosity
compounds. As the water vapor rises through the atmosphere, the gas
permeability
cools and condenses into drops of liquid water that form clouds. Eventu-
ally the water in clouds falls back to Earth and replenishes Earth’s sources recharge zone
of water. The oceans are an important part of the water cycle because
they contain almost all of the planet’s water.
Figure 1.1
Water Cycle The water cycle is the continuous movement of water between
Earth and its atmosphere.
Chapter 11: Water 269

Figure 1.2
Global Water This pie graph shows the Global Water Distribution
distribution of water on Earth. What percentage of To understand why fresh water is such a limited resource,
Earth’s fresh water is in a form that humans can use? you have to understand how little fresh water is found on
Earth. Although 71 percent of the Earth’s surface is covered
with water, nearly 97 percent of Earth’s water is salt water in
oceans and seas. Figure 1.2 illustrates this relationship. Of the
SALT WATER 97% fresh water on Earth, about 77 percent is frozen in glaciers
and polar icecaps. Only a small percentage of the water on
Earth is liquid fresh water that humans can use. The fresh
water we use comes mainly from lakes and rivers and from a
FRESH relatively narrow zone beneath Earth’s surface.
WATER 3%
Surface Water
Icecaps and Other fresh Surface water is fresh water on Earth’s land surface. Sur-
glaciers 77% water 1% face water is found in lakes, rivers, streams, and wetlands.
Groundwater 22% Throughout history, people have built cities, towns, and farms
near reliable sources of surface water. Some of the oldest cities
in the world were built near rivers. Today, most large cities de-
pend on surface water for their water supplies. Rivers, lakes, man-made
Check for Understanding reservoirs, aquifers, and streams provide drinking water, water to grow
Explain What are some things most large crops, food such as fish and shellfish, power for industry, and a means
cities use surface water for? of transportation by boat.
Figure 1.3
Watersheds of the World This map shows the

Earth’s major watersheds. The highlighted area of the
satellite image below shows that the Mississippi River
watershed covers almost half of the United States.
©E.R.I.M./Stone/Getty Images
270 Unit 4: Water, Air, and Land

River Systems Connect to BIOLOGY
Have you ever wondered where all the water in a river comes from? Ganges River Dolphins
Most streams form as water from falling rain and melting snow drains The Ganges River dolphin is one of the
from mountains, hills, plateaus, and plains. Others form from ground- world’s few freshwater dolphin species.
water moving to the surface. As streams flow downhill, they combine This dolphin is almost completely blind,
with other streams and form rivers. The more streams that run into a but it can easily navigate through silty
river, the larger the river becomes. As streams and rivers move across river water by using ecolocation.
the land, they form a flowing network of water called a river system. If a
river system is viewed from above, it can look like the roots of a tree that
are feeding into a trunk. The Mississippi, the Amazon, and the Nile are
enormous river systems because they collect the water that flows from
vast areas of land. The Amazon River system is the largest river system
in the world—it drains an area of land that is nearly the size of Europe.
Watersheds
The area of land that is drained by a river is known as a watershed. The
watershed of the Mississippi River is shown in the satellite image in
Figure 1.3. The amount of water that enters a watershed varies through-
out the year. Melting snow, as well as rains can dramatically increase
the amount of water in a watershed. Other times of the year, the river
system that drains a watershed may be reduced to a trickle. Pollution
anywhere in a watershed may end up polluting all of the water down-
stream. Communities dependent on rivers can be severely affected by
natural and man-made changes to the river system.
Image Credits:

ECOFACT Groundwater
How Much Groundwater Is Most of the fresh water that is available for human use cannot be
There on Earth? seen—it exists underground. When it rains, some of the water that falls
There are about 50 million cubic
onto the land flows into lakes and streams. But much of the water per-
kilometers of groundwater on Earth.
colates through the soil and down into the rocks beneath. Water that
That means there is about 20 times
is found beneath Earth’s surface in the spaces in sediment and rock
more water underground than in all
formations is called groundwater.
of the rivers and lakes on Earth!
As water travels beneath Earth’s surface, it eventually reaches a level
where the rocks and soil are saturated with water. This level is known
as the water table. In wet regions, the water table may be at Earth’s
surface, and a spring of fresh water may flow out onto the ground. But
in deserts, the water table may be hundreds of meters beneath Earth’s
surface. The water table is actually not as level as its name implies.
The water table has peaks and valleys that match the shape of the land
above it. Just as surface water flows downhill, groundwater tends to
flow slowly from the peaks of the water table to the valleys. As ground-
water slowly percolates downward, some impurities may be filtered
out. However, it may also accumulate minerals from the materials
through which it passes.
CASESTUDY
The Ogallala Aquifer: An

Underground Treasure
Anyone who has eaten food produced in the United States has
probably enjoyed the benefits of the Ogallala Aquifer. This enormous
underground water system formed from glaciers that melted at the
end of the last Ice Age, 12,000 years ago. Today, the Ogallala Aquifer
supplies about one-third of the groundwater used in the United States.
People began to use the Ogallala Aquifer extensively for irrigation
in the 1940s. With help from this ancient water source, the Great
Plains became one of the most productive farming regions in the
world. Farmers seemed to enjoy a limitless supply of fresh water. But
in recent years, the Ogallala Aquifer has started to show its limits.
Water is being withdrawn from the aquifer 10 to 40 times faster than
it is being replaced. In some places, the water table has dropped
more than 30 m (100 ft) since pumping began. Continuing drought
conditions have increased its rate of depletion.
Humans are not the only living things that depend on the Ogallala
Aquifer. In some areas, the aquifer flows onto the surface and creates The Ogallala Aquifer is able to hold
wetlands, which are a vital habitat for many organisms, especially about 4 quadrillion liters of water—
birds. These wetlands are often the first habitats to disappear when enough to cover the United States to a
the aquifer doesn’t recharge and the water table falls. depth of 0.5 m (1.5 ft).

Aquifers
An underground formation that contains groundwater is called an aquifer.
The water table forms the upper boundary of an aquifer. Most aquifers Check for Understanding
consist of materials such as rock, sand, and gravel that have a lot of spaces Compare How does the level of the
where water can accumulate. As well, groundwater can dissolve rock for- water table in wet regions differ from ihe
mations, such as those made of limestone, and fill vast caves with water, level in deserts?
which creates underground lakes. Aquifers are an important water source
for many cities and for agriculture.
Porosity and Permeability

Although most rocks appear solid, many kinds of rocks contain small
holes, or pore spaces. Porosity is the percentage of the total volume of
a rock that has spaces (pores). Water in an aquifer is stored in the pore
spaces and flows from one pore space to another. The more porous a rock
is, the more water it can hold. The ability of rock or soil to allow water
to flow through it is called permeability. Materials such as gravel that
allow the flow of water are permeable. Materials such as clay or granite
that do not allow the flow of water are impermeable. The most produc-
tive aquifers usually form in permeable materials, such as sandstone,
limestone, or layers of sand and gravel.
Sandhill cranes are among the

many kinds of birds that rely on
water from the Ogallala Aquifer.
Critical Thinking
Many people are working together to try to conserve the Critical Thinking
Ogallala Aquifer. For example, some farmers have begun to
limit irrigation during bird migrations in order to allow surface- 1. Applying Ideas Most of the water in the
Ogallala Aquifer came from glaciers that
water levels to rise. Other farmers have adopted water-saving
melted thousands of years ago. What is the
irrigation systems and are planting crops such as wheat or
aquifer’s primary water source today?
grain sorghum, which require less water than corn or cotton.
©Superstock/Alamy Images
Farmers and other residents of the Great Plains recognize 2. Expressing Viewpoints Do you think
residents of the Great Plains are the only
the value of the Ogallala Aquifer and are pressuring
people who have an interest in conserving
politicians to replace policies that encourage wasting water
the Ogallala Aquifer? Write an editorial that
with policies that promote water conservation. These efforts
expresses your viewpoint.
may help save this underground treasure.

Figure 1.4
Anatomy of an Aquifer Aquifers are underground formations that hold water. Impermeable rock
can be porous or nonporous, but only permeable rock allows water to pass through it.
critical thinking
Explain In addition to pollution, what factors are causing many aquifers to be threatened?
The Recharge Zone

To reach an aquifer, surface water must travel down through permeable
layers of soil and rock. Notice the permeable layers above the aquifer in
Figure 1.4. An area of Earth’s surface from which water percolates down
into an aquifer is called a recharge zone. Recharge zones are environmen-
tally sensitive areas because any pollution in a recharge zone can also
enter the aquifer.
The size of an aquifer’s recharge zone is affected by the permeability
of the surface above the aquifer. Structures such as buildings and parking
lots can act as impermeable layers to reduce the amount of water enter-
ing an aquifer and concentrate runoff pollution. Communities should
carefully manage recharge zones, because surface water can take a very
long time to refill an aquifer. In fact, aquifers can take tens of thousands
of years to recharge.
Wells
If you go nearly anywhere on Earth and dig a hole deep enough, you will
eventually find water. A hole that is dug or drilled to reach groundwater
is called a well. For thousands of years, humans have dug wells in order
to reach groundwater for drinking and agricultural purposes.

Groundwater may be a more reliable source of water than surface water
in some areas because some contaminants are filtered out as the water
travels underground. The height of the water table changes, so wells are
drilled to extend below the water table. If the water table falls below the
bottom of the well, the well will dry up. In addition, if groundwater is re-
moved faster than it is recharged, the water table may fall below a well.
To continue supplying water, the well must be drilled deeper.

1. Describe the distribution of water on Earth. 5. Making Comparisons Read the description
Where is most of the fresh water located? of aquifers. Why is an underground lake an
aquifer?
2. Explain why fresh water is considered a limited
resource. 6. Analyzing Relationships Describe the
relationship between groundwater and surface
3. Explain why pollution in a watershed poses
water in a watershed. What human activities in
a potential threat to the river system that flows
a recharge zone can affect the groundwater?
through it.
4. Describe how water travels through rock.

Section 2
Objectives
Water Use and
Management
Identify patterns of global
water use.
Explain how water is treated so

that it can be used for drinking.
When a water supply is polluted or overused, everyone living downstream can be
Identify how water is used
affected. The number of people who rely on Earth’s limited fresh water reserves
in homes, in industry, and in is increasing every day. In fact, a shortage of clean, fresh water is one of the
agriculture. world’s most pressing environmental problems. According to the World Health
Organization, more than 800 million people lack access to a clean, reliable source
Describe how dams and water of fresh water.
diversion projects are used to
manage freshwater resources.
Identify five ways that water

Global Water Use
can be conserved. To understand the factors that affect the world’s supply of fresh water, we
must first explore how people use water. Figure 2.2 shows the three major
uses for water—residential use, agricultural use, and industrial use.
Key Terms Most of the fresh water used worldwide is used to irrigate crops. Pat-
potable terns of water use are not the same everywhere, however. The availability
pathogen of fresh water, population sizes, and economic conditions affect how
dam people use water. In Asia, agriculture accounts for more than 80 percent
reservoir of water use, whereas it accounts for only 34 percent of water use in Eu-
desalination rope. Industry accounts for more than 19 percent of the water used in the
world. The highest percentage of industrial water use occurs in Europe
and North America. Globally, about 10 percent of water is used by house-
holds for activities such as drinking and washing.
Figure 2.1
Drinking-Water Treatment Residential Water Use

There are striking differences in residential water use throughout the
world. For example, the average person in the United States uses about
300 L (80 gal) of water every day. But in India, the average person uses
only 41 L of water every day.

Global Water Use Europe is the only continent that uses more water for industry than Daily Water Use in
for agriculture. the United States
Global Water Use
(per Person)
100
Residential Use Water (in liters)
90
Industrial
Percentage of Water use
80
Agricultural Showers 43.9
70
60 Clothes washer 56.8

50 Dishwashers 3.8
40
30
Toilets 70.0
20 Baths 4.5
10
Leaks 36.0
0
North Latin Europe Asia Africa Oceania World
America America Faucets 41.3
Source: World Resources Institute Other domestic 6.1
Outdoor total 381.6
In the United States, only about half of residential water use is for Indoor total 262.3
activities inside the home, such as drinking, cooking, washing, and toilet
flushing. The remainder of the water used residentially is used outside Total use 650.3
the home for activities such as watering lawns and washing cars as shown
in Figure 2.3. In many parts of the country, water is in short supply and
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
there may be water restrictions for outside usage.
Water Treatment
Most water must be treated to make it potable, or safe to drink. Water
treatment removes elements such as mercury, arsenic, and lead, which
are poisonous to humans even in low concentrations. These elements are
found in polluted water, but they can also occur naturally in groundwater.
Water treatment also removes pathogens, which are organisms that cause
illness or disease. Bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and parasitic worms are
common pathogens. Pathogens are found in water contaminated by
sewage or animal feces. There are several methods of treating water to
make it potable. Figure 2.1 shows a common drinking-water treatment
method that includes both physical and chemical treatment.

Figure 2.4
Industry Water is a very important

industrial resource. These nuclear power
plant cooling towers release the steam
produced from water used to cool
a nuclear reactor.
Industrial
water use
(world) 19%
Other water use

(world) 81%
Industrial Water Use

Industry accounts for more than 19 percent of water used in the world.
Water is used to manufacture goods, to dispose of waste, and to gener-
ate power. The amount of water needed to manufacture everyday items
can be astounding. For instance, nearly 1,000 L of water are needed to
produce 1 kg of aluminum, and almost 500,000 L of water are needed
to manufacture an automobile.
Most of the water that is used in industry is used to cool power plants,
as shown in Figure 2.4. Power-plant cooling systems usually pump water
from a surface water source such as a river or lake, carry the water
through pipes in a cooling tower, and then pump the water back into the
source. The returned water is usually warmer than the source, but it is
generally clean and can be reused.
Agricultural Water Use

Did you know that it can take nearly 300 L (80 gal) of water to produce
one ear of corn? That’s as much water as an average person in the United
Check for Understanding States uses in a day! Agriculture accounts for about 67 percent of the
Compare How does the amount of water used in the world. Plants require a lot of water to grow, however, as
water used for industry compare with the much as 80 percent of the water used in agriculture evaporates and never
amount of water used for agriculture? reaches plant roots. This is often due to inefficient methods of irrigation.
Irrigation
Fertile soil is sometimes found in areas of the world that do not have
©Jim Zuckerman/Corbis
abundant rainfall. In regions where rainfall is inadequate, extra water

can be supplied by irrigation. Irrigation is a method of providing plants
with water from sources other than direct precipitation. The earliest
form of irrigation, other than watering by hand, probably involved flood-
ing fields with water from a nearby river or stream.

Figure 2.5
Agriculture High-pressure overhead sprinklers (left) are inefficient because a lot of water is
lost to evaporation. Water-filled ditches (right) irrigate cotton seedlings.
Other water
use (world)
33%
Many different irrigation techniques are used today. For example,

some crops, such as cotton, are irrigated by shallow, water-filled ditches, Agricultural water
use (world) 67%
as shown in Figure 2.5. In the United States, high-pressure overhead
sprinklers are the most common form of irrigation. This method of irrigation
is inefficient because nearly half the water evaporates and never reaches
the plant roots. Irrigation systems that use water more efficiently are
becoming more common. This has become even more important be-
cause some slowly recharged aquifers are becoming depleted.
Water Management Projects Figure 2.6
For thousands of years, humans have altered streams Aqueduct This aqueduct in Spain was built almost two
and rivers to make them more useful. Around two thousand years ago by the Romans.
thousand years ago, the Romans built aqueducts,
like the one shown in Figure 2.6, which are systems of
(tr) ©Jim West/Alamy Images; (tl) ©comstock/Getty Images; (br) ©Ruggero Vanni/Corbis
pipes and tunnels that brought water from the moun-

tains to the dry areas of Italy, France, and Spain.
Some Roman aqueducts are still in use. Today’s water
projects are more complex and show a greater under-
standing of human and ecological needs.
Water management projects, like dams and ca-
nals, are designed to meet the needs of people with
inadequate water supplies. These projects can have
various goals, such as bringing in water to make a
dry area habitable, creating a reservoir for recreation
or drinking water, or generating electric power. Such
water management projects have proved that if water
can be piped in, people can live and grow crops in
desert areas. However, extensive water projects like
these tend to have both financial and ecological costs.

Water Diversion Projects
All or part of a river can be diverted into canals that carry water across
great distances. The canal in Figure 2.7 diverts the Owens River in
California to provide drinking water for Los Angeles. Another river, the
Colorado River, is diverted to provide water for states such as Arizona,
Utah, and California. The river begins as a stream in the Rocky Mountains
and quickly grows larger as other streams feed into it. As the Colorado
flows south, however, so much of the river’s water is diverted for irrigation
and drinking water that the river often runs dry. It only reaches the Gulf of
California, in Mexico, in the wettest years. In Florida, people are working
to remove levees and canals that were used to drain the Everglades. The
goal of this is to provide both adequate water for a growing population
and sufficient water flow through the ecologically-important Everglades.
Dams and Reservoirs

Dams are built across rivers to control the river’s flow. When a river is
dammed, an artificial lake, or reservoir, is formed behind the dam. Res-
ervoirs can be used for flood control, drinking water, irrigation, recreation,
and industry. Hydroelectric dams use the power of flowing water to turn
a turbine to generate electrical energy. About 20 percent of the world’s
electrical energy is generated by hydroelectric dams (Figure 2.7 ).
Although dams provide many benefits, interrupting a river’s flow
can also have far-reaching consequences. When the land behind a dam
is flooded, people are often displaced and entire ecosystems can be
destroyed. It is estimated that 50 million people around the world have
been displaced by dam projects. Dams also affect the land below them.
Figure 2.7
Managing Water Resources
(br) ©Michael Busselle/Getty Images; (bl) ©Lloyd Cluff/Corbis
This canal carries water more than 300 km across mountains and Dams, such as this one in Zimbabwe, are built to manage freshwater
deserts to supply drinking water to Los Angeles, California. resources.

As a river enters a reservoir, it slows down and deposits some of the Connect to MATH
sediment it carries. This fertile sediment builds up behind a dam instead
of enriching the land farther down the river. As a result, the farmland
Israeli Agriculture
From 1950 to 1980, Israel reduced the
below a dam may become less productive. Dam failure can be another
amount of water loss in agriculture
problem. If a dam bursts, people living along the river below the dam can
from 83 percent to 5 percent, mainly
be killed. In the United States, the era of large dam construction is over.
by switching from overhead sprinklers
Some dams are even being removed. But in developing countries, such as
to water-saving methods such as drip
Brazil, India, and China, the construction of large dams continues. irrigation. If a small farm uses 10,000 L
of water a day for overhead sprinkler
Water Conservation irrigation, how much water would be

saved in one year by using a drip
As water sources become depleted, water becomes more expensive. Wells irrigation system that consumes
must be dug deeper, water must be piped greater distances, and polluted 75 percent less water?
water must be cleaned up before it can be used. Ecosystems may also be
disrupted and some types of agriculture may become impossible to sus-
tain. All of these issues make water conservation extremely important.
Water Conservation in Agriculture Figure 2.8

Most of the water loss in agriculture comes from Drip Irrigation Drip irrigation systems use perforated tubing to
evaporation, seepage, and runoff, so technolo- deliver water directly to plant roots.
gies that reduce these problems help to conserve
water. Drip irrigation systems offer a promising
step toward conservation. Shown in Figure 2.8,
drip irrigation systems deliver small amounts of
water directly to plant roots by using perforated
tubing. Water is released to plants as needed and
at a controlled rate. These systems are sometimes
managed by computer programs that coordinate
watering times by using satellite data. A well-de-
signed drip irrigation system loses little water.
Water Conservation in Industry

Many industries have developed water conserva-
tion plans. Some industries are using salt water
instead of fresh water, but the most widely used
water conservation plans involve the recycling of
cooling water and wastewater. Instead of dis-
charging used water into a nearby river, busi-
nesses often recycle water. Thus, the production of 1 kg of paper now
uses less than 30 percent of the water it required 50 years ago. Small
businesses are also helping conserve water. Denver, Colorado, was one of
the first cities to realize the value of conserving water in business. The city
©Zuma Wire Service/Alamy Images

of Denver pays small businesses to conserve water. This saves money for Describe What are two ways in which
the city and businesses and makes more water available for other uses. water is conserved in industry?

Figure 2.9
What You Can Do to Conserve Water
Take shorter showers, and avoid taking baths unless you keep the
water level low.
Install a low-flow shower head in your shower.
Install inexpensive, low-flow aerators in your water faucets

at home.
Purchase a modern, low-flow toilet, install a water-saving device
in your toilet, or simply place a water-filled bottle inside your toilet
tank to reduce the water used for each flush.
Do not let the water run while you are brushing your teeth.
Fill up the sink basin rather than letting the water run when you
are shaving, washing your hands or face, or washing dishes.
Wash only full loads in your dishwasher and washing machine. Xeriscaping This xeriscaped yard in Arizona features plants
that are native to the state. What kinds of plants are native to
Water your lawn sparingly. your region?
Water Conservation at Home

Although households use much less water than agriculture or industry, a
few changes to residential water use will make a significant contribution
to water conservation. People can conserve water by changing a few
everyday habits and by using only the water that they need. Some of these
conservation methods are listed in Figure 2.9.
Water-saving technology, such as low-flow toilets and shower heads,
can also help reduce household water use. These devices are required
in some new buildings. As well, many cities pay residents to install
water-saving equipment in older buildings.
About one-third of the water used by the average household in
the United States is used for landscaping. To conserve water, many
people water their lawns at night to reduce the amount of water lost to
evaporation. Another way people save water used outside their home
is a technique called xeriscaping (ZIR i skay ping). Xeriscaping involves
designing a landscape that requires minimal water use. The image in
Figure 2.9 shows one example of xeriscaping in Arizona.
Can one person make a difference? When you multiply one by the
millions of people who are trying to conserve water—in industry, on
farms, and at home—you can make a big difference.
Solutions for the Future

©Dave G. Houser/Corbis
Ensuring adequate supplies of fresh water will continue to be a global

challenge in the future, particularly in the developing nations. Major
factors to consider will include increasing temperatures and changing
precipitation patterns resulting from global climate change.

Figure 2.10
It is critical that long-term solutions to balance the
needs of people and ecosystems be put into place. Desalination Most desalination plants, such as this one in
Work is underway to develop new water resources, Kuwait, use evaporation to separate salt from ocean water.
such as desalination, transporting fresh water, and
developing new technologies.
Desalination
Some coastal communities rely on the oceans to
provide fresh water. Desalination (dee sal uh NAY
shuhn) is the process of removing salt from salt
water. Some countries in drier parts of the world,
have built desalination plants to provide fresh
water. Most desalination plants heat salt water
and collect the fresh water that evaporates. Fig-
ure 2.10 shows one such plant in Kuwait. Because
desalination consumes a lot of energy, the process
is too expensive for many nations to consider.
Transporting Water
In some areas of the world where freshwater
resources are not adequate, water can be trans-
ported from other regions. For example, some
Greek islands in the Mediterranean Sea have ships travel regularly from
the mainland towing enormous plastic bags full of fresh water. The
©Steve Rayme/National Geographic Image Collection
ships anchor in port, and the fresh water is pumped onto the islands.
Low-Cost Solutions
In many arid regions, there is ground water that cannot be reached
without great effort and expense. One low cost approach being used in
some developing nations is to provide inexpensive technologies to con-
struct wells and pumps for economically-disadvantaged communities.

1. Describe the patterns of global water use 5. Making Comparisons Write a description of
for each continent shown in the bar graph the evaporative method of desalination using
in Figure 2.2. terms from the water cycle.
2. Describe the drinking water treatment process 6. Identifying Alternatives Describe three ways
in your own words. that communities can conserve their freshwater
resources.
3. Describe the benefits and costs of dams and
water diversion projects.
4. List at least three things you can do to help
conserve the world’s water supply.

Section 3
Objectives
Compare point-source pollution

Water Pollution
and nonpoint-source pollution.
You might think that you can tell if a body of water is polluted by the way that the
Classify water pollutants by water looks or smells, but sometimes you can’t. There are many different forms
five types. of water pollution. Water pollution is the introduction of chemical, physical, or
biological agents into water that degrade water quality and harm the organisms
Explain why groundwater that depend on the water. Almost all of the ways that we use water contribute
pollution is difficult to clean up. to water pollution. However, the two underlying causes of water pollution are
industrialization and rapid human population growth.
Describe the major sources of In the last 30 years, developed countries have made great strides in cleaning up
ocean pollution, and explain many polluted water supplies. Despite this progress, some water is still dangerously
the effects of pollution on polluted in the United States and in other countries. In developing parts of the
ecosystems. world, water pollution is a big problem. Industry is usually not the major cause of
water pollution in developing countries. Often, the only water available for drinking
Describe six major laws in these countries is polluted with sewage and agricultural runoff, which can spread
designed to improve water waterborne diseases. To prevent water pollution, people must understand where
quality in the United States. pollutants come from and have access to adequate sanitation facilities. Water
pollution comes from two types of sources: point and nonpoint sources.
Key Terms Point-Source Pollution

water pollution
When you think of water pollution, you probably think of a single source,
point-source pollution
such as a factory, a wastewater treatment plant, or a leaking oil tanker.
nonpoint-source pollution These are all examples of point-source pollution, which is pollution
wastewater discharged from a single source. Figure 3.1 lists some additional examples
artificial eutrophication of point-source pollution. Point-source pollution can often be identified
thermal pollution and traced to a source. But even when the source of the pollution is
biomagnification known, enforcing cleanup may be difficult.
Figure 3.1
point-source Pollution
leaking septic-tank systems
leaking storage lagoons for polluted

waste
unlined landfills
leaking underground storage tanks

that contain chemicals or fuels such as
gasoline
©Thomas Del Brase/Photodisc/Getty Images
polluted water from abandoned and active

mines
water discharged by industries

Point-Source Pollution Point-source pollution comes from a single, easily identifiable
public and industrial wastewater source. In this photo, the waste from an iron mine is being stored in a pond.
treatment plants

Nonpoint-Source Pollution Figure 3.2
Nonpoint-source pollution , also known as runoff pollution, comes Nonpoint Sources of
from many different sources that are often difficult to identify. Pollution
Figure 3.2 shows common sources of nonpoint pollutants. Other
chemicals added to road surfaces (salt and
sources might include road salt in northern climates, soil eroded
other de-icing agents)
from cleared land, or acid drainage from mine tailings. If any land
surface in a watershed is polluted, runoff from a rainstorm can water runoff from city and suburban streets
carry the pollution into a nearby river, stream, or lake. Figure 3.3 that may contain oil, gasoline, animal feces,
illustrates some sources of nonpoint pollution. and litter
Because nonpoint pollutants can enter bodies of water in many pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizer from
different ways, they are extremely difficult to regulate and control. residential lawns, golf courses, and farmland
The accumulation of small amounts of water pollution from many
feces and agricultural chemicals from
sources is a major issue—according to the EPA, nonpoint sources
livestock feedlots
remain the largest source of water quality problems in the United
States. Controlling nonpoint sources of pollution depends to a precipitation containing air pollutants
great extent on public awareness of the effects of activities such as soil runoff from farms and construction sites
spraying lawn chemicals and using storm drains to dispose of used
motor oil. oil and gasoline from personal watercraft
Figure 3.3
Nonpoint-Source Pollution
Examples of nonpoint-source pollution include livestock polluting water holes that can flow
into streams and reservoirs, oil on a street, which can wash into storm sewers and then drain
into waterways, and thousands of watercraft, which can leak gasoline and oil.
(l) ©David Hosking/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (tr) ©Gary Braasch/Corbis; (br) ©Corbis

figure 3.4
Pollutant Types and Sources
Type of pollutant Agent Major sources
Pathogens disease-causing organisms, such as bacteria, mostly nonpoint sources: sewage or animal feces,
viruses, protozoa, and parasitic worms livestock feedlots, and poultry farms; sewage from
overburdened wastewater treatment plants
Organic matter animal and plant matter remains, feces, food mostly nonpoint sources
waste, and debris from food-processing plants
Organic chemicals pesticides, fertilizers, plastics, detergents, mostly nonpoint sources: farms, lawns, golf courses,
gasoline and oil, and other materials made from roads, wastewater, unlined landfills, and leaking
Connect petroleum
to HISTORY underground storage tanks
Inorganic chemicals acids, bases, salts, and industrial chemicals point sources and nonpoint sources: industrial waste,
road surfaces, wastewater, and polluted precipitation
Heavy metals lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic point sources and nonpoint sources: industrial
discharge, unlined landfills, some household chemicals,
and mining processes; heavy metals also occur
naturally in some groundwater
Physical agents heat and suspended solids point sources and nonpoint sources: heat from
industrial processes and suspended solids from
soil erosion
Connect to HISTORY Principal Water Pollutants

Cryptosporidium Outbreak There are many different kinds of water pollutants, both natural and
In 1993, a pathogen called man-made. Figure 3.4 lists some common pollutants and some of the
Cryptosporidium parvum contaminated sources of each. Agriculture, forestry, grazing, septic systems, recreational
the municipal water supply of boating, industry, urban runoff, construction, physical changes to stream
Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The waterborne channels, and habitat degradation can all be sources of pollution.
parasite caused more than 100 deaths,
and 400,000 people experienced
a flulike illness. Cryptosporidium is Wastewater
found in animal feces, but the parasite Do you know where water goes after it flows down the drain in a sink?
usually occurs in low levels in water In urban areas, the water usually flows through a series of sewage pipes
supplies. The outbreak in Milwaukee
that carry it—and all the other wastewater in your community—to a
was probably caused by an unusual
wastewater treatment plant. Wastewater is water that contains waste from
combination of heavy rainfall and
homes or industry. There, water is filtered and treated to make the water
agricultural runoff that overburdened
clean enough to return to a river, lake, or the oceans. In many rural areas,
the city’s water treatment plants.
homes may have individual septic systems, or in some countries, no
treatment at all.
FieldStudy
Go to Appendix B to find the field study Treating Wastewater
Sources of Water Pollution Figure 3.5 illustrates a typical municipal wastewater treatment process.
Most wastewater from homes contains biodegradable material, like pa-
per, soap, or body wastes that can be broken down by living organisms.

But wastewater treatment plants may not remove all of the harmful sub-
stances in water. Some household and industrial wastewater and some
storm-water runoff contain toxic substances that cannot be removed by
standard methods of treatment.
Sewage Sludge
The solid material that remains after wastewater treatment is sewage
sludge. When sludge contains dangerous concentrations of toxic chemi- Check for Understanding
cals, it must be disposed of as hazardous waste. The sludge is often incin- Explain Why is it so expensive to
erated, and then the ash is buried in a secure landfill. dispose of sewage sludge?
If the toxicity of sludge can be reduced to safe levels, sludge can be
used as a fertilizer or combined with clay to make bricks for buildings.
Figure 3.5
Wastewater Treatment Process
PRIMARY TREATMENT
Filtration Wastewater is passed through
a large screen to remove solid objects.
First Settling Tank Wastewater is sent into a
large tank, where smaller particles sink to the
bottom and form sewer sludge. The sludge is
removed from the water.
SECONDARY TREATMENT
Aeration Tank Wastewater is mixed with oxygen and bacteria.
The bacteria use the oxygen and feed on the wastes.
Second Settling Tank Bacteria grown in the aeration tank, as
well as other solid wastes, are removed in the form of sludge.
C
hlorination Chlorine is added to disinfect the water
before it is released into a stream, lake, or ocean.

QUICKLAB Artificial Eutrophication
Measuring Dissolved Oxygen Most natural nutrients in water come from organic matter, such as leaves
Procedure and animal waste. They are broken down into mineral nutrients by de-
1. Start with three water samples. composers such as bacteria and fungi. These nutrients flow downstream
QUICKLAB
One water sample should be tap or settle to the bottom in a process called sedimentation. Nutrients are an
water from a faucet without an essential part of any aquatic ecosystem; too many nutrients can disrupt
aerator. Leave some air space at an ecosystem. When lakes and slow-moving streams contain an abun-
the top of the bottle. One sample
dance of nutrients, they are eutrophic (yoo TROH fik).
should be collected by submersing
the container completely Eutrophication can be a natural process. When organic matter builds
underwater in a larger container, up in a body of water, it will begin to decay and decompose. The process
allowing all air to escape from the of decomposition uses up oxygen. As oxygen levels decrease, the types of
bottle. Put the lid on the container organisms that live in the water change over time. For example, as a body
while it is still underwater. The third of water becomes eutrophic, plants take root in the nutrient-rich sediment
sample should be water that has at the bottom. As more plants grow, the shallow waters begin to fill in.
been boiled and allowed to cool. Eventually, the body of water becomes a swamp or marsh.
2. Using a dissolved-oxygen (DO) test Eutrophication is accelerated when inorganic plant nutrients, such
kit or electronic DO probe, test the as phosphorus and nitrogen, enter the water from sewage and fertilizer
second and third water samples.
runoff. This is referred to as artificial eutrophication. Fertilizer from farms,
Record your measurements.
lawns, and gardens is the largest source of nutrients that cause artificial
3. Tighten the lid on the first sample.
eutrophication. Phosphates in some laundry and dishwashing detergents
Vigorously shake the sample for one
are another major cause of eutrophication. Phosphorus is a nutrient that
minute. Remove and then replace
can cause the excessive growth of algae. In bodies of water polluted by
the lid. Repeat. Uncap the jar quickly
and test the sample. Record.
phosphorus, algae can form large floating mats, called algal blooms,
as shown in Figure 3.6. As the algae die and decompose, most of the
Analysis dissolved oxygen is used and fish and other organisms suffocate in the
1. Which sample had the highest oxygen-depleted water.
dissolved oxygen level? Which had
the lowest level?
2. What effect do rapids and waterfalls Figure 3.6
have on the levels of dissolved Artificial Eutrophication In an effort to limit artificial eutrophication, some states
oxygen in a stream? What effect have either banned phosphate detergents or limited the amount of phosphates in
would thermal pollution have? detergents.
(inset) ©Getty Images; (br) ©Nick Hawkes/Ecoscene/Corbis

Figure 3.7
Thermal Pollution Fish kills, such

as this one in Brazil, can result from
thermal pollution.
Thermal Pollution Connect to CHEMISTRY

If you look at Figure 3.7, you might assume that a toxic chemical caused
the massive fish kill in the photo. But the fish were not killed by a
chemical spill—they died because of thermal pollution. When the tem-
perature of a body of water, such as a lake or stream, increases, thermal
pollution can result. Thermal pollution can occur when power plants and
other industries use water in their cooling systems and then discharge the
warm water into a lake or river.
Connect to CHEMISTRY
Thermal pollution can cause large fish kills if the discharged water
is too warm for the fish to survive. But most thermal pollution is more Dissolved Oxygen
subtle. If the temperature of a body of water rises even a few degrees, the Sufficient levels of dissolved oxygen
amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water decreases significantly. As are critical to the health of aquatic
communities. Gaseous oxygen
oxygen levels drop, aquatic organisms may suffocate and die. If the flow
enters water by diffusion from the
of warm water into a lake or stream is constant, it may cause the total
surrounding air, as a byproduct of
disruption of an aquatic ecosystem.
photosynthesis, and as a result of the
rapid movement (aeration) of water.
Groundwater Pollution The amount of oxygen that water can
hold is determined by the water’s
Pollutants usually enter groundwater when polluted surface water temperature, pressure, and salinity.
percolates down from the Earth’s surface. Any pollution of the surface Slow-moving water tends to have
water in an area can affect the groundwater. Pesticides, herbicides, low levels of dissolved oxygen, while
chemical fertilizers, and petroleum products are common groundwater rapidly flowing streams have higher
pollutants. Leaking underground storage tanks are another major levels. Artificial eutrophication and
©Antonio Scorza/AFP/Getty Images
source of groundwater pollution. It is estimated that there are millions thermal pollution also reduce levels
of underground storage tanks in the United States. Most of the storage of dissolved oxygen. When dissolved
tanks—located beneath gas stations, farms, and homes—hold petro- oxygen levels remain below 2 mg/L
leum products, such as gasoline and heating fuel. As these underground for several hours, many fish and other
storage tanks age, they may develop leaks, which allow pollutants to organisms suffocate, and massive
seep into the soil and groundwater. fish kills can result.

Connect to MATH The location of aging underground storage tanks is not always known,
so the tanks often cannot be repaired or replaced until after they have
Parts per Million leaked enough pollutants to be located. Modern underground storage
Water contamination is often measured
tanks are contained in concrete and have many features to prevent leaks.
in parts per million (ppm). If the
Other sources of groundwater pollution include septic tanks, unlined
concentration of a pollutant is 5 ppm,
landfills, and industrial wastewater lagoons, as shown in Figure 3.8.
there are 5 parts of the pollutant
in 1 million parts of water. If the
concentration of gasoline is 3 ppm in Cleaning Up Groundwater Pollution
650,000 L of water, how many liters of
Groundwater pollution is one of the most challenging environmental
gasoline are in the water?
problems that the world faces. As you have learned, groundwater re-
charges very slowly. The process for some aquifers to recycle water and
purge contaminants can take hundreds or thousands of years. Ground-
water is also difficult to decontaminate because the water is dispersed
throughout large areas of rock and sand. Pollution can cling to the rock
and soil, so, even if all of the water in an aquifer were pumped out and
replaced with clean water, it would become recontaminated. In 2011, the
U.S. government stopped construction of a major oil pipeline because of
concerns about polluting the giant Ogallala aquifer.
Figure 3.8
Sources of Groundwater Pollution This diagram shows some of the major sources
of groundwater pollution. Runoff and percolation transport contaminants to the groundwater.

Figure 3.9
Major North American Oil Spills Major North American Oil Spills
1 Nantucket, 6 Prince William

1
Massachusetts, Sound, Alaska,
2
ECOFACT
1976 1989
6
3 2 Puerto Rico, 7 Caribbean Sea,
Location of Spill
1978 1975
4
1 3 3 Atlantic Ocean, 8 Bay of

5
1988 Campeche,
6
1979
5
9 4 Tu xpan, Mexico,
7 4 7 1996
8
2 9 9 Gulf of Mexico,
2010
8 5 Galveston Bay,
Texas, 1979
9
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 5 million

Barrels of Oil Spilled (in thousands)
Ocean Pollution ECOFACT

Pollutants are often dumped directly into the oceans. For example, Cruise Ship Discharges
ships can legally dump wastewater and garbage overboard in some In one year, ships dump almost 7 billion
parts of the ocean. But at least 85 percent of ocean pollution—including kilograms of trash into the oceans.
pollutants such as oil, toxic wastes, and medical wastes—comes from About 75 percent of all ship waste
activities on land. If polluted runoff enters rivers, the rivers may carry it comes from cruise ships. According to
most international law, cruise ships are
to the ocean. Most activities that pollute oceans occur near the coasts,
allowed to dump non-plastic waste—
where much of the world’s human population lives. Sensitive coastal
including untreated sewage—into the
ecosystems, such as coral reefs, estuaries, and coastal marshes, are the
oceans. Increasing public pressure
most affected by pollution. In many coastal areas, dead zones exist,
has begun to cause the cruise-ship
where excess nutrients from runoff have caused low oxygen levels.
industry to change this practice,
however.
Oil Spills
Oil spills can occur on land or in water, but are most infamous in oceans.
Disasters such as the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska and the 2010
Deepwater Horizon spill, illustrated in Figure 3.9 make front-page news
around the world. Each year, approximately 37 million gallons of oil from
tanker accidents are spilled into the oceans. The Deepwater Horizon
disaster was notable because of the amount of oil spilled, the great depth
at which the spill occurred, and the use of dispersants to keep oil from
reaching the coasts.
Oil spills can have dramatic ecological effects, but are not the only
source of oil pollution in the oceans. Most of the oil that pollutes the
oceans comes from nonpoint sources on land. Every year, almost 10 Check for Understanding
times the amount of oil spilled by tankers enters the ocean from land. Explain How can limiting nonpoint
Avoiding and responding to all sources of oil pollution are important for sources of oil pollution help to keep the
protecting ocean ecosystems. oceans clean?

Figure 3.10 Water Pollution and Ecosystems
Biomagnification The accumulation of Water pollution can cause immediate damage to an ecosystem. For
pollutants at successive levels of the food example, toxic chemicals spilled directly into a river can kill nearly
chain is called biomagnification. all living things for kilometers downstream. But the effects of water
pollution can be even more far reaching. Many pollutants accumu-
late in the environment because they do not decompose quickly and
can threaten entire ecosystems.
Consider a river ecosystem. Soil tainted with pesticides washes
into the river and settles to the bottom. Some of the pesticides enter
and are stored in the tissues of bottom-dwelling organisms, such as
insect larvae and crustaceans. A small fish eats a hundred of these
organisms and in turn, is eaten by a bigger fish. A predatory bird,
such as an eagle, eats 10 big fish. Each organism stores the pesticide
in its tissues and the concentration of the pesticide that is passed
on to the next organism in the food chain increases. This buildup is
called biomagnification. Figure 3.10 shows the biomagnification for the
pesticide DDT, with alarming consequences for organisms at the top
of the food chain. Many U.S. states limit how much fish people can
eat from certain bodies of water because of biomagnification. Scien-
tific evidence also indicates that some chemicals that we might not
think of as pollutants, like caffeine and human medications, can enter
ecosystems and cause health issues for aquatic animals.
Cleaning Up Water Pollution

In 1969, the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, was so polluted
that the river caught on fire as shown in Figure 3.11. This event was
a major factor in the passage of the Clean Water Act of 1972. The
stated purpose of the act was to “restore and maintain the chemi-
cal, physical, and biological integrity of the nation’s waters.” The
goal of the act was to make all surface water clean
Figure 3.11
enough for fishing and swimming by 1983. This goal
Burning River The Cuyahoga River was so polluted with was not achieved, however, much progress has been
petroleum and petroleum byproducts that it caught on fire and made since the act was passed. The percentage of
burned in 1969. lakes and rivers that are fit for swimming and fishing
has increased by about 30 percent, and many states
have passed stricter water-quality standards. Many
toxic metals are now removed from wastewater before
the water is discharged.
The Clean Water Act opened the door for other
water-quality legislation, some of which is described in
Figure 3.12.
The Federal Water Pollution Act of 1972, which was

amended in 2002, was aimed at restoring and maintain-
ing the quality of all U.S. waters. Legislation has improved
©Bettmann/Corbis
water quality in the United States, but the cooperation of

individuals, businesses, and the government will be es-
sential to maintaining a clean water supply in the future.

Figure 3.12
Federal Laws Designed to Improve Water Quality
in the United States
1972 Clean Water Act (CWA) The CWA set a national goal of making all natural
surface water fit for fishing and swimming by 1983 and banned pollutant discharge
into surface water after 1985. The act also required that metals be removed from
wastewater.
1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Act, amended 2002 The objective of this
act was to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of
U.S. waters.
1975 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), amended 1996 This act introduced
programs to protect groundwater and surface water from pollution. The act
emphasized sound science and risk-based standards for water quality. The act also
empowered communities in the protection of source water, strengthened public
right-to-know laws, and provided water system infrastructure assistance.
1980 Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability

Act (CERCLA) This act is also known as the Superfund Act. The act made owners,
operators, and customers of hazardous waste sites responsible for the cleanup of
the sites. The act has reduced the pollution of groundwater by toxic substances
leached from hazardous waste dumps.
1987 Water Quality Act This act was written to support state and local efforts
to clean polluted runoff. It also established loan funds to pay for new wastewater
treatment plants and created programs to protect major estuaries.
2000 Oceans Act This act created the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy to
develop recommendations for a new coordinated and comprehensive national
ocean policy.

1. Explain why point-source pollution is easier 5. Interpreting Graphics Read the description
to control than nonpoint-source pollution. of biomagnification. Draw a diagram that
shows the biomagnification of a pollutant in
2. Identify the major types of water pollutants.
an ecosystem.
Suggest ways to reduce the levels of each type
of pollutant in a water supply. 6. Applying Ideas What can individuals do to
decrease ocean pollution? Write and illustrate
3. Describe the unique problems of cleaning up
a guide that gives at least three examples.
groundwater pollution.
4. Describe the source of most ocean pollution. Is
it point-source or nonpoint-source pollution?

Points of View
The Three Gorges Dam

China’s Yangtze River is the third longest river in the world The dam provides millions of people with hydroelectric
after the Nile and the Amazon. The Yangtze River flows power. China now burns air-polluting coal to meet about
through the Three Gorges region of central China, which two-thirds of the country’s energy needs. With all its
is famous for its natural beauty and historical sites. For turbines operational, the dam will provide enough electrical
thousands of years, the area’s sheer cliffs have inspired energy to power a city that is 10 times the size of Los
paintings and poems. This idyllic region seems like the sort Angeles. With the Yangtze’s flow controlled, the river is deep
of place that would be protected as a park or reserve. But enough for large ships to navigate on it, so the dam will also
in fact, it is the site for the Three Gorges Dam—the largest increase trade nearly ten-fold in a relatively poor region of
hydroelectric dam project in the world. Now that the dam China.
is fully operational, the Yangtze River forms a reservoir
that is 595 km (370 mi) long—as long as Lake Superior. In Disadvantages
other words, the reservoir is about as long as the distance
The project has many drawbacks, however. The reservoir
between Los Angeles and San Francisco!
behind the dam has flooded an enormous area. Almost 1.5
million people living in the affected areas were relocated—
Advantages there were 13 cities and hundreds of villages in the area of
The dam has several purposes. It controls the water level of the reservoir. As the reservoir’s waters rose, they destroyed
the Yangtze River to reduce downstream flooding. About 1 fragile ecosystems and valuable archeological sites.
million people died in the last century from flooding along Pollution in the Yangtze River above the dam has
the river. The damage caused by a severe flood in 1998 is increased much more than anticipated by engineers. Slower
estimated to have cost as much as the entire dam project. water flow fails to flush away sewage and other pollution.
During dry times, release of water from the dam increases Flooded urban and industrial areas contribute a mixture of
freshwater for agriculture and people downstream. other pollutants.
This aerial view shows the reservoir that formed behind the
Three Gorges Dam.
The Three Gorges Dam is named
for the beautiful canyons that were
flooded after its construction.
(bg) ©Flemming Søgaard Jensen/Flickr/Getty Images; (bl) ©DigitalGlobe/Getty Images

ECOZine
at HMDScience.com
Long-Term Concerns Hidden Costs?

Before construction, some people raised concerns about The official cost of the project is $25 billion, but other sources
geological instability that might result from so much added give estimates of two to three times that amount, due to
weight. Experience is justifying those concerns. The dam environmental costs. It is hard to assign an economic value
was built over a fault line. In late 2011, Chinese government to the loss of wildlife diversity in this area that previously
officials acknowledged that regular landslides and supported many unique species. The true cost of the dam
earthquakes were increasing dangers for local people. Another may never be known because corruption and inefficiency
concern is that the reservoir may quickly fill with sediment. have plagued the project from the start. For example, money
The Yangtze picks up enormous amounts of yellowish soil and sent to compensate 13,000 people relocated near Gaoyang
sediment as it flows across China. With the river slowed by the disappeared, and no people received payments. These
dam, much of the silt is deposited in the reservoir. As sediment negative effects of the Three Gorges Dam project will be
builds up behind the dam, the deposited sediment will difficult to remedy, but even more dams are planned for the
reduce the size of the reservoir, limiting the flood prevention Yangtze River.
and power generating capacities of the dam. In addition,
productive farming regions below the dam will be deprived of When the dam waters rose, these ancient temples were
the fertile sediment that is deposited every year when the river flooded.
floods, and river banks may become more eroded because the
river carries less replacement sediment from upstream.
The completed dam helps to reduce downstream flooding,

and provide electricity to millions of people.
What Do You Think?

(l) ©Geoffrey Morgan/Alamy Images; (br) ©John Henshall/Alamy Images
What Do You Think?

Based on the benefits received from the Three
Gorges Dam, China is planning four new dams for
the Yangtze River further upstream. The new dams
will provide nearly double the electricity generated
at Three Gorges, and would trap sediments before
they reach the Three Gorges Dam reservoir. Now
that the environmental consequences of large
dams are known, do you think that China should
reconsider additional, large hydroelectric projects?

Chapter 11 Summary
Section 1 Water Resources Objectives Key Terms
• Only a small fraction of Earth’s water supply is fresh surface water

water. The two main sources of fresh water are surface river system
water and groundwater. watershed
• River systems drain the land that makes up a water- groundwater
shed. The amount of water in a river system can vary aquifer
in different seasons and from year to year.
porosity
• Groundwater accumulates in underground formations permeability
called aquifers. Surface water enters an aquifer through
recharge zone
the aquifer’s recharge zone.
• If the water in an aquifer is pumped out faster than it
is replenished, the water table drops, which can affect
humans and animals that depend on the groundwater.
Section 2 WaterUse and Objectives Key Terms

Management
• There are three main types of water use: residential, potable
industrial, and agricultural. Worldwide, most water use pathogen
is agricultural. dam
• Dams and water diversion projects are built to manage reservoir
surface-water resources. Damming and diverting rivers desalination
can have environmental and social consequences.
• Water conservation is necessary to maintain an
adequate supply of fresh water. Desalination and
transporting water are options to supplement local
(t) ©E.R.I.M./Stone/Getty Images; (c) ©Jim Zuckerman/Corbis; (b) ©Antonio Scorza/AFP/Getty Images
water supplies.
Section 3 Water Pollution Objectives Key Terms
• Water can become polluted by chemical, physical, or water pollution

biological agents. Most water pollution in the United point-source
States is caused by nonpoint-source pollutants. pollution
• Groundwater pollution is difficult to clean up because nonpoint-source
aquifers recharge slowly and because pollutants cling pollution
to the materials that make up an aquifer. wastewater
• Ocean pollution is mainly caused by coastal, nonpoint- artificial
eutrophication
source pollutants.
thermal pollution
• Government legislation, such as the Clean Water Act
biomagnification
of 1972, has succeeded in reducing surface-water
pollution. Future challenges include reducing nonpoint-
source pollution and groundwater pollution.

Chapter 11 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 14. Which of the following is not an example of point-
source pollution?
a. oil that is escaping from a damaged tanker
1. aquifer
b. heavy metals that are leaching out of an
2. recharge zone underground mine
3. reservoir c. water runoff from residential lawns
4. wastewater d. untreated sewage that is accidentally
5. biomagnification released from a wastewater treatment plant
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings of 15. Which of the following pollutants causes artificial
the terms differ. eutrophication?
6. surface water and groundwater a. heavy metals from unlined landfills
7. porosity and permeability b. inorganic plant nutrients from wastewater and
8. watershed and river system fertilizer runoff
9. point-source pollution and nonpoint-source c. toxic chemicals from factories
pollution d. radioactive waste from nuclear power plants
10. Concept Map Use the following terms to
create a concept map: Earth’s surface, rivers, 16. Pumping large amounts of water from an aquifer
underground, fresh water, water table, 3 percent, may cause the
and icecaps. a. water table to rise.
b. recharge zone to shrink.
c. wells in an area to run dry.
d. percolation of groundwater to stop.
11. Which of the following processes is not a part of
the water cycle? 17. Oil pollution in the ocean is mostly caused by
a. evaporation a. major oil spills, such as the 1989 Exxon Valdez
b. condensation oil spill.
c. biomagnification b. the cumulative effect of small oil spills and
d. precipitation leaks on land.
c. decomposed plastic materials.
12. Most of the fresh water on Earth is d. intentional dumping of excess oil.
a. located underground in aquifers.
b. frozen in the polar icecaps. 18. Thermal pollution has a harmful effect on aquatic
environments because
c. located in rivers, lakes, streams, and wetlands.
a. water has been circulated around power-plant
d. found in Earth’s atmosphere. generators.
13. Which of the following processes is not used in a b. it increases the number of disease-causing
conventional method of water treatment? organisms in aquatic environments.
a. filtration c. it reduces the amount of dissolved oxygen in
aquatic environments.
b. coagulation
d. it decreases the nutrient levels in aquatic
c. aeration environments.
d. percolation

Chapter Review

19. What effect can buildings and parking lots have 27. Making Comparisons Read the description of
on an aquifer’s recharge zone? artificial eutrophication in this chapter. Do you
20. Why is the use of overhead sprinklers for irrigation think artificial eutrophication is more disturbing
inefficient? What is a more efficient method of to the stability of a water ecosystem than natural
irrigation? eutrophication is?
21. List three advantages and three disadvantages 28. Analyzing Relationships Water resources are
of dams. often shared by several countries. A river, for
example, might flow through five countries before
22. What is the process of eutrophication, and how do it reaches an ocean. When water resources are
human activities accelerate it? shared, how should countries determine water
23. Describe the steps that are involved in the rights and environmental responsibility?
primary and secondary treatment of wastewater. 29. Making Inferences Explain why it takes about
136 liters of water to produce a single serving of
rice, but it takes more than 7,571 liters of water
Interpreting Graphics to produce a single serving of steak. What do you
The graph below shows the annual flow, or discharge, think the water is used for in each case?
of the Yakima River in Washington. Use the graph to 30. Making Inferences Why is there so little fresh
answer questions 24–26. water in the world? Do you think that there would
24. Determine In which months is the river’s have been more fresh water at a different time in
discharge highest? What might explain these Earth’s history?
discharge rates? 31. Social Studies Find out how freshwater
25. Compare What might cause the peaks in river resources affected the development of one culture
discharge between November and March? in history. Use at least five key terms from this
chapter to write a two-paragraph description of
26. Predict How might the data be different if the how the availability of fresh water affected the
hydrograph readings were taken below a dam? culture you chose.
32. Investigation Find out about the source of the
Hydrograph of the Yakima River tap water in your home. Where does the tap water
10,000 come from, and where does your wastewater go?
Does the water complete a cycle? Make a poster
9,000
to illustrate your findings. You may want to work
8,000 with several classmates and visit the sites you
Mean daily discharge (ft3/s)
discover.
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
O N D J F M A M J J A S
1988 1989 Months

Chapter Review
STUDYSKILL
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
The graph below illustrates the pumping rates for a
set of wells that provide water to a small community. 37. After reading the passage, explain why the
Use the graph to answer question 33. Ogallala aquifer is so important.
38.
WhyHow might global climate change affect the
It Matters
10
aquifer?
8
Pumping rate (gal/min)
Why It Matters
6 39. How could towing
icebergs to water-
4 poor areas be made
more economical?
2
0
Well A Well B Well C Well D Well E
33. Analyzing Data How many gallons does Well B

pump per day? What is the average pump rate
for all of the wells? In one hour, how many more
gallons of water will Well A pump than Well C?
34. Making Calculations If placing a container of
water in your toilet tank reduces the amount of STUDYSKILL
water per flush by 2 L, how much water would Root Words To practice vocabulary, write the key terms
be saved each day if this were done in 80 million
and definitions on a piece of paper and fold the paper
toilets? (Assume that each toilet is flushed five
lengthwise so that the definitions are covered. First, see how
times per day.) Convert your answer into gallons
many definitions you already know. Then, write the definitions
(1 L = .26 Gal).
you do not know on another piece of paper, and practice until
you know all of the terms.
Making Connections
35. Communicating Main Ideas Why is water
pollution a serious problem?
36. Writing Persuasively Write a letter to a senator
in which you voice your support or criticism of a
hypothetical water diversion project.
©Ralph A. Clevenger/Corbis

ExplorationLab
Simulation
Groundwater Filters
Objectives
As surface water travels downward through rock and soil, the water is
Construct a model of Earth’s
filtered and purified. As a result, the water in aquifers is generally cleaner
natural groundwater filtering
system.
than surface water. In this investigation, you will work in small teams to
explore how layers of Earth act as a filter for groundwater. You will make
Test the ability of your models of Earth’s natural filtration system and test them to see how well
groundwater filters to filter
they filter various substances.
contaminants out of different
solutions.
Procedure
Materials
beakers, 750 mL (5)
1. Label four beakers as follows: “Contaminant: glucose,” “Contaminant:
soil,” “Contaminant: food coloring,” and “Water (control).”
glucose solution
glucose test paper 2. Fill these beakers two-thirds full with clean tap water. Then add to
graduated cylinder each beaker the contaminant listed on its label. (The table on the next
gravel page shows how much of each contaminant you should use.) Stir each
metric ruler
mixture thoroughly.
soda bottles, 2 to 3 L (4) 3. Copy the data table into your notebook. Carefully observe each
red food coloring beaker, and record your observations. Use some of the glucose test
sand paper to test the glucose level in the glucose beaker.
soil
4. Make four separate filtration systems similar to the one shown below.
stirring rod
Your teacher will provide you with bottle caps that have holes poked
wax pencil through them. Fasten each cap to a bottle. Cut the bottom off of each
optional contaminants: soda bottle, and fill each bottle with layers of gravel, sand, and soil.
cooking oil, detergent, Consider using the optional filter materials, such as alum or charcoal,
fertilizer, vinegar, soda but be sure to make all four of your systems identical.
optional filter materials: alum,
charcoal
Filter Apparatus Your ground

filtration models should be layered as
shown here.

Observations of Substances in Surface Water
Contaminant Before filtration After filtration
Glucose (15 mL)
Soil (15 mL)
Food coloring (15 drops)
Water (control)
5. You are now going to pour each mixture through a filtration system.
But first predict how well the filters will clean each water sample.
Write your predictions in your notebook.
6. Stir a contaminant mixture in its beaker, and immediately pour

the mixture through a filtration system into a clean beaker.
Observe the resulting “groundwater,” and record your observa-
tions in the table you created. CAUTION: Do not taste any of
the substances you are testing.
7. Repeat step 6 for each mixture. Clean and relabel the

contaminant beakers as you go along.
Analysis
1. Analyzing Results Test the glucose-water mixture for the
presence of glucose. Can you see the glucose?
2. Analyzing Results Was the soil removed from the water by

filtering? Was the food coloring removed? How do you know?
Step 6 Pour each sample of contaminated
surface water through a filter.
Conclusions
3. Drawing Conclusions How accurate were your predictions?
4. Drawing Conclusions What conclusions can you draw about the

filtration model and the materials you used?
Extension
5. Making Predictions Choose a substance from the materials list
that has not been tested. Predict what will happen if you mix this
substance in the water supply.
6. Evaluating Results Now test your prediction. Use the filter that was
the control in the earlier experiment. How did your results compare
with your prediction?
7. Analyzing Results Compare your results with the results of other

teams. What precautions do you recommend for keeping groundwater
clean?

Air
Chapter 12
Section 1
What Causes Air Pollution?
Section 2
Air, Noise, and Light Pollution
Section 3
Acid Precipitation
Why It Matters
The Los Angeles, California,
skyline at dusk reveals
unhealthy levels of air pollution.
What are some approaches that
urban areas can take to improve
air quality?
CASESTUDY
Learn more about the effects of
air pollution in the case study
The Health Effects of Ground-
Level Ozone on pages 310–311.
Online
Davis/Getty Images
HMDScience.com

Image Credits:

©Deborah

302
Section 1
What Causes Air Objectives
Pollution?
Name five primary air
pollutants and give sources
for each.
Name the two major sources of

In most places in the United States, the air we breathe is fairly clean. In some air pollution in urban areas.
places in the world, though, this is not the case. Areas of India and Bangladesh
have air that is so polluted it harms people’s health.
Describe the way in which
smog forms.
Clean air consists mostly of nitrogen and oxygen gas, as well as very small
amounts of argon, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. When harmful substances Explain the way in which
build up in the air to unhealthy levels, the result is air pollution.
a thermal inversion traps
Much air pollution is the result of human activities, but pollutants can also air pollution.
come from natural sources. A volcano, for example, can spew clouds of particles
and sulfur dioxide, SO2, into the atmosphere. Natural pollutants also include dust,
pollen, and spores.
Key Terms
air pollution
Primary and Secondary Pollutants primary pollutant
A pollutant that is put directly into the air by human activity is called a secondary pollutant
primary pollutant. An example of a primary pollutant is soot from smoke. smog
Figure 1.1 shows some sources of primary air pollutants. Secondary pollut- temperature inversion
ants form when primary pollutants react with other primary pollutants or
with naturally occurring substances such as water vapor. An example of
a secondary pollutant is ground-level ozone. Ground-level ozone forms Check for Understanding
when the ultraviolet rays of the sun cause emissions from cars, trucks, Explain How is ground-level ozone an
and other sources to react with oxygen in the atmosphere. example of a secondary pollutant?
Figure 1.1
Primary Air Pollutants Each day in the United States, hundreds of thousands of tons
of polluting emissions that result from human activity enter the air.
Sources of Primary Air Pollutants in the U.S. (Per Day)
80
70 Carbon monoxide (CO)

Emissions (in thousands of tons)
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)

60 Particulate matter (PM)
50 Sulfur oxides (SOx)
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
40
30
20
10
0
Electricity production Industry Transportation Other sources
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Chapter 12: Air 303

figure 1.2
Primary Air Pollutants
Pollutant Description Primary Sources Effects
Carbon monoxide (CO) CO is an odorless, colorless, Sources of CO are cars, CO interferes with the blood’s ability
poisonous gas. It is trucks, buses, small to carry oxygen, slowing reflexes
produced by the incomplete engines, and some industrial and causing drowsiness. In high
burning of fossil fuels. processes. concentrations, CO can cause death.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx ) When combustion (burning) NOx comes from burning fuels NOx can make the body vulnerable to
temperatures exceed in vehicles, power plants, and respiratory infections, lung diseases,
538°C, nitrogen and industrial boilers. and cancer. NOx contributes to the
oxygen combine to form brownish haze seen over cities and to
nitrogen oxides. acid precipitation.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) SO2 is produced by SO2 comes mostly from SO2 contributes to acid precipitation as
chemical interactions burning fossil fuels. sulfuric acid. Secondary pollutants that
between sulfur and oxygen. result from reactions with SO2 can harm
plant life and irritate the respiratory
systems of humans.
Connect to LAW VOCs are organic chemicals VOCs come from burning
Volatile organic VOCs contribute to smog formation and
compounds (VOCs) that vaporize readily and fuels. Vehicles are a major can cause serious health problems, such
form toxic fumes. source of VOCs. as cancer. They may also harm plants.
Particulate matter Particulates are tiny Most particulates come from Particulates can form clouds that
(particulates or PM) particles of liquid or construction, agriculture, reduce visibility and cause a variety of
solid matter. forestry, and fires. Vehicles respiratory problems. Particulates have
and industrial processes also also been linked to cancer. As well, they
contribute particulates. may corrode metals and erode buildings
and sculptures.
Sources of Primary Air Pollutants

As shown in Figure 1.2 above, household products, power plants, and
motor vehicles are sources of primary air pollutants such as carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, and chemicals called volatile
organic compounds (VOCs). Carbon monoxide gas is an important
component of the exhaust from vehicles. Vehicles are also a major source
of emissions of nitrogen oxides. Coal-burning power plants are another
source of nitrogen oxides. Sulfur dioxide gases are formed when coal
and oil, which contain sulfur, are burned. Power plants, refineries, and
Connect to LAW
metal smelters contribute much of the sulfur dioxide emissions to the
Off with His Head! air. Vehicles and gas station spillage make up most of the human-made
Around 1300 ce, King Edward I of emissions of volatile organic compounds. VOCs are also found in many
England forbade the burning of coal household products.
while Parliament was in session. “Be
it known to all within the sound of my
Particulate matter can also pollute the air and is usually divided into
voice,” King Edward I said, “whosoever fine and coarse particles. Fine particles enter the air from fuel burned by
shall be found burning coal shall suffer vehicles and coal-burning power plants. Sources of coarse particles are
the loss of his head.” cement plants, mining operations, incinerators, wood-burning fireplaces,
fields, and roads.

The History of Air Pollution ECOFACT
Air pollution is not a new phenomenon. Whenever something burns, Sea-Coal
pollutants enter the air. Two thousand years ago, Seneca, a Roman In 12th-century London, wood was
philosopher and writer, complained about the foul air in Rome. In 1273, becoming too scarce and expensive to
England’s King Edward I ordered that burning a particularly dirty kind of use as a fuel source. Large deposits
coal called sea-coal was illegal. One man was even executed for disobey- of sea-coal, found off the northeast
ing this medieval “clean air act.” coast of England, provided a plentiful
alternative. However, this soft coal
The world air-quality problem is much worse today because modern did not burn efficiently. The sea-coal
industrial societies burn large amounts of fossil fuels. As represented in produced much smoke and not much
Figure 1.3, most air pollution in industrialized countries comes from mo- heat. The smoke emanated from
tor vehicles and industry. London homes and factories and
combined with fog to produce smog.
Motor Vehicle Emissions Figure 1.3

Almost one-third of our air pollution
comes from gasoline burned by vehicles. Sources of Air Pollution The refinery shown in this photograph is a
According to the U.S. Department of source of volatile organic compounds. The truck in the foreground is emitting
Transportation, Americans drove their nitrous oxide into the atmosphere.
vehicles over three trillion miles in 2010.
Roughly 90 percent of that mileage was
from passenger and other light-duty ve-
hicles. The rest was from trucks and buses.
Controlling Vehicle Emissions

The Clean Air Act, passed in 1970 and
strengthened in 1990, gives the Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency (EPA) the
authority to regulate vehicle emissions
in the United States. The EPA required
the gradual elimination of lead in gaso-
line, and as a result, lead pollution has
been reduced by more than 90 percent in
the United States. In addition, catalytic
converters, which are required in auto-
mobiles, clean exhaust gases of pollutants
before the pollutants are able to exit the
tailpipe. The EPA indicates that light-duty
cars and trucks in 2010 burned fuel ap-
proximately 70 percent more efficiently
and with about 40 percent fewer emis-
sions of carbon dioxide than they did in
1975. In addition, cars and trucks produce
approximately 95 percent fewer emissions
©A. T. Willett/Alamy Images
of pollutants other than carbon dioxide

than they did in the 1970s.
Chapter 12: Air 305

Connect to MATH California Zero-Emission Vehicle Program
Utility Incentives for A catalytic converter, as shown in Figure 1.4, is used to control emissions
Zero-emission Vehicles from most American vehicles. In California, motor vehicles account for
The Los Angeles Department of Water more than half of the ozone and particulate matter that pollutes the air. To
and Power provides discounts of improve air quality, the state’s Air Resources Board established the Zero-
$0.025 per kilowatt hour (kWh) for Emission Vehicle (ZEV) program in 1990 and has continued to update it to
electricity used to recharge electric encourage the development of less-polluting vehicles. ZEV programs have
vehicles. If the energy charge per kWh also been adopted in Maine, Massachusetts, New York, and Vermont.
is $0.02949 and you use 150 kWh of Zero-emission vehicles have no tailpipe emissions, no emissions from
electricity per month to recharge your gasoline, and no emission-control systems, which deteriorate over time.
vehicle, how much money would you Battery-powered electric vehicles are the only true ZEVs at the moment,
save on your electric bill each month?
but there are three types of partial ZEVs. One type is clean, fuel-efficient
each year? How much would you save
hybrid cars, which are powered by both batteries and gasoline engines.
if you had three electric cars?
There are many models of hybrid cars, including models that are re-
charged by plugging in to a power source. Vehicles powered by hydrogen
would emit only water vapor. As of 2011, such hydrogen-powered ve-
hicles are still mostly in the prototype stage of development.
Figure 1.4
Car Emission The catalyst material in a catalytic converter (top) speeds up a chemical reaction that changes exhaust
emissions to less harmful substances. The text below the images shows a car’s contribution to air pollution.
Interior
• Car seats may be covered in plastic that contains a
volatile organic compound called vinyl chloride.
Body and Frame

• Steel smelters send thousands of metric tons of sulfur
dioxide into the air each year.
• Many auto factories in Mexico, Eastern Europe, and some
Exhaust
Asian countries lack pollution-control devices.
• Car exhaust is a major source of nitrogen oxides, carbon
Fuel Tank monoxide, and hydrocarbons.
• When filling the car with gasoline, VOCs • In developing countries, car exhaust may contain over a
escape into the atmosphere. thousand poisonous substances.

Figure 1.5 ECOFACT
Industrial Pollution In 1996, the federal government established standards to reduce Air Pollution’s Impact on Birds
emissions of VOC-producing chemicals used in dry cleaning. Scientists in Finland have documented
the effects of harmful emissions from
a copper smelter in Finland on two
species of birds that live nearby. The
two species of birds respond differently
to the pollutants containing heavy
metals and acidic substances. One
species appears to suffer directly from
the toxic effects of the pollutants. The
other species suffers because the
amount of insect food for its nestlings
has been reduced. When heavy metal
emissions from the smelter decreased,
a rapid improvement in breeding
success and a decrease in the heavy
metal found in the bones of nestlings
was observed.
Industrial Air Pollution Figure 1.6
Many industries, as well as power plants that generate electricity, burn Scrubber Scrubbers work by
fuel to produce energy. They usually burn fossil fuels. Burning fossil fuels spraying gases with water, which
releases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the air. Power plants that removes many pollutants.
produce electricity emit at least two-thirds of all sulfur dioxide and more
than one-third of all nitrogen oxides that pollute the air.
Some industries, such as the dry cleaning industry shown in Figure 1.5,
also produce VOCs. VOCs are chemical compounds that form toxic fumes.
Oil refineries, chemical manufacturing plants, furniture refinishers, and
automobile repair shops also contribute to the VOCs in the air.
Regulating Air Pollution from Industry

The Clean Air Act requires many industries to use scrubbers or other
pollution-control devices. Scrubbers remove some of the more harmful
substances that would otherwise pollute the air. A scrubber, as shown
in Figure 1.6, is a machine that moves gases through a spray of water that
dissolves many pollutants.
Electrostatic precipitators are machines used in cement factories and
coal-burning power plants to remove dust particles from smoke-stacks. In
an electrostatic precipitator, gas containing dust particles is blown through
a charged chamber. An electrical charge is transferred to the dust particles,
©Michael Newman/PhotoEdit
which causes them to stick to one another and the sides of the chamber.
The clean gas is released from the chamber, and the concentrated dust Check for Understanding
particles can then be collected and removed. Electrostatic precipitators Describe Name two pollution-control
remove more than 20 million tons of ash generated by coal-burning power devices. State how they help to limit the
plants from the air each year in the United States. amount of pollutants in air.
Chapter 12: Air 307

Figure 1.7
Smog
Smog The diagram below shows
When air pollution hangs over urban areas and reduces visibility, it is
how smog is formed. Large cities with
dry, sunny climates and millions of
called smog. As you can see in Figure 1.7, smog results from chemical
automobiles often suffer from smog. reactions that involve sunlight, air, automobile exhaust, and ozone.
Pollutants released by vehicles and industries are the main causes of smog.
Temperature Inversions
The circulation of air in the atmosphere usually keeps air pollution from
reaching dangerous levels. During the day, the sun heats the surface of
Earth and the air near Earth. The warm air rises through the cooler air
above and carries pollutants away from the ground and into the atmo-
sphere.
Sometimes, however, pollution is trapped near the Earth’s surface.
Usually, air temperatures decrease with altitude, but sometimes a
temperature inversion occurs when the air above is warmer than the air
below. Figure 1.8 shows how a temperature inversion traps pollutants near
Earth’s surface. The warmer air above keeps the cooler air at the surface
from moving upward. Pollutants are trapped below with the cooler air. If
a city is located in a valley, the city has a greater chance of experiencing
temperature inversions. Los Angeles, which is surrounded on three sides
by mountains, often has temperature inversions that trap smog in the city.
Normal situation Temperature inversion

Figure 1.8 Solar Escaping Solar Trapped
radiation pollutants radiation pollutants
Air Circulation Normal air Cooler air Cool air
circulation is shown at left. A Warm inversion
Cool air
temperature inversion, in which layer
pollutants are trapped near Earth’s

surface, is shown at right.
Warm air Cool air

1. Name five primary air pollutants, and give 5. Making Decisions Read the passage on the
important sources for each. California Zero-Emission Vehicle Program.
Should automobile makers be made to adhere
2. Name the two major sources of air pollution in
to quotas of zero-emission vehicles set by states,
urban areas.
even if it causes automakers to lose revenue?
3. Describe the way in which smog forms.
6. Analyzing Relationships Can you think of
4. Define the term temperature inversion. Explain any other possible type of pollution-control
how temperature inversion traps pollutants near device that could be used to remove particulates
Earth’s surface. from smokestacks in a manner similar to an
electrostatic precipitator?

Section 2
Air, Noise, and Light Objectives
Pollution
Describe three short-term
effects and three long-term
effects of air pollution on
human health.
People who are very young or very old and people who have heart or lung Explain what causes indoor
problems are most affected by air pollutants. Decades of research have linked air air pollution and how it can
pollution to disease. But because pollution adds to the effects of existing diseases, be prevented.
no death certificates list the cause of death as air pollution. Instead, diseases such
as emphysema, heart disease, and lung cancer are cited as causes of death. The Describe three human
American Lung Association has estimated that Americans pay tens of billions of health problems caused by
dollars a year in health costs to treat respiratory diseases caused by air pollution. noise pollution.
Describe solutions to energy

Short-Term Effects of Air Pollution on Health waste caused by light pollution.
Many of the effects of air pollution on people’s health are short-term and
are reversible if their exposure to air pollution decreases. The short-term
effects of air pollution on people’s health include headache; nausea; Key Terms
irritation to the eyes, nose, and throat; tightness in the chest; coughing; sick-building syndrome
and upper respiratory infections, such as bronchitis and pneumonia. asbestos
Pollution can also make the condition of individuals who suffer from decibel (dB)
asthma and emphysema worse.
Long-Term Health Effects of Air Pollution

Long-term effects on health that have been linked to air pollution include
emphysema, lung cancer, and heart disease. Long-term exposure to air
pollution may worsen medical conditions suffered by older people and
may damage the lungs of children.
Figure 2.1
Air Pollution This police officer wears a smog mask as he directs traffic in Bangkok, Thailand.
©UNEP
Chapter 12: Air 309

Connect to CHEMISTRY Indoor Air Pollution
Formaldehyde The quality of air inside a home or a building is sometimes worse
Formaldehyde is a colorless gas that than the quality of the air outside. Chemicals that are used to make
has a strong odor. It is a very common carpets, building materials, paints, and furniture are major sources
industrial and commercial chemical of pollutants in buildings. Figure 2.2 shows examples of some indoor
that is used to make building materials air pollutants.
and household products. Significant
Buildings that have very poor air quality have a condition called
amounts of formaldehyde are found in
sick-building syndrome. Sick-building syndrome is most common in
adhesives in plywood, particle board,
furniture, and carpet. Other sources
hot places where buildings are tightly sealed to keep out the heat. In
may be foam insulation, gas stoves, Florida in the early 1990s, for example, a newly built, tightly sealed county
tobacco smoke, and dry-cleaned courthouse had to be abandoned. Half of the people who worked there
clothing. Formaldehyde may cause eye developed allergic reactions to fungi that were growing in the air-condi-
irritation, burning sensations in the tioning ducts, ceiling tiles, carpets, and furniture.
throat, nausea, and difficulty breathing. Identifying and removing the sources of indoor air pollution is the
most effective way to maintain good indoor air quality. Ventilation, or
Check for Understanding mixing outdoor air with indoor air, is also necessary for good air quality.
Apply Why is sick-building syndrome Activities such as renovation and painting, which produce indoor air
most common in hot places? pollution, require good ventilation.
CASESTUDY
The Health Effects of

Ground-Level Ozone
You have learned that the ozone layer in the stratosphere shields Earth
from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation from the sun. At the
surface of the Earth, however, ozone is a human-made air pollutant that
at certain concentrations damages human health.
Ozone forms from the reaction of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
and nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the presence of heat and sunlight. High
concentrations of ozone form in the atmosphere on sunny days that
have high temperatures. The sources of VOCs and NOx emissions are
largely motor vehicles, power plants, gasoline vapors, and chemical
solvents. Most ozone pollution forms in urban and suburban areas.
However, ozone-producing chemicals may be transported hundreds of
kilometers from their source.
As ozone concentrations in the atmosphere increase, greater
numbers of people may experience harmful health effects of ozone on the
lungs. Some of the short-term effects of ozone on health include irritation Children who engage in vigorous outdoor
©Neal Preston/Corbis
of the respiratory system, a reduction in lung function, the aggravation of activities when pollutant concentrations
asthma, and inflammation to the lining of the lungs. Scientists believe that are often high may have a greater
risk of developing asthma or other
ozone may have other damaging effects on human health. Lung diseases
respiratory illnesses.
such as bronchitis and emphysema may be aggravated by ozone.

Figure 2.2
Indoor Pollutants Some indoor air pollutants and their sources are shown here.
A therapist performs a lung-

function test on a patient by using
a machine that measures various
aspects of lung function.
Critical Thinking
Scientists believe that permanent lung injury may result Critical Thinking
from repeated short-term exposure to ozone pollution.
1. Making Decisions Write a brief paragraph
Children who are regularly exposed to high concentrations
explaining whether or not lung-function tests
of ozone may have reduced lung function as adults.
should be mandatory for children who live in
Exposure to ozone may also accelerate the natural decline urban areas where high concentrations of ozone
in lung function that is part of the aging process.
are frequent.
Those who are most at risk from ozone include
2. Making Decisions If lung-function tests
children, adults who exercise or work outdoors, older
become mandatory, who will pay for these tests,
people, and people who suffer from respiratory diseases. and who will provide the equipment? Should
In addition, there are some healthy individuals who have these tests be performed at school, in a doctor’s
unusually high susceptibility to ozone. office, or at a hospital?
Chapter 12: Air 311

Figure 2.3
Radon Gas
Asbestos Asbestos forms in long, thin
Radon is a colorless, tasteless, odorless gas. It is also radioactive. Radon
fibers. The worker is removing debris from
a structure that was built with asbestos.
is produced by the decay of uranium, a radioactive element that oc-
curs naturally in the Earth’s crust. Radon can seep through cracks and
holes in foundations into homes, offices, and schools, where it adheres
to dust particles. When people inhale the dust, radon enters their lungs.
In the lungs, radon can destroy the genetic material in cells that line the
air passages. Such damage can lead to cancer, especially among people
who smoke. Radon is the second-leading cause of lung cancer in the
United States.
Asbestos
Several minerals that form in long, thin fibers and that are valued for their
strength and resistance to heat are called asbestos. Asbestos is primarily
used as an insulator and as a fire retardant, and it was used extensively
in building materials. The U.S. government banned the use of
most asbestos products in the early 1970s. Exposure to asbestos
in the air is dangerous. Asbestos fibers that are inhaled can cut
and scar the lungs, which causes the disease asbestosis. Victims
of the disease have more and more difficulty breathing and may
eventually die of heart failure. Schools in the United States have
taken this threat seriously. Billions of dollars have been spent to
remove asbestos from school buildings. Figure 2.3 shows asbes-
tos fibers and asbestos removal from a building.
figure 2.4
Intensity of
Noise Pollution
Common Noises Unwanted sound is noise pollution, and it is one of the prices we pay for
modern living. It is irritating, and it damages our hearing by destroying
Intensity
Noise cells in our ears. Hearing loss has roughly doubled in the United States
(dB)
since the 1970s. About 14.9 percent of teens have permanent hearing
Rocket engine 180 loss, likely due to the prevalence of portable listening devices. One study
Jet engine 140 found that people living in a quiet environment in Africa had better hear-
ing at the age of 80 than most Americans do at 30. Noise can also have a
Rock concert 120 negative impact on organisms on land and in the oceans. For example,
loud sounds have caused whales and dolphins to strand on beaches.
Car horn 110
The intensity of sound is measured in units called decibels (dB). (tl) ©Dick Blume/The Image Works; (c) ©Lester V. Bergman/Corbis
Chainsaw 100 Figure 2.4 shows the intensity of some common noises. Each increase of
Portable CD player 90–120 10 dB results in a 10-fold increase in sound intensity. For example, 20 dB
is 10 times the intensity of 10 dB. A sound of 120 dB is at the threshold of
Lawnmower 90 pain. Noise pollution can be controlled by devices such as mufflers on
Conversation 60 vehicles and lawn mowers, and by insulation. In Europe, MP3 players
must not produce more than 100 dB of noise. According to the National
Whisper 30 Institutes of Health, the safe threshold for personal listening devices is 85
dB for 8 hours. Personal listening devices are not regulated in the United
Faintest sound heard by 0
States.
the human ear

Figure 2.5
Light Pollution This view of Hong Kong shows how lighting in urban areas can cause
skyglow, which is an effect of light that can dramatically reduce our view of the night sky.
Light Pollution
Research suggests that light pollution can increase headaches, fatigue, Check for Understanding
stress, and anxiety in humans. Also, light pollution in urban areas dimin- Identify What are some effects of
ishes our view of the night sky, as shown in Figure 2.5, and can negatively light pollution?
affect our environment. Hatching baby sea turtles instinctively move
towards light. They may move the wrong way towards street lights and
may not survive. Some communities near sea turtle beaches turn off their
lights at hatching time. Light can also cause problems for birds that mi-
grate at night. In Chicago, lights of tall buildings are dimmed during the
migration season, saving many birds.
©A Rroom with Views/Alamy Images
Another important environmental concern of lighting is energy

waste. One solution to energy waste includes shielding light so it is FieldStudy
directed downward. Two other solutions are to use time controls so Go to Appendix B to find the field study
that light is used only when needed and to use low-pressure sodium Light Pollution.
sources—the most energy-efficient source of light—where possible.

1. Describe the long-term effects and the 5. Making Comparisons Read the descriptions
short-term effects of air pollution on health. of noise and light pollution in this section.
Explain ways in which noise pollution and light
2. Describe two ways in which indoor air
pollution are similar.
pollution can be prevented.
6. Analyzing Relationships Molds can grow in
3. Describe some of the human health problems
new, tightly sealed buildings where the humidity
caused by noise pollution.
is high and the ventilation is poor. Explain how
4. Describe several solutions to the energy waste you would control the growth of mold in this
associated with light pollution. type of environment.
Chapter 12: Air 313

Section 3
Objectives
Explain the causes of

Acid Precipitation
acid precipitation.
Imagine that you are hiking through the forests of the Adirondack Mountains in
Explain how acid precipitation New York. You come to a lake and sit down to rest. You are amazed at how clear
affects plants, soils, and the water is; it is so clear that you can see the bottom of the lake. But after a few
aquatic ecosystems. minutes you feel uneasy. Something is wrong. What is it? Suddenly, you realize that
the lake has no fish.
Describe three ways that acid
precipitation affects humans.
What Causes Acid Precipitation?
Describe ways that countries
The lake described in the introduction, and thousands of lakes through-
are working together
out the world, are victims of acid precipitation, or acid rain. Acid pre-
to solve the problem of
cipitation is precipitation—rain, sleet, or snow—that contains a high
acid precipitation.
concentration of acids. When fossil fuels are burned, they release oxides
of sulfur and nitrogen. When the oxides combine with water in the atmo-
Key Terms sphere, they form sulfuric acid and nitric acid, which fall as acid precipi-
tation. This acidic water flows over and through the ground, and into
acid precipitation
lakes, rivers, and streams. Acid precipitation can kill living things, and can
pH result in the decline or loss of some local animal and plant populations.
acid shock
A pH number is a measure of how acidic or basic a substance is. A pH
scale is shown in Figure 3.1. As you can see from the scale, the lower the
pH number is, the more acidic a substance is; the higher a pH number is,
the more basic a substance is. Each whole number on the pH scale indi-
cates a ten-fold change in acidity.
Pure water has a pH of 7.0. Normal precipitation is slightly acidic,
because atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves into the precipitation
and forms carbonic acid. Normal precipitation has a pH of about 5.6.
Acid precipitation has a pH of less than 5.0. Figure 3.2 shows how acid
precipitation forms.
Figure 3.1
pH Scale The pH scale measures how basic Human saliva

or how acidic a substance is. Below are the pH
measurements of some common substances.
Tap water
Acid rain Acid rain

(extreme) (average) Rain
3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0
Carbonated
Lemon soft Tomato Human Sea Household
juice Vinegar drink juice Milk blood water Detergents ammonia
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Increasing acidity Increasing basicity

Figure 3.2
The pH of precipitation varies around the world and has
changed through time. In North America, the pH of rain has been Acid Precipitation Sulfur oxides
as low as 4.2 in some places. Since the problem of acid rain was and nitrogen oxides combine with
identified, the EPA has worked with industries to cut emissions water in the atmosphere to form
sulfuric and nitric acids. Rainfall
dramatically. Though much work remains, conditions are improv-
that contains these acids is called
ing. In China and India, emissions of fossil fuels are increasing.
acid precipitation.
There is growing concern that acid rain problems will increase in
Atmospheric gases
these areas.
and H2O
How Acid Precipitation Affects Soils combine with combine with
and Plants SO2 NO2
Acid precipitation can lower the pH of soil and water. This increase
in the concentration of acid is called acidification. Acidification Sulfuric acid Nitric acid
H2SO4 HNO3
changes the balance of a soil’s chemistry in several ways. When the
acidity of soil increases, some nutrients are dissolved and washed
away by rainwater. Increased acidity causes aluminum and other
toxic metals to be released and possibly absorbed by the roots of
plants. Aluminum also causes root damage. Sulfur dioxide dissolved Acid precipitation
in water vapor clogs the openings on surfaces of plants. Figure 3.3

shows the harmful effects of acid precipitation on trees over time.
ompare How does the pH of
C
Figure 3.3 pure water compare with that of
acid precipitation?
Acid Precipitation The trees in this forest in Poland show the dramatic effect acid
precipitation can have on plants.
©Simon Fraser/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Chapter 12: Air 315

Figure 3.4 Acid Precipitation and Aquatic Ecosystems
Acid Shock Acid shock can cause Aquatic animals are adapted to live in an environment with a particular
the death of many fish. pH range. If acid precipitation falls on a lake and changes the water’s
pH, acid can kill fish and other aquatic animals. The change in pH is
not the only thing that kills fish. Acid precipitation causes aluminum to
leach out of the soil surrounding a lake. The aluminum accumulates in
the gills of fish and interferes with oxygen and salt exchange. As a result,
fish are slowly suffocated.
The effects of acid precipitation are worst in the spring, when acidic
snow that accumulated during the winter melts and rushes into lakes
and other bodies of water. This sudden influx of acidic water that causes
a rapid change in the water’s pH is called acid shock. This phenomenon
may kill large numbers of fish, as shown in Figure 3.4. Acid shock also
affects the reproduction of fish and amphibians. They produce fewer
eggs, and these eggs often do not hatch. The offspring that do survive
often have birth defects and cannot reproduce.
Acid Precipitation and Humans

QUICKLAB
Acid precipitation can affect humans in a variety of ways. Toxic metals
such as aluminum and mercury can be released into the environment
when soil acidity increases. These toxic metals can find their way into
crops, water, and fish. The toxins then poison the human body.
Acid precipitation can lead to other human health problems. Research
QUICKLAB has indicated that there may be a correlation between large amounts of
acid precipitation received by a community and an increase in respira-
Effects of Acid Precipitation tory problems in the community’s children.
Procedure
The standard of living of some people is affected by acid precipitation.
1. Place a drop of mixed protozoan
culture on a microscope slide and
Decreases in numbers of fish caused by the acidification of lakes and
place a cover slip on top. streams can influence the livelihood of commercial fishers and people
2. Observe the organisms under involved in the sportfishing industry. Forestry is also affected when trees
a microscope. Record your are damaged by acid precipitation.
observations. Acid precipitation can dissolve the calcium carbonate in common
3. Use a pipette to place 2–3 drops building materials, such as concrete, marble, and limestone. Some of the
of vinegar (which has a pH similar world’s most important monuments are being dissolved by acid precipi-
to that of acid precipitation) along tation. These monuments include the Acropolis in Greece, the Taj Mahal
one edge of the cover slip. Record in India, ancient temples and pyramids in Egypt and in the rain forests of
your observations. Central America, and the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, DC.
Analysis
1. Aquatic organisms are adapted to
live within a specific range of pH. International Conflict and Cooperation
What did you observe when the One problem in controlling acid precipitation is that pollutants may be
©David R. Frazier Photolibrary
protozoa came into contact with released in one area and fall to the ground hundreds of kilometers away.
the vinegar? For example, some of the acid precipitation that falls in southeastern Can-
2. What effects can acid precipitation ada results from pollution produced in the northeastern United States.
have on aquatic ecosystems? Figure 3.5 shows approximate areas of the world that produce pollutants
on humans? and areas which are then affected by acid precipitation. Acid precipitation

Figure 3.5
Global Acid Precipitation Acid precipitation is a global problem.
is an international problem. In the spirit of cooperation, Canada and the

United States signed the Canada–U.S. Air Quality Agreement in 1991.
Both countries agreed to reduce emissions that flow across the Canada– Check for Understanding
U.S. boundary. As a result of this agreement, sulfur dioxide emissions Explain How can pollutants from the
in the United States and Canada have been reduced dramatically since United States produce acid precipitation
the 1970s. In Europe, similar agreements reduced sulfur dioxide emis- in Canada?
sions by about 40 percent over the two decades after 1980, although
reductions in emissions of nitrogen oxides have been offset by vehicle
exhaust from increased road traffic. Meanwhile, China still burns large
amounts of high-sulfur coal without pollution controls. The polluted air
that results produces acid precipitation in other parts of Asia that are far
from the coal-burning plants in China.

1. Explain how acid precipitation forms. 5. Inferring Relationships In addition to
negatively affecting forestry and the fishing
2. Describe the harmful effects that acid
industry, how might acid precipitation affect
precipitation can have on plants, soils, and
local economies?
aquatic ecosystems.
6. Analyzing Viewpoints Write a short essay in
3. Describe three ways in which acid
which you discuss whether or not a country that
precipitation can affect humans.
releases significant amounts of pollutants into
4. Describe a way in which countries are the air that fall as acid precipitation in another
working together to solve the problem of country should be expected to pay some of the
acid precipitation. costs of cleanup.
Chapter 12: Air 317

Maps in Action
Light Sources
Earth at night
Map Skills
This satellite image of the Earth from space at night shows light sources that are human in origin. The map is a
composite image made from hundreds of images taken by orbiting satellites. Use the map of light sources on Earth
to answer the questions below.
1. Inferring Relationships Using the brightness able to support large human populations? What are
of the light sources on the map as a key, can you some of these places?
estimate the locations of some of the most densely
3. Finding Locations Many large cities are seaports
populated areas on Earth? Where are some of
that are located along the coastlines of the world’s
these areas?
oceans. From the map, can you pick out light sources
2. Inferring Relationships Some climatic conditions along coastlines that might indicate the sites of large
on Earth, such as extreme cold, heat, wetness, or ports? Identify some of these cities by name.
©C. Mayhew & R. Simmon (NASA/GSFC)
a thin atmosphere, make parts of our planet less

4. Inferring Relationships From the differences in
habitable than others. Examples of areas on our
the density of the light sources, can you pick out any
planet that do not support large populations include
international borders?
deserts, high mountains, polar regions, and tropical
rain forests. From the map, can you identify regions
of the Earth where climatic conditions may not be

at HMDScience.com
Killer Smog
For the residents of the small Monongahela Valley town of Even as the killer smog choked the valley, the zinc smelter
Donora, Pennsylvania, living with the smoke that billowed continued production throughout the night. The smelter
from the local zinc smelter was an everyday occurrence— continued sending more gases and dust into the air over
until October 26, 1948. On that night, a temperature inversion Donora. The smelter was shut down only when the magnitude
and an absence of wind began to trap a deadly mixture of of the problem became apparent—at 6:00 a.m. on Sunday,
sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and metal dust that would October 30, 1948.
hang in the valley air for five days. Over that period of time, Later that day, a drizzling rain began to fall and washed
20 residents lost their lives and 7,000 other residents— the pollutants from the sky. By the time the rain fell, 20 people
about half of the town’s population—suffered some form of were dead. Thousands of other people were at home in bed or
respiratory problems. were filling the corridors and examining rooms of the two area
hospitals. People who were less affected by the smog suffered
The Weekend of the Killer Smog from nausea and vomiting, headaches, and abdominal
cramps. Some victims were choking or coughing up blood.
By Saturday afternoon, October 29, 1948, the yellowish smog
The zinc smelter resumed operation on Monday morning,
had become so thick that spectators in the stands at a local
October 31.
high school football game could not see the players on the
field. Only the whistles of the referees could be heard. By
nightfall, driving was unsafe. This proved to be catastrophic The Aftermath
because doctors recommended that any residents who The smog of Donora was one of the United States’ most
suffered from respiratory ailments be evacuated from town. serious environmental disasters. Shortly after the incident,
In an attempt to alleviate the suffering of people who were the Pennsylvania Department of Health, the U.S. Public Health
struggling to breathe, several local firemen carried oxygen Service, and other agencies undertook investigations. This
tanks through the streets to people’s homes. Because of the was the first organized attempt to document the effects of
low visibility, the firemen had to feel their way along buildings air pollution on health in the United States. The knowledge
and fences. Because the supply of oxygen was limited, only a that air pollution could be linked directly to the deaths of
few breaths of oxygen could be given to each person. Eleven individuals resulted in legislation at the local, regional, state,
people died that night. A makeshift morgue was set up in the and federal levels. These laws were set to limit emissions of
local community center. sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, particulate matter, and other
pollutants. The greatest legacy of the Donora tragedy was
passage of the Clean Air Act of 1970. According to a 2011
report, the direct benefits of amendments to the Clean Air Act
What Do You Think?
of 1990 are estimated to be around $2 trillion and 230,000
fewer deaths by 2020! This is a staggering benefit for the
$65 million direct cost of implementation.
What Do You Think?

Who do you think should be held responsible for
©Everett Collection Inc/Alamy Images
the Donora, Pennsylvania, disaster? Explain your

answer. Given what you know about the regulation
This historical photo captures the town of Donora, of industrial pollutants under the Clean Air Act, do
Pennsylvania, as it is enveloped in smog at noon on you think another incident such as the Donora killer
Saturday, October 28, 1948. smog could happen in the United States today?
Chapter 12: Air 319

Chapter 12 Summary
Section 1 What Causes Air Pollution? Objectives Key Terms
• Primary pollutants are pollutants put directly in the air air pollution
by human activity. primary pollutant
• Secondary pollutants are formed when a primary pollut- secondary
ant comes into contact with other primary pollutants pollutant
or with naturally occurring substances and a chemical smog
reaction takes place. temperature
• Most air pollution comes from vehicles and industry. inversion
• The air pollution that hangs over cities and reduces

visibility is called smog.
• Pollution can be trapped near the surface of Earth
by a temperature inversion.
Section 2 Air, Noise, and Light Objectives Key Terms

Pollution
• Air pollution may have both long- and short-term sick-building
effects on human health. syndrome
• The air indoors may be more polluted than the air asbestos
outside. Plastics, cleaning chemicals, and building decibel (dB)
materials are major sources of indoor air pollution.
(t) ©A. T. Willett/Alamy Images; (c) ©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) ©Simon Fraser/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
• Noise is a pollutant that affects human health and the
quality of life.
• Inefficient lighting diminishes our view of the night
sky and wastes energy.
Section 3 Acid Precipitation Objectives Key Terms
• Acid precipitation is precipitation such as rain, sleet, acid precipitation

or snow that contains a high concentration of acids. pH
• Acid shock occurs when a sudden influx of acidic water acid shock
enters a lake or stream and causes a rapid change in
pH that harms aquatic life.
• Pollutants released in one geographical area may fall
to the ground hundreds of kilometers away as acid
precipitation—sometimes in another country.

Chapter 12 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 14. Which of the following substances is not involved
in the chemical reaction that produces smog?
Use each of the following terms in a sentence.
a. sunlight
1. air pollution b. particulate matter
2. smog c. automotive exhaust
3. temperature inversion d. ozone
4. sick-building syndrome 15. Which of the following respiratory diseases is

5. pH considered a long-term effect of air pollution
on human health?
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings a. emphysema
of the terms differ. b. bronchitis
6. primary pollutant and secondary pollutant c. pneumonia
7. asbestos and radon d. all of the above
8. pH and acid precipitation 16. Which of the following substances is a colorless,

9. acidification and acid shock tasteless, and odorless radioactive gas?
10. Concept Map Use the following terms to create a. asbestos
a concept map: air pollution, primary pollutant, b. carbon monoxide
volatile organic compound, scrubber, secondary c. radon
pollutant, smog, and temperature inversion. d. ozone
17. A sound measuring 40 dB has how many times

the intensity of a sound that measures 10 dB?
a. 4 times
11. Which of the following air pollutants is not a b. 30 times
primary pollutant? c. 400 times
a. particulate matter d. 1,000 times
b. ozone
18. Which of the following choices is not an effective
c. sulfur dioxide solution to the energy waste related to inefficient
d. volatile organic compounds lighting?
a. using low-pressure sodium lighting sources
12. A device used to clean exhaust gases before they b. pointing lights on billboards and street signs
exit an automobile’s tailpipe is called a(n) upward
a. electrostatic precipitator. c. placing light sources on time controls
d. shielding light to direct it downward
b. catalytic converter.
c. scrubber. 19. Which of the following numbers on the pH scale
d. None of the above would indicate that a substance is acidic?
a. 5.0
13. The majority of sulfur dioxide produced by b. 7.0
industry comes from c. 9.0
d. none of the above
a. oil refineries.
b. dry cleaners. 20. Normal precipitation has a pH of
c. chemical plants. a. 7.0.
d. coal-burning power plants. b. 5.6.
c. 5.1.
d. 4.5.
Chapter 12: Air 321

Chapter Review

21. Define the term zero-emission vehicle. What types 28. Making Decisions Five states now have zero-
of vehicles qualify as zero-emission vehicles? emission vehicle programs in place that will help
22. List five indoor air pollutants and examples of decrease some primary pollutants. What would
sources of each pollutant. be the advantages or disadvantages of a federal
program that required automobile makers to
23. Explain the health hazards that radon gas poses produce a set number of ZEVs nationwide?
for humans.
29. Making Decisions In some cities, noise-
24. How does acid precipitation damage monuments pollution laws, such as restrictions placed on the
such as the Acropolis, the Taj Mahal, and the use of leaf blowers, have been put in place. Do you
Lincoln Memorial? think the benefits of noise reduction outweigh the
25. Explain why acid precipitation is a source of costs of enforcing the law?
international conflict and why international 30. Inferring Relationships As you read under the
cooperation is necessary to resolve the problem. head “International Conflict and Cooperation,”
some of the acid precipitation that falls in
southeastern Canada is produced by pollutants
Interpreting Graphics from the United States. How do the acid
The map below shows the pH of precipitation pollutants get from their sources to southeastern
measured at field stations in the northeastern Canada?
United States in the year 2000. Use the map and 31. Health Asbestos, lead paint, tobacco, and many
legend to answer questions 26–27. other products have been linked to adverse effects
26. Which area(s) of the northeastern United States on human health. Research one such case that
have the most-acidic precipitation? has been brought into the courts. Describe the
allegations and the outcome of the trial and write
27. Are the areas with the least acidic precipitation a paragraph that explains whether you agree or
located close to or far from major cities? disagree with the decision.
32. Make a Display Create a display similar to
the diagram that appears in Figure 2.2. This
diagram may be of your home, your garage, a
portion of your school, or a particular classroom
in your school. Use the diagram to identify and
label potential sources of indoor air pollutants.
Photographs may be used to document these
sources.

Chapter Review
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
Use the graph below to answer questions 33 and 34.
37. What are some sources of pollution that
33. Analyzing Data The graph below shows the
affect ground-level ozone? How do these
estimated changes in air-pollution emissions
pollutants lead to increased amounts of
in the United States between 1970 and 1997.
ground-level ozone?
Excluding NOx, which type of emission
experienced the greatest decrease over this 38. Think about the effects of ground-level ozone
period of time? on human health. What are some approaches
that urban areas can take to combat increases
STUDYSKILL
in ground-level ozone and protect the health
Air-Pollution Emissions in the U.S.,
1970 vs. 1997 of their citizens?
150 250
1970 Why It Matters
120 1997 (in thousands of tons) 200
39. What role does
(in millions of tons)
Whytemperature
It Matters
Emissions
Emissions
90 150
inversion play
in the air quality
60 100 of Los Angeles?
What conditions
30 50 cause temperature
inversion to occur
0 0 there? Research
CO NOX VOC PM-10 SO2 Pb
another urban area
Air Pollutants that experiences
34. Interpreting Graphics Why is lead, Pb, shown temperature
separately from the other air pollutants? inversion and
describe why
it occurs.
Making Connections
35. Outlining Topics Outline the major sources
of air pollution in the United States. Include
information about pollution sources and STUDYSKILL
pollution types.
36. Writing Persuasively Write a message to a
Predicting Exam Questions Before you take a test, do
you ever attempt to predict what the questions will be? For
legislator that expresses your concern about a
particular aspect of air, noise, or light pollution example, of the 10 multiple-choice questions that appear in
that is important to you. this chapter review, how many would you have predicted to
be asked in a review of this chapter? Before your next test,
predict and answer possible exam questions.
©Deborah Davis/Getty Images
Chapter 12: Air 323

ExplorationLab
Simulation
The Acid Test
Objectives
Acid precipitation is one of the effects of air pollution. When pollutants
Perform a chemical test
that contain nitrogen or sulfur react with water vapor in clouds, dilute
that produces sulfur dioxide,
a component of acid
acid forms. These acids fall to Earth as acid precipitation.
precipitation. Often, acid precipitation does not occur in the same place where the
pollutants are released. The acid precipitation usually falls some distance
Hypothesize what the
downwind—sometimes hundreds of kilometers away. Thus, the sites
effects of acids that contain
sulfur will be on plants.
where pollutants that cause acid precipitation are released may not suffer
the effects of acid precipitation.
Materials Coal-burning power plants are one source of air pollution. These
beaker, 50 mL power plants release sulfur dioxide into the air. Sulfur dioxide reacts with
clear plastic bags, large (2) the water vapor in air to produce acid that contains sulfur. This acid later
houseplants of the same
falls to Earth as acid precipitation.
type, potted (2) In this investigation, you will create a chemical reaction that produces
sodium nitrite (2 g) sulfur dioxide. The same acids that result from coal-burning power
plants will form as a result of the reaction. You will see the effects of acid
sulfuric acid, 1 M (2 mL)
precipitation on living things—in this case, plants.
twist tie or tape
Procedure
1. Place 2 g of sodium nitrite in a beaker. Place a plant and the beaker
inside a plastic bag. Do not seal the bag yet. CAUTION: Steps 2–4
should be carried out only under a fume hood or outdoors.
2. Carefully add 2 mL of a 1 M solution

of sulfuric acid to the beaker.
Immediately seal the bag tightly,
Step 1 Place a plant and a beaker that
contains sodium nitrite into a plastic
and secure the bag with a twist tie or
bag. Do not seal the bag yet. tape. CAUTION: Because this reac-
tion produces sulfur dioxide, a toxic
gas, the bag should have no leaks. If
a leak occurs, move away from the
bag until the reaction is complete
and the gas has dissipated.
3. Seal the same type of plant in an

identical bag that does not contain
sodium nitrite or sulfuric acid.
4. After 10 minutes, cut both bags

open. Move to at least 5 m from
the bags as the sulfur dioxide gas
dissipates. Keep the plants and bags
under the fume hood.

Day Control Plant Experimental Plant
5. Predict the effects of the experiment on each plant over the next few
days. Record your predictions.
6. Observe both plants over the next three days. Record your observa-
tions below.
Analysis
1. Examining Data How closely did your predictions about the effects
of the experiment on each plant match your observations?
2. Explaining Events What does this experiment suggest about the

effects of acid precipitation on plants?
Conclusions
3. Drawing Conclusions In what ways is this a realistic model of
acid precipitation?
4. Drawing Conclusions In what ways is this experiment not a realistic

simulation of acid precipitation?
Extension
5. Analyzing Models Would you expect to see similar effects occur
as rapidly, more rapidly, or less rapidly in the environment? Explain
your answer.
6. Building Models Acid precipitation is damaging to plants because

it clogs the openings on the surfaces of plants and interferes with
photosynthesis. What kind of a safe model would demonstrate the
damaging effects of acid precipitation on plant photosynthesis?
Would this model be a realistic simulation of acid precipitation?
Chapter 12: Air 325

Atmosphere
Chapter 13
Section 1
Climate
and Climate
Section 2
The Ozone Shield
Section 3
Climate Change
Why It Matters
Change
Hurricanes need warm water
and low atmospheric pressure
to form and grow. These
conditions are most often
found in the low latitudes of
the tropics. So hurricanes tend
to form in the tropics near the
equator.
An almanac is a type of
calendar that includes weather
forecasts for every day of
the year. Why would this
information be useful?
CASESTUDY
Learn how ice cores provide
information about Earth’s
climate history in the case study
Ice Cores: Reconstructing Past
Climates on page 330.
Online
HMDScience.com

©NASA
326
Section 1
Climate Objectives

weather and climate.
Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a particular place at a particular moment.
Climate is the long-term prevailing weather conditions at a particular place. In the Identify four factors that
U.S., local climate is the average of weather conditions over the past 30 years. determine climate.
To understand the difference between weather and climate, consider Seattle,
Washington, and Phoenix, Arizona. These two cities may have the same weather Explain why different parts of
on a particular day. For example, it may be raining, warm, or windy in both places. Earth have different climates.
But their climates are quite different. Seattle’s climate is cool and moist, whereas
Phoenix’s climate is hot and dry. Explain what causes the
seasons.
What Factors Determine Climate?

Climate is determined by a variety of factors. These factors include
latitude, global air circulation patterns, oceanic circulation patterns,
Key Terms
topography, solar activity, and volcanic activity. The most important of climate
these factors is distance from the equator. For example, the two locations latitude
shown in Figure 1.1 have different climates mostly because they are at El Niño
different distances from the equator. La Niña
Figure 1.1
Climate Differences At left is Trunk Bay on the island of St. John in the U.S. Virgin Islands,
which is located near the equator. At right is Paradise Bay on the Antarctic Peninsula.
(l) ©David Coleman/Alamy Images; (r) ©Krys Bailey/Alamy Images
Chapter 13: Atmosphere and Climate Change 327

ECOFACT Latitude
Coral Reefs The distance from the equator measured in degrees north or south of
Coral reefs need sunlight to grow. the equator is called latitude. The equator is located at 0° latitude. The
They require water that is clear, warm, most northerly latitude is the North Pole, at 90° north, whereas the most
and has a fairly stable temperature. southerly latitude is the South Pole, at 90° south.
For these reasons, coral reefs occur
in shallow waters of tropical oceans
between the Tropic of Cancer (23.5° Low Latitudes
north latitude) and the Tropic of Latitude influences climate because the amount of solar energy an area
Capricorn (23.5° south latitude). Water of Earth receives depends on its latitude. More solar energy falls on areas
between these latitudes has an annual that are near the equator than on areas that are closer to the poles, as
average temperature of about 21°C,
shown in Figure 1.2. The incoming solar energy is concentrated on a
which corals need to survive.
relatively small surface area at the equator.
In regions near the equator, night and day are both about 12 hours
long throughout the year. In addition, temperatures are high year-round
in areas close to sea level.
High Latitudes
The amount of energy arriving at the surface is lower in regions closer to
the poles than it is near the equator. In the northern and southern lati-
tudes, sunlight hits Earth at an oblique angle and spreads over a larger
surface area than it does at the equator. Yearly average temperatures near
the poles are therefore lower than they are at the equator. The hours of
daylight also vary. At 45° north and south latitude, there is as much as 16
hours of daylight each day in summer and as little as 8 hours of sunlight
each day in winter. Near the poles, the sun sets for only a few hours each
day in summer and rises for only a few hours each day in winter.
Figure 1.2
Latitude Near the equator, sunlight hits Earth vertically. The sunlight is concentrated on a
smaller surface area at the equator. Away from the equator, sunlight hits Earth at an oblique
angle and spreads over a larger surface area.
critical thinking
Explain Why do the North Pole and the South Pole experience 24 hours of
daylight at different times of the year?

Global Air Circulation ECOFACT
Three important properties of air illustrate how air circulation affects Deserts to METEOROLOGY
Connect
climate. First, cold air sinks because it is denser than warm air. As cold Air that is warmed at the equator rises
air sinks, it compresses and warms. Second, warm air rises. It expands and flows northward and southward
and cools at it rises. Third, warm air can hold more water vapor than cold to 30° north and south latitude, where
air can. Therefore, when warm air cools, the water vapor it contains may it sinks. The sinking air is compressed
condense into liquid water to form rain, snow, or fog. and its temperature increases. As the
temperature of the air increases, the
Solar energy warms the ground, which warms the air above it. Cooler, air is able to hold a larger quantity
denser air sinks and pushes the warm air up. The cold air increases the of water vapor. Evaporation from the
pressure on Earth’s surface. Air moves from areas of high pressure to land surface is so great beneath these
areas of low pressure. This movement of air is called wind. As Earth sinking warm air masses that little
rotates, different latitudes receive different amounts of solar energy, water returns to Earth in the form of
which results in the pattern of global air circulation shown in Figure 1.3. precipitation. Thus, most of Earth’s
This circulation pattern determines Earth’s precipitation pattern. For deserts lie at 30° north and south
example, the intense solar energy striking Earth’s surface at the equator latitude.
causes the surface as well as the air above the equator to become very
warm. The warm air can hold large amounts of water that evaporate from
the equatorial oceans and land. As the warm air rises, however, it cools,
which reduces some of its ability to hold water. Thus, areas near the Connect to METEOROLOGY
equator receive large amounts of rain.
Tornadoes in the United
States
Figure 1.3 Tornadoes occur almost exclusively
in the United States and southern
Global Air Circulation Three belts of prevailing winds occur in each hemisphere.
Canada. Cold, dry air from the north
The warming and cooling of air produces pressure belts every 30° of latitude.
and warm, moist air from the south
90°N
often collide on the flat region of the
Great Plains. When this happens, a
low pressure area is formed and air
Easterlies
60°N masses spiral around it, creating
Westerlies funnel clouds.
30°N
Trade winds
0° Equator
Trade winds
30°S
Westerlies
60°S
Easterlies
90°S Cool air

Warm air

QUICKLAB Areas of High and Low Pressures
Investigate Prevailing Winds Cool air normally sinks, creating areas of high pressure. Cool air over
Procedure the equator cannot sink because hot air is rising below the cool air. As a
1. Insert a push-pin through the result, warm, less-dense air at the equator forms an area of lower pres-
center of a 10 in paper plate. sure. So, the cool air rises and is forced away from the equator toward the
2. Push the pointed end of the pin into North and South Poles. At about 30° north latitude and 30° south latitude,
the eraser end of a pencil. some of this cool air sinks back down to Earth’s surface. The air becomes
3. Spin the plate in a warmer as it descends. The warm, dry air moves across the surface of
counterclockwise direction. Earth and causes water to evaporate from the land below, which creates
4. While the plate is spinning, try to dry conditions.
draw a straight line from the center Air descending at 30° north latitude and 30° south latitude either
of the plate to the outer edge.
moves toward the equator or toward the poles. Air moving toward the
Analysis poles warms while it is near Earth’s surface. At about 60° north latitude
Relate what you observed to the and 60° south latitude, this air collides with cold air traveling from the
movement of winds and the rotation of poles. The warm air is pushed up. When this rising air reaches the top of
Earth. the troposphere, a small amount of the air returns back to the circulation
pattern between 60° and 30° north latitude and 60° and 30° south latitude.
However, most of this uplifted air is forced toward the poles. Cold, dry air
descends at the poles, which are essentially very cold deserts.
CASESTUDY
Ice Cores: Reconstructing

Past Climates
Imagine having at your fingertips
a record of Earth’s climate that
extends back several thousand
years. Today, ice cores are providing
scientists an indirect glimpse of
Earth’s climate history. These ice
cores have been drilled out of ice
sheets thousands of meters thick in
Canada, Greenland, and Antarctica.
How do scientists reconstruct
the climate history of our planet from ice cores? As snow falls to Earth, With the help of ice cores,
the snow carries substances that are in the air at the time. If snow falls scientists are beginning to
in a cold climate where it does not melt, the snow turns to ice because reconstruct Earth’s climate
of the weight of the snow above it. The substances contained in snow, history over hundreds of
thousands of years.
©Natural Resources Canada
such as soot, dust, volcanic ash, and chemical compounds, are buried
year after year, one layer on top of another. Air between snowflakes
and grains becomes trapped in bubbles when the snow is compacted.
These bubbles of air can provide information about the composition of
the atmosphere over time.

Prevailing Winds Figure 1.4
Winds that blow predominantly in one direction throughout
Prevailing Winds The red areas indicate fires
the year are called prevailing winds. Because of the rota-
around Sydney, Australia, at about 32° south. The
tion of Earth, these winds do not blow directly northward or smoke is blown by the prevailing westerly winds.
southward. Instead these winds are deflected to the right in
the Northern Hemisphere. They are deflected to the left in
the Southern Hemisphere.
Belts of prevailing winds blow most of the time in both
hemispheres between 30° north and south latitudes and the
equator. These belts of wind are called the trade winds. The
trade winds blow from the northeast in the Northern Hemi-
sphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere.
Prevailing winds known as the westerlies are produced
between 30° and 60° north latitudes and 30° and 60° south
latitudes. In the Northern Hemisphere, these westerlies
are southwest winds. In the Southern Hemisphere, these
westerlies are northwest winds, as shown in Figure 1.4. The
polar easterlies blow from the poles to 60° north and south
latitudes.
Whether scientists work on

ice cores in the field or in the
laboratory, all ice cores must
be handled in such a way
that the cores do not become
contaminated by atmospheric
pollutants.
Scientists can date ice cores based on differences that

exist between snow layers that are deposited in the winter
and in the summer. Knowing these differences allows
Critical Thinking
(tr) ©GSFC/NASA; (cr) ©Getty Images; (cl) ©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
scientists to count and place dates with the annual layers

of ice.
Scientists can discover important events in Earth’s
climate history by studying ice cores. For example, volcanoes Critical Thinking
produce large quantities of dust, so a history of volcanic 1. Evaluate Viewpoints How might information
activity is preserved in ice cores. A record of concentrations about past carbon dioxide concentrations on
of carbon dioxide, an important greenhouse gas, has also Earth contribute to scientists’ understanding of
been preserved in air bubbles trapped in the ice. These ice present carbon dioxide concentrations?
cores provide evidence that greenhouse gas concentrations 2. Apply What information, besides what is
have changed in the past. Evidence of increases in global mentioned in this Case Study, might scientists
temperature of several Celsius degrees over several decades learn about Earth’s climatic history from ice
has been discovered in ice cores from thousands of years cores?
ago by analyzing isotopes in the ice.

Figure 1.5
El Niño Southern
Oscillation The El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) is a periodic change
in the location of warm and cold water
masses in the Pacific Ocean. The phase
of ENSO in which the eastern Pacific
surface water is warm is called El Niño,
and the phase in which it is cool is
called La Niña.
ECOFACT
Oceanic Circulation Patterns

Ocean currents have a great effect on climate because water holds large
amounts of energy as heat. The movement of surface ocean currents is
caused mostly by winds and the rotation of Earth. These surface currents
redistribute warm and cool masses of water around the planet. Some
surface currents warm or cool coastal areas year-round. Surface currents
affect the climate in many parts of the world. Here, we will only discuss
surface currents that change their pattern of circulation over time.
ECOFACT
Temperature Inversions
The changes in ocean surface
El Niño—Southern Oscillation
temperatures associated with El El Niño (el NEEN yoh) refers to conditions where the waters near the equator
Niño and La Niña impact climate on in the Pacific Ocean are warmer than normal. During an El Niño, the strong
a global scale. Shifts in temperature winds that usually push warm water to the western Pacific Ocean and allow
gradients can also be important on a cool water to push up from below in the eastern Pacific Ocean weaken.
local scale. For example, a temperature This moves warm water into the equatorial Pacific. During El Niño, there is
inversion exists when air temperature increased rainfall in the southern half of the United States and in equatorial
increases with height above Earth’s South America. In 1982, up to 100 inches of rain fell during a six month
surface. Inversions often form during period in Ecuador and northern Peru. What had been a coastal desert
the summer when large domes of high was transformed temporarily into a grassland. El Niño causes drought in
pressure tend to dominate weather Indonesia and Australia.
conditions. Such inversions can cause
During La Niña (lah NEEN yah), the water in the eastern Pacific Ocean
long-lasting air pollution because they
is cooler than usual. El Niño and La Niña are opposite phases of the El
keep the air near the surface from rising
Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle. El Niño is the warm phase of the
©NASA
and mixing with cleaner air above.

cycle, and La Niña is the cold phase, as illustrated in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.6
Rain Shadow Effect Moist ocean air moves up the

coastal side of a mountain range. The air cools and
releases its moisture as rain or snow. Air then
becomes drier as it crosses the range. When
the dry air descends on the inland side of
the mountains, the air warms and draws
up moisture from the surface.
Topography
Mount Kilimanjaro, a 5,896 m extinct volcano in Tanzania, is about Figure 1.7
3° south of the equator, but snow covers its peak year-round. Kilimanjaro
illustrates the important effect of height above sea level (elevation) on Sun Cycle The sun has an 11-
climate. Temperatures fall by about 6°C (about 11°F) for every 1,000 m year cycle in which it goes from a
maximum of activity to a minimum
increase in elevation.
and back to maximum.
Mountains and mountain ranges also influence the distribution of
precipitation. For example, consider the Sierra Nevada mountains of
California. Warm air from the Pacific Ocean blows east, hits the moun-
tains, and rises. As the air rises, it cools, which causes it to rain on the
western side of the mountains. By the time the air reaches the eastern
side of the mountains, it is dry. This effect is known as a rain shadow,
as shown in Figure 1.6.
Other Influences on Earth’s Climate

Both the sun and volcanic eruptions influence Earth’s climate. At a
solar maximum, shown in Figure 1.7, the sun emits an increased amount
of ultraviolet (UV) radiation. UV radiation produces more ozone,
©Lunar and Planetary Institute/NASA
warming the stratosphere. The increased radiation can also warm the
lower atmosphere and surface of Earth a little. Check for Understanding
In large-scale volcanic eruptions, sulfur dioxide gas can reach the Relate How do large-scale volcanic
upper atmosphere. The sulfur dioxide gas reacts with smaller amounts eruptions influence Earth’s climate?
of water vapor and dust in the stratosphere. This reaction forms a
bright layer of haze that reflects enough sunlight to cause the global
temperature to decrease.

Figure 1.8
Earth’s Seasons Because of Earth’s

tilt, the angle at which the sun’s rays
strike Earth changes as Earth orbits the
sun. This change in angle accounts for
seasonal climate differences around
the world. The seasons for the Northern
Connect
Hemisphere MATH
toare shown here.
Connect to MATH Seasonal Changes in Climate

Precipitation Extremes
You know that temperature and precipitation change with the seasons.
on Earth
But do you know what causes the seasons? As shown in Figure 1.8, the
Cherrapunji, India, which is located
in eastern India near the border of seasons result from the tilt of Earth’s axis (about 23.5° relative to the plane
Bangladesh, is the wettest spot on of its orbit). Because of this tilt, the angle at which the sun’s rays strike
Earth. Cherrapunji has an annual Earth changes as Earth moves around the sun.
average precipitation of 1,065 cm. During summer in the Northern Hemisphere, the Northern Hemi-
Arica, Chile, is located in extreme sphere tilts toward the sun and receives direct sunlight. The number of
northern Chile near the Peruvian hours of daylight is greatest in the summer. Therefore, the amount of time
border. Arica is the driest spot on available for the sun to warm Earth becomes greater. During summer in
Earth and has an annual average the Northern Hemisphere, the Southern Hemisphere tilts away from the
precipitation of 0.8 mm. What is the sun and receives less direct sunlight. During summer in the Southern
difference in millimeters between Hemisphere, the situation is reversed. The Southern Hemisphere is tilted
the annual average precipitation in toward the sun, whereas the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away.
Cherrapunji and the annual average
precipitation in Arica?

1. Explain the difference between weather and 5. Relating Concepts At the equator, there
climate. are no summers or winters, only wet and dry
seasons. Write a paragraph that explains why
2. Identify four factors that determine climate.
this is the case.
3. Explain why different parts of Earth have
6. Analyzing Processes If Earth were not tilted
different climates.
in its orbit, how would the climates and seasons
4. Explain what causes the seasons. be affected at the equator and between 30° north
and south latitudes?

Section 2
The Ozone Shield Objectives
Explain how the ozone layer

shields Earth from much of the
The ozone layer is an area in the stratosphere where ozone is highly concentrated. sun’s harmful radiation.
Ozone is a molecule made of three oxygen atoms. The ozone layer absorbs most
of the ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun. Ultraviolet light is harmful to organisms Explain how chlorofluorocarbons
because it can damage the genetic material in living cells. By shielding Earth’s damage the ozone layer.
surface from most of the sun’s ultraviolet light, the ozone in the stratosphere acts
like a sunscreen for Earth’s inhabitants. Explain the process by which
the ozone hole forms.
Chemicals That Cause Ozone Depletion Describe the damaging effects

of ultraviolet radiation.
During the 1970s, scientists recognized that a class of human-made
chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) might be damaging the Explain why the threat to the
ozone layer. For many years CFCs were thought to be miracle chemicals. ozone layer is still continuing
They are nonpoisonous and nonflammable, they do not corrode metals, today.
and they are inexpensive to produce. CFCs quickly became popular as
coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners. They were also used as a
gassy “fizz” for making plastic foams and as a propellant in spray cans of Key Terms
everyday products such as deodorants, insecticides, and paint. ozone layer
At Earth’s surface, CFC molecules are chemically stable. But high in chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
the stratosphere, where the powerful energy of the sun’s UV radiation is ozone hole
absorbed, CFC molecules break apart. Once they break apart, chlorine polar stratospheric clouds
atoms from the CFC molecules cause the breakdown of ozone. CFCs
are one of several human-made compounds that deplete stratospheric
ozone, called ozone-depleting substances (ODSs).
Over a period of 10 to 20 years, CFC molecules released at Earth’s sur-
face make their way into the stratosphere. Figure 2.1 shows how the CFCs
break down ozone in the stratosphere. Each CFC molecule contains from
one to four chlorine atoms, and scientists have estimated that a single
chlorine atom from CFC can break down 100,000 ozone molecules.
Figure 2.1
Breakdown of CFCs by UV light The CFC molecule in this illustration contains

a single chlorine atom. This chlorine atom continues to enter the cycle and repeatedly
destroys ozone molecules.
Chlorine Chlorine
Chlorine, Chlorine, Ozone, monoxide, monoxide, Ozone, Chlorine,
Cl Cl O3 ClO ClO O3 Cl
UV
light + +
1 UV light causes the CFC to break 2 The chlorine atom reacts with 3 The chlorine monoxide molecule
down, releasing a chlorine atom. an ozone molecule to create then reacts with another ozone
an oxygen molecule and molecule, creating two molecules
a chlorine monoxide molecule. of oxygen and one chlorine atom.

Figure 2.2
The Ozone Hole These

satellite images show
changes in the ozone hole
between 1980 and 2012. The
ozone hole, which appears
purple here, grew until 2006
and has been gradually
getting smaller since then.
The Ozone Hole

In 1985, a group of scientists working in Antarctica released data showing
that the ozone layer above the South Pole had thinned by 50 to 98 percent.
This was the first news of the ozone hole, a thinning of stratospheric ozone
that occurs over the poles during the spring.
Connect to METEOROLOGY
After the results were published, NASA scientists reviewed data that
had been sent to Earth by the Nimbus 7 weather satellite since the
satellite’s launch in 1978. They were able to see the first signs of ozone
Check for Understanding thinning in the data from 1979. Although the concentration of ozone
Identify What evidence showed that a fluctuates during the year, the data showed a growing ozone hole, as
hole had formed in the ozone layer? shown in Figure 2.2. Ozone levels over the Arctic have decreased as well.
Following the announcement in 1985, scientists and governments
worldwide began working together with chemical companies to develop
ways to prevent the ozone hole from growing. As a result, ozone in the
stratosphere is no longer decreasing.
Connect to METEOROLOGY
Polar Stratospheric Clouds How Does the Ozone Hole Form?
Because the stratosphere is extremely
During the dark polar winter, strong circulating winds over Antarctica,
dry, clouds normally do not form in
called the polar vortex, isolate cold air from surrounding warmer air.
this layer of the atmosphere. However,
The air within the vortex grows extremely cold. When temperatures fall
during polar winters, temperatures
below about –80°C, high-altitude clouds made of water and nitric acid,
become low enough to cause
condensation and cloud formation.
called polar stratospheric clouds, begin to form.
These clouds, which occur at altitudes On the surfaces of polar stratospheric clouds, the products of CFCs
of about 21,000 m, are known as polar are converted to molecular chlorine. When sunlight returns to the South
stratospheric clouds, or PSCs. Because Pole in spring, molecular chlorine is split into two chlorine atoms by
of their iridescence, PSCs are called ultraviolet radiation. The chlorine atoms rapidly break down ozone. This
mother-of-pearl or nacreous clouds. causes a thin spot, or ozone hole, which lasts for several months.
Outside of the poles, the stratosphere
Because ozone is also being produced as air pollution, you
is too warm for these clouds to form.
may wonder why this ozone does not repair the ozone hole in the
Because these clouds are required for
stratosphere. The answer is that ozone is very chemically reactive. Ozone
the breakdown of CFCs, ozone holes
produced by pollution breaks down or combines with other substances
are confined to the Antarctic and Arctic
regions.
in the troposphere long before it can reach the stratosphere to replace
the ozone that is being depleted.
©NASA

Effects of Ozone Thinning on Humans Figure 2.3
As the amount of ozone in the stratosphere decreases, more ultraviolet
Ozone Depletion Depletion of the
light is able to pass through the atmosphere and reach Earth’s surface,
ozone layer allows more ultraviolet ra
as shown in Figure 2.3. UV light is dangerous to living things because it diation to reach the surface of Earth.
damages DNA. DNA is the genetic material that contains the information
that determines inherited characteristics. Exposure to UV light makes Ozone layer
the body more susceptible to skin cancer, and may cause certain other
damaging effects to the human body.
Effects of Ozone Thinning on Animals and Plants

High levels of UV light can kill phytoplankton, microscopic organisms
that live near the surface of the ocean and are a basic food source in
aquatic ecosystems. The loss of phytoplankton could disrupt ocean food
Ultraviolet rays
chains and reduce fish harvests. In addition, a reduction in the number of are absorbed by
phytoplankton would cause an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide the ozone layer
(CO2) in the atmosphere. or reflected
back to space.
Some scientists think that increased UV light could be
one of many factors contributing to global declines in amphibians, such
as toads and salamanders. Increases in UV radiation could reduce the
survival of amphibian eggs or may work with other stresses in the envi- Ultraviolet rays penetrate
ronment to harm various life stages. to the Earth’s surface
through the ozone hole.
UV light can damage plants by interfering with photosynthesis. This
damage can result in lower crop yields. The damaging effects of UV
light are summarized in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4
Damaging Effects of UV Light
Humans • increased incidence of skin cancer

• premature aging of the skin
• increased incidence of cataracts
• weakened immune response
Amphibians • reduced egg survival

• genetic mutations among survivors
• increased susceptibility to other stresses
Marine life • death of phytoplankton in surface water

• disruption of food chain
• reduction in the number of photosynthesizers
Land plants • interference with photosynthesis

• reduced crop yields

Protecting the Ozone Layer
In 1987, a group of nations met in Canada and agreed to take action
against ozone depletion. Under an agreement called the Montreal
Protocol, these nations agreed to sharply limit their production of CFCs.
Today the Montreal Protocol has been ratified by most of the world’s
nations with a long-term commitment to phase out all ozone-depleting
substances.
According to the World Meteorological Organization’s 2010 report on
ozone depletion, many ODSs have been phased out. For example, aerosol
cans no longer use CFCs as propellants, and air conditioners are CFC-
free. Because many countries were involved and decided to control CFCs,
many people consider ozone protection an international environmental
success story. Figure 2.5 illustrates the decline in world CFC production
since the 1987 Montreal Protocol. Even with this success, scientists are
still working to protect the ozone layer because CFC molecules remain
active in the stratosphere for 60 to 120 years.
Figure 2.5
World CFC Production
1,200
World CFC
depletion potential tons)
(in thousands of ozone
1,000
Production Chlorofluorocarbon Developed countries
CFC Production
800
production has declined greatly since
600
developed countries agreed to ban
400
CFCs in 1987.
200
critical thinking 0
Developing countries
Relate How did the Montreal -200
1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
Protocol help to protect the Year
ozone layer? Source: UN Environment Programme
Image Credits:
1. Describe the process by which 5. Making Decisions If the ozone layer gets
chlorofluorocarbons break down ozone significantly thinner during your lifetime,
molecules in the stratosphere. what changes might you need to make in
final
your lifestyle?
2. Describe the process by which the ozone hole 2-17-12
forms over Antarctica in spring. 6. Analyzing
LKell Relationships CFCs were thought
to be miracle chemicals when they were first

3. List five harmful effects that UV radiation could
introduced. What kinds of tests could be
have on plants or animals as a result of ozone
performed on any future miracle chemical to
thinning.
make sure serious environmental problems do
4. Explain why it will take years for the ozone not result from its use?
layer to recover, even though the use of CFCs has
declined significantly. Write a paragraph that
explains your answer.

Section 3
Climate Change Objectives
Explain why Earth’s atmosphere

is like the glass in a greenhouse.
Have you ever gotten into a car that has been sitting in the sun with all its windows
closed? Even if the day is cool, the air in the car is much warmer than the air Explain why the carbon dioxide
outside. The reason warmth builds up inside a car is that the sun’s light energy content of the atmosphere is
streams into the car through the clear glass windows. The carpets and upholstery increasing.
in the car absorb the light and convert it into energy in the form of heat. This
energy does not pass through glass as easily as light energy does. Sunlight Identify one possible explanation
continues to stream into the car through the glass, but the energy in the form of for the increase in average
heat cannot get out. This energy continues to build up and is trapped inside the
global temperature.
car. A greenhouse works the same way. By building a house of glass, gardeners
trap the sun’s light energy and grow delicate plants in the warm air inside the Describe what a warmer Earth
greenhouse even when there is snow on the ground outside.
might be like.
The Greenhouse Effect Key Terms

Earth is somewhat comparable to a greenhouse. Earth’s atmosphere greenhouse gases
acts like the glass in a greenhouse. As shown in Figure 3.1, solar radiation global warming
enters the atmosphere as high-energy wavelengths of light that warm
Kyoto Protocol
Earth’s surface. This energy is absorbed and reradiated as infrared radia-
tion from Earth’s surface. Some of the energy escapes into space. The rest
is absorbed by gases in the troposphere and warms the air. This process
of warming Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere is called the greenhouse
effect.
Not every gas in our atmosphere absorbs and radiates the sun’s
energy in this way. Gases that do absorb and radiate infrared radiation
from the sun are called greenhouse gases. The major greenhouse gases
are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Of these,
water vapor and carbon dioxide account for most of the absorption of
energy that occurs in the atmosphere.
Figure 3.1
How the Greenhouse Effect Works

Measuring Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere
In 1958, a geochemist named Charles David Keeling installed an instru-
HMDScience.com ment at the top of a tall tower on the Mauna Loa observatory in Hawaii.
Keeling wanted to measure the amount of CO2 in the air, far from forests
Carbon Dioxide and Global
Warming and cities where CO2 levels vary every day. The winds that blow steadily
over Mauna Loa have come thousands of miles across the Pacific Ocean,
mixing as they traveled. Keeling reasoned that at Mauna Loa, the average
CO2 levels in the air could be measured for the entire Earth.
Check for Understanding Much of the CO2 that is released into the air dissolves in the ocean or
Identify What are two advantages of is used by plants for photosynthesis. As a result, the levels of CO2 in the air
setting up instruments for measuring vary with the seasons. During the summer, growing plants use more CO2
carbon dioxide on top of Mauna Loa? for photosynthesis than they release in respiration. This causes CO2 levels
in the air to decrease in the summer. In the winter, dying grasses and
fallen leaves decay and release the carbon that was stored in them during
the summer. As a result, CO2 levels naturally rise.
Rising Carbon Dioxide Levels

After only a few years of measuring CO2 levels, it became obvious that
FieldStudy they were changing in ways other than just the seasonal fluctuations.
Go to Appendix B to find the field study These data in Figure 3.2 show that CO2 levels in the atmosphere have
Reducing Your Carbon Footprint. increased by over 20 percent in less than 50 years. This increase is due
largely to the CO2 released into the air when fossil fuels are burned. This
data provide a record of changes in CO2 levels since 1958. Levels of CO2
in the atmosphere thousands of years ago can be determined by analyz-
ing ice cores drilled from ice sheets. These measurements show that CO2
levels in the atmosphere today are higher than they have been for the last
420,000 years, and probably for the last 20 million years.
Figure 3.2
Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide The graph shows that the average yearly
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased since 1958.
Increase in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide, 1958–2010
390
380
Carbon dioxide concentration
370
(parts per million)
360
Seasonal fluctuations
350
Winter (high)
340
Average value
330
Summer (low)
320
310
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year

Greenhouse Gases and Earth’s Temperature Figure 3.3
Most atmospheric scientists think that because greenhouse gases absorb Major Greenhouse
and rerelease infrared radiation to Earth’s surface, increased greenhouse Gases and Their
gases in the atmosphere will result in an increase in global temperature. Sources
A comparison of CO2 in the atmosphere and average global temperatures
Carbon dioxide, CO2: burning fossil
for the past 400,000 years supports this view. fuels and deforestation
Today, we are releasing more CO2 than any other greenhouse gas into
the atmosphere. Millions of tons of CO2 are released into the atmosphere Methane, CH4: animal waste,
each year from power plants that burn coal or oil and from cars that burn biomass burning, fossil fuels,
landfills, livestock, rice paddies,
gasoline. Millions of trees are burned in tropical rain forests to clear the
sewage, and wetlands
land for farming. Thus, the amount of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere is increasing. Figure 3.3 shows the sources of some major Nitrous oxide, N2O: biomass
greenhouse gases. burning, deforestation, burning of
fossil fuels, and microbial activity
on fertilizers in the soil
Global Climate Change
Water vapor, H2O: evaporation, plant
Figure 3.4 shows that the average temperature at Earth’s surface increased
transpiration
2005
during the twentieth century. This gradual increase is known as global
warming. Because the rise in temperature correlates to the increase in
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, most scientists conclude that the in-
1995
crease in greenhouse gases, and other factors, have caused the increase in
temperature. Thousands of experiments and computer models support
this hypothesis. The increase in temperature is predicted to continue.
1985
This does not mean that temperatures are rising at a constant rate, or
that they are rising in all parts of the world. As with changes in CO2 levels,
Variation from 20th-Century Average Global Surface Temperature
short-term variations in temperature are superimposed on larger trends.
1975
For example, the patterns of precipitation, frequency of fires, and extreme
weather events are also predicted to change. So, most scientists use the
term global climate change rather than global warming.
1965
Figure 3.4
1955
Global Surface Temperature This graph shows that the average surface temperature of
Year
Earth warmed during the 20th century. For example, the average global surface temperature in
the year 2005 was 0.61°C above the 20th-century average temperature.
1945
Variation from 20th-Century Average Global Surface Temperature
0.6
1935
Difference from 20th-century
average temperature (˚C)
1925
0.3
Source: National Climatic Data Center.
1915
0.0
1905
–0.3
1895
1895 1905 1915 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005
0.6
0.3
0.0
–0.3
Year
Source: National Climatic Data Center.
Chapter 13: Atmosphere and Climate Change average temperature (˚C) 341
Difference from 20th-century
Figure 3.5
Modeling Climate Change These maps were developed from computer models. The map
on the left shows the effect of greenhouse gases on Earth before sulfur pollution was added. The
map on the right shows how the addition of the sulfur pollution variable causes a cooling effect.
Average rate of heat gain (watts per square meter)
–1 0 1 2 3
Modeling Climate Change

Predictions about future changes in climate are based on computer
models. Scientists use a growing body of research to find mathematical
relationships among “drivers,” such as solar input, wind patterns, and
cloud cover and “response variables,” such as troposphere temperature,
sea surface temperature, ice cover, and sea level. These relationships are
expressed as equations within complex models. The resulting models can
be used to predict how factors such as temperature will be affected, as
shown in Figure 3.5. Scientists validate the models by starting with histori-
cal conditions and then comparing model projections to known changes
in climate. The models are constantly being updated with new informa-
tion, but about a dozen different models show similar predictions. For
example, all models predict widely increasing temperatures that are not
simply driven by natural climate or solar variability. Humans are playing
some role, though the exact human contribution is still uncertain.
The Consequences of a Warmer Earth

In North America, tree swallows, Baltimore orioles, and robins are nesting ©Dr. Jeffrey Kiehl/National Center for Atmospheric Research
about two weeks earlier than they did 50 years ago. In Britain, at least 200
species of plants are flowering up to 55 days earlier in the year than they
did 40 years ago. Although correlations are not proof of causation, scientists
know that the time at which birds nest and plants flower are both strongly
influenced by temperature.
The possible effects of climate change include a number of potentially
serious environmental problems, including changes in weather patterns
and rising sea levels. The possible effects of a warmer Earth will not be
the same everywhere. For instance, some ecosystems are less sensitive to
changes in climate than others are. Countries, too, will vary in their ability
to respond to problems caused by changes in climate.

Figure 3.6
Melting Polar Ice This is a satellite image of an 11,000 km2 iceberg—the size of
Connecticut!—that split off from the Ross Ice Shelf in Antarctica in March of 2000.
Rising Sea Levels

Sea level has been measured in many locations over the past 100 years.
Although there is some uncertainty about the total amount, sea
levels are rising and will continue to rise. Sea level rises because as water
warms, it expands. Also, ice that is currently over land is melting and Connect to BIOLOGY
the water is flowing into the ocean. Scientists are particularly concerned
about melting of glaciers over land in Greenland and Antarctica. The rise
in sea levels could flood coastal wetlands and other low-lying areas.
Enormous numbers of people who live near coastlines could lose their
homes and sources of income. Beaches could be extensively eroded. The
salinity of bays and estuaries might increase, adversely affecting marine
fisheries. Also, coastal freshwater aquifers could become too salty to be Connect to BIOLOGY
used as sources of fresh water. Ocean Warming
Commercial fishing in the northern
Global Weather Patterns Atlantic Ocean depends heavily on a
fish called a cod. In recent years, the
If Earth warms up significantly, the surface of the oceans will absorb
number of cod in the North Atlantic
more energy in the form of heat, which may make hurricanes and ty- has greatly decreased because of
phoons more intense. Some scientists are concerned that climate change overfishing. In 2001 British scientists
will also cause a change in ocean current patterns, such as a slowing began a study to find out if there is
of the Gulf Stream. Such a change could significantly affect the world’s also a link between the decline and
weather. For instance, some regions might have more rainfall than nor- the changing global climate. They
mal, whereas other regions might have less. Severe flooding could occur sailed the ocean waters between
©Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Land Science Team/NASA
in some regions while droughts and fires devastate other regions. Greenland and Iceland collecting
samples of zooplankton. The scientists
found that zooplankton levels have
Human Health Problems
drastically decreased since 1963, the
Warmer average global temperatures pose potential threats to human date of the last survey. The scientists
health. Greater numbers of heat-related deaths could occur. Since trees believe that slowly warming ocean-
and flowering plants, such as grasses, would flower earlier and for longer water temperatures have in some
than they do now, people who are allergic to pollen would suffer from way affected zooplankton in the North
allergies for more of the year. Warmer temperatures could also enable Atlantic Ocean, which has in turn
mosquitoes—vectors of diseases such as malaria and Dengue Fever—to impacted animals such as cod that rely
establish themselves in areas that are too cold for them currently. on the zooplankton for food.

Figure 3.7
Effects of Drought These corn

plants died from a lack of water.
critical thinking
Infer How could the impact
of drought on crops affect the
economy?
Agriculture
Agriculture would be severely impacted by climate change if extreme
weather events, such as droughts, became more frequent. The effects
of drought are shown in Figure 3.7. Higher temperatures could result in
decreased crop yields. The demand for irrigation could increase, which
would further deplete aquifers that have already been overused.
Effects on Plants and Animals

Climate change could alter both the range of plant species and the
Figure 3.8 composition of plant communities. Trees could colonize cooler areas.
Forests could shrink in the warmer part of their range and lose diversity.
Climate Change Affects Increased frequency of fires may shift whole ecosystems.
Organisms Despite its name,
Climate change may cause a shift in the geographical range of some
the crabeater seal actually feeds on
animals. For example, birds in the Northern Hemisphere may not have
zooplankton. This seal is a resident of
Antarctica. to migrate as far south for winter. Warming in the surface waters of the
ocean might cause a reduction of zooplankton, which many marine
(b) ©Paul Oomen/Getty Images; (t) ©National Geographic Image Collection/Alamy Images
animals, such as the crabeater seal, shown in Figure 3.8, depend on for
food. Warming in tropical waters may kill the algae that nourish corals,
thus destroying coral reefs. As more CO2 dissolves into oceans, the water
could become more acidic, which could disrupt the ocean food webs.
Recent Findings
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a network of
approximately 2,500 of the world’s leading climatologists from at least 70
countries. In 2007, the IPCC issued its Fourth Assessment Report (AR4).
AR4 describes what is currently known about the global climate system
and provides future estimates. Some of the findings of the IPCC state that
since the third report in 2001, the average global surface temperature
increased by 0.74°C, the temperature increase is both global and higher at
northern latitudes, and the average global sea level continues to rise. The
IPCC also reported that concentrations of atmospheric greenhouse gases
have continued to increase as a result of human activities.

Reducing the Risk Figure 3.9
The need to slow global climate change has been recognized by the Reforestation Because plants take
global community. Some nations and organizations have engaged in in carbon dioxide during photosynthesis,
reforestation projects to reduce CO2, such as the project shown in Figure reforestation projects such as this
3.9. However, the attempt to slow global climate change is made difficult project in Haiti help to offset a portion of
by the economic, political, and social factors faced by different countries. global carbon dioxide emissions.
Conflict has already arisen between developed and developing countries
over future CO2 emissions, the projections of which are shown in Figure
3.10.
The Kyoto Protocol, first negotiated in the 1990s, was an attempt to

create a global treaty to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Many coun-
tries have ratified the treaty, but not those responsible for the greatest
greenhouse gas emissions, including the United States. Efforts to cre-
ate a binding global agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions has
remained a challenge. Many scientists, governments, organizations, busi-
nesses, and individuals are trying to find ways to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and address the effects of global climate change.
Figure 3.10
Total World Emissions of CO2
CO2 Emissions Members of the
2010 2030
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Non-OECD OECD Non-OECD OECD
Development (OECD), most of which are COUNTRIES 59% COUNTRIES 41% COUNTRIES 66% COUNTRIES 34%
developed countries, produced about 41 Other Europe 4% Other Europe 3%
percent of global CO2 emissions in 2010. By Latin America 4% Latin America 4%
2030, developing countries are projected to Africa 4% Africa 4%
produce two-thirds of total CO2 emissions. Middle East 5% Middle East 6%
U.S. U.S.
©Bruce Brander/Photo Researchers, Inc.
While U.S. emissions of CO2 have generally Other Asia 18% Other Asia 15% Europe
6% 7% 10%
been declining since 2007, global CO2 Europe
emissions are projected to increase from Russia 5% 13% Russia Asia
4% 6%
about 31.3 billion metric tons in 2010 to India 5% Asia India
China China Other
about 40.6 billion metric tons by 2030. 26% 7% 7% 31% North America
Other
3%
North America
3%
Source: World Resources Institute CAIT

1. Explain why Earth’s atmosphere is like the glass 5. Making Predictions Read the text under the
in a greenhouse. heading “Modeling Climate Change.” What
difficulties do scientists face when they attempt
2. Explain why carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
to construct models that accurately predict the
is increasing.
rate of global warming?
3. Describe one explanation for why Earth’s
6. Analyzing Cause and Effect How does
climate is becoming warmer.
pollution affect the greenhouse effect and global
4. Analyze the factors that have limited the warming? How do these phenomena in turn
effectiveness of the Kyoto Protocol. affect the melting of glaciers and ice caps?

Making a Difference
Climate
Susan Solomon will not soon forget crawling across the roof of an Antarctic
field station in windchill temperatures of –62°C (–80°F), moving heavy
equipment, and adjusting mirrors while the winds howled and whipped
Scientist
about her. Sounds like an adventure, right? It sure was! But it is just part of
what Solomon has done to establish herself as one of the world’s leading
authorities on ozone destruction.
Q: What is the significance of discoveries regarding the ozone hole?
A: Before British scientists discovered the ozone hole in Antarctica, no one
was sure about ozone changes in the atmosphere. The popular belief
was that in 100 years there might be 5 percent less ozone. So there
were questions about whether it was a serious environmental problem.
But when the British researchers released data that showed 50 percent
less ozone over Antarctica in 1985 than was present 20 years earlier, the
research raised our awareness that the problem was far more serious
than previously thought.
Q: How have you contributed to the study of ozone?
A: Well, when the British data was first released, no one had much of an
explanation about what was causing the destruction of the ozone layer.
I thought about the problem a lot. I got to thinking about types of clouds
called polar stratospheric clouds. These are beautifully colored clouds
that are known for their iridescence. While I was looking at these clouds,
which are common in the Antarctic but rare elsewhere, it occurred to me
that they may have something to do with ozone depletion. Perhaps they
The ozone hole can be seen in this
satellite image. The hole is the pale blue provide a surface for chemical reactions that activate reactive chlorine
and black region immediately above from CFCs (human-made chlorofluorocarbons). If so, once activated, the
Solomon’s shoulder. chlorine could contribute to reactions that destroy ozone.
Q: Did you get the chance to test your hypothesis?
A: Yes, the next year the National Science Foundation chose me to lead a
group of 16 scientists for a nine-week expedition in Antarctica. We were the
first team of scientists from the United States sent to the Antarctic to study
the ozone hole. Within one month we could see that unnaturally high levels
of chlorine dioxide did occur in the stratosphere during ozone depletion.
This discovery was very exciting because it seemed that we were on the
right track. We kept collecting data that year and collected more data
during a second trip the next year. Pretty soon, the evidence seemed to
support my hypothesis that CFCs and ozone depletion are linked.
Q: How has your research helped to make a difference in our world?
A: Since our findings and others were announced, the world’s countries
decided to stop making CFCs. As a result, the ozone hole will eventually
go away, but it will take a very long time. So although we aren’t adding
CFCs to the atmosphere anymore, the CFCs from years past will still be
©Picture Press/Alamy Images
hanging around in our atmosphere for the next 50 to 100 years. But I think
our work has led in a small way to the realization that our actions do have
consequences, and this realization should bring positive change.

ECOZine
at HMDScience.com
Dr. Solomon has received international recognition for her Q: Why would a young scientist want to study climate
work on the ozone hole over the Antarctic. She is a member change?
of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the European A: Climate science is certainly one of the most important
Academy of Sciences, the Académie des Sciences de France, challenges that humanity has ever faced. Climate change,
and the Royal Society in the United Kingdom. In 2000, Dr. whichever way it comes out, whether it turns out to be
Solomon was awarded the National Medal of Science and the something that we manage wisely or unwisely or whatever, I
American Meteorological Society’s Carl-Gustav Rossby Medal. think it’s quite clear that the planet in the next 20 to
She was co-chair of the science panel of the United Nations 40 years is going to change in ways that we haven’t even
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which won the really thought about. We’re constantly turning the corner and
Nobel Peace Prize in 2007. being confronted with new ways in which climate change is
manifesting itself, whether that’s acidification of the ocean
Q: What kinds of research projects are you working on
and what it may do to various different kinds of organisms
today?
or what it does to insects and the way that they interact
A: One of the main things I do is to study how a broad range of
with forests, things like the mountain pine beetle, which is
chemicals contributes to climate change—not just carbon
ravaging the forests of the west and Canada, all those sorts
dioxide, although carbon dioxide too, of course. To me it’s
of questions. How much are these things changing? How
one of the most interesting chemicals, but it’s not the only
much of that change is human-induced? What is it going
one that is actually contributing to the way our climate is
to do in the future? These are epic questions. I find it very
changing. So I’m doing work on everything from aerosol
exciting from a scientific point of view that we’re standing
particles in the stratosphere to water vapor to different
on the threshold of a different planet. It’s going to happen
kinds of industrial chemicals like hydrofluorocarbons
in our lifetime. So what better thing for a young scientist to
and perfluorocarbons. I’m a chemist by training and I’m
pick than an area of science that is about to explode? It’s
absolutely fascinated by anything that affects the chemistry
just a great time to be doing climate science in my opinion.
of our atmosphere or its climate. I’m also continuing to
work on stratospheric ozone. There’s a number of different
issues there that from a scientific point of view remain
tremendously fascinating and are still interesting questions
for the community to address.
What Do You Think?

(br) Courtesy of Susan Solomon; (bl) ©Picture Press/Alamy Images
Solomon has braved freezing polar temperatures to gather

data about the ozone hole.
What Do You Think?

If Susan Solomon had not thought about polar
stratospheric clouds and had not realized the role
that these clouds play in ozone destruction, where
do you think our current understanding of the
ozone hole would be? How does this reinforce the
Polar stratospheric clouds like these led Solomon to make idea that a single person can make a tremendous
important discoveries about the cause of ozone depletion. contribution to humankind?

Chapter 13 Summary
Section 1 Climate Objectives Key Terms
• Climate is the long-term prevailing weather conditions climate

at a particular place. latitude
• Factors that determine climate include latitude, global El Niño
atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns, topogra- La Niña
phy, and solar and volcanic activity. Latitude is the most
important determining factor of climate.
• The angle at which the sun’s rays strike Earth changes
as Earth moves around the sun. This change in angle is
what causes the seasons to change.
Section 2 The Ozone Shield Objectives Key Terms
• The ozone layer in Earth’s stratosphere absorbs most ozone layer

of the ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun. chlorofluoro-
• Chlorofluorocarbons are human-made chemicals that carbons (CFCs)
break down ozone molecules and deplete the ozone ozone hole
layer. polar strato-
spheric clouds
• Ozone levels measured over the polar regions have
been decreasing over the past several decades.
• Thinning of the ozone layer increases the amount of
ultraviolet light that reaches Earth’s surface.
(t) ©Krys Bailey/Alamy Images; (c) ©NASA; (b) ©Dr. Jeffrey Kiehl/National Center for Atmospheric Research
Section 3 Climate Change Objectives Key Terms
• Gases that absorb and radiate infrared radiation from greenhouse

the sun are called greenhouse gases. The important gases
greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide, global warming
methane, and nitrous oxide. Kyoto Protocol
• Global warming is the gradual increase in global tem-
perature. This increase in temperature correlates to the
increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
• Because climate patterns are complex, scientists use
computer models to attempt to model climate change.
• Climate change could produce a number of potentially
serious environmental problems.
• The Kyoto Protocol was first negotiated in the 1990s
in order to create a global treaty to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions.

Chapter 13 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 13. Polar stratospheric clouds convert the products of
CFCs into
a. carbon dioxide.
1. latitude
b. hydrochloric acid.
2. El Niño
c. nitric acid.
3. chlorofluorocarbons
d. molecular chlorine.
4. polar stratospheric clouds
5. Kyoto Protocol 14. Which of the following is not an adverse effect of
high levels of ultraviolet light?
a. disruption of photosynthesis
of the terms differ.
b. disruption of ocean food chains
6. weather and climate
c. premature aging of the skin
7. El Niño and La Niña
d. increased amount of carbon dioxide in the
8. ozone layer and ozone hole
atmosphere
9. greenhouse gases and global warming
10. Concept Map Use the following terms to create 15. In which season (in the Northern Hemisphere)
a concept map: ozone layer, ultraviolet (UV) does carbon dioxide in the atmosphere decrease
light, chlorofluorocarbons, polar vortex, polar as a result of natural processes?
stratospheric clouds, and ozone hole. a. fall
b. winter
Reviewing Main Ideas c. summer
11. The belt of prevailing winds that is produced d. spring
between 30° and 60° north latitudes and 30° and
60° south latitudes is called the 16. Which of the following gases is a greenhouse gas?
a. doldrums. a. carbon dioxide
b. westerlies. b. water vapor
c. polar easterlies. c. methane
d. trade winds. d. all of the above
12. Which of the following statements about El Niño 17. The average global temperature increased by how
is true? many Celsius degrees during the 20th century?
a. El Niño is the cold phase of the El Niño– a. 0.4°C
Southern Oscillation cycle. b. 0.7°C
b. El Niño is a long-term change in the location c. 0.6°C
of warm and cold water masses in the Pacific
d. 1.0°C
Ocean.
c. El Niño produces storms in the northern Pacific 18. Which of the following countries decided not to
Ocean. ratify the Kyoto Protocol?
d. El Niño produces winds in the western Pacific a. Russia
Ocean that push warm water eastward. b. United States
c. Canada
d. Finland

Chapter Review

19. Name three properties of air that are important for 28. Predicting Outcomes Over a long period of
understanding how air circulation affects global time, how might living things adapt to increased
climate. carbon dioxide levels and climate change? Do
20. Explain how topography can influence the local you think most species will adapt, or are many
pattern of precipitation. species likely to go extinct? Write a short essay
that explains your answers.
21. Describe the properties chlorofluorocarbons
possess that made them seem like miracle 29. Analyzing Information In the stratosphere,
chemicals when they were discovered. ultraviolet radiation is part of the ozone-oxygen
cycle. When UV light hits a molecule of oxygen
22. Explain why stratospheric ozone protection has
(O2), it splits it into two atoms of oxygen (O).
been considered an environmental success story.
When one of these atoms comes into contact
23. Explain the general process scientists use to make with a molecule of oxygen, they combine to make
computer models of climate change. ozone (O3). When UV light hits an ozone molecule,
24. Describe some of the environmental problems it splits it into a molecule of oxygen and an atom
that rising sea level might cause. of oxygen. Based on its role in this ozone-oxygen
cycle, explain why ultraviolet radiation helps
25. Describe what is currently known about the state
of the climate system as reported in the Fourth make life on Earth possible?
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental 30. Summarizing Information Design a pamphlet
Panel on Climate Change. that documents the harmful effects of ultraviolet
light on living things. Figure 2.4 can be used as
a source of information. You might also collect
Interpreting Graphics information by checking out the Web sites of the
The graph below shows the average monthly American Cancer Society and the Environmental
temperature of two locations that are at the same Protection Agency. Distribute the pamphlet to
latitude but are in different parts of the United States. your classmates.
Use the graph to answer questions 26–27.
26. Which location has the smallest temperature
range between summer and winter?
27. What factors could cause the difference in climate
between the two locations?
25
20
Temperature (˚C)
15
Location B
10
5 Location A
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month

Chapter Review
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
31. Making Calculations In 1958, the carbon
dioxide level measured in Earth’s atmosphere was 35. How will the computer models that are
approximately 315 parts per million (ppm). In STUDYSKILL
generated today to predict climate change be
2000, the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere useful in the future?
had increased to approximately 368 ppm. What
36. Why might some countries be more reluctant
was the average annual increase in carbon
than others to take measures to address
dioxide in the atmosphere between 1958 and 2000
human impact on climate change?
measured in ppm?
Why It Matters
Making Connections WhyInsurance
It Matters companies
37.
32. Communicating Main Ideas Imagine that set some of their
you are a scientist who is studying the effects rates by estimating
of chlorofluorocarbons on stratospheric ozone. the number of
Follow the path of a chlorine atom from the time destructive natural
it is released into the atmosphere from a CFC events, such as
source through the time it has destroyed ozone hurricanes and
molecules. Summarize your findings in a brief floods, that will
essay. occur in the next 20
33. Writing Persuasively Imagine you are a years. Explain why
scientist who has been studying the subject insurance companies
of climate change. You have been asked by would be interested in knowing scientists’
the President of the United States to write a predictions about climate change for the
recommendation for his environmental policy next two decades.
on the subject. The President has asked you
to provide important facts that can be used to
promote the proposed policies. Summarize your
recommendations in a brief letter.
STUDYSKILL
34. Writing Persuasively You are the mayor
of a low-lying coastal town. Write a plan of Qualifiers When taking a test, locate qualifiers in the
expansion for your town. The plan should take sentences. Qualifiers are words that modify or limit the
climate change into account. Report your plan of meaning of another word or group of words. Never, always,
expansion in front of the class. all, some, none, greatest, and least are examples of qualifiers.
©NASA

ExplorationLab
Environmental
Engineering Build a Model of
Objectives
Global Air Movement
Examine a model that
Warm air rises and cools, and cold air sinks and warms. This is true
shows how the movement of
air creates a system of wind
whether we are observing the temperature and air circulation in a room
currents on Earth. or around the globe. On Earth, this movement of air creates a system of
wind currents as shown in the satellite image below. You will demonstrate
Hypothesize why the closed
this air movement by building a model. You will design and build a closed
system of an aquarium is like
the Earth and its atmosphere.
system that will simulate the movement of air between the polar regions
and the equator. Remember that in the global circulation pattern, warm
Materials air moving toward the poles collides with cold air that is traveling from the
aquarium, 15 gal, glass, with poles. During this collision, which takes place at about 60° north latitude
cover and 60° south latitude, the cold air sinks and causes the warm air to rise.
beaker, 500 mL
dry ice
Procedure
electronic temperature probe
1. Form a hypothesis about how winds move between cold polar regions
goose-neck lamp, adjustable, and the equator.
with a 100 W incandescent
bulb
2. Come up with a plan. Develop and conduct an experiment to deter-
heating pad, wet/dry mine how global air movement occurs. Limit the number of condi-
hot and cold packs tions you choose for your experiment to those that can be completed
ice cubes, large (24) during the time your teacher has allotted for this lab. Consult with
incense stick your teacher to make sure that the conditions you have chosen are
appropriate.
masking tape
matches 3. Write out a procedure for your experiment. As you plan the procedure,
thermometer, outdoor (2) make the following decisions:
• Decide what methods and/or materials you will test.
• Decide how you will measure or determine if a test is successful.
• Select the materials and technology that you will need for your
experiment from those that your teacher has provided.
• Decide what your control(s) will be.
• Decide what safety procedures are necessary.
©Planetary Visions Ltd./Photo Researchers, Inc.
Global Air Circulation

HMDScience.com
4. Have your teacher approve your plans.
5. Obtain your materials and set up any apparatus you will need.
6. Take appropriate safety precautions.
7. Make objective observations.

Diagramming Smoke Flow Make a simple
8. Collect data and organize them into appropriate tables and/or
diagram of your closed system showing the
graphs. Be certain that the graphs and tables are properly con-
positions of the heat source and the cold source.
structed and labeled. Draw arrows to indicate the movement of the
smoke in the system.
9. Create a labeled diagram of your prototype, including any
measurements.
10. Share your results with other teams. Elicit their feedback on your
design. If time permits, modify your design and repeat your tests.
Analysis
1. Summarizing Data Summarize your findings and observations,
including an analysis of any data tables or graphs that you created.
2. Identifying Relationships For each trial, describe how temperature

differences between regions affected the flow of air.
Conclusions
3. Evaluating Models Was your design a good way to show the move-
ment of air between regions of extreme temperature differences?
Explain why or why not, and give examples of how your design could
be improved.
4. Making Predictions Predict how air movement patterns will change

if polar ice begins to thaw because of climate change.
Extension
5. Analyzing Models A closed system is a collection of elements that
matter cannot escape from or enter. Your aquarium is an example
of a closed system. Convection is the movement of warm air relative
to cooler air. Discuss your observations of convection in the closed
system of the aquarium. How can you apply this information to the
movement of air over Earth?
6. Analyzing Models How is Earth and its atmosphere like a closed

system? What factors that affect air movement, climate, and weather
exist on Earth but not in your model?

Land
Chapter 14
Section 1
How We Use Land
Section 2
Urban Land Use
Section 3
Land Management and
Conservation
Why It Matters
Rapidly increasing human
populations place severe stress
on natural processes and
nonrenewable resources.
How might new communities
be developed such that fewer
resources become depleted?
CASESTUDY
Learn more about how
development planners are
designing communities to be
“twice green” in the case study
Conservation Planning on
page 366.
Online
HMDScience.com
©Jim Wark/Airphoto

354
Section 1
How We Use Land Objectives
Distinguish between urban and

rural land.
Some years ago, officials in California decided to find out how land was being
used in the state. Measurements were made using maps, aerial photographs, field Describe three major ways in
surveys, and a computerized mapping system. The results were startling. Between which humans use land.
1984 and 1992, nearly 84,000 hectares (about 210,000 acres) of farmland,
rangeland, and woodland had been converted into suburbs and cities. This change Explain the concept of
is happening all over the world. ecosystem services.
Land Use and Land Cover Key Terms

We use land for many purposes, including farming, mining, recreation, urban
and building cities and highways. Land cover is what you find on a patch rural
of land, and it often depends on how the land is used. For example, ecosystem services
land cover might be a forest, a field of grain, or a parking lot. There are
different types of land cover and different human uses for each cover
type, as shown in Figure 1.1.
Land that is covered mainly with buildings and roads is called urban
land. The U.S. Census Bureau defines an urban cluster as an area that
contains 2,500 or more people and usually has a governing body, such as
a city council. Any area not classified as urban is considered rural. Land
that contains relatively few people and large areas of open space is a rural
area. The pie chart in Figure 1.1 shows the relative proportion of each of
the types of land cover defined in the table. As the table shows, most land
provides one or more resources that humans consume. These resources
include wood in forests, crops in farmland, and mineral resources.
FIGURE 1.1
Primary Land-Use Categories
Land cover type Human use of land
U.S. Land Cover The graph below shows
Rangeland land used to graze livestock and wildlife the percentage of each land cover type in the
United Land
States.Use in the United States
Forest land land used for growing and harvesting wood, and harvesting Urban
wildlife, fish, nuts, and other resources land Other
Parks and
3% 8%
preserves
14%
Farm or Cropland land used to grow plants for food and fiber
Parks and preserves land used for recreation,scenic enjoyment, and for preserving
Forest land
native animal and plant communities and ecosystems 30%
Cropland
18%
Wetlands, mountains, land that is difficult to adapt for human use Rangeland
deserts, and other and pasture
27%
Urban land land used for houses, businesses, industry, and roads Source: United States Department of Agriculture
Chapter 14: Land 355

Figure 1.2
Changing Patterns The photo on the left, of New York City, shows a typical urban
scene. The photo on the right, of the Connecticut River Valley, shows a typical rural scene.
Where We Live
Until about 1850, most people lived in rural areas. Many of them were
farmers, who grew crops and raised livestock for food, clothing, and
manufacturing. Other people managed the forests, worked in local mines
or mills, or manufactured the necessities of life for a town.
The Industrial Revolution changed this pattern. Machinery was
built that made it possible for fewer people to operate a farm or a grain
mill. In addition, improved transportation allowed manufacturers to be
located far from their customers. Thousands of jobs in rural areas were
eliminated. Many people had to move to cities to find jobs (Figure 1.2). As a
result, urban areas grew rapidly during the 20th century and spread over
more land. Figure 1.3 shows that today, most people throughout the world
Check for Understanding live in urban areas. The movement of people from rural areas to urban
Identify What are two different types of areas happened rapidly in developed countries between about 1880 and
land cover? 1950. Now, this movement is occurring rapidly in developing countries.
Figure 1.3
Urban Vs Rural This graph shows the proportion of people living in urban areas and
Urban Vs Rural
rural areas in different parts of the world.
100
90 Urban
Percentage of Population
80 Rural
70
(tr) ©Hanson Carroll; (tl) ©Photoshot USA/Canada
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Africa Asia Europe South North Oceania
America America
Source: Population Reference Bureau

The Urban-Rural Connection Connect to MATH
Whether people live in cities or in the countryside, they are dependent Ecosystem Services
on the resources produced in rural areas. These resources include clean Earth contains about 12.4 billion
hectares of productive land—cropland,
drinking water, fertile soil and land for crops, trees for wood and paper,
grazing land, forest, fresh water,
and much of the oxygen we breathe, which is produced by plants. The
and fisheries. In 1996, the world
resources that are produced by natural and artificial ecosystems are
population was about 5.7 billion
called ecosystem services. Some examples of ecosystem services are
people, for a mean of 2.18 hectares of
listed in Figure 1.4.
productive land per person. The world
population in 2011 surpassed 7 billion.
Supporting Urban Areas On average, how much productive
land per person was there when the
The area of rural land needed to support one person depends on many
population hit 7 billion?
factors, such as the climate, the standard of living, and how efficiently
resources are used. The average person in a developed country uses the
ecosystem services provided by about 8 hectares of land and water. In the
United States the average person uses the ecosystem services from more Check for Understanding
than 12 hectares, whereas the average person in Germany uses about 6 Compare How does each person’s
hectares’ worth. People in some developing nations do not have access to use of ecosystem services in the United
all the resources for a healthy life. They may use ecosystem services from States compare with each person’s use
less than a hectare of land per person. in Germany?
Figure 1.4
Examples of Ecosystem Services
purification of air and water
preservation of soil and renewal of soil fertility
prevention of flood and drought
regulation of climate
maintenance of biodiversity
movement and cycling of nutrients
detoxification and decomposition of wastes
aesthetic beauty

1. Explain how ecosystem services link rural 4. Making Decisions What could individuals
lands with urban lands. do to reduce the loss of ecosystem services
per person as the human population grows?
2. Describe three main ways in which
humans use land. Write a paragraph to 5. Making Inferences How does the movement
explain your answer. of people from rural lands to urban lands affect
people’s relationship with natural resources?
3. Distinguish between rural lands and urban
lands, and provide an example of each.

Section 2
Objectives
Describe the urban crisis, and

Urban Land Use
explain what people are doing
to deal with it. Historically, communities grew around good sources of water for drinking,
agriculture, and transportation. Now, people tend to live where they can find the
Explain how urban sprawl things that they need and want, such as jobs, schools, and recreational areas. For
affects the environment. most people today, this means living in an urban area.
Explain how open spaces

provide urban areas with Urbanization
environmental benefits. The movement of people from rural areas to cities is known as
Explain the heat-island effect. urbanization. People usually leave rural areas for more plentiful
and better paying jobs in towns and cities. In developed countries,
Describe how people use a urbanization slowed in the second half of the 20th century. In 1960,
geographic information system 70 percent of the U.S. population was classified as urban. By 2011, this
as a tool for land-use planning. percentage had increased to slightly more than 79 percent. As urban
populations have grown, many small towns have grown together and
formed larger urban areas. The U.S. Census Bureau calls these complexes
Key Terms metropolitan areas. Some examples are Denver-Boulder in Colorado
urbanization and Boston-Worcester-Lawrence in Massachusetts. Figure 2.1 shows the
infrastructure expansion of the Washington, D.C.–Baltimore metropolitan area over the
urban sprawl years. These maps were created using data from the U.S. Census Bureau.
heat island Urban areas that have grown slowly or are carefully planned can be
land-use planning pleasant places to live. Roads and public transportation in these areas
geographic information have been built to handle the growth, so that traffic flows freely. Build-
system (GIS) ings, roads, and parking lots are mixed in with green spaces and recre-
ational areas. These green spaces may provide these urban areas with
much needed ecosystem services such as moderation of temperature,
infiltration of rainwater runoff, and aesthetic value.
Figure 2.1
Urbanization The Washington, D.C.–Baltimore area has grown larger and more densely
populated over the years. Red areas indicate urban development.
©University of Maryland, Baltimore County/U.S. Geological Survey

The Urban Crisis Figure 2.2
When urban areas grow rapidly, they often run into trouble. A rapidly
Urban Growth Rapid urban
growing population can overwhelm the infrastructure and lead to traffic
growth has led to substandard
jams, substandard housing, and polluted air and water. Infrastructure is all housing on the hillsides above Hong
of the things that a society builds for public use. Infrastructure includes Kong.
roads, sewers, railroads, bridges, canals, fire and police stations, schools,
libraries, hospitals, water mains, and power lines. When more people
live in a city than its infrastructure can support, the living conditions
deteriorate. This growth problem has become so widespread throughout
the world that the term urban crisis was coined to describe the problem.
Figure 2.2 shows an example of urban crisis in Hong Kong. The hillside
is covered with substandard housing in an area that lacks the necessary
infrastructure for people to live in healthy conditions.
Urban Sprawl
Rapid expansion of a city into the countryside around the city is called
urban sprawl. Much of this expansion results from building suburbs or
housing and associated commercial buildings on the boundary of a larger
town. People living in the suburbs generally commute to work in the city
by car. Many of these suburbs are built on land that was previously used
for food production, as shown in Figure 2.3. In 2000, more Americans
lived in suburbs than in cities and the countryside combined. Each year
suburbs spread over another 1 million hectares (2.5 million acres) of land
in the United States.
Figure 2.3
Urban Sprawl This photograph shows suburban development spreading out around
farmland.
FieldStudy
Land Use Planning.
(tr) ©Brian Brake/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) ©Corbis RF/Alamy Images

Figure 2.4
Marginal Lands The search for ocean views lead people to build these homes on the
California coastline, which is giving way as a result of erosion.
Development on Marginal Lands

Figure 2.5 Many cities were first built where there was little room for expansion.
As the cities grew, suburbs were often built on marginal land—land that
Heat Islands The urban heat is poorly suited for building. For example, Los Angeles and Mexico City
island over Atlanta is shown in this are built in basins. These cities have expanded up into the surrounding
computer-enhanced satellite image. mountains where the slopes are prone to landslides. The houses shown
Areas with higher temperatures in Figure 2.4 were built on land that is unsuitable for development because
appear red.
of the natural process of erosion along the coastline. Structures built on
marginal land can become difficult or impossible to repair and can be
expensive to insure.
Other Impacts of Urbanization

Environmental conditions in a city are different from those of the sur-
rounding countryside. Cities both generate and trap more heat. Roads
and buildings absorb more heat than vegetation does. They also retain
(bl) ©NASA; (t) ©Aerial Archives/Alamy Images
heat longer. The increased temperature in a city is called a heat island.

Atlanta, Georgia, is an example of a city that has a significant heat island,
as shown in Figure 2.5.
Heat islands can affect local weather patterns. Hot air rises over a city,
cooling as it rises, and eventually produces rain clouds. In Atlanta and
Check for Understanding many other cities, increased rainfall is a side effect of the heat island. The
Explain How do heat islands affect heat-island effect may be moderated by planting trees for shade and by
local rainfall? installing rooftops that reflect rather than retain heat.

Urban Planning Connect to HISTORY
Land-use planning is determining in advance how land will be used—where Ancient Urban Planning
the best locations are for houses, businesses, and factories to be built, People have practiced urban planning
where land will be protected for recreation, and where infrastructure like for thousands of years. The ancient
sewers and electrical lines should be placed. Mexican city of Teotihuacan was a
marvel of urban planning. The city had
Making land-use plans is complex and often controversial. Federal, state, a grid plan oriented to 15 degrees,
and local governments require developers to prepare detailed reports 25 minutes east of true north. It had
assessing the environmental impact of many projects. Developers, city two central avenues that divided the
governments, local businesses, and citizens often disagree about land-use city into four quadrants. About 2,000
plans. Projects that affect large or environmentally sensitive areas are homes and apartment compounds
often studied carefully and subject to heated debate. lined the main avenue, which also
had a channel running under it that
gathered rainwater. Teotihuacan had all
Technological Tools this—before 750 ce.
One important technological tool for land-use planning involves using a
geographic information system.
A geographic information system (GIS) is a computerized system for
storing, manipulating, and viewing geographic data. GIS software allows
a user to enter different types of data about an area, such as the location
of sewer lines, roads, and parks, and then create maps. Figure 2.6 shows
several images of Seattle, Washington, created from GIS data. Each image
corresponds to a different combination of information. GIS allows users
to display layers of information about an area and to overlay these layers,
like overhead transparencies, on top of one another. It is used for environ-
mental projects such as understanding habitat requirements of species,
patterns of pollutant spread, and so on.
Figure 2.6
GIS Imaging The images below are of Seattle, Washington. Each image represents
a different GIS layer, each with specific information.
©U.S. Geological Survey

Figure 2.7
Transportation
Mass Transit The BART transit system in California’s San
Most cities in the United States are difficult to travel
Francisco Bay Area moves thousands of people a day with much
in without a car. Many U.S. cities were constructed
less environmental impact than if the people drove their own cars.
after the invention of the automobile. In addition,
availability of land was not a limiting issue, so many
American cities sprawl over large areas. By contrast,
most cities in Europe were built before cars, have nar-
row roads, and are compact.
In many cities, mass transit systems have been
constructed to get people where they want to go.
Mass transit systems, such as the one shown in Fig-
ure 2.7, use buses and trains to move many people at
one time. Mass transit systems save energy, reduce
highway congestion, reduce air pollution, and limit
the loss of land to roadways and parking lots. Where
the construction of mass transit systems is not rea-
sonable, carpooling is an important alternative.
Open Space
Open space is land that is set aside for agriculture or scenic and recre-
ational enjoyment. Open spaces within urban areas include parks, public
gardens, and bicycle and hiking trails. Open spaces left in their natural
condition are often called greenbelts. These greenbelts provide important
ecological services.
Open spaces have numerous environmental benefits and provide
valuable functions. The plants in open spaces absorb carbon dioxide,
produce oxygen, and filter out pollutants from air and water. Plants even
help keep a city cooler in the summer. Open spaces used for agriculture
provide food resources. Some open spaces, especially those with vegeta-
Check for Understanding tion, also reduce drainage problems by absorbing more of the rainwater
Describe What are three benefits runoff from building roofs, asphalt, and concrete. This ecological service
©Morton Beebe, S.F./Corbis

that are provided by open spaces in results in less flooding after a heavy rain. Open spaces provide urban
urban areas? dwellers with much-needed places for exercise and relaxation.

1. Describe the term urban crisis, and explain 5. Identifying Relationships Write a short
how people are addressing it. paragraph in which you describe the benefits
of using a geographic information system for
2. Explain how urban areas create heat islands.
land-use planning.
3. Explain how open spaces provide environmental
6. Making Decisions Describe the environmental
benefits to urban areas.
implications of urban sprawl.
4. Describe how GIS can be used as a land-use
planning tool.

Section 3
Land Management Objectives
and Conservation
Explain the benefits of
preserving farmland.
Describe two ways that

rangeland can be managed
As the human population grows, the resources of more rural land are needed to sustainably.
support the population. The main categories of rural land are farmland, rangeland,
forest land, national and state parks, and wilderness. Throughout our history,
Describe the environmental
we have sometimes managed these lands sustainably so that they will provide effects of deforestation.
resources indefinitely. We have also sometimes reduced their productivity by
overusing or polluting them. The condition of rural land is important because of the
Explain the function of parks
ecological services that it provides. These services are especially important for the and of wilderness areas.
urban areas that rely on the productivity of rural land.
Key Terms
Farmlands overgrazing
Farmland, such as that shown in Figure 3.1, is land that is used to grow deforestation
crops. The United States contains more than 100 million hectares of prime reforestation
farmland. However, in some places, urban development threatens some of wilderness
ECOFACT
the most productive farmland. Examples of places where farmland is threat-
ened are southern California, parts of North Carolina’s Piedmont region,
and the Twin Cities area of Minnesota. In 1996, the U.S. government
established a national Farmland Protection Program to help state, county,
and local governments protect farmland in danger of being paved over or
otherwise developed. The program was renewed in 2008.
Figure 3.1
Threatened Farmlands This farmland next to the suburbs of Mililani, Hawaii, is used
to grow a variety of crops.
ECOFACT
Soil
Nothing can grow without soil.
Soil used for agriculture should be
sustainably managed. If not, then
©Douglas Peebles/Corbis
nutrients can be depleted or soil

becomes so compacted that roots can’t
grow properly. Erosion can occur and
healthy topsoil eroded away.

Rangelands
Land that supports different vegetation types like grasslands, shrublands,
and deserts and that is not used for farming or timber production is
called rangeland. Rangelands can be arid, like rangelands in the desert
Southwest, or relatively wet, like the rangelands of Florida. The most
common human use of rangeland is for the grazing of livestock, as shown
in Figure 3.2. The most common livestock are cattle, sheep, and goats,
which are valued for their meat, milk, wool, and hides. Native wildlife
species also graze these lands. Like farmland, rangeland is essential
for maintaining the world’s food supply. World population growth may
require a 40 percent increase in the food production of rangeland from
1977 to 2030.
Problems on the Range

Some rangelands in the United States have become degraded by poor
land management strategies. Most damage to rangeland comes from
overgrazing, or allowing more animals to graze in an area than the range
can support. When animals overgraze, too many of the plants are eaten,
Check for Understanding and the land can become degraded. Overgrazing often results in changes
Explain How does rangeland become in the plant community. Less desirable plant species may invade the
degraded? area and replace more desirable plant species. In severe cases, all the
vegetation is eaten. Once the plants are gone, there is nothing to keep the
soil from eroding.
Figure 3.2
Maintaining the Range
Rangelands The photo below shows productive rangeland in the
Much of the rangeland in the United States is public
western United States.
land managed by the federal government, which
leases the rangeland to ranchers. Much of it is de-
graded. The Public Rangelands Improvement Act of
1978 was enacted to reverse this trend and improve
land management practices.
Sustaining the productivity of rangeland gen-
erally means limiting herds to sizes that do not
degrade the land. Rangeland may also be left un-
used for periods of time so that the vegetation can
recover. Improving rangeland that has been de-
graded by overgrazing often includes methods such
as killing invasive plants, planting native vegetation,
©George & Monserrate Schwartz/Alamy Images
and fencing areas to let them recover to the state

they were in before they were overgrazed. Ranchers
help control grazing by providing several small
water sources so that livestock do not overgraze the
vegetation around a single water source.

Figure 3.3
Harvesting Trees Methods for harvesting trees include clear-cutting (left) and selective
cutting (right).
Forest Lands QUICKLAB

Trees are harvested to provide products we use everyday, such as paper, Measuring Soil Depth and
furniture, and lumber and plywood for homes. In addition to wood and Compaction
QUICKLAB
paper, we value forest products such as maple syrup and turpentine. Procedure
There are many ecosystem services provided by forests; however, one of 1. Find a plot of undisturbed soil in
the most important is the removal of CO2 from the air. This is known as a forest, meadow, park, or other
carbon sequestration. undisturbed area near your school.
2. Press a 1 m wooden dowel down
into the undisturbed soil as far as
Harvesting Trees it will go. Measure (in centimeters)
People use enormous amounts of wood. The worldwide average is 1,800 how deep the dowel went into the
cm3 of wood used per person each day. However, on average, each person soil. Record the measurement,
in the United States uses about 3.5 times this amount. This is the equiva- along with your observations on
lent of each person in the United States cutting down a tree that is 30 m how soft the soil was and how easy
tall every year. About 1.5 billion people in developing countries depend it was to press the meterstick into
on firewood as their main source of fuel. the soil. Repeat this five times in
the same plot of undisturbed soil.
The timber industry classifies forest lands into three categories— 3. Pour 1 L of water onto the
virgin forest, which is forest that has never been cut; native forest, which undisturbed soil. Use a stopwatch
is forest that is planted and managed; and tree farms, which are areas to record how long it takes for the
where trees are planted in rows and harvested like other crops. The soil to fully absorb the water.
two most widely used methods of harvesting trees are clear-cutting and 4. Repeat this procedure at a plot of
selective cutting. These methods are shown in Figure 3.3. Clear-cutting is disturbed soil in a path, dirt road,
the process of removing all or most of the trees from an area of land. In or other area where the soil is bare
some instances, a few “seed trees” or snags are left behind to help regrow and vegetation has been cleared or
the area or provide wildlife habitat. Standard clear-cutting can dramati- trampled.
cally change or destroy established wildlife habitat and in some cases,
Analysis
cause soil erosion. Wood that is not commercially viable may be cut, but
1. How did the soil depth and
left behind to decay. The main alternative is selective cutting, which is
hardness in the plot of undisturbed
usually practiced on smaller areas owned by individuals. Selective cut-
soil differ from that in the plot of
ting is the process of cutting and removing only certain trees, leaving the disturbed soil?
rest. Selective cutting is more expensive than clear-cutting, but selective 2. Which plot absorbed water faster?
cutting is usually less destructive and can improve the health of the forest.

ECOFACT Deforestation
The clearing of trees from an area without replacing them is called
Burning Trees and CO2
deforestation. Most countries become severely deforested as populations
When trees are cut and burned, they
release carbon dioxide. From 1850 expand and the demand for forest products increases. Forests are cleared
to 1990, deforestation released to convert the land into farmland, or to make space for roads, homes,
more than 100 billion metric tons of factories, and office buildings.
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere Deforestation reduces wildlife habitat, but it has other impacts, too. For
worldwide. Some scientists think example, without tree roots or a cover crop to hold the soil in place, soil is
this additional CO2 is contributing easily washed or blown into the valley below. In New York, forests on hill-
to an increase in average global sides were cleared and plowed for farmland during the 19th century, and
temperatures. as much as 90 percent of the soil eroded. During the Great Depression, of
the 1930s, hundreds of farmers in the area went bankrupt. The state bought
many of the abandoned farms and let the forests regenerate. Today, many
of the hillsides are covered with state forest, which is used for recreation.
The rate of deforestation is especially high in tropical rain forests,
where the soil is relatively thin. Unless farming is done sustainably, clear-
ing only small areas that will naturally regenerate, farmers must clear
more forest every few years when the soil nutrients are used up. Whether
forests are cleared for farming or wood, or commercial ranches or planta-
tions, if trees are not replanted, natural resources are steadily depleted.
CASESTUDY
Conservation Planning
Undeveloped land is often sold to developers who have
plans to build homes, or commercial properties, in that
space. As more land is developed, green spaces can
disappear – but now some urban planners are reversing
this trend, trying to preserve ponds, forests, and grasslands
as much as possible. These planners hope not only to
conserve animal habitats and native plants, but also to
improve the quality of life for people who do not want to live Colored candies are used on top of land sketches
to see how housing might be configured.
and work in a totally manmade landscape.
Traditionally, subdivision planners lay out streets for a
development first, divide the remaining land into house lots afraid of snakes,” he warns student planners, “you need to
of relatively equal size and shape, and then set aside certain get a different job.” Arendt sketches the areas that will be
lots to be used as public space. Conservation planning protected natural habitat first, concentrating on preserving
reverses this process, setting aside as much as 80 percent old growth forests, areas around rivers and streams, natural
of a development to be common, or shared, green space, slopes and ridges in the land, arable land, and land that
while putting new homes on much smaller lots. forms an important habitat for native plants and animals.
Planners like Randall Arendt pioneered the conservationist After setting aside land to be protected, Arendt chooses
approach to planning. Arendt first goes out and physically locations for houses. Then he “connects the dots” to plan
walks around the space, finding out everything that he streets and walking trails, making sure streets curve around
can about it. “If you don’t like ticks or chiggers and are the natural lay of the land.

Reforestation Figure 3.4
Clear-cut forest can be replanted or allowed to regrow naturally. Refores-
Reforestation Tree seedlings
tation is the process by which trees are planted to re-establish trees that
have been planted to reforest this
have been cut down in a forest land. In some places in the U.S., steep
hillside as part of a reforestation
hillsides were deforested for farming or development and then aban- project in the Fiji Islands.
doned when farming became less economical. The cost of deforestation,
which caused soil erosion, landslides, and flooding, was too high. So for-
est has now been allowed to regenerate or has been replanted.
The area of east Texas known as the Big Thicket was heavily logged in
the early 1900s. During the Depression, the federal government bought
the land from timber companies in order to help them stay in business.
Afterward the government kept the land and , in 1974, made it into the
first National Preserve in the national park system.
Globally, more than 90 percent of timber comes from forests that are
not sustainably managed, however, some governments require reforesta-
tion after timber has been harvested from public land. Many governments
are currently working to improve reforestation efforts and promote less
destructive logging methods, as seen in Figure 3.4. A number of private
organizations have also established tree-planting programs.
Arendt typically takes planners out to

walk around a site and make sketches.
Later, they sit down and add details to
their sketches. Arendt gives out handfuls
of colored candies for planners to move
around on top of their sketches to see
how they might configure housing.
Many environmentalists are calling the
work of conservation planners like Arendt
“twice green,” meaning the planning is This diagram shows how green planning helps protect
environmentally green and financially prudent. Home buyers natural resources, while offering attractive and valuable
will pay more for smaller homes in conservation subdivisions, building sites for development.
because the homes are in a more beautiful area and have
Critical Thinking
yards that are more private. Preserving natural features
means grading less land and moving less dirt, which saves
Critical Thinking
developers money. In one Texas development, Arendt’s plans
saved developers approximately $250,000 – or 83% of the 1. Applying Ideas Designer Andrea Tyson, a
original planned grading costs. Conservation planning also conservation planner from Naples, Florida,
saves money by not using traditional cement stormwater calls Arendt’s approach “capitalism mated with
drainage and underground sewers, which are expensive to
conservation.” Explain why you think she would
use this term.
install. Instead of a fast flowing drainage system, planners
reduce runoff by using rain gardens to hold stormwater as 2. Expressing Viewpoints Some communities
long as possible, letting stormwater gradually trickle first into are enacting laws that require a certain
fields, then wetlands, and then run off into rivers, ponds and
percentage of land in new developments to be
©Peter Arnold
conserved. Do you think this is a good idea?

streams.
Why or why not?

Figure 3.5
U.S. National Parks National parks in the United States are concentrated in the West.
Olympic Glacier
Major Parks and Preserves

Yellowstone
Yosemite Grand Teton

Sequoia
Gates of Shenandoah
Death Valley
the Arctic
Grand Canyon
Noatak Great Smokey Mountains
Denali
Mojave
Big Bend
Everglades
Wrangell-St. Elias
Big Cypress
Alaska and Hawaii are not drawn to scale. Hawaii Volcanoes
Parks and Preserves

Check for Understanding In the 1870s, a group of explorers brought news to Congress of a magnificent
Describe What are three uses of public expanse of land in Wyoming and Montana. The explorers expressed their
lands in the United States? concern that the land would be damaged by the development that had
changed the northeastern United States. Congress agreed to protect the
Figure 3.6 land, and the first national park—Yellowstone—was created. Today, the
United States has about 50 national parks, as shown in Figure 3.5.
Biosphere Reserves Biosphere Public lands in the United States have many purposes. Most public
reserves are places where human
lands are not as protected as the national parks are. Some public lands
populations and wildlife live side by
are leased to private companies for logging, mining, and ranching. Other
side.
public lands are maintained for hunting and fishing, as wildlife refuges,
or for protecting endangered species.
International efforts include the United Nations’ Man and the
Biosphere Program. This program has set up several hundred preserves
River throughout the world since 1976. These preserves are called biosphere
reserves and are unusual in that they include people in the management
plan of the reserves, as shown in Figure 3.6.
Wilderness
Core
area The U.S. Wilderness Act, which was passed in 1964, designated certain
Buffer zone 1 lands as wilderness areas. Wilderness is an area in which the land and
Buffer zone 2 the ecosystems it supports are protected from all exploitation. So far, 474
regions covering almost 13 million hectares (32 million acres) have been
designated as wilderness in the United States. Figure 3.7 shows an ex-
Human settlement
ample of a wilderness area. Wilderness areas are open to hiking, fishing,
Tourism and education center
Research station boating (without motors), and camping. Building roads or structures and
using motorized equipment are not allowed in these areas.

Benefits of Protected Areas Figure 3.7
Without protected areas and preserves around
Protected Wilderness In the United States, wilderness areas,
the world, many more species would be ex-
such as the High Uintas Wilderness area shown here, are supposed to
tinct and valuable ecosystem services lost. In
be preserved untouched for our own and future generations.
a crowded world, these protected areas often
provide the only place where unspoiled forests,
deserts, or prairies remain. Without these areas,
the plants and animals that can survive only in
these ecosystems would disappear. These pro-
tected areas also provide recreation for people,
and serve as outdoor classrooms and research
laboratories where people can learn more about
the natural world.
Threats to Protected Areas

Around the world, more people visit national
parks and wilderness areas each year and leave
their mark on the land. The same litter and traffic
jams that have plagued our cities now plague
many of our national parks. Rangelands, mining
and logging sites, oil and gas drilling operations,
factories, power plants, and urban areas are often
close enough to the parks to affect their health.
In addition, preserved areas are as affected by
climate change and by air and water pollution as
the rest of the world.
Private Conservation Efforts

Nongovernmental organizations and individuals also help protect
©Utah Images/Alamy Images
natural and agricultural lands. Conservation organizations maintain

preserves and individuals and communities, especially in tropical areas,
protect local ecosystems to promote ecotourism. By 2011, over 1700 pri-
vate land trusts protected more than 37 million acres of land in the U.S.

1. Explain what reforestation is and why it 5. Recognizing Relationships Read the first
is important. paragraph under the head “Threats to Protected
Areas.” Why do you suppose that some of our
2. List and explain two methods of managing
nation’s national parks and wilderness areas
rangelands sustainably.
are degraded?
3. Describe the function of parks and
6. Recognizing Relationships What are the
of wilderness.
benefits of preserving farmland?
4. Describe the environmental effects
of deforestation.

Making a Difference
Restoring
When Ohioan J. David Bamberger first moved to San Antonio, Texas as a
vacuum cleaner sales representative, he was charmed by the dry, grass-
covered rangeland of the Texas Hill Country. But much of the land was
The Range
degraded. It had been overgrazed by cattle and was left with thin soil and
dried-up creeks.
Bamberger became intrigued by the idea of restoring some of the range
to its original beauty. He was inspired by a book his mother gave him called
Pleasant Valley, by Louis Bromfield. Long before it was popular, Bromfield had
theories about how degraded habitats could be restored and how they could
then be managed in a sustainable manner. Bamberger was intrigued by the
idea of putting Bromfield’s theories into action.
The Bamberger Ranch

In 1959, David Bamberger bought his first plot of land near Johnson City.
Since then, David and Margaret Bamberger have expanded the ranch to
nearly 2,300 hectares (5,500 acres). It is one of the largest habitat restoration
projects in Texas, and shows the beauty of this area before it was damaged
by human activities.
In its natural state, the ranch should have been grassland, with woody
shrubs only near creeks. Instead, it had become overgrown with juniper
shrubs and trees (often called cedar, Juniperus ashei), which can grow in
poor soil and choke out other plants.
Bamberger read everything he could find on the degradation and
restoration of rangeland. He found that two main things destroy the range:
overgrazing and the suppression of wildfires. Overgrazing causes soil erosion.
David Bamberger, founder of the The lack of fires permits the growth of shrubs that shade out grasses and
Bamberger Ranch Preserve. wildflowers.
The Bambergers set to work to restore the property. They cleared most
of the junipers, which left more water in the soil. They planted native trees,
wildflowers, and grasses, and they controlled the grazing.
(bg) ©Stephen Saks Photography/Alamy Images; (tl) ©Selah/Bamberger Ranch

ECOZine
at HMDScience.com
Grazing is necessary for healthy grassland. The American in addition, the plant mix inside the exclosure is different from
prairies were home to huge herds of bison (buffalo), which that outside. This is because grazing mammals eat only a few
cropped the grass and fertilized the soil with their droppings. nutritious species and leave the others.
The Bambergers combined the grazing they needed with the
preservation of an endangered species. San Antonio Zoo asked The Distribution of Water
the Bambergers if they could help preserve the endangered
One important change in the ranch under the Bambergers’
scimitar horned oryx, an antelope with thin, curved horns that
management has been the change in water distribution.
is native to North Africa. Only a few small herds of this species
Water is very important in rangeland, which naturally gets
remained, and the zoo feared that the oryx were becoming
little rainfall. Many of the creeks dry up between rainy periods,
inbred, with too little genetic diversity. The Bambergers agreed,
but water remains in the soil and underground. Grasses have
and the ranch is now home to a large herd of oryx.
spreading root systems that absorb water from a wide area.
Poor management changes this balance by allowing junipers
The Effects of Restoration to take over the land. A juniper can take up 10 L of water a
The change in the ranch since Bamberger first bought it is most day from the soil, leaving too little for nearby grasses and
obvious at the fence line bordering the ranch. Beyond the fence wildflowers to survive. Then, when it rains heavily, the junipers
there is a small forest of junipers and little other vegetation. On cannot absorb all the water and it runs off the land. With no
Bamberger’s side, the main plants are grasses and wildflowers, grass roots to hold the soil in place, the soil erodes into the
with shrubs and trees in canyons and gullies beside the creeks. creeks. When the Bambergers arrived at the ranch, it was
When the Bambergers first arrived, they counted only 48 degraded rangeland. They drilled wells 150 meters deep (500
species of birds on the ranch. Now, there are more than 219 ft) and did not reach the water table. Now, with the restoration
species because plant diversity on the ranch has increased. In of grassland, soil erosion has been reduced and much more
the early days, deer on the ranch weighed only about 20 kg. water remains in the soil. Creeks and lakes contain water for
Now they weigh about 40 kg, thanks to the improved grazing. most of the year, and a dry spell is not a disaster. The water in
In addition to deer and oryx, cattle and goats live on the the creeks and lakes is clear and full of fish, instead of muddy
ranch. Some of these are used for experiments on the effects because it is full of soil.
of domestic animals on rangeland. Students and faculty
from nearby universities are studying this question by using Sustainability
exclosures. These are fences that keep large animals out of
The Bamberger Ranch is a working ranch, raising and selling
an area. The vegetation inside an exclosure is invariably taller
livestock, but it is also home to dozens of other projects.
than that outside because grazing animals are excluded. But
Bamberger consultants advise others who are interested in
managing rangeland in a sustainable fashion. Volunteers help
by building and repairing nature trails and performing all kinds
of maintenance work. The ranch hosts research on grasslands
What
and range Do You conferences
management, Think? on habitat restoration,
and educational workshops.
What Do You Think?

Habitat restoration shows us what the land was
like before the settlers arrived. It also shows us
how much the land has changed under human
©Selah/Bamberger Ranch
At nearly 2,300 hectares, the Bamberger Ranch is one of the management. Can you think of any habitat in your
largest habitat restoration projects in Texas. This is a photo area that could be restored? How would you go
of a portion of the Bamberger Ranch used for sustainable about trying to restore it? What do you think it
ranching. would look like after restoration?

Chapter 14 Summary
Section 1 How We Use Land Objectives Key Terms
• Land is covered with forest, cropland, pastures, roads, urban

and towns. rural
• Urban areas are mostly covered with houses, roads, ecosystem
businesses, and industrial and municipal structures. services
Rural areas have less dense human populations and
include forest land, cropland, rangeland, and other land
cover types.
• Urban areas need very large areas of rural ecosystems
to supply them with water, food, wood, and other
ecosystem services.
Section 2 Urban Land Use Objectives Key Terms
• Urbanization is the migration of people from rural to urbanization

urban areas. infrastructure
• When cities grow more rapidly than infrastructure can urban sprawl
be built, they tend to suffer from substandard housing heat island
and traffic problems. land-use
• Unplanned growth of a city results in urban sprawl, as planning
low-density development spreads into the surrounding geographic
countryside. information
system (GIS)
• Land-use planning is essential if urban areas are to be
pleasant places to live.
(t) ©Hanson Carrol; (c) ©Corbis RF/Alamy Images; (b) ©George & Monserrate Schwartz/Alamy Images
Section 3 L and Management Objectives Key Terms
and Conservation
• Farmland is used to raise crops and livestock. overgrazing
• Rangeland is land used primarily for grazing livestock. deforestation
Rangeland is easily degraded by overgrazing. reforestation
• Trees are harvested for many purposes. Deforestation wilderness
can cause soil erosion and may threaten forest plants
and animals with extinction.
• National lands are used for many purposes, including
lumber, mining, and recreation. Wilderness is national
land that is protected from all exploitation for the benefit
of future generations.

Chapter 14 Review
Reviewing Key Terms c. A drop in timber prices in Oregon causes
a lumberjack to lose his job and he moves
Use each of the following terms in a separate sentence. to Portland.
1. rangeland d. An Indian family moves to the city of Calcutta
2. infrastructure after a landslide destroys their village.
3. urbanization
14. Which of the following is not an example of
4. ecosystem services infrastructure?
5. geographic information system a. a railroad
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings b. a school
of the terms differ. c. a telephone line
6. heat island and urban sprawl d. a dairy farm
7. overgrazing and deforestation
15. Which of the following is a likely result of
8. urban and rural
deforestation?
9. selective cutting and clear-cutting
a. The amount of carbon dioxide removed from
10. Concept Map Use the following terms to create the atmosphere is reduced.
a concept map: geographic information system,
b. Wind blows soil away because the plant cover
land-use planning, infrastructure, population,
has been removed.
and urban area.
c. Water runs off the land more rapidly and
causes floods.
Reviewing Main Ideas d. all of the above
11. Building a mass transit system is likely to have 16. Which of the following is not likely to cause the
which of the following effects? degradation of rangeland?
a. increasing air pollution a. adding more animals to a herd grazing on
b. traffic congestion rangeland
c. increasing the temperature of the urban b. a three year drought
heat island c. planting native grasses on the land
d. none of the above d. driving a vehicle off-road
12. National parks and wilderness areas are designed 17. Which of the following is an example of
to do which of the following? reforestation?
a. provide recreation a. replanting forest land that has been clear-cut
b. protect wildlife b. planting a cherry tree in your backyard
c. preserve natural areas c. planting oak trees in a city
d. all of the above d. all of the above
13. Which of the following is not an example of 18. Which of the following is not an ecosystem service
urbanization? provided by rural lands?
a. Immigrants settle in New York City. a. oxygen in the air
b. A farmer who can no longer afford to lease b. plastic for making bottles
farmland moves to a city.
c. aesthetic beauty
d. wood for making paper

Chapter Review

19. Explain one way rangeland can be degraded. 27. Recognizing Relationships Read about
20. Do national parks and forests in the United States clear-cutting under the head “Harvesting Trees.”
protect ecosystems from human activities? What effects does clear-cutting a hillside have on
Explain your answer. the environment?
21. What is the difference between a U.S. wilderness 28. Drawing Inferences If we see many invasive
area and a national park? plant species and large areas of bare soil on
rangeland, what conclusions can we draw
22. Are national parks located only in the United States?
about the land management practices on this
23. How can building a mass transit system improve rangeland? Explain your answer.
living standards in an urban area?
29. Evaluating Assumptions We tend to think that
the main use of livestock is for meat. However,
the Masai herders of Africa do not slaughter their
Interpreting Graphics cattle. They use the milk. They also bleed the
The map below shows a typical UN Biosphere Reserve. cattle and use the blood to make a protein-rich
Use the map to answer questions 24–26. sausage. What other uses for livestock can you
think of that do not involve killing the animals?
24. Explain Where is the reserve’s research station
located, and why has it been placed there rather 30. History Find out how deforestation has affected
than anywhere else in the reserve? a community. If you live in a forest biome, you
can document the effects of deforestation on local
25. Infer What indicators can you see that this reserve rivers and farmland. If not, you will probably
might be an ecotourism destination? have to find an example on the Internet or in a
26. Examine What does the map tell you about the magazine. Write a paragraph for your answer,
function of buffer zone 2? using at least three key terms from this chapter.
31. Research Diagram the growth of your
community over the last 100 years. Express this as
a graph that shows the growth of the population
and a map that shows the area of ground the
community covers. There are various possible
River sources for the data you will need. If there is a
local historical society, this is probably the best
source. Otherwise, city hall or the local newspaper
will probably have the information.
Core
area
Buffer zone 1
Buffer zone 2
Human settlement
Tourism and education center
Research station

Chapter Review

CASESTUDY
The graph below shows land cover in the United
States in 1997. Use the graph below to answer 35. Describe how using conservation practices in
questions 32–33. land planning benefits both human societies
and the environment.
36. Explain how the statement “Build up, not out,”
Land Use in the United States
Whyrelates
It Matters
to land planning and urban sprawl.
Urban
land Other
Parks and
3% 8%
preserves
Why It Matters
14%
37. Describe how urban
sprawl is affecting
both humans and the
Forest land environment.
30%
Cropland
18%
Rangeland
and pasture
27%
Source: United States Department of Agriculture
32. Analyzing Data If the percentage of cropland

increased to 25 percent, and all other land cover STUDYSKILL
categories except for rangeland and pasture
remained the same, what percentage would Flash Cards With a partner, make flash cards for the
rangeland and pasture be? key words and most important ideas in the chapter. Take
turns quizzing each other about the content of the course.
33. Making Calculations If 11 percent of cropland
is idle (unplanted), what percentage of the United Do another round, and this time the person being asked
States is planted in crops at any one time? questions should try to use each key word and idea in a
complete sentence.
Making Connections
34. Communicating Main Ideas In what ways does
urban sprawl reduce the quality of life for people
in the suburbs as well as in the town or city?
©Jim Wark/Airphoto

ExplorationLab
Modeling
Creating a Land-use
Objectives
Create a simulated land-use
Model
model.
Land-use plans are drawn up by planners, but they are created with the
Recognize conflicts of
combined input of various members of a community. Along with three
interest that arise during
a negotiation.
other people, you are meeting to plan the development of 400 acres
of land for your growing city. Your team is composed of the following
Analyze and draw four members:
conclusions about the effect
of compromise on the desired
outcome for each interested Team Members
party in a land-use plan.
The Planner is concerned with creating a plan that encourages the sort of growth
Materials that will attract businesses and new citizens to the area.
colored pencils The Developer bought the land from the city and is interested in the right to build
graph paper housing and a shopping center.
pens
The Conservationist is interested in preserving open space and natural areas
from further development.
The Law Enforcer ensures that all of the laws and regulations are met for any
new development project.
Procedure
1. Have each team member select one of the four jobs above.
2. Use all or part of a large piece of graph paper as your map. Mark off an
Laws area that will represent 400 acres. Determine the approximate scale,
and label the sides of your area accordingly.
At least 10 percent of each type
of habitat must be preserved. 3. The planner will color in the map as follows:
a. 40 acres will be fresh water (rivers and/or lakes) and will be colored
Landfills must be at least 250
light blue.
meters away from all housing,
wetlands, and freshwater sites. b. 80 acres will be wetlands that are right next to some of the fresh
water and will be colored light purple or lavender.
Roads and bridges may cross c. 40 acres will be land that is too sloped for building and will be
rivers and wetlands but they colored tan.
must go around large natural d. 240 acres is land that is good for development and will be colored
areas. light green.
Roads must be connected to all 4. Once the land is colored in, it cannot be altered. That will be the land
developed areas of the city. you work with.
There must be no building 5. After the area is colored in, the group must discuss how and where to
over wetlands, slopes, or fresh put the following items:
water. Only parks may partially a. 40 acres for a landfill.
cover these habitats. Roads and
b. 20 acres for utilities such as power plants and water
bridges may cross them.
treatment facilities.

HMDScience.com
c. 40 acres for parks and wildlife.

d. 40 acres for housing. Try to put the houses near a beautiful area.
e. 40 acres for shopping.
f. 20 acres for anything that the group agrees to add. For example,
you could add a few acres for community gardens or for sports
and playing fields. The law enforcer cannot suggest anything, but
if the group can’t agree on what to add, the law enforcer may cast
the deciding vote.
g. 40 acres of roads and bridges (you can divide an acre up so that
you can build long, thin roads rather than create short, fat roads
that are an entire acre thick). Make sure at least one road goes
into and out of town.
6. The law enforcer should make sure that the plans abide by the
planning regulations by checking the map for violations.
Sloped land Shopping area
7. Use the key under the map to mark which areas are which. For
Wetlands Housing
example, an R denotes a road or bridge. Use a pencil and write in the
Fresh water Utilities
things softly at first in case changes are to be made. You may need a
For development Road
second copy of the map in case you make mistakes the first time.
Example Map This is an example of what your land-
use model might look like.
Analysis
1. Describing Events Did everyone on your team agree on the plan,
or were there conflicts of interest? Explain.
2. Describing Events Were you able to get everything your team

wanted into the plan or did you face any problems? Describe
what happened.
3. Identifying Patterns How did the features of the land constrain

the plan that you made? Did you encounter any problems?
Conclusions
4. Evaluating Results Does the plan your group created meet the
needs of all of the group members? Does it allow for development
while preserving the environment?
5. Evaluating Models How do you think this land planning

“simulation” compares to the real-life process of land-use planning?
Extension
6. Research and Communications Look in the newspaper or on
the Internet for a story about a land-use controversy in your area.
Identify the different members involved. Role-play with your team
to see what forces will bear on this controversy.

Food and
Chapter 15
Section 1
Feeding the World
Agriculture
Section 2
Crops and Soil
Section 3
Animals and Agriculture
Why It Matters
In order to survive, everybody
needs to eat. Agriculture can be
thought of as one of the most
important relationships people
have with the environment. As
the world population grows, so
too does the need for food.
How does the production of
food affect the environment?
CASESTUDY
Learn about the importance of
menhaden, a type of fish, to the
commercial fishing industry in
the case study Menhaden: The
Fish Behind the Farm on pages
396–397.
Image Credits: ©David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc./Alamy
Online
HMDScience.com

378
Section 1
Feeding the World Objectives
Identify the major causes

of malnutrition.
In 2011, lack of rain, loss of soil, and war caused crops to fail in Somalia. This
catastrophic combination resulted in famine, which is widespread starvation Compare the environmental
caused by a shortage of food. Events like the famine in Somalia present a costs of producing different
frightening picture of the difficulty of feeding Earth’s growing population. By 2050, types of food.
the world’s farmers will need to feed about 9 billion people. In this chapter, you
will learn why feeding all the world’s people a nutritious diet is difficult, and how Explain how poverty is a major
food production can be increased without irreversibly damaging the environment. cause of malnutrition.
Explain the importance of the

Humans and Nutrition green revolution.
The human body uses food both as a source of energy and as a source
Connect to BIOLOGY
of materials for building and maintaining body tissues. The amount
of energy that is available in food is expressed in Calories. One Calorie
Key Terms
(Cal) is equal to 1,000 calories, or one kilocalorie. As shown in Figure 1.1, famine
the major nutrients we get from food are carbohydrates, proteins, and malnutrition
lipids. Our bodies need smaller amounts of vitamins and minerals to diet
stay healthy. yield
Malnutrition is a condition that occurs when people do not consume
enough Calories or do not eat a sufficient variety of foods to fulfill all of
the body’s needs. There are many forms of malnutrition. For example,
humans need to get eight essential amino acids from proteins. This is
easily done if a variety of foods are eaten. However, in some parts of the
world, the only sources of food may be corn or rice. Both corn and rice
contain proteins, but they lack some essential amino acids, vitamins,
and minerals. Protein-energy malnutrition results, affecting the normal
physical and mental development of children.
Figure 1.1 Connect to BIOLOGY

Major Nutrients in Human Foods Essential Amino Acids
Nutrient Composition Sources Energy yield Function Animals make their own proteins from
amino acids. Essential amino acids
Carbohydrates sugars wheat, corn, 4 Cal/g is the main are those that must be supplied in the
and rice source of the diet because the body needs them but
body’s energy cannot make them from other amino
acids. A lack of essential amino acids in
Lipids (oils and fatty acids and olives, nuts, 9 Cal/g helps form
the diet can lead to the human diseases
fats) fatty alcohols and animal fats membranes
kwashiorkor and marasmus, which can
and hormones
cause brain damage in children.
Proteins amino acids animal food about 4 Cal/g helps build
and smaller and maintain
amounts from all body
plants structures
Chapter 15: Food and Agriculture 379

Figure 1.2
World Food Production This bar graph shows that in 2009, more grains (wheat, corn, and rice) were
produced than any other food. Wheat and corn are eaten by humans and are fed to farm animals.
World Food Production, 2009

Wheat
Corn
Rice
Potatoes
Soybeans
Beans
Fish
Beef
Pork
Poultry
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Metric tons (in millions)
Source: UN Food and Agriculture Organization

Sources of Nutrition
A person’s diet is the type and amount of food that he or she eats.
A healthy diet is one that maintains a balance of the right amounts
of nutrients, minerals, and vitamins. In most parts of the world, people
eat large amounts of food that is high in carbohydrates, such as rice,
potatoes, and bread. As shown in Figure 1.2, the foods produced in the
greatest amounts worldwide are grains, which are plants of the grass
family whose seeds are rich in carbohydrates. Besides eating grains, most
people eat fruits, vegetables, and smaller amounts of meats, nuts, and
other foods that are rich in fats and proteins.
Diets Around the World

People worldwide generally consume the same major nutrients and eat
the same basic kinds of food. But diets vary by geographic region, as
Figure 1.3 shown in Figure 1.3. People in more-developed countries tend to eat more
food and a larger proportion of proteins and fats than people eat in less-
Total Calorie Supply People in developed countries. For example, in the United States, almost half of all
developed countries generally eat more Calories people consume come from meat, fish, and oil.
food and more proteins and fats than
people in less developed countries eat.
Total Calorie Supply, per Person, per Day
World
Food Supply
Least developed (kcal/capita/day)
countries
Proteins (g/capital/day)
North America
Fats (g/capita/day)
Europe
Asia
Africa
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000
Total Calories Source: UN Food and Agricultural Organization

The Ecology of Food Connect to MATH
As the human population grows, farmland and suburbs replace forests Extra Calories
and grasslands. Feeding everyone while maintaining natural ecosystems An active man who weighs 70 kg
becomes more difficult. Different kinds of agriculture have different maintains his weight if he eats 2,700
environmental impacts and different levels of efficiency. Cal per day. Unused Calories are
converted into stored fat at the rate
of 1 kg of fat per 9,000 Cal that are
Food Efficiency unused. If this active man consumes
The efficiency of a given type of agriculture is a measure of the q
uantity 3,600 Cal per day, how much weight
of food produced on a given area of land with limited inputs of energy does he gain each year?
and resources. An ideal food crop is one that efficiently produces a large
amount of food with little negative impact on the environment.
On average, much more energy, water, and land are needed to pro-
duce a Calorie of food from animals than to produce a Calorie of food
from plants. Animals that are raised for human use are usually fed plant
matter. Because less energy is available at each higher level on a food
chain, only about 10 percent of the energy from the plants gets stored in
the animals. Thus, a given area of land can usually produce more food
for humans when it is used to grow plants than when it is used to raise
animals. The efficiency of raising plants for food is one reason why diets
around the world are largely based on plants. However, meat generally
provides more nutrients per gram than does most food from plants.
Old and New Foods

Researchers hope to improve the efficiency of food production by
studying plants and other organisms that have high yield—the amount
of food that can be produced in a given area. Researchers are interested
in organisms that can thrive in various climates and that do not require
large amounts of fertilizer, pesticides, or fresh water. Some organisms
have been a source of food for centuries, while other sources are just be-
ing discovered, as shown in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4
Food Sources Marine algae, or seaweeds, (left) have been harvested and eaten by humans for centuries. Glasswort
(right) is a salad green that may become an important food source in the future because it can grow in salty soil.
(br) ©WILDLIFE GmbH/Alamy Images; (bl) ©Chris Hellier/Corbis

Figure 1.5
Lack of Resources Refugees in

Somalia wait in line for food assistance.
World Food Problems

The world’s farmers produce enough grain to feed up to 10 billion people
an adequate vegetarian diet. However, no one is satisfied with eating just
the minimal amount of food needed for survival. And, many of us con-
sume about a third of our Calories from animals, not grain.
Poverty and Violence

Malnutrition today is largely a result of poverty and violence, as indicated
in Figure 1.5. In 2010, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organiza-
tion (UNFAO) estimated that 925 million people around the world were
undernourished. Poverty affects both rural and urban people, especially
in the least developed regions. About 1.3 billion people live on less than
$1.25 per day, so they have few resources to purchase food. In addition,
Check for Understanding diverting crops to use as biofuels raises food prices, which increases
Summarize What could be done to malnutrition problems. Subsistence agriculture—farming to grow only
increase the productivity of the land enough food for local use—is challenged by drought, degrading soil qual-
worked by subsistence farmers? ity, high levels of conflict, and changing climate.
More Income and More Food

The number of people living in extreme poverty has declined by nearly
half a billion since 1980. This achievement is largely the result of rapid
economic development in East Asia, especially in China and India.
However, Figure 1.6 shows that although the world’s grain production has
increased for 50 years, it has not grown as fast as the world’s population.
©Les Stone/Sygma/Corbis
To feed the people of the world in 2050, we will need to produce more
food. As well, we will need to abolish poverty, among both rural and ur-
ban people. Increasing the productivity of the world’s subsistence farmers
would help achieve both goals.

Figure 1.6
Grain Production Worldwide grain World Grain Production Per Person, 1950–2011
production has increased steadily over 2500 400
(in millions of metric tons)

time, but not as rapidly as the population Grain per person 350
Grain per person (kg)

has grown. 2000
Grain production
300
1500 250
200
Grain production
1000 150
100
500
50
0 0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2011
Year
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture
The Green Revolution

Figure 1.7
Between 1950 and 1970, Mexico increased its production of wheat eight-
fold and India doubled its production of rice, without increasing the Wheat Varieties This agricultural
area of farmland used. These spectacular increases were called the green research scientist is checking the
revolution. They resulted from new varieties of grain. The new varieties growth of wheat in an experimental plot.
produce large yields if they are supplied with enough water, fertilizer, and
pesticides. The green revolution reduced the price of food and improved
the lives of millions of people.
The green revolution had limitations, however. Most of the increases
that resulted from the green revolution came from large farms, which
continue to increase their productivity. Because subsistence farmers
often live in extreme poverty, they do not have the money to acquire the
water and chemicals that the new crop varieties need.
In addition, subsistence farmers cannot use much machinery be-
©Nigel Cattlin/Photo Researchers, Inc.
cause their farms generally consist of less than two acres. Subsistence
farmers need small-scale irrigation systems and high-value crops, such
as vegetables and fruits, that they can sell. As shown in Figure 1.7, much
research today is devoted to developing plant varieties that produce high
yields of nutritious food on poor soil, using as little water and expensive
chemicals as possible. Distributing the seeds and technology to scattered
rural farms remains a problem to be solved.

1. Identify the major causes of malnutrition. 5. Identify Relationships Study the graph in
Figure 1.6. World grain production increased
2. Compare the environmental costs of
during the 1990s. Why did the amount of grain
producing different types of food.
per person decline during that decade?
3. Explain how malnutrition today is linked to
6. Infer Relationships Write a short paragraph
poverty and violence.
that explains how a decrease in the production
4. Describe the importance and effects of the of grain worldwide could lead to a shortage of
green revolution. other food sources.

Section 2
Objectives
Distinguish between
Crops and Soil
traditional and modern
agricultural techniques. Much of Earth’s surface cannot be farmed. Only about 37 percent of Earth’s land
surface is agricultural, or land that can be used to grow crops. Urban areas occupy
Describe fertile soil. about 3 percent of Earth’s land surface and are expanding, often into agricultural
land. We need to use our remaining agricultural land as efficiently as possible for it
Describe the need for soil to continue to grow enough food for the world while maintaining natural resources.
conservation.
Explain the benefits and Agriculture: Traditional and Modern

environmental impacts of
The basic processes of farming include plowing, fertilization, i rrigation,
pesticide use.
and pest control. In traditional agriculture, plows are pushed by the
Explain what is involved in farmer or pulled by livestock. Plowing helps crops grow by mixing
integrated pest management. soil nutrients, loosening soil particles, and uprooting weeds. Organic
fertilizers, such as manure, are used to enrich the soil so that plants grow
Explain how genetic engineering strong and healthy. Fields are irrigated by water flowing through ditches.
is used in agriculture. Weeds are removed by hand or machine. These traditional techniques
have been used since the earliest days of farming, centuries before
tractors and pesticides were invented.
Key Terms
In industrialized countries, the basic processes of farming are now
topsoil
carried out using modern agricultural methods. Machinery powered by
erosion fossil fuels is now used to plow the soil and harvest crops, as shown in
desertification Figure 2.1. Synthetic chemical fertilizers are now used instead of manure
compost and plant wastes to fertilize soil. A variety of overhead sprinklers and
salinization drip systems may be used for irrigation. Synthetic chemicals are used to
pesticide protect crops by killing pests.
biological pest control
genetic engineering
Figure 2.1
Modern Agriculture In modern agriculture, machinery is used to do much of the work

previously performed by humans and animals.
©Ron Chapple/Corbis

Fertile Soil: The Living Earth
Soil that can support the growth of healthy plants is called fertile soil.
Plant roots grow in topsoil, the surface layer of soil, which is usually richer
in organic matter than the subsoil is. Fertile topsoil is made up of living
organisms, rocks, water, air, and organic matter, such as dead organisms.
Most soil starts to form when rock is broken down into smaller and
smaller fragments by wind, water, and chemical weathering. Chemical
weathering happens when the minerals in the rock react chemically with
substances such as water to form new materials. Temperature changes
and moisture cause rock to crack and break apart, which creates smaller
particles on which the seeds of pioneer plants fall and take root. The dead
material from plants and other organisms add to the soil. It can take hun-
dreds or even thousands of years to form a few centimeters of soil.
Other processes also help to produce fertile topsoil. The rock particles
supply mineral nutrients to the soil. Fungi and bacteria live in the soil.
They decompose dead plants and organic debris, and add more nutrients
to the soil. Earthworms, insects, and other small animals help plants grow
by breaking up the soil and allowing air and water into it.
As you can see in Figure 2.2, several layers of soil lie under the topsoil. Check for Understanding
The bottom layer is bedrock, which is the solid rock from which most soil Identify Name two processes that help
originally forms. to make soil fertile.
Figure 2.2
Soil Profile Soil is made of rock particles, air, water, and dead and living organisms. The number and characteristics of the
soil layers may be different in different types of soil.
Ants and earthworms

break up and aerate
the soil.
Surface litter fallen leaves

and partially decomposed
organic matter
Topsoil organic matter,

living organisms, and
rock particles
Zone of leaching dissolved

Bacteria or suspended materials
and fungi moving downward
decompose
Subsoil larger rock particles
organic matter.
with organic matter, and
inorganic compounds
Rock particles rock that

Rhizobium bacteria has undergone weathering
produce fixed nitrogen.
Bedrock solid rock layer

Figure 2.3
Soil Erosion This map shows the vulnerability of soils worldwide to erosion by water.
QUICKLAB Soil Erosion: A Global Problem

QUICKLAB Erosion is the movement of rock, soil, and sand by wind and water.
Eroded soil washes into nearby rivers or is blown away in clouds of dust.
Preventing Soil Erosion
In the United States, about half of the original topsoil has been lost to ero-
Procedure
1. Obtain three trays and fill one with
sion in the past 200 years. Figure 2.3 shows potential soil erosion world-
sod, one with topsoil, and one with wide. Without topsoil, crops cannot grow.
a layer of topsoil covered with a Most farming methods increase the rate of soil erosion. Plowing
type of mulch, such as hay. l oosens the soil and removes plants that hold the soil in place. When
2. Raise one end of each tray by water runs off the land, it carries some of the soil with it.
a minimum of 30 cm. Place
the lower end of each tray into
another, empty tray for which you Land Degradation
have determined the mass.
Land degradation happens when human activity or natural processes
3. Punch multiple holes in the bottom
damage the land so that it can no longer support the local ecosystem. In
of a plastic coffee can.
areas with dry climates, desertification can result. Desertification is the
4. Fill a plastic 2-L bottle with water.
5. Pour the water slowly through the
process by which land in arid or semiarid areas becomes more desertlike.
holes in the plastic coffee can onto Desertification is occurring in the Sahel region of northern A frica. In
one tray to simulate heavy rainfall. the past, people who lived in the drier parts of the Sahel grazed animals.
Repeat for the remaining trays. People who lived in parts of the Sahel with more rainfall planted crops.
6. Use a balance to find the mass of The grazing animals were moved from place to place to find food. The
each tray of runoff. Subtract the cropland was planted for only a few years, and then the land was a llowed
mass of the tray to find the mass to lie fallow, or to remain unplanted, for several years. These practices
of the soil and water eroded from allowed the land to support the people in the Sahel. But the population
each type of surface. in the region grew, and the land has since been farmed, grazed, and
ANALYSIS deforested faster than it can regenerate. Now, too many crops are planted
1. Which tray had the most soil too frequently, and fallow periods are being shortened or e liminated. As a
erosion and water runoff? Which result, the soil is losing its fertility and productivity. Because of overgraz-
tray had the least? Why? ing, the land has fewer plants to hold the topsoil in place. So large areas
have become desert and can no longer produce food.

Figure 2.4
Soil Conservation Terracing (left)

keeps soil in multiple, small, level
fields. Contour plowing (right) follows
the natural contours of the land. Both
methods prevent soil erosion by keeping
water from running directly downhill.
Soil Conservation
There are many ways of protecting and managing topsoil to reduce
erosion. Soil usually erodes downhill, and many soil conservation
methods are designed to prevent downhill erosion, as shown in Figure 2.4.
Building soil-retaining terraces across a hillside may be cost-effective for
producers of valuable crops, such as wine grapes and coffee. On gentler
slopes, contour plowing is used. This method includes plowing across the
slope of a hill instead of up and down the slope. An even more e ffective
method of plowing is leaving strips of vegetation across the hillside
instead of plowing the entire slope. These strips catch soil and water
that run down the hill. Overhead irrigation tends to wash away soil. Soil
(and water) can be conserved by using drip irrigation instead.
In traditional farming, plowing turns over soil to expose pests and
to loosen soil for new seeds. In no-till farming, plowing is eliminated.
Instead, the seeds of the next crop are planted among the remains of the
previous crop, as shown in Figure 2.5. The remains of the first crop hold
the soil in place while the new crop develops. No-till farming saves time
compared with conventional methods. It can also reduce soil erosion to
(tr) ©Getty Images; (tl) ©John W Banagan/Getty Images; (b) ©AgStock Images/Alamy Images
one-tenth of the erosion caused by traditional methods. However, no-till

farming may not be suitable for some crops, especially where pests are
poorly controlled by chemicals.
Figure 2.5
No-Till Farming A second crop

is grown through the remains of the
previous crop. This method helps
prevent erosion.

Figure 2.6 Enriching the Soil
World Fertilizer Use The use In traditional farming, the soil is enriched by adding organic matter, such
of inorganic fertilizers has increased as manure and leaves, to the soil. As the organic matter decomposes, it
dramatically worldwide since 1950. adds nutrients to the soil and improves the texture of the soil. However,
World Fertilizer Use, inorganic fertilizers that contain nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
1950-2009 have changed farming methods. Without these fertilizers, world food
180 production would be less than half of what it is today. Over the past
50 years, the use of such fertilizers has increased rapidly, as shown
(in millions of metric tons)
150
in Figure 2.6.
120 A modern method of enriching the soil is to use both organic and
Amount used
inorganic fertilizers by adding compost and chemical fertilizers to the

90
soil. Compost is partly decomposed organic material. Compost comes
60 from many sources. For example, you can buy composted cow manure in
a garden store. Also, many cities and industries now compost yard waste
30 and crop wastes. This compost is sold to farmers and gardeners, and the
process is saving costly landfill space.
0
1950 1970 1990 2010
Year
Source: Earth Policy Institute
Salinization
The accumulation of salts in the soil is known as salinization (sal uh nie
ZAY shuhn). Salinization is a major problem in places such as Australia,
California, and Arizona, which have low rainfall and naturally salty soil.
In these areas, irrigation water comes from rivers or groundwater, which
is saltier than rainwater. When water evaporates from irrigated land, salts
are left behind. Eventually, the soil may become so salty that plants can-
not grow, as shown in Figure 2.7.
2nd pass Irrigation can also cause salinization by raising the groundwater level
3-19-12
LKell
temporarily. Once groundwater comes near the surface, the groundwater
is drawn up through the soil like water is drawn up through a sponge.
When the water reaches the surface, the water evaporates and leaves
salts in the soil. Salinization can be slowed if irrigation canals are lined to
prevent water from seeping into the soil, or if the soil is watered heavily to
wash out salts.
Figure 2.7
Salinization This agricultural field is barren due to salinization.

©Kaj R. Svensson/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Figure 2.8
Crop Pests Examples of major crop pests include fungi (left), plant-eating insects (center), and weeds (right).
ECOFACT
Pest Control ECOFACT

In North America, insects eat about 13 percent of all crops. Crops in Crop Rotation
tropical climates suffer even greater insect damage because the insects Farmers and gardeners have known
grow and reproduce faster in these climates. In Kenya, for example, infor centuries that you get higher yields
sects destroy more than 25 percent of the nation’s crops. Worldwide, pests and less pest damage if you plant
different crops each year on a piece
(tr) ©Nigel Cattlin/Alamy; (tc) ©Perennou Nuridsa/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (tl) ©Astrid & Hanns-Frieder Michler/Photo Researchers, Inc.
destroy about 33 percent of the world’s potential food harvest.

of land. This method works because
Different types of pests are shown in Figure 2.8. A pest is any organism most pests are specialists and will
that occurs where it is not wanted or that occurs in large enough numbers only eat one or a few types of plants.
to cause economic damage. Humans try to control populations of differ- The tomato hornworm is an example
ent types of pests, including many plants, fungi, and microorganisms. of one of these pests. If you plant
Wild plants often have more protection from pests than do crop tomatoes in one place every year, the
plants. Wild plants grow throughout a landscape, so pests have a harder hornworm population grows rapidly
time finding and feeding on a specific plant. Crop plants, however, are and will destroy the crop. If beans are
usually grown together in large fields, which provides pests with a one- planted in place of the tomatoes in
stop source of food. Wild plants are also protected from pests by a variety alternate years, the hornworms cannot
find food and will die.
of pest predators that live on or near the plants. Some wild plants have
even evolved defenses to many pests, such as poisonous chemicals that
repel them.
Pesticides
Many farmers rely on pesticides to produce their crops. Pesticides are
chemicals used to kill insects, weeds, and other crop pests. During the
last 60 years, scientists invented many new pesticides. The pesticides
were so effective that farmers began to rely on them almost completely
to protect their crops from pests. However, pesticides can also harm
beneficial plants and insects, wildlife, and even people.

Figure 2.9
Cropdusting A cropduster sprays

pesticide on a field of pineapples in
Hawaii. Cropdusting is an easy way to
apply pesticide to a large area.
Connect to LAW
Connect to LAW Pesticide Resistance

Pesticide Regulation You might think that the most effective way to get rid of pests is to spray
The only pesticides that are fully crops often with large amounts of pesticides, as shown in Figure 2.9. How-
regulated in the United States are ever, over time, this approach usually makes the pest problem worse. Pest
newly introduced pesticides designed populations can evolve resistance, which is the ability to survive exposure
for use on some food crops. Many to a particular pesticide. More than 500 species of insects have developed
older pesticides in use have not resistance to pesticides, and this number grows annually.
been adequately tested for toxicity
and are not effectively regulated.
According to the National Academy
Human Health Concerns
of Sciences, much of the cancer risk Pesticides are designed to kill organisms, so they may also be dangerous
from pesticides in our diet comes from to humans. Problems may arise from toxicity or from the similarity of
older pesticides used on foods such some chemicals to natural hormones. For example, cancer rates among
as tomatoes, potatoes, and oranges. children in areas of high pesticide applications are sometimes higher
than the national average, and nervous system disorders may be com-
mon. Workers in pesticide factories or those who apply pesticides to
crops may also become ill.
Pollution and Persistence

The problem of pesticides harming people and other organisms is
especially serious with pesticides that are persistent. Persistent pesticides
do not break down rapidly into harmless chemicals when they enter the
environment. As a result, they accumulate in the water and soil. Some
Check for Understanding persistent pesticides have been banned in the United States, but many
Explain Why can spraying pests with of them remain in the environment for many years. DDT, a persistent
©John Zoiner
large amounts of pesticides become pesticide banned in the United States in the 1970s, can still be detected in
ineffective over time? the environment and has even been found in women’s breast milk.

Biological Pest Control
Biological pest control is a form of pest management that uses living
organisms to control pests. Every pest has enemies in the wild. These FieldStudy
enemies can sometimes be used to control pest populations, as shown Go to Appendix B to find the field study
in Figure 2.10. Biological pest control may work well, but it can also have What A Pest!
unintended negative consequences. The cane toad was introduced to
Australia to control the damaging cane beetle. There is no evidence that
the cane toad has reduced cane beetle populations, and the toads are
spreading and negatively impacting native species.
Pathogens
Organisms that cause disease, called pathogens (PATH uh juhnz), can
also be used to control pests. One of the most common pathogens used to
control pests is the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (buh SIL uhs thuhr
in JIEN sis), often abbreviated Bt. This bacterium can kill the caterpillars
of moths and butterflies that are considered to be pests.
Plant Defenses
Scientists and farmers have bred plant varieties that have defenses
against pests. For example, if you buy tomato plants or seeds, you may
see that they are labeled “VNT” or “VFF.” These labels mean they are
resistant to certain fungi, worms, or viruses. Examples of plant defenses
include chemical compounds that repel pests and physical barriers, such
as tougher skin.
Chemicals from Plants

Another type of biological pest control also makes use of plants’ defensive
chemicals. For example, chemicals found in chrysanthemum plants are
now sold as pesticides. Most insect sprays that contain these chemicals
are designed for use in the home because they are less harmful to
humans and pets. These products are biodegradable, which means that
(bl) ©Holt Studios/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (r) ©Nigel Cattlin/Photo Researchers, Inc.
they are broken down by bacteria and other decomposers.
Figure 2.10
Biological Pest Control

A parasitic wasp injects its
eggs into an aphid (left). A
predatory mite attacks another
mite species (right).

Connect to CHEMISTRY Disrupting Insect Breeding
Organic Chemistry If you have a dog, you may feed it a pill once a month to keep it free of
All food contains organic chemicals, fleas. The pill likely contains a growth regulator, which is a chemical that
but the term organic is used differently interferes with some stage of a pest’s life cycle. When a flea sucks the
in the field of chemistry than in dog’s blood, the flea ingests the growth regulator. The regulator stops the
agriculture. The term generally means flea’s eggs from developing into adult fleas.
“of or pertaining to living organisms.” Pheromones (FER uh mohnz), chemicals produced by one organism
In chemistry, an organic chemical is that affect the behavior of another organism, can also be used in pest
any chemical compound that contains control. For example, female moths release pheromones that attract
carbon. Most organic chemicals are males from miles away. By treating crops with pheromones, farmers can
derived from living organisms, but confuse the male moths and interfere with their mating behavior. An-
chemists can now synthesize organic other way to prevent insects from reproducing is to make it physically im-
chemicals—and even invent new possible for the males to reproduce. For example, male insects are treated
ones—in the lab. In contrast, organic
with X rays to make them sterile and then are released. When they mate
agriculture is the practice of raising
with females, the females produce eggs that do not develop.
crops or livestock without using
synthetic chemicals. Foods labeled as
organic in the grocery store have been
raised using organic methods.
Integrated Pest Management
Integrated pest management is a modern method of controlling pests
on crops. The steps involved in integrated pest management are shown
in Figure 2.11. The goal of integrated pest management is to reduce pest
damage to a level that causes minimal economic damage. A different
management program is developed for each crop. The program can
include a mix of farming methods, biological pest control, and c hemical
pest control. Each of these methods is used at the appropriate time in
Check for Understanding the growing season. Fields are monitored from the time the crops are
Describe What is one strategy that can planted. When significant pest damage is found, the pest is identified.
be used to control insect pests? Then a program to control the pest is created.
Biological methods are the first methods used to control a pest. Natu-
ral predators, pathogens, and parasites of the pest may be introduced to
control it. Cultivation controls, such as vacuuming insects off the plants,
can also be used. As a last resort, small amounts of insecticides may be
used. The insecticides are changed over time to reduce the ability of pests
to evolve resistance.
Figure 2.11
Integrated Pest Management This flow diagram shows the steps involved in integrated pest management.

Figure 2.12
Genetic Engineering This diagram shows the main steps used to produce a genetically modified plant—in this case,
corn that produces its own insecticide.
Scientists isolate the gene from Bt that directs The surviving cells grow into corn plants.
a cell to produce a toxin. The Bt gene is then These plants produce the Bt toxin, which
joined to a “marker gene” that enables a kills caterpillars.
cell to break down an antibiotic.
Scientists grow the corn cells and expose them
to an antibiotic. Only those cells that have
Toxin gene incorporated the inserted genes survive.
from Bt
Bacillus
+
thuringiensis Connect to BOTANY
(Bt)
Antibiotic
Marker gene
The two genes are inserted

into corn plant cells.
Engineering a Better Crop

Genetic engineering is a technique in which genetic material in a living
cell is modified for medical or industrial use. Genetic engineering in-
volves isolating genes from one organism and implanting them into an-
other. Scientists may use genetic engineering to transfer desirable traits,
such as resistance to certain pests. The plants that result from genetic
engineering are called genetically modified (GM) plants.
Figure 2.12 shows an example of the steps used to produce a GM plant. Connect to BOTANY
In this case, the gene introduced into the plant is not a plant gene. It is an
insecticide gene from Bt, a bacterium that produces a chemical that kills Artificial Selection
plant-eating caterpillars but does not harm other insects. Plants that have Plant breeding has been used since
the Bt gene make this insecticide within their leaves. Hundreds of gene agriculture began. Farmers select
seeds that have the tastiest tomatoes
transfers have now been performed to create many other GM crops.
and the least pest damage. They save
seeds from these plants to use in
Implications of Genetic Engineering planting the next crop. The selected
seeds are more likely to contain the
In the United States, we now eat and use genetically engineered
genes for large, tasty fruits and for
agricultural products every day. Many of these products have not been
pest resistance than are seeds from
fully tested for their environmental impacts, and some scientists warn
other plants.
that these products will cause problems in the future.
For example, genes are sometimes transferred from one species to
another in the wild. Suppose a corn plant that was genetically engineered
to be resistant to a pesticide were to pass the resistance genes to a wild
plant. That wild plant might be a pest that could then no longer be killed
by that pesticide.

ECOFACT Sustainable Agriculture
Nitrogen Fixation Large-scale modern farming has allowed production to grow tremen-
One of the most valuable families dously. It has had some negative effects, too. In addition to the loss of
of crop plants is the legumes topsoil, salinization, groundwater contamination, and nutrient pollu-
(LEG yoomz), which include peas
tion, it also has led to declines of family farms, poor conditions for many
and beans. Legumes produce higher
workers, and other social issues. Now, many people are working toward
grade proteins than do most plants,
sustainable agriculture. Sustainable agriculture seeks to ensure environ-
so legumes are part of diets in many
mental health, economic benefits, and social responsibility. A key part of
parts of the world. Planting legumes
sustainable agriculture is ensuring that farming can occur on a particular
also improves the soil. Their roots
piece of land over the long-term without a loss of crop quality. To do this,
have nodules containing bacteria that
take nitrogen gas from the air and sustainable agriculture maximizes soil quality and minimizes the use of
convert the nitrogen into a form other energy, water, pesticides, and fertilizers. It also means that the right crops
plants can use to build proteins. have to be selected for a particular location, as shown in Figure 2.13.
Organic farming is part of sustainable agriculture. In many countries,
including the United States, specific rules have been set up for goods to
be certified as organic. Although organic goods may cost more than those
produced by other methods, many people are willing to pay this extra
amount to help ensure sustainable practices.
Figure 2.13
Sustainable Agriculture At the Land Institute in Salina, Kansas, sustainable agriculture techniques are being used to increase
seed quantity in wheatgrass (background) and to increase yield in young sunflowers (foreground).
©Patty Melander/The Land Institute

1. Explain the differences between traditional and 4. Infer Relationships Write a paragraph
modern farming methods. to explain the similarities and differences
between traditional plant breeding and genetic
2. Explain why soil conservation is an important
engineering.
agricultural practice.
5. Predict Consequences Read the description
3. Compare the benefits and environmental
of integrated pest control in this section. Why
impacts of pesticide use.
do you think this pest control technique is not
practiced everywhere?

Section 3
Animals and Objectives
Agriculture
Explain how overharvesting
affects the supply of aquatic
organisms used for food.
Describe the current role

We have seen that an acre of land can grow more food from plants than from of aquaculture in providing
animals. However, most animal proteins contain more essential amino acids than seafood.
do proteins found in plants, and most humans include some animal products in
their diet. Food from animals has been the basis of life for some human populations Describe the importance
for many thousands of years. of livestock in providing food
Our ancestors obtained animal proteins by hunting and fishing, but today and other products.
most people get animal proteins from domesticated species. About 50 animal
species have been domesticated, which means that they are bred and managed
for human use. Domesticated animals include chicken, sheep, cattle, honey bees, Key Terms
silkworms, fish, and shellfish. In many parts of the world, goats, pigs, and water domesticated
buffalo are also important domesticated animals.
overharvesting
aquaculture
Food from Water livestock
ruminant
Because fish are an important food source for humans, the harvesting of
fish has become an important industry worldwide, as shown in Figure 3.1.
However, as shown in Figure 3.2, when too many fish are harvested over a
long period of time, ecological systems can be damaged.
Figure 3.2
Overharvesting
Catching or removing from a population more o rganisms than the Cod Fishery Collapse The North
population can replace is called overharvesting. Many governments are Atlantic cod fishery has collapsed
now trying to stop overharvesting. They have created no-fishing zones because of overharvesting.
North Atlantic Cod Annual Catch,
1990–2010
so that fish populations can recover. Research shows that fishing in areas
400
surrounding no-fishing zones improves after no-fishing zones have
(in thousands of metric tons)
existed for a few years. For the fishing industry to prosper in the future,
300
better management is needed.
Live weight
Figure 3.1 200
Fish Market Whole, fresh tuna are one of the many types of seafood for sale at the Tokyo
100
fish market, the largest fish market in the world.
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year
Source: Department of Fisheries
and Oceans, Canada
©Roland Seitre

Figure 3.3 Aquaculture
Aquaculture This oyster farm in Fish and other aquatic organisms provide up to 20 percent of the animal
Washington shows how aquaculture protein consumed worldwide. To meet demand, there has been a rapid
concentrates seafood production. increase in aquaculture (AK wuh kuhl chuhr), the raising of aquatic organ-
isms for human use or consumption. Aquaculture is not a new idea. This
practice likely began in China about 4,000 years ago. Today, China leads
the world in using aquaculture to produce freshwater fish.
Today, most of the catfish, oysters, salmon, crayfish, and rainbow trout
eaten in the United States are the products of aquaculture. In the 1980s,
domestic production of these species quadrupled, and imports of these
species increased even faster. Worldwide, about 50 percent of seafood
now comes from aquaculture.
There are a number of different methods of aquaculture. The oyster
farm shown in Figure 3.3 represents one such method. Fish farms are
widely used for aquaculture, and there are several types. Open pens and
cages allow fish to be farmed in lakes and coastal oceans. There are seri-
ous concerns about the use of these pens in many places, such as salmon
farms in British Columbia, Canada. The large number of fish kept in one
area discharges large amounts of waste and pollutes surrounding waters.
Diseases and parasites that occur when fish are kept in high densities
CASESTUDY
Menhaden: The Fish

Behind the Farm
One of the largest commercial fish catches in the United States
each year is of a species that most people have never heard of—the
menhaden (men HAYD ‘n). Menhaden are small, silver, oily fish in
the herring family and are found in the Atlantic Ocean from Maine
to Florida. Menhaden make up more than one-third of the weight of
commercial fish caught on the East Coast each year. But menhaden
are so full of bones that they are inedible. So why are these small
fish so important? (br) ©James L. Amos; (tl) ©Doug Plummer/Photo Researchers, Inc.
When the first colonists arrived in the area we now call New
England, local Native Americans showed them how to fertilize their
crops using menhaden. This was the origin of the belief that the best
corn is grown by planting a fish with each seed. Later, menhaden oil
was used in oil lamps, and ground menhaden was added to
cattle feed.
Today, the menhaden catch is processed to produce fishmeal
and fish oil. The oil is used in cooking oils and margarine. The
fishmeal has a high protein content, and is added to the feed of
pets, chickens, turkeys, hogs, cattle, and farm fish. Menhaden are A menhaden catch is unloaded from purse seine
nets in Chesapeake Bay, Virginia.

can affect wild populations. If farmed fish escape, they can also interfere
with wild populations. In addition, some wild fish populations are being
overharvested to provide food for farmed fish.
Many fish are raised in small ponds or in tanks where water is recir-
culated. Often, there are many individual ponds that each contain fish
at a specific stage of development. Clean water is circulated through the
ponds, bringing in oxygen while taking away carbon dioxide and fecal
wastes. The fish grow to maturity in the ponds and then are harvested.
Wastes can be treated before water is released back into natural bodies of
water. These systems are less likely to have fish escape into wild popula-
tions. One important consideration for ponds and tanks is their location.
If there are not adequate supplies of fresh water, local water supplies can
be depleted. Also, aquaculture development in some areas has destroyed
important ecosystems. For example, millions of acres of mangroves have
been removed for shrimp aquaculture around the world.
Despite the associated environmental issues, aquaculture will con-
tinue to be an important source of protein for the human diet. Therefore,
like sustainable agriculture, it is important that methods are developed
that ensure that aquaculture is done in a way that minimizes environ-
mental damage and can be sustained into the future.
also used by recreational fishers as bait for fish such as Both environmentalists and the sport fishing industry
striped bass, shark, and tuna. were worried when the menhaden catch declined during
Menhaden spawn in the ocean. The eggs hatch into the 1990s. The catch in 2000 was the second-lowest
larvae, which are carried into estuaries where they spend catch on record. Both groups believe that overharvesting
their first year. After the menhaden mature, they return to by commercial fishing boats was the reason for the
the ocean and usually live within 50 km of the coast. The reduced catch. As a result, the Atlantic Menhaden
Chesapeake Bay is one of the most important nurseries for Management Board, which manages the menhaden
this species. fishery, has been restructured to have fewer members who
Menhaden live in large schools near the surface, so they represent the commercial fisheries. Even with this change,
are easily caught with purse seine nets, which are nets that according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
hang down from the surface of the water. Boats towing the Administration (NOAA), more menhaden were harvested
nets encircle the fish, which are captured when the lower than Critical Thinking
is sustainable in 2008.
margin of the net is pulled closed.
An adult menhaden is an important member of the marine Critical Thinking
ecosystem. Menhaden are filter feeders that scoop up large
1. Apply Ideas Many different groups have
mouthfuls of water and filter out the plankton for food. An adult potentially conflicting interests in the future of
menhaden can filter a million gallons of water in six months. the menhaden fishery. Write a paragraph that
The Chesapeake Bay Ecological Foundation estimates explains the opposing points of view of two
that the menhaden population removes up to one-fourth of of these groups.
the nitrogen pollutants dumped into the Chesapeake Bay 2. Express Viewpoints If you were on the
each year. Because nitrogen runoff from lawns and farms Atlantic Menhaden Management Board, what
is a major pollutant of the Chesapeake Bay, this function of changes would you suggest to prevent the
the fish is important. Sport fishers also value menhaden as fishery from declining? Write a paragraph that
bait because they are the natural food of many sportfish. explains these changes.

Figure 3.4
Livestock Operations Modern GLOBAL Estimates of Animal Populations

livestock operations, such as this pig farm, Global Livestock Populations
are large and efficient.
Species 1961 2009 Increase
Chickens 3.9 billion 18.6 billion 377%
Sheep 1 billion 1.1 billion 10%
Cattle 942 million 1.4 billion 49%
Pigs 406 million 942 million 132%
Goats 349 million 880 million 152%
Horses, donkeys, and mules 110 million 113 million 2.7%

Source: UN Food and Agriculture Organization
Livestock
Domesticated animals that are raised to be used on a farm or ranch, or to
be sold for profit, are called livestock. Large livestock operations, such as
the pig farm shown in Figure 3.4, produce most of the meat that is con-
sumed in developed countries. Meat production per person has increased
worldwide since 1950, as shown in Figure 3.5. Livestock are also important
in developing countries. In these countries, livestock provide leather, wool,
eggs, and meat, and serve many other functions. Some are used as draft
animals to pull carts and plows. Other livestock provide manure, which is
used for fertilizer or as a heat source or as fuel for cooking. In arid ecosys-
tems, livestock provide sustenance where crops could be grown only with
expensive irrigation.
Figure 3.5 Ruminants

Meat Production Worldwide meat Cattle, sheep, and goats are ruminants (ROO muh nuhnts), which are cud-
production per person has increased chewing mammals that have three- or four-chambered stomachs. Cud
World Meat Production per Person, is the food that these animals regurgitate from the first chamber of their
significantly since 1960.
1961–2009
stomachs and chew again to aid digestion. Ruminants have microorgan-
50
isms in their intestines, which allow the animals to digest plant materials
that humans cannot digest. When we eat the meat of ruminants, we are
World meat production
using them to convert plant material, such as grass stems and woody
per person (kg)
40
shrubs, into food that we can digest.
Humans have created hundreds of breeds of cattle that are suited
to life in different climates. Cattle are most common in North America,
30
India, and Africa. But the cattle are not always slaughtered for meat. In
©Daniel Pepper/Getty Images
Africa, for example, traditional Masai herders drink milk and blood from
their cattle. India has almost one-fifth of the world’s cattle. However,
20
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 many of these cattle are not killed or eaten because cows are sacred to
Year Hindus, who make up a large part of India’s population. These cattle
Source: Earth Policy Institute instead produce milk and dung, and are used as draft animals.

Poultry
Since 1961, the population of chickens worldwide has increased by a
greater percentage than the population of any other livestock. Chickens
are a type of poultry, or domesticated birds raised for meat and eggs,
which are good sources of essential amino acids. In more-developed
countries, chickens and turkeys are usually raised in factory farms, as
shown in Figure 3.6. This industry has been criticized because the animals
typically live in cramped, artificial environments.
Fewer ducks and geese are raised worldwide than chickens, but in
some areas ducks and geese are economically important. For example,
the Chinese use ducks not only for meat, but also as part of an inte-
grated system that produces several types of food at one time. The ducks’
droppings are used to fertilize fields of rice called rice paddies. The rice
paddies are flooded several times per year with water from nearby ponds.
Mulberry trees, which feed silkworms, are also irrigated by the ponds.
Plant materials and filtered sewage are dumped in the ponds and serve as
food for carp and other fish. The integrated system uses little fresh water,
recycles waste, and produces ducks, silk, rice, and fish.
Figure 3.6
Industrial Farms Modern chicken farms, such as this one, are often huge, industrial-scale operations.
©Edwin Remsberg/Alamy Images

1. Explain why the percentage of seafood 4. Infer Relationships Read the description of
produced by aquaculture is increasing so rapidly. poultry above and explain why chickens are an
important source of food for many humans.
2. Explain how overharvesting affects the supply
of fish such as salmon. 5. Apply Ideas Look at the graph in Figure 3.5.
Write a short paragraph explaining why meat
3. Describe the importance of livestock to
production has increased so rapidly.
cultures that consume no meat.

Points of View
Genetically Modified
Foods
Genetically modified (GM) foods have been on sale in the
A scientist examines experimental samples
of genetically modified fruit trees. world’s supermarkets since 1994. We do not recognize them
because the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not
require that GM foods be labeled as such.
As the world’s population rises, so does the need for
food. Genetic engineering provides a way to increase
food production. Biotechnologists can develop desirable
characteristics in an organism by altering its genes or by
inserting new genes into the organism’s cells. For example,
(tl) ©Scott Beuer/U.S. Dept of Agriculture (USDA); (bl) ©David Hoffman Photo Library/Alamy Images; (br) ©Lynsey Addario/Corbis; (bg) ©UpperCut Images/Alamy Images
soybeans, corn, and other crop plants have been genetically
modified to make proteins that protect them from the action
of herbicides. Farmers who plant these GM crops can spray
herbicides to control weeds without harming the crop.
GM foods are not limited to plant crops. GM animals have
also been developed, including a strain of salmon that grows
twice as fast as other salmon. The FDA has not yet cleared
any GM animals for human consumption. But it has cleared
many GM plant foods for sale. Not only is labeling of GM foods
not required, it is actually unlawful to label foods that do not
contain GM organisms. In 2011, consumer groups brought legal
action against the U.S. government to force new labeling laws.
Following are two points of view on GM foods.
Although these cans are labeled, genetically modified This farmer from Oaxaca, Mexico, holds up ears of
foods are not required to be labeled as such in the traditional corn varieties. Some people fear that genes
United States. from genetically modified varieties could accidentally
be introduced into native varieties.

ECOZine
at HMDScience.com
The Benefits Outweigh the Risks The Risks Outweigh the Benefits
People who support development of GM plants and animals Critics of GM foods think that these products are significantly
view the process as an extension of previous breeding different from foods developed through traditional methods.
techniques. Traditionally, farmers altered the genetic Scientists can use genetic engineering to place genes from
makeup of a species by crossbreeding different strains to any species into another. Opponents are concerned about the
combine their best traits into one strain. However, the direct safety of foods that contain these “foreign” genes.
manipulation of genes through genetic engineering makes One safety concern is the possibility of allergic reactions.
it possible to control genetic changes more precisely and Some foods, such as peanuts and shellfish, cause allergic
efficiently. It even makes it possible to insert genes from one reactions in many people. If genes from these foods are
species into another. placed in entirely different products, people who eat these
The potential to increase crop yields is one advantage of new products without knowing they contain the foreign genes
GM food plants. Some GM crops, including corn that contains may suffer allergic reactions.
Bt genes, produce their own insecticides. These GM crops not Other critics object to GM foods for religious or ethical
only have the potential for higher yields, but also can reduce reasons. Certain religions prohibit eating pork and other foods.
the expense and toxic exposure associated with pesticide and People may object to the insertion of genes from pigs or
herbicide use. Crops that have been genetically engineered other prohibited foods into foods they normally eat. Similarly,
to tolerate herbicides can reduce the cost and fuel emissions vegetarians might object to eating foods that contain animal
associated with using farm machinery to get rid of weeds. genes. Such insertions are particularly worrisome when the
Other beneficial characteristics of GM fruits and vegetables sources of modifications are not noted on packaging.
include development of produce that stays fresh longer or Another major concern is pesticide resistance. Insects can
contains added nutrients. For example, inserting a gene that rapidly develop the ability to survive exposure to pesticides.
increases the amino acids in a plant food could give it more When they do, farmers lose the ability to combat infestations
nutritional value. To combat world hunger, scientists might be and significant crop losses can result. Farmers who grow
able to develop seeds that grow well in areas with poor soil or genetically engineered crops that make their own pesticides,
little water. such as Bt corn, must take special precautions against the
development of pesticide resistance.
Some scientists are concerned that genetically engineered
plant and animal species could accidentally be introduced into
the wild. For example, fast-growing GM salmon that escape
from aquaculture enclosures might thrive at the expense of
These people in Montreal, Quebec, are protesting the wild species. Wild species could become extinct, thus reducing
importation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). biodiversity and potentially affecting ecosystem stability.
Many countries have not accepted genetically engineered
crops as much as the United States has. What Do You Think?
What Do You Think?

Some people propose that genetically modified
foods should have labels that identify them as
©Reuters NewMedia Inc./Corbis
such. Could such a measure decrease criticism

about the safety of genetically modified foods?
Based on what you have read, decide whether
you would buy genetically modified foods at
the grocery store. Explain your reasoning.

Chapter 15 Summary
Section 1 Feeding the World Objectives Key Terms
• The foods produced in the greatest amounts worldwide famine

are grains, the seeds of grass plants. malnutrition
• Malnutrition is a condition that occurs when people do diet
not consume enough Calories or do not eat a sufficient yield
variety of foods to fulfill all of the body’s needs.
• More food is needed each year to feed the world’s
growing population. Poverty and violence are the main
reasons for hunger in the world today.
• The green revolution introduced new crop varieties
with increased yields through the application of
modern agricultural techniques.
Section 2 Crops and Soils Objectives Key Terms
• The basic processes of farming are plowing, fertilization, topsoil

irrigation, and pest control. Modern agricultural erosion
methods have replaced traditional methods in much desertification
of the world.
compost
• Fertile soil is soil that can support the growth of healthy salinization
plants. Soil conservation methods are important for
pesticide
protecting and managing topsoil and reducing erosion.
biological pest
• Pests cause considerable crop damage. The use of control
pesticides has both positive and negative effects on genetic
the environment. Integrated pest management can engineering
minimize the use of chemical pesticides.
• Genetic engineering is the process of transferring genes
from one organism to another. Plants that result from
genetic engineering are called genetically modified plants.
(t) ©Chris Hellier/Corbis; (c) ©Getty Images; (b) ©Edwin Remsberg/Alamy Images
Section 3 Animals and Agriculture Objectives Key Terms
• Overharvesting has reduced the populations of many domesticated

aquatic organisms worldwide. overharvesting
• Aquaculture is the raising of aquatic animals, and aquaculture
shares many similarities to agriculture on land. livestock
• Livestock are important for the production of food and ruminant
other products. Worldwide meat production per person
has increased greatly over the past several decades.

Chapter 15 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 15. Which of the following statements about human
diets in all parts of the world is true?
a. Most people eat pork.
1. overharvesting
b. An adequate diet includes carbohydrates,
2. erosion proteins, and fats.
3. livestock c. Most people do not have protein in their diets.
4. yield d. Most people are obese.
5. genetic engineering
16. Malnutrition is largely a result of
a. war.
of the terms differ.
b. soil erosion.
6. pesticide and biological pest control
c. poverty.
7. compost and topsoil
d. salinization.
8. livestock and ruminant
9. malnutrition and famine 17. Which of the following is not found in fertile soil?
10. salinization and desertification a. rock particles
11. Concept Map Use the following terms to create b. worms
a concept map: contour plowing, no-till farming,
c. high concentrations of salts
organic farming, careful irrigation, soil erosion,
nutrient depletion, and salinization. d. high concentrations of organic matter
18. Which of the following is not a soil conservation

method?
a. contour plowing
12. Malnutrition can be caused by
b. salinization
a. a lack of enough Calories.
c. no-till farming
b. a lack of carbohydrates.
d. terracing
c. a lack of essential amino acids.
d. all of the above 19. Which of the following statements is a
disadvantage of using chemical pesticides?
13. Humans need which of the following nutrients? a. Pesticides can pollute waterways.
a. carbohydrates and minerals b. Pests evolve resistance to pesticides.
b. lipids and vitamins c. Pesticides kill beneficial insects.
c. proteins d. All of the above.
d. all of the above
20. How do pesticides that regulate growth work?
14. Which of the following is not one the six most a. They kill fleas.
produced foods worldwide each year?
b. They disrupt the pest’s life cycle.
a. potatoes
c. They attract predators of the pest.
b. beef
d. They prevent the pest from attacking the plant
c. rice by poisoning its nervous system.
d. wheat

Chapter Review

21. Why does it cost more to produce a kilogram of 29. Make Predictions Reread the text under
meat than to produce a kilogram of plants? the heading “World Food Problems.” Write
22. How does plowing soil increase soil erosion? a paragraph to predict how increasing the
productivity of the world’s subsistence farmers
23. Why are biological controls for killing pests would affect poverty and food production.
sometimes more effective than chemical
pesticides are? 30. Examine What incentives to conserve soil do
farmers in developed nations have?
24. Why are ruminants valuable livestock?
31. Infer Relationships Read the text in this chapter
25. Explain how soil degradation leads to loss of under the heading, “Disrupting Insect Breeding.”
agricultural land. Are pheromones a type of pesticide? Explain your
reasoning.
Interpreting Graphics 32. Social Studies Thousands of tons of dead
fish are shoveled back into the ocean each year
Use the graph below to answer questions 26–28. from fishing vessels because the fish are species
26. Analyzing Data In which year was the most that consumers do not want to buy. Identify
corn planted? In which year was the least corn some ways that humans might be able to reuse
harvested? this protein.
27. Analyzing Data How many acres were planted 33. Economics Hundreds of thousands of
with corn in 2007? people starve to death every year. How is this
28. Draw Conclusions According to the graph, problem related to the problem of poverty?
more acres of corn are planted than are harvested Explain your answer.
each year. Why? 34. Prepare a Report Environmental degradation
caused by farming is not a new problem. The
100 Dust Bowl of the 1930s is an example of an
environmental disaster caused by farming
95
practices that we would now consider to be
Corn (in millions of acres)
90 damaging. Investigate the Dust Bowl, and write

a report about it. Include information about the
85 farming practices, laws, and regulations that
Planted
80
were introduced in the United States as a result
of the lessons learned during the 1930s.
75
70
65
Harvested
60
1991 1995 1999 2003 2007 2011
Year
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture

Chapter Review
STUDYSKILL
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
41. How is the menhaden fishing industry
different from other fisheries?
World Food Production 42. Why are members of the sport fishing industry
(in millions of tons) Whyworried about the future of the menhaden
It Matters
Food 1990 1995 1999 2009 catch?
Total Cereals 2000 2000 2000 2000 Why It Matters
Wheat 590 540 590 690 43. How has modern

agriculture changed
Rice 520 550 610 690 crop yield around the
world?
Legumes 1000 1000 1000 1400
44. What role might
Poultry 41 54 65 92 genetic engineering
play in agriculture in
Milk 542 540 570 702 the future?
35. Analyzing Data Compared to 1995, which foods

had increased production in both 1999 and 2009?
36. Analyzing Data Which foods had lower
production in 1995 than in 1990? STUDYSKILL
37. Analyzing Data Taking into account the 1999
data, can you think of any possible reasons for
Making It a Habit Many people find that developing a
routine helps them to study more effectively. Decide which
the answer to question 36?
time of day you feel most alert, and set it aside for studying.
38. Analyzing Data The human population of the Make sure that any distractions around you will be minimal.
world grew by 12 percent between 1990 and 2009. When you regularly follow through with your study plan, you
By what percentage did legumes production
may find that you begin to learn more in less time.
increase during this time?
Making Connections
39. Communicate Ideas Explain how insect
reproduction enables insects to evolve pesticide
resistance very rapidly.
40. Analyzing Information Explain why the
pesticide DDT can still be detected in the
environment even though its use was banned
decades ago.
©David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc./Alamy

ExplorationLab
Simulation
Managing the Moisture
Objectives
Hypothesize ways to reduce
in Garden Soil
the amount of water a home
garden needs. You work as a soil specialist with the Smith County Soil Conservation
District. You are trying to help Latisha Norton, a local resident, solve an
Compare the amount of
water different soil samples
agricultural problem. Latisha has found that she must water her vegetable
can hold. garden very often to keep it healthy. As a result, her family’s water bills
have skyrocketed! Latisha and her family may have to give up their garden
Explain how adding materials
project because of the added expense.
to a soil sample can help
increase the sample’s ability
You realize that the water is probably draining out of the garden soil
to hold water. too quickly. To solve this problem, you need to find out how much water
the soil can hold. You visit her garden and collect several soil samples.
Materials (Your teacher will provide you with soil samples.)
beaker, 250 mL
compost, 5 g
Procedure
crucible (or other heat-safe
container) 1. Dry your soil sample without burning any of the organic matter. To do
this, place about 50 g of soil in a crucible or other heat-safe container.
dry chopped grass
clippings, 5 g
Using tongs, gently heat the sample over a hot plate or put the sample
in an oven. Stir the sample occasionally with a stirring rod to ensure
eyedropper
that the sample becomes completely dry.
filter paper
funnel 2. After the sample is completely dry, weigh about 10 g of dry soil.
heat source (hot plate Record the mass in a data table.
or oven)
metric balance 3. Dampen a circle of filter paper until it is thoroughly moist, but not drip-
ping. Weigh the moist filter paper, and record its mass in a data table.
sawdust, 5 g
soil sample, 50 g 4. As shown below, fold the moist filter paper into quarters. Next,
stirring rod open the filter paper to form a cup that fits in a funnel. Place the
tongs cup-shaped filter paper in the funnel.
watch (or clock)
5. Place the dry soil sample on the filter paper in the funnel. Place the
water
funnel in the beaker.
6. Add water to the soil sample one drop at a time until all of the soil is
moist and water begins to drip out of the funnel. Stop adding water,
and let the funnel sit for 5 min.
Procedure Step 4 Fold the moist filter

paper into quarters, and then open it to
form a cup that fits in a funnel.

HMDScience.com
7. After 5 min, remove the filter paper and moist soil from the funnel,
and weigh the paper and soil together. Record their mass in a
data table.
8. Calculate the mass of the moistened soil sample by subtracting

the mass of the damp filter paper from the mass of the completely
moistened sample and the filter paper. Record the mass in a
data table.
9. Calculate the amount of water that your soil sample can hold by
subtracting the mass of the dry soil sample from the mass of the
moistened soil sample. Record the result in a data table.
10. Calculate the percentage of water that your sample held. Divide the
mass of water the soil held by the mass of the moistened soil sample,
and multiply by 100. The higher the percentage is, the more water
the soil can hold. Record the percentage in a data table.
11. Divide the remaining dry soil sample into three 5 g portions. To the Procedure Step 6 When adding water to the soil
first soil sample, add 5 g of dry compost. To the second soil sample, sample, add one drop at a time until all of the soil is
add 5 g of dry chopped grass clippings. To the third soil sample, add moist and water begins to drip out of the funnel.
5 g of dry sawdust. Weigh each mixed soil sample, and record the
masses of the three samples in a data table.
12. Perform steps 3–10 for each of your mixed soil samples. Record your
results in a data table.
Analysis
1. Organizing Data Compare your results with the results of your
classmates. Which soil samples held water the best? Why?
2. Analyzing Data Which of the additional materials improved the

soil’s ability to hold water?
Conclusions
3. Evaluating Methods Based on your results as well as your research,
what could you recommend to Latisha to reduce the amount of water
her garden needs?
Extension
4. Designing Experiments With the help of your teacher, choose one
more material in addition to the three materials you used in step 11.
Combine two of these materials, and mix them with a soil sample.
Combine the remaining two materials with another soil sample.
Perform steps 3–10 for these two mixed soil samples. Compare
your results with the results you gathered earlier in the lab. Which
combination of materials in the soil samples held water the best?

Ecozine
HMDScience.com


environment Gold from
Ghana
Chapter 17: Points of view

Pipelines and Oil Sands
©Luis Veiga/Image Bank/Getty Images

environment Solar Living
Chapter 19: Points of view How

Should Nuclear Waste Be
Stored?
408
Mineral T
Unit 5
and Energy Chapter 16

Mining and Mineral
E
a
Resources
Resources Chapter 17
Nonrenewable Energy
H
(b) ©Photoshot USA/Canada; (bcr) ©Rafael Macia/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (t) ©Dale O’Dell/Alamy Images; (tcr) ©Accent Alaska.com/Alamy Images
Chapter 18
Renewable Energy
Chapter 19
Waste
This pit in Brazil is one of the world’s

largest iron ore mines. Mineral and
energy resources are essential to human
societies, but extracting and using
these resources has environmental
consequences.
409
Mining and
Chapter 16
Section 1
Minerals and Mineral Resources
Mineral
Section 2
Mineral Exploration and Mining
Section 3
Mining Regulations and Mine
Reclamation
Resources
Why It Matters
This open-pit copper mine
in Arizona has changed the
landscape dramatically.
When the mine is closed,
how might the land be
reclaimed to minimize
environmental cost?
CASESTUDY
Learn more about how mining
affects the environment in the
case study Hydraulic Mining
in the California Goldfields on
pages 418–419.
Online
©Dale O’Dell/Alamy Images
HMDScience.com

410
Section 1
Minerals and Mineral Objectives
Resources
Define the term mineral.

a metal and a nonmetal, and
give two examples of each.
Take a look at the human-made objects that surround you. Almost every solid
Describe three processes by
object you see is made from minerals. As shown in Figure 1.1, we depend on
the use of mineral resources in almost every aspect of our daily lives. The current
which ore minerals form.
challenge is to obtain minerals at minimal cost to the environment. In this chapter,
you will learn about minerals and the environmental effects of mining.
Key Terms
mineral
What Is a Mineral? ore mineral
A mineral is a naturally occurring, usually inorganic solid that has a
characteristic chemical composition, an orderly internal structure, and a Check for Understanding
characteristic set of physical properties. Minerals are made up of atoms Identify List three characteristics of all
of a single element, or of compounds—atoms of two or more elements minerals.
chemically bonded together. The atoms that make up minerals are
arranged in regular, repeating geometric patterns. The arrangement of
the atoms, along with the strength of the chemical bonds between them,
determine the physical properties of minerals. FieldStudy
The elements gold, silver, and copper are considered minerals. These Go to Appendix B to find the field study
types of minerals are called native elements. However, most minerals Rock Ore Mineral?
are compounds. For example, the mineral quartz is made up of silica, a
compound consisting of one silicon atom and two oxygen atoms. When
combined with other elements, silica forms most of the minerals that
make up Earth’s crust.
Figure 1.1 Lifetime Mineral Consumption per Person in the U.S.
Mineral Consumption Mineral consumption Aluminum

is greatest in developed countries, such as the
United States. This graph shows the average Copper
amount of minerals a person in the United States
will consume over his or her lifetime. Iron ore
Lead
Zinc
Clays
Phosphate
Salt
Other metals
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Amount of metals and minerals
(in thousands of pounds)
Source: Mineral Information Institute.
Source: Mineral Information Institute
Chapter 16: Mining and Mineral Resources 411

Figure 1.2
Ore Minerals Certain minerals are Selected Elements and Their Ore Minerals
mined because of the valuable metals Element Important ore minerals
they contain, as shown in the table.
Wulfenite is a minor ore of lead. Nice Aluminum (Al) gibbsite, boehmite, diaspore (bauxite)
specimens of wulfenite are also much
Beryllium (Be) beryl
sought after by mineral collectors.
Chromium (Cr) chromite
Copper (Cu) bornite, cuprite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite
Iron (Fe) goethite, hematite, magnetite, siderite
Lead (Pb) galena
Manganese (Mn) psilomelane, pyrolusite
Mercury (Hg) cinnabar
Molybdenum (Mo) molybdenite
Nickel (Ni) pentlandite
Silver (Ag) acanthite
Tin (Sn) cassiterite
Titanium (Ti) ilmenite, rutile
Uranium (U) carnotite, uraninite
Zinc (Zn) sphalerite
Figure 1.3
Metallic Minerals Gold is one Ore Minerals

of the most economically important Minerals that are valuable and economical to extract are known as
metallic minerals. ore minerals. As shown in Figure 1.2, ore minerals contain elements, many
(t) ©R Lavinsky/iRocks.com/Alamy Images; (b) ©Ted Kinsman/Photo Researchers, Inc.

of which are economically valuable. During the mining process, ore
minerals, along with minerals that have no commercial value, or gangue
(GANG) minerals, are extracted from the host rock. After extraction,
mining companies use various methods to separate ore minerals from
the gangue minerals. The ore minerals are then further refined to
extract the valuable elements they contain. For mining to be profitable,
the price of the final product must be greater than the costs of extraction
and refining.
Metallic Minerals
Ore minerals are either metallic or nonmetallic. Metals conduct
electricity, have shiny surfaces, and are opaque. Many valuable metallic
minerals are native elements such as gold, shown in Figure 1.3. Silver and
copper are also important native elements. Other important ore minerals
are compounds in which metallic elements combine with nonmetallic
elements, such as sulfur or oxygen.
412 Unit 5: Mineral and Energy Resources

Nonmetallic Minerals ECOFACT
Nonmetals tend to be good insulators, may have shiny or dull surfaces, Bauxite
and may allow light to pass through them. Nonmetallic minerals can also The major ore of aluminum is a rock
be native elements or compounds. called bauxite. Bauxite is a mixture
of three aluminum oxide minerals.
How Do Ore Minerals Form? It forms in humid, tropical climates

by the weathering of rocks or soil
As shown in Figure 1.4, economically important ore deposits form in a that contain aluminum. Deposits of
variety of ways. The types of minerals that form depend on the environ- bauxite are called aluminum laterites.
ment in which they form. For example, metallic minerals form below Australia, Guinea, and Jamaica are the
ground when magma cools and hardens. The metallic minerals tend to major world sources of bauxite.
form early in the cooling process and sink to the lower part of the magma
body because they are denser. This process concentrates important ore
minerals that can be extracted economically.
Hydrothermal Solutions
Hot, subsurface waters that contain dissolved minerals are called
hydrothermal solutions. As hydrothermal solutions flow through cracks
in rocks, they dissolve minerals they come in contact with. New minerals
crystallize out of these solutions and then fill fractures to form ore Check for Understanding
deposits called veins. Explain How do evaporites form?
Figure 1.4
Mineral Environments Ore deposits form in different ways upon and beneath Earth’s surface, and at the bottom of lakes and oceans.

Figure 1.5 Evaporites
Uses of Important Metallic As rivers and streams wash over land surfaces, they dissolve salts and
and Nonmetallic Elements carry them into the sea or inland lakes. When the water in these seas or
Aluminum: cans, foil; windows, lakes evaporates, deposits of these salts, called evaporites, are left behind.
doors, siding; appliances, cooking Evaporites form in arid regions where rates of evaporation are high.
utensils; automobiles, aircraft Important evaporite minerals include halite (rock salt) and gypsum.
Copper: cables, wires; electrical
and electronic products; plumbing,
heating; alloys; coinage Mineral Resources and Their Uses
Gold: computers; communications Certain metals are of major economic and industrial importance, as
equipment; spacecraft; dentistry, shown in Figure 1.5. Some metals can be pounded or pressed into various
medicine; jewelry shapes or stretched very thinly without breaking. Other metals are good
Iron: steel making conductors of heat and electricity, or are prized for their durability and
resistance to corrosion. Often, two or more metals are combined to form
Lead: batteries; ammunition; glass;
alloys. Alloys are important because they often combine the most desir-
ceramics
able properties of the metals used to make them. Many new technologies
Silicon: computer chips; glass; depend on the mining of metallic minerals.
ceramics
Nonmetals are among the most widely used minerals in the world.
Silver: photography; electrical For example, gypsum has many applications in the construction indus-
and electronic products; mirrors;
try. It is used to make drywall, or wallboard, for homes and commercial
(r) ©Aero Graphics Inc./The Image Works; (l) ©R Lavinsky/iRocks.com/Alamy Images

chemistry
buildings. It is also a major component of concrete, which is used to build
Sulfur: sulfuric acid; gunpowder; roads, buildings, and other structures. Industrial sand and gravel have
rubber; fungicides uses that range from glassmaking to the manufacture of computer chips.
Titanium: jet engines, aircraft Some nonmetallic minerals, called gemstones, are prized purely for their
bodies, spacecraft, missiles; beauty, rarity, or durability. Important gemstones include diamond, ruby,
pigments sapphire, emerald, aquamarine, topaz, and tourmaline.
Zinc: coatings on steel; brass;
chemical compounds in rubber and
paints; coinage
Ilmenite The mineral ilmenite (left)

is an important source of titanium.
Because titanium is both strong and
lightweight, it is used in aircraft such
as this stealth fighter (right).

1. Define the term mineral. 5. Analyzing Relationships A mineral is a
naturally occurring substance. Are synthetic
2. Explain the difference between a metal and a
minerals produced in laboratories minerals?
nonmetal, and give examples of each.
3. Describe three processes by which
6. Making Comparisons Unlike metals,
minerals form.
nonmetals are not good conductors of heat and
4. List five properties that make metals electricity. How might these properties influence
economically and industrially important. the use of nonmetals in industry? Write a
paragraph to explain your answer.

Section 2
Mineral Exploration Objectives
Describe the manner in which
and Mining
mining companies explore for
new mineral deposits.
Describe three methods of

subsurface mining.
The rate of technological change in the mining industry is increasing rapidly.
Computers are commonly used to make models that show the location of ore Describe two methods of
within a deposit. Mineral exploration data are now obtained from orbiting satellites surface mining.
or from airplanes that carry sophisticated instruments. These instruments help
scientists find new ore deposits. Define placer deposit,
and explain how placer
deposits form.
Mineral Exploration Describe the steps that take
Through mineral exploration, mining companies can identify areas place in smelting an ore.
where there is a high likelihood of finding valuable mineral resources in
quantities that are worth mining. Usually, a mineral deposit has 100 to
1,000 times the concentration of the mineral than ordinary rocks do and Key Terms
enough material to justify opening a mine. subsurface mining
Exploring rock for mineralization is the first step in finding an ore surface mining
deposit. Planes carrying instruments that identify patterns in gravity, placer deposit
magnetism, or radioactivity fly over and collect these data, as well as smelting
images and photographs of an area. When used with satellite images,
these data and aerial photographs can be used to create a geological map
of the surface. As shown in Figure 2.1, rock samples are then taken from
the area. The samples are analyzed to determine ore grade—the metal
content of an ore. If the ore grade is high enough, the companies will drill
test holes that help them estimate the three-dimensional extent of the Check for Understanding
ore. If the ore grade is high enough and the deposit extensive enough, the Describe How are planes used to find
cost to open a mine may be warranted. rich ore deposits?
Figure 2.1
Mineral Exploration A geologist takes ore samples across the freshly blasted tunnel of a Canadian gold mine.
©Paul A. Souders/Corbis

Figure 2.2
Room-and-Pillar Salt Mine The

Wieliczka Salt Mine in Poland produced
table salt from the 13th century until 2007.
Although the mine is now inactive, millions
of tourists have explored the mining site,
including the sculptures and decorated
rooms carved from rock salt by the miners.
Subsurface Mining
Ore deposits that are usually found 50 m or more beneath Earth’s surface
are mined by using subsurface mining methods. A common method
of subsurface mining that is used to extract coal and salt is known as
room-and-pillar mining. In coal mines, a network of entries, called
rooms, are cut into a seam, a horizontal layer of coal. Between the rooms,
pillars of coal are left standing to support the roof. When the mining of
rooms is completed, the pillars are then removed, beginning with pillars
(bl) ©David Barnes/Australia Department of Mineral Resources; (t) ©R H Productions/Robert Harding World Imagery/Corbis
Figure 2.3 at the farthest point in the mine. A large room in an inactive Polish salt
mine, shown in Figure 2.2, now welcomes tourists.
Longwall Mine Heavy equipment, like
the rotating shearer of the longwall mining
system shown here, is used to remove coal Longwall Mining
in subsurface mines. A more efficient way to remove coal from a subsurface seam is to use a
method called longwall mining. In longwall mining, a machine called a
shearer moves back and forth across the face of a coal seam. A shearer
that is used in longwall mining is shown in Figure 2.3. The wall of the
seam, called the longwall, may be more than 300 m long. As coal is
sheared from the face, it falls onto a conveyor. The conveyor transports
the coal out of the mine. A row of hydraulic roof supports protects the
miners and the equipment. As the shearer advances forward through the
coal seam, the mine roof behind the hydraulic supports collapses.
Solution Mining
For underground deposits of soluble mineral ores such as potash, salt,
and sulfur, solution mining is an economical mining method. In solution
mining, hot water is injected into the ore and dissolves it. Compressed air
is then pumped into the dissolved ore, and air bubbles lift it to the surface.

Surface Mining Figure 2.4
Surface mining methods are used when ore deposits are located close Surface Mine Cyanide heap
to Earth’s surface. Open-pit mining is a method that is often used to leaching is being used to extract gold
mine large quantities of near-surface ore. Coal and metals such as from ore at this open-pit mine in Idaho.
copper are mined using the open-pit method.
In an open-pit mine, the ore is mined downward, layer by layer.
First, explosives are used, if needed, to break up the ore. Then, the
ore is loaded into haul trucks. The haul trucks transport the ore from
the mine. Some ores, such as gold ore, are taken to heap leaching
pads, such as the pads shown in Figure 2.4. There, the gold is ex-
tracted from the ore using chemicals.
Surface Coal Mining

The first step in surface coal mining is to remove and set aside the
soil that covers the area to be mined. Next, the rock that lies over
the coal seams (overburden) is removed by heavy equipment in
cuts that may be up to 50 m wide and over a kilometer long. The
overburden is piled alongside the cut. Loaders enter the pit and remove
the exposed coal seam. Once the coal is removed, the pit is refilled with Connect to CHEMISTRY
the overburden and contoured. The soil that has been set aside is now
laid on top of the overburden.
The scale of surface mining can be so large that restoration of original Describe Describe what happens to the
conditions is impossible. In the Appalachian Mountains of the United overburden once all the coal has been
States, mountaintop removal mining displaces up to 400 feet of summits taken out of a surface coal mine.
or ridges of mountains to access coal seams. Overburden is often placed
in adjacent valleys over rivers and streams.
Quarrying Connect to CHEMISTRY

Building stones such as granite and marble are mined in quarries like Cyanide Heap Leaching
the one shown in Figure 2.5. Sand, gravel, and crushed rock, known as Sodium cyanide, NaCN, has been
aggregates, are the main products of quarrying. Quarries also produce used to extract gold from low-grade
clay, gypsum, and talc. ore deposits since the cyanide
heap-leaching process was pioneered
in the United States in the early
Figure 2.5
1970s. Crushed ore from a mine is
Quarry Open pits called quarries are used to mine near-surface materials such as building placed on pads that have bottoms
stone, crushed rock, sand, and gravel. of asphalt or on impervious plastic
(b) ©Enigma/Alamy Images; (tr) ©Photoshot USA/Canada
sheets. A solution of dilute cyanide

is sprayed on the ore. The cyanide
percolates down through the ore for
several weeks to months and leaches
out the gold. The gold, which is now
in solution, drains off the pad into a
pond. From the pond, the gold-bearing
solution is pumped to a recovery
plant, where the gold is removed
from solution.

Figure 2.6 Solar Evaporation
The solar evaporation process consists of placing sea water, which is
Solar Evaporation This is an aerial
about 2.7 percent sodium chloride, into enormous, shallow ponds.
view of solar evaporation ponds used to
produce salt on San Francisco Bay.
The sun evaporates the sea water, which causes the sodium chloride
concentration to increase. When the concentration of sodium chloride in
the sea water reaches a little over 25 percent, salt crystals begin to form.
With further evaporation, layers of crystalline salt, or halite, build up.
When these layers reach the desired thickness, the salt is harvested. Salt
harvesting generally occurs once a year.
Solar evaporation is a method of salt production that is used in areas
that receive little rainfall and that have high evaporation rates. Along the
Mediterranean Sea, on San Francisco Bay, and particularly in Australia,
solar evaporation is practical because evaporation far exceeds rainfall.
(tl) ©Still Pictures; (b) ©Bettmann/Corbis

Steady prevailing winds, which increase the rate of evaporation, are also
important to solar evaporation. Figure 2.6 shows solar evaporation ponds
on San Francisco Bay.
The solar evaporation process has been used to produce salt for
thousands of years. Today, solar evaporation is used largely in developing
countries. About 30 percent of the world’s salt comes from the solar
evaporation process.
CASESTUDY
Hydraulic Mining in the California

Goldfields
About 50 million years ago, rivers bearing gold flowed
across present-day northern California. Over time, the
geologic processes that formed the Sierra Nevada
Mountains buried the gold-bearing river gravels beneath
as much as 60 m of soil. A method was needed to remove
this soil and recover the gold from the gravels of the
ancient riverbeds.
The technology to perform this task, called hydraulic
mining, was developed in the early 1850s. Hydraulic
miners used huge 4- to 5.5-m long water cannons, called
monitors, to send high-pressure streams of water into the
Sierra Nevada mountainsides. The sediments that were
blasted from the mountainsides mixed with the water to
form a slurry, which was washed through a series of long,
inclined troughs called sluices. The sluices were lined Powerful streams of water were directed at the
with a series of devices known as riffles to catch the gold. mountainside. Washing away the soil from the
Mercury was also added to the riffles to help capture the mountainside exposed the gold-bearing river gravels,
but caused irreparable damage to the mountains and
gold. The muddy water and processed sediments were
surrounding ecosystems.
then discharged into adjacent rivers.

Placer Mining Figure 2.7
When rock weathers and disintegrates, minerals within the rock are Dredging This dredge is mining gold
released. These minerals are concentrated by wind and water into from placer deposits along a river on
surface deposits called placer deposits. The most important placer de- New Zealand’s South Island.
posits are stream placers. Streams transport mineral grains to a point
where they fall to the streambed and are concentrated. Concen
(tr) ©James L. Amos/Corbis; (bl) ©The Protected Art Archive/Alamy Images
tration occurs at places where currents are weak and the dense
mineral grains can no longer be carried in the water. These stream
placers often occur at bends in rivers, where the current slows.
Placer deposits may form along coastlines from heavy minerals
that wash down to the ocean in streams. These heavy minerals are
concentrated by wave action.
Placer gold, diamonds, and other heavy minerals are mined by
dredging. As shown in Figure 2.7, a dredge consists of a floating barge
on which buckets fixed on a conveyor are used to excavate sedi-
ments in front of the dredge. Gold, diamonds, or heavy minerals
are separated from the sediments within the dredge housing. The
processed sediments are discharged via a conveyor that is located
behind the dredge.
Hydraulic mining in 1866, near

French Corral, California.
Hydraulic mining proved to be an environmental door on hydraulic mining in the Sierra Nevada goldfields,
disaster. Muddy water and sediments polluted rivers and whereCritical Thinking
2 billion cubic meters of soil and rocks had been
caused them to fill with silt. The silt from the hydraulic mines carved from the mountainsides in just over 30 years.
traveled as far downstream as San Francisco and into the
Pacific Ocean. As much as 1.4 to 3.6 million kilograms of
mercury may have been released downstream, poisoning Critical Thinking
fish, amphibians, and invertebrates. Farmers in California’s
central valley sustained millions of dollars in damage as their
1. Making Inferences What do you think were
other environmental effects of hydraulic mining
fields were flooded when the sediment-choked Sacramento
that were not mentioned in this article?
River overflowed its banks. But the farmers fought back.
In January 1884, Judge Lorenzo Sawyer ruled that mine 2. Analyzing Relationships Write a paragraph
about how the mercury that was lost during
tailings could no longer be discharged into the rivers. The
hydraulic mining may still be affecting the
Sawyer decision was the first environmental ruling to be
environment today.
handed down in the United States. This ruling closed the

Figure 2.8
QUICKLAB
Smelting At a smelter,
QUICKLAB
Surface Coal Mining
ore is melted at high
Procedure
temperatures in a furnace
1. Obtain a sample of some land
to obtain a desired metal.
(cream-filled cupcake).
2. Use a core sampler (toothpick)
and carefully probe the surface to
determine the depth and location
of the coal seam.
3. Using your mining equipment
(plastic spoon), carefully remove the
topsoil (frosting) and overburden
(cake above the filling); find and
record the mass of each (in grams)
and set them carefully aside.
4. Once you have reached the coal Smelting
seam (cream-filled center), remove In the process called smelting, crushed ore is melted at high temperatures
the coal (cream filling), find and in furnaces to separate impurities from molten metal. In the furnace,
record its mass and set it aside. material called a flux bonds with impurities and separates them from
5. Restore the site by replacing the the molten metal. The molten metal, which is desired, falls to the bottom
overburden and topsoil over the of the furnace and is recovered. The flux and impurities, which are less
empty mine. dense, form a layer called slag on top of the molten metal. Gases such as
Analysis sulfur dioxide form within the furnace and are captured, so they do not
1. Calculate the mass ratio of soil enter the environment. Figure 2.8 shows a worker pouring molten alumi-
and overburden to coal. num from a ladle in a factory in China.
2. How closely did the restored
site resemble the land before it
was mined? Undersea Mining
3. What might need to be addressed The ocean floor contains significant mineral resources, which include
to mine coal in a way that is diamonds, precious metals such as gold and silver, mineral ores, and
environmentally sound?
sand and gravel. Since the late 1950s, several attempts have been made
©Guo Jian She/Redlink/Corbis

to mine the ocean. These attempts met with varying degrees of success.
Competition with land-based companies that can mine minerals more
cheaply and the great water depths at which some mineral deposits
are found are two of the reasons undersea mining has been largely
unsuccessful to date.

1. List the steps in mineral exploration. 6. Making Comparisons Read about surface
and subsurface mining techniques. What are
2. Describe three methods of subsurface mining.
some of the advantages and disadvantages of
3. Describe two methods of surface mining. each technique?
4. Describe the steps involved in smelting ore. 7. Understanding Relationships If a mining
company were exploring a river for potential
5. Define the term placer deposit, and explain
placer deposits, where are some likely places
how placer deposits form.
they would focus their exploration?

Section 3
Mining Regulations Objectives
and Mine Reclamation

Describe seven important
potential environmental
consequences of mining.
Name four federal laws that

Growing world economies, new technologies, and increasing energy consumption relate to mining and reclaiming
fuel the need for raw materials. Increasing mining activity can alter enormous areas mined land.
of land and water. This increases the potential for adverse environmental effects,
even far from the location of mining. Define the term reclamation.
Particularly in developed countries like the United States, mining operations Describe two ways in
are heavily regulated to reduce the negative environmental impacts, such as scars
which state governments
left on the landscape similar to those shown in Figure 3.1. For example, mining
companies must develop a plan to reclaim the land before starting a mining
regulate mining.
operation. Most developing countries have more difficulty creating regulations
or funding the enforcement of existing regulations. This results in considerable
environmental and social harm. Even in developed countries, land altered by Key Terms
large-scale mining cannot be returned to its original condition, even with the best subsidence
of intentions. reclamation
The Environmental Impacts of Mining

There are many environmental impacts of mining. In the United States,
governments and mining companies are spending billions of dollars to
clean up abandoned mines and to offset the negative effects of operat-
ing mines. In less-developed countries, mining that does not include
environmental protection or restoration adversely affects human health
and ecosystems.
Figure 3.1
Excavation At 215 m deep and 1.6 km in circumference, the “Big Hole” at the Kimberley Mine in South Africa is the largest hand-dug
excavation in the world. By the time the mine closed in 1914, 22.5 million tons of rock had yielded almost 3,000 kg of diamonds.
©Phillip Richardson/Gallo Images/Corbis

Air and Noise Pollution
Smelting can release hazardous pollutants into the atmosphere. The
smelting process involves high heat and the chemical reactions of sub-
stances that can be harmful to humans and other organisms. Metals, such
as lead, mercury, and arsenic, can be toxic to plants and animals.
Surface mining can cause both air pollution and noise pollution. At
surface coal mines, dust is produced by removing, loading, hauling, and
dumping soil and overburden. Loading, hauling, and unloading rock all
create dust emissions at open-pit mines. In addition, dust is created in
open-pit mines when the ore-bearing rock is blasted apart.
Noise is created by the equipment that is used in a mine, as well as
by blasting. Whereas equipment noise may be a nuisance, blasting can
cause physical damage to nearby structures and organisms.
Water Contamination
Water resources can be negatively impacted by mining. Water that
seeps into mines or through piles of excess rock can pick up or dis-
Check for Understanding solve toxic substances like arsenic. These contaminants can wash into
Explain Why does surface mining cause streams, where they can harm or kill aquatic life. Smelting also can add to
animals to leave an area? water pollution.
Coal or minerals that contain sulfur can cause a similar problem.
When these substances react with oxygen and water, they form dilute
sulfuric acid. This acid can dissolve toxic minerals that remain in mines.
The contaminated water that results from this process
Figure 3.2
is known as acid mine drainage, or AMD. An example of
Water Contamination Copper mines have polluted the Queen AMD is shown in Figure 3.2. Mining regulation in the U.S.
River in Tasmania with acid mine drainage. This photo shows the requires companies to dispose of acid-producing rock in
river flowing past residential housing. such a way that water is not contaminated.
Displacement of Wildlife
Removing soil from a surface mine site strips away all
plant life. With their natural habitat removed, animals
will leave the area. In addition, when mining is com-
pleted and the soil is returned to the mine site, different
plants and animals may establish themselves, which
creates an entirely new ecosystem. These new ecosys-
tems are often dominated by invasive rather than by
native species.
Dredging can negatively affect aquatic ecosystems
and physically change the bottoms of rivers. Dredging
disturbs river bottoms and destroys aquatic plant life in
the dredged portion of the river. The disturbance of a

riverbed can cause sediments to contaminate a river for
up to 10 km.

Erosion and Sedimentation Connect to MATH
Excess rock from mines is sometimes dumped into large piles called dumps.
Volume
Running water erodes unprotected dumps and transports sediments into
Soil and overburden must be removed
nearby streams. The sediments may harm water quality and aquatic life.
to reach a coal seam that is 10 m
below Earth’s surface. The exposed
Soil Degradation seam will be 1 km in length and 50 m
wide. What is the total volume of soil
Soil at a mine site is removed from the uppermost layer downward. When
and overburden that will have to be
this soil is stored for later reuse, care must be taken to ensure that the
moved and stored? If the coal seam
upper soil layers are not buried beneath soil layers that were originally is 5 m thick, what is the volume of
below them. In this way, the soil layers that are richest in important coal that will be removed? (Hint: The
nutrients are not covered. If soil is not removed and stored in separate answers should be in m3.) What is the
layers, the soil may be nutrient poor when it is reclaimed. ratio of overburden to coal?
Minerals that contain sulfur may be found in deeper soil layers. If
these minerals are exposed to water and oxygen in the atmosphere,
chemical reactions result in the release of acid, which then acidifies the
soil. When the acidified soil is returned to the mine site, it may be difficult
for plants to grow.
Subsidence
The sinking of regions of the ground with little or no horizontal movement Check for Understanding
is called subsidence (suhb SIED’ns). Subsidence occurs when pillars that Determine How might exposing
have been left standing in mines collapse or the mine roof or floor fails. deep soil layers to the atmosphere
Buildings, houses, roads, bridges, underground pipelines, and utilities prevent plants from growing?
that are built over abandoned mines could be damaged if the ground below
them subsides. In November and December 2000, underground limestone
mines that were several hundred years old collapsed in Edinburgh, Scot-
land. The collapse caused property damage and forced people to evacuate
their homes. Figure 3.3 shows the potential effects of mine subsidence.
Figure 3.3
Subsidence A hole created by the subsidence of a gold mine swallowed this house in New Zealand.
©Dean Purcell/AP/Wide World Photos

ECOFACT
Figure 3.4
Mine Fire This photo shows a coal

seam that is on fire in a surface coal
mine in China.
ECOFACT Underground Mine Fires

Bats and Mines Fires that start in underground coal seams are one of the most serious
Over the past century, human environmental consequences of coal mining. Lightning, forest fires, and
disturbance of traditional bat roosting burning trash can all cause coal-seam fires. In addition, fires can start by
sites, such as caves and trees, has themselves when minerals in the coal that contain sulfur are exposed to
caused bats to move into abandoned oxygen. These fires are hard to put out and are often left to burn them-
mines. At present, 30 of the 45 selves out, which may take decades or even centuries. For example, a fire
species of bats in the United States that has been burning through an underground coal seam in an Austra-
live in mines. Some of the largest lian mountain is estimated to be 2,000 years old! Underground fires that
populations of endangered bat species burn their way to the surface release smoke and gases that can cause
now live in abandoned mines. respiratory problems. A fire in a coal seam is shown in Figure 3.4.
Mining Regulation and Reclamation

Mines on land in the United States are regulated by federal and state laws.
To ensure that contaminants from mines do not threaten water quality,
mining companies must comply with regulations of the Clean Water Act
and the Safe Drinking Water Act. The release of hazardous substances
into the air, soil, and water by mining is regulated by the Comprehensive
Response Compensation and Liability Act. In addition, all mining
operations must comply with the Endangered Species Act. This act
ensures that mining activities will not affect threatened or endangered
species and their habitats.
©Dr. Prakash/University of Arkansas, Geophysical Institute
Reclamation
The process of returning land to its original or better condition after min-
ing is completed is called reclamation. The Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA) created a program for the regulation of
surface coal mining on public and private land. The act set standards that
would minimize the surface effects of coal mining on the environment.
SMCRA also established a fund that is administered by the federal gov-
ernment and is used to reclaim land and water resources that have been
adversely affected by past coal-mining activities.

State Regulation of Mining Connect to HISTORY
Within the United States, states have created programs to regulate mining
Jihlava
on state and private lands. Mining companies must obtain permits from Jihlava is an ancient town in the
state environmental agencies before mining a site. These permits specify Czech Republic. In the 1200s, silver
certain standards for mine design and reclamation. In addition, some was discovered in Jihlava. The
states have bond forfeiture programs. In a bond forfeiture program, a rush that followed brought miners,
mining company must post funds, called a bond, before a mining project merchants, and traders from all
begins. If the company does not mine and reclaim a site according to the over Europe. As a result, Jihlava
standards required by its permits, the company must give these funds to became very prosperous. In addition
the state. The state then uses the funds to reclaim the site. A surface mine to creating municipal laws, the town
in the process of reclamation is shown in Figure 3.5. passed its own mining laws. Jihlava’s
State agencies are also responsible for inspecting mines to ensure mining laws served as an example for
compliance with environmental regulations. Agencies issue violations to other mining towns in central Europe.
companies that do not comply with environmental regulations and assess
fines for noncompliance. In addition, states such as Pennsylvania have
begun large projects to reclaim abandoned mine lands. Acid mine drain-
age, mine fires, mine subsidence, and hazards related to open shafts and
abandoned mining structures are all problems that these projects will
attempt to correct.
Figure 3.5
Reclamation Reclamation often includes seeding, planting, and irrigating to return the land to its original state.
©Greenshoots Communication/Alamy Images

1. List seven potential environmental impacts 5. Making Decisions Give examples of
of mining. environmental concerns that would be taken
into account by a mining company when it
2. Name four federal laws that regulate mining
created a reclamation plan for a mine site.
activities in the United States.
6. Making Decisions Read about how topsoil
3. Define the term reclamation.
is removed and stored for later reclamation
4. Describe two ways in which state governments under the heading “Soil Degradation.” How
regulate mining. can this process be implemented to keep soils
from degrading?

Maps in Action
Mineral Production in the

United States
Top 10 mineral commodities produced in the united states
3
4 7
1
1 2
6 7 8 2 8 9
8 2
5
1 5
1
9 10
3 4 10 4
2 1 5
3 6 7 9 1 2
3 10
2 7
5 10 6
5
8 2
2 4 4
7 5 10 1
Stone 11.3
1 2 5 Sand and gravel 7.1
9
9 Gold 7.0
1
Copper 6.3
6
Cement 6.2
Phosphate 3.4
Molybdenum 2.9
3 Iron ore 2.6
Salt 1.8
Lime 1.7
50.3
MAP SKILLS
In 2009, the top 10 mineral commodities produced in the United States had a total value of about $50.3 billion. More than half
of this production value came from the top three commodities: stone, sand and gravel, and gold. The map above shows the
distribution of the production of these commodities by state. Use the map above to answer the following questions.
1. Using a Key Find your state on the map of mineral 3. Evaluating Data Stone, sand, and gravel are
production. Which of the top 10 mineral commodities, collectively known as aggregates. What percentage of
if any, were produced in your state in 2009? total 2009 production value do aggregates represent?
Which states were the major producers of aggregates
2. Evaluating Data Gold, copper, iron ore, and
in 2009?
molybdenum are metals in the top 10 mineral
commodities produced in 2009. What percentage 4. Using a Key Which states produced salt in 2009?
of total 2009 production value do these metals
represent? Which states were the principal producers
of these metals in 2009?

at HMDScience.com
Gold from Ghana

The world market price of gold rose from $260
Geologists and miners inspect core samples at an underground gold
to $1,730 per ounce between 2001 and 2012. Most mine in Obuasi, Ghana.
people don’t think about it, but the environmental
and social consequences of this price increase have
been substantial. This is especially true in countries
where many people live in poverty. The situation in
Ghana illustrates the complex interplay of societal
and environmental processes that can lead to local
crises or, alternatively, show cause for hope.
Ghana, which is located on the west coast of
Africa, has an unusual geological history in which
gold deposits were concentrated in several bands
that cover about one-sixth of the country. Historical
records show that gold began to be exported from
Ghana starting in the 16th century, and now Ghana
is Africa’s second largest producer of gold. Much of
the gold is in deposits suitable for large-scale mining
operations, but a substantial amount is located in
river deposits that can be mined in small operations
with primitive equipment.
The government of Ghana is working diligently
to overcome the economic challenges remaining
from a history of colonial exploitation. Until recently, ecological systems. Mercury-containing fumes are carried far
export earnings depended on just a few commodities. While from extraction sites, and mercury contaminates agricultural
Ghana’s primary product for world trade used to be cocoa, areas and drinking water. In addition, small-scale gold
gold is now the country’s most important export. The literacy extraction can redirect rivers, increase erosion, and cause
rate was 67% in 2009 (up from 58% in 2000), and about 28% water pollution from acid-bearing rocks exposed by the
of the population lives below the poverty level. In order to mining. Contaminated and stagnant water increase diseases.
improve economic opportunity (and to recover some income), These problems create major challenges to economic
the Ghanaian government passed laws to regulate small-scale advancement for impoverished people.
gold mining. While providing much-needed economic benefits for
Underground mines in Ghana provide about 90% of What Do You Think?
Ghana and many of its people, small-scale gold mining may
exported gold. At least some of these large operations use be harming the long-term future of agriculture, including
environmentally friendly processes, such as bacterial oxidation economically valuable cocoa and coffee plantations. Poisoning
instead of separating gold from other material with toxic people and damaging subsistence agriculture add to the
mercury. Small-scale gold mining produces 10% of Ghana’s problems. The government is trying to address these issues,
©Greenshots Communications/Alamy Images
gold. This segment of the industry is performed by people who but people in poverty appear to have few options.
lack the resources to apply modern gold-mining methods. In
small-scale mining, gold is separated from alluvial sediments
with environmentally harmful processes. What Do You Think?
Using mercury is the most harmful process by which
What are some strategies that you think would
gold can be extracted from sediments. Mercury that enters help reduce the environmental damage caused by
the environment through water or air is toxic to humans and gold extraction?

Chapter 16 Summary
Section 1 inerals and Mineral

M Objectives Key Terms
Resources
• A mineral is a naturally occurring, usually inorganic mineral
solid that has a characteristic chemical composition, ore mineral
an orderly physical structure, and a characteristic set
of physical properties.
• Minerals that are valuable and economical to extract
are known as ore minerals.
• Ore minerals may form from the cooling of magma, the
circulation of hot-water solutions through rocks, and
the evaporation of water that contains salts.
• Metals are important economically because of their
electrical and thermal conductivity, durability, and heat
and corrosion resistance.
Section 2 ineral Exploration and

Mining
• Mining companies conduct mineral exploration to subsurface
identify areas where there is a high likelihood of finding mining
valuable mineral resources in quantities worth mining. surface mining
• Room-and-pillar mining, longwall mining, and solution placer deposit
mining are subsurface mining methods. smelting
• Open-pit mining, surface coal mining, quarrying, and
solar evaporation are surface-mining methods.
• Minerals are concentrated by wind and water into
surface deposits called placer deposits.
• Smelting is the process in which ore is melted at
(b) ©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (t) ©R Lavinsky/iRocks.com/Alamy Images; (c) ©Still Pictures
high temperatures to separate impurities from the
molten metal.
Section 3 ining Regulations and

Mine Reclamation
• Some of the environmental consequences of mining may subsidence
include air and noise pollution, water contamination, reclamation
displacement of wildlife, erosion and sedimentation, soil
degradation, subsidence, and underground mine fires.
• The U.S. government has enacted legislation that
regulates mining and attempts to minimize the impact
of mining on the environment.
• Federal and state agencies issue permits to mining
companies, issue violations and assess penalties when
mining companies do not comply with standards set by
their permits, and ensure that abandoned mine lands
are reclaimed.

Chapter 16 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 14. Which of the following economically important
elements is not a metal?
a. zinc
1. mineral
b. titanium
2. placer deposit
c. copper
3. smelting
d. sulfur
4. subsidence
5. reclamation 15. Which of the following methods is not a
subsurface mining method?
a. quarrying
the terms differ.
b. solution mining
6. element and mineral
c. longwall mining
7. ore mineral and gangue mineral
d. room-and-pillar mining
8. placer deposit and dredging
9. subsurface mining and surface mining 16. Which of the following mining methods would
10. Concept Map Use the following terms to create most likely be used to mine salt?
a concept map: subsurface mining, surface a. solution mining
mining, room-and-pillar mining, longwall mining,
b. open-pit mining
solution mining, open-pit mining, surface coal
mining, and quarrying. c. solar evaporation
d. both (a) and (c)
Reviewing Main Ideas 17. Dredging would not be used to mine

11. Which of the following statements does not a. diamonds.
correctly describe a mineral? b. salt.
a. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance. c. heavy minerals.
b. A mineral is an organic substance. d. gold.
c. A mineral is a solid substance.
18. Which of the following elements in minerals
d. A mineral has a characteristic chemical causes soil to become acidified?
composition.
a. potassium
12. Gold, silver, and copper are b. calcium
a. nonmetallic minerals. c. sulfur
b. native elements. d. barium
c. compounds.
19. Which of the following pieces of federal legislation
d. gangue minerals. established a program for regulating coal mining
on public and private lands?
13. Ore deposits form from
a. the Comprehensive Response and Liability Act
a. the cooling of magma.
b. the Clean Air Act
b. the evaporation of water that contains salts.
c. the Clean Water Act
c. the circulation of hot-water solutions in rocks.
d. the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation
d. All of the above Act of 1977

Chapter Review

20. What is the difference between native elements 28. Analyzing Relationships Read about the
and compounds? technological changes in the mining industry that
21. Describe the solar evaporation process. are discussed in the introduction to Section 2.
What method or methods of mining seem well
22. What are the surface and subsurface methods by suited for automation, particularly robotics?
which coal is commonly mined?
29. Making Decisions Mining companies use
23. Explain why undersea mining has been largely computer models to show them where high- and
unsuccessful to date. low-grade ores are located in the deposit that they
24. Describe how reclaimed soil may become degraded. are mining. If the price of the ore mineral that
25. Explain the purpose of a state bond forfeiture a company is mining suddenly increases, how
program. would computer modeling help the company
economically exploit the mineral deposit to take
advantage of the increase in price?
Interpreting Graphics 30. Social Studies Fifteen to 20 miles southwest
of Santa Fe, New Mexico, are a series of low hills
The graph below shows total U.S. mineral known as Los Cerrillos. Native Americans mined
production from 2006 to 2010. Use the graph the blue-green gemstone turquoise from narrow
to answer questions 26–27. veins in rock from these hills for more than 1,000
26. In 2006, metals accounted for $23 billion of the years, beginning in about the year 875. Research
$39 billion total U.S. production of minerals. Native American mining at Los Cerrillos, New
Metals accounted for what percentage of the total Mexico. Write a short report about your findings.
U.S. production of minerals? 31. Debate A mining company has applied for
27. In 2010, metals accounted for $29 billion of the permits to establish a surface mine on land that
$35 billion total U.S. production of minerals. is located near a stretch of river in which an
Metals accounted for what percentage of the total endangered species of fish lives. Assume that
U.S. production of minerals? the ore to be mined is rare and has important
new applications in cancer treatment. Weighing
Changes in U.S. Mineral Production both sides of the argument, would you issue the
2006–2010 permits? Make your case for or against issuing the
80 Metals
mining permits in a debate with your classmates.
Industrial minerals
70
U.S. mineral production
(in billions of dollars)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Source: U.S. Geological Survey

Chapter Review
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
32. Making Calculations Some low-grade gold ores
that have been mined economically average about 36. How does hydraulic mining lead to flooding
0.1 oz of gold per ton of ore. Five tons of rock must downstream from the mining site?
be removed to obtain one ton of ore. How many STUDYSKILL
37. Besides the California gold rush, where else
tons of rock must be mined to obtain 1 oz of gold? has hydraulic mining been used? Research
How many pounds of ore must be processed to at least one other type of hydraulic mining
obtain 1 oz of gold?
Whyoperation.
It Matters How was the environment affected
by the mining operation that you researched?
Making Connections Why It Matters

33. Communicating Main Ideas One of the main 38. This copper
ideas of this chapter is that the human need mine presents
for minerals requires mining companies to environmental
continually find new deposits of minerals that challenges, but
can be extracted inexpensively. Extraction must copper is a widely
be done in such a way that the environment is used, very important
not severely affected. Using surface coal mining resource. Research
or open-pit mining as an example, explain why and describe several
it is difficult to mine large ore deposits without uses of copper.
affecting the environment.
34. Writing Persuasively A mining company is
applying for permits to establish an open-pit
mine near your home. Do research to determine
what impact, if any, the operation will have on
your quality of life, the environment, and the STUDYSKILL
economics of your community. Summarize your Using Terms Work together with a study partner. Learn
findings in a concise one-page paper. the definitions of both the boldfaced and italicized words that
35. Outlining Topics You are an exploration appear in this chapter. When both you and your partner feel
geologist who works for a mining company. You confident in having learned the meanings of these terms,
are searching for a new deposit of an ore mineral. take out a piece of paper. On this paper, you and your partner
Outline the steps you would take to find a deposit will each write a one-page essay in which you use as many
and to determine whether that deposit would be of these terms as possible. When you both are finished,
economical to mine. exchange essays and review them for accuracy.
©Dale O’Dell/Alamy Images

ExplorationLab
Investigation
Extraction of Copper
Objectives
Extract copper from copper
from Its Ore
carbonate in much the same
way that copper is extracted Most metals are combined with other elements in the Earth’s crust.
from malachite ore. A material in the crust that is a profitable source of an element is called
Hypothesize how this
an ore. Malachite (MAL uh KIET) is the basic carbonate of copper. The
process can be applied green corrosion that forms on copper because of weathering has the same
to extract other metallic composition that malachite does. The reactions of malachite are similar to
elements from ores. those of copper carbonate.
In this investigation, you will extract copper from copper carbonate
Materials using heat and dilute sulfuric acid. The process you will be using will be
Bunsen burner similar to the process in which copper is extracted from malachite ore.
copper (cupric) carbonate
funnel
Procedure
iron filings
1. Caution: Wear your laboratory apron, gloves, and safety goggles
sulfuric acid, dilute
throughout the investigation. Fill one of the test tubes about one-fourth
test-tube holder full of copper carbonate. Record the color of the copper carbonate.
test-tube rack
test tubes, 13 mm x 2. Light the Bunsen burner, and adjust the flame.
100 mm (2)
water 3. Heat the copper carbonate by holding the tube over the flame with a
test-tube holder, as shown in the figure on the next page. Caution:
When heating a test tube, point it away from yourself and other
students. To prevent the test tube from breaking, heat it slowly by
gently moving the test tube over the flame. As you heat the copper
carbonate, observe any changes in color.
4. Continue heating the tube over the flame for 5 min.
5. Allow the test tube to cool. Observe any change in the volume of the
material in the test tube. Then, place the test tube in the test-tube
rack. Insert a funnel in the test tube, and add dilute sulfuric acid until
the test tube is three-fourths full. Caution: Avoid touching the sides
of the test tube, which may be hot. If any of the acid gets on your skin
or clothing, rinse immediately with cool water and alert your teacher.
Copper Ore Malachite is a carbonate of

copper that commonly forms in copper
©Dean Purcell/AP/Wide World Photos
deposits. It is sometimes used as an ore

of copper.

6. Allow the test tube to stand until some of the Step 3 To heat the copper
substance at the bottom of the test tube dissolves. carbonate, hold the tube over
After the sulfuric acid has dissolved some of the the flame with a test-tube holder.
solid substance, note the color of the solution. Point the test tube away from
yourself and other students.
7. Use a second test tube to add more sulfuric acid
to the first test tube until the first test tube is
nearly full. Allow the first test tube to stand until
more of the substance at the bottom of the test
tube dissolves. Pour this solution (copper sulfate)
into the second test tube.
8. Add a small number of iron filings to the second

test tube. Observe what happens.
9. Clean all of the laboratory equipment, and

dispose of the sulfuric acid as directed by
your teacher.
Analysis
1. Explaining Events Disregarding any condensed
water on the test-tube walls, what do you call
the substance formed in the first test tube? Explain any change in the
volume of the new substance relative to the volume of the copper
carbonate.
2. Explaining Events When the iron filings were added to the

second test tube, what indicated that a chemical reaction was taking
place? Explain any change to the iron filings. Explain any change in
the solution.
Conclusions
3. Drawing Conclusions Why was sulfuric acid used to extract copper
from copper carbonate?
Extension
4. Analyzing Data Suppose that a certain deposit of copper ore contains
a minimum of 1 percent copper by mass and that copper sells for
$0.30 per kilogram. Approximately how much could you spend to mine
and process the copper from 100 kg of copper ore and remain profitable?
5. Making Comparisons How is the process used in this experiment

similar to the cyanide heap-leaching process used to extract gold from
low-grade ore?

Chapter 17
Section 1
Energy Resources and
Nonrenewable
Energy
Fossil Fuels
Section 2
Nuclear Energy
Why It Matters
The towers in this plant process
petroleum into its component
parts. What are a few different
products that are made
from petroleum?
CASESTUDY
Learn more about technologies
used to access natural gas in
the feature The “Gas” Rush—
Deep Hydraulic Fracturing on
pages 440–441.
©Accent Alaska.com/Alamy Images
Online
HMDScience.com

434
Section 1
Energy Resources Objectives
and Fossil Fuels

List five factors that influence
the value of a fuel.
Explain how fuels are used

to generate electricity in an
How does a sunny day 200 million years ago relate to your life today? Chances are electric power plant.
that if you traveled to school today or used a product made of plastic, you used
some of the energy from sunlight that fell on Earth several hundred million years
Identify patterns of energy
ago. Life as we know it would be very different without the fuels or products formed consumption and production
from plants and animals that lived even before the dinosaurs. in the world and in the
The fuels we use to run cars, ships, planes, and factories, and to produce United States.
electricity, are natural resources. Most of the energy we use comes from a group
of natural resources called fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are the remains of ancient
Explain how fossil fuels form
organisms that changed into coal, oil, or natural gas. Fossil fuels are central to and how they are used.
life in modern societies, yet there are two main problems with fossil fuels. First,
the supply of fossil fuels is limited. Second, obtaining and using them causes
Compare the advantages and
environmental problems. In the 21st century, societies will continue to explore disadvantages of fossil-fuel use.
alternatives to fossil fuels but will also focus on developing more-efficient ways
to use these fuels.
List three factors that influence
predictions of fossil-fuel
production.
Fuels for Different Uses
Fuels are used for five main purposes: cooking, transportation, Key Terms
manufacturing, heating and cooling buildings, and generating electricity
fossil fuels
to run machines and appliances. The suitability of a fuel for each
application depends on the fuel’s energy content, cost, availability, and
electric generator
safety, and the byproducts of the fuel’s use. For example, it is hard to petroleum
imagine an airplane, such as the one shown in Figure 1.1, running on oil reserves
coal. Although coal is readily available and inexpensive, to power an
airplane using coal would require hundreds of tons of coal. Likewise,
the people shown around the campfire are not warming themselves by
burning airplane fuel, they are burning wood, which is a perfect fuel for
their needs.
(br) ©Richard Hutchings/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (bl) ©Fstop/Alamy Images
Figure 1.1
Different Fuels, Different Purposes The airplane (left) is being refueled with a highly
refined liquid fuel. Airplane fuel must have a high ratio of energy to weight. The campers (right)
are keeping warm by burning wood in an open fire.
Chapter 17: Nonrenewable Energy 435

Figure 1.2 Electricity—Power on Demand
Electricity These pylons and wires The energy in fuels is often converted into electrical energy in order to power
are part of an electricity distribution machines, because electricity is more convenient to use. Computers, for
grid in upstate New York. example, run on electricity rather than oil. Electricity can be transported
quickly across great distances, such as an entire state, or across tiny
distances, such as inside a computer chip. The electricity that powers
the lights in your school was generated in a power plant and then carried
to users through a distribution grid like the one shown in Figure 1.2. Two
disadvantages of electricity are that it is difficult to store and other energy
sources have to be used to generate it.
How Is Electricity Generated?

An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy, or
motion, into electrical energy. Generators produce electrical energy by
moving an electrically conductive material within a magnetic field. Most
commercial electric generators convert the movement of a turbine into
electrical energy, as shown in Figure 1.3. A turbine is a wheel that changes
the force of a moving gas or liquid into energy that can do work. In most
power plants, water is boiled to produce the steam that turns the turbine.
The water is heated by burning a fuel in coal-fired and gas-fired plants or
from the fission of uranium in nuclear plants. The turbine spins a genera-
tor to produce electricity.
Figure 1.3
How a Coal-Fired Power Plant Works
©Photoshot USA/Canada

Figure 1.4 Energy Consumption per Person by Country, 1990 and 2006
450
Energy Consumption During the 400 1990
period from 1990 through 2006, energy
Energy consumption per person

2006
350
use per person stayed about the same
in Switzerland and in the United States. 300
(in millions of Btu)

Energy use per person in South Korea 250
approximately doubled. 200
150
100
50
0
Canada United Switzer- Japan South Argen- Indo-
States land Korea tina nesia
Source: U.S. Department of Energy
Energy Use
Every product requires energy to produce. And the price of most products
and services that you use reflects the cost of energy. Buying a plane ticket,
for example, includes the cost of the fuel.
Figure 1.5
World Patterns U.S. Energy Use This graph

shows the percentages of total
People in developed countries use much more energy than people energy use in the United States for
in developing countries do. However, energy use in some developing different purposes.
countries is growing rapidly. Even within the developed world there are
How Energy Is Used
striking differences in energy use. For example, Figure 1.4 shows that a in the United States
person in Canada or the United States uses more than twice as much
energy as a person in Japan or Switzerland does. Yet personal income in
Japan and Switzerland is higher than personal income in Canada and the Residential
19%
United States. One reason for this difference lies in how energy is gener-
ated and used in those countries. Industrial
Commercial 38%
16%
Energy Use in the United States Transportation

Among the developed countries, the United States uses more energy per 27%
person than most other countries in the world. Part of the reason that the
United States uses so much energy is that, as Figure 1.5 shows, the United
Source: International Energy Agency.
States uses more than 25 percent of its energy resources to transport goods
and people, mainly by trucks and personal vehicles. In contrast, Japan
and Switzerland have extensive rail systems and they are relatively small,
compact countries. The availability and cost of fuels also influence fuel Check for Understanding
use. Residents of the United States and Canada enjoy some of the lowest List Give two reasons why the United
gasoline taxes in the world. There is little incentive to conserve gasoline States uses more energy per person
when its cost is so low. compared with most other countries.

QUICKLAB
QUICKLAB How Fossil-Fuel Deposits Form

Conserving Energy Fossil fuels are not distributed evenly, as shown in Figure 1.6. For example,
Procedure why is there an abundance of oil in Texas and Alaska but very little in
1. Groups will receive either a 15 W Maine? Why does the eastern United States produce so much coal? The
compact fluorescent light bulb or a answers to these questions lie in the geologic history of the areas.
60 W incandescent light bulb. Insert
the bulb into a lamp provided by
your teacher. Plug in the lamp and Coal Formation
turn on the light. Coal forms from the remains of plants that lived in swamps hundreds
2. After allowing the light to burn of millions of years ago. Much of the coal in the eastern United States
for 5 min, use a thermometer or
formed about 320 million to 300 million years ago, when vast areas of
electronic temperature probe to
swampland covered this area. As ocean levels rose and fell, these swamps
determine the temperature (°C) at
were repeatedly covered with sediment. Layers of sediment compressed
a distance of 2.5 cm from the bulb.
the plant remains, and heat and pressure within the Earth’s crust caused
Record your measurement.
coal to form. Coal deposits in the western United States also formed from
3. Next, use a light meter or probe held
at the same distance from the light
ancient swamps, but those deposits are much younger. The abundant
bulb to determine the light output of coal deposits in states such as Wyoming formed between 100 million and
the bulb in lumens. Record. 40 million years ago.
4. Compare your results with those of
a group with the opposite type of Oil and Natural Gas Formation
light bulb.
Oil and natural gas result from the decay of tiny marine organisms that
Analysis accumulated on the bottom of the ocean millions of years ago. After these
1. Based on your comparison, which remains were buried by sediments, they were heated until they became
type of light bulb is more energy complex, energy-rich molecules. Over time, the molecules migrated into
efficient? Explain why. the porous rocks that now contain them. Much of the oil and natural gas
in the United States is located in Texas, North Dakota, California, Alaska,
Oklahoma, and the Gulf of Mexico.
Figure 1.6
Fossil Fuel Deposits This map shows the approximate locations of coal, oil, and natural
gas deposits in the United States.
Coal
Oil and natural gas
Offshore oil
and natural gas
Alaska is not drawn to scale.

Figure 1.7
Energy Production The Energy Production by Source

Middle East produces the
largest share of the world’s Asia
oil. Asia, however, produces
the most coal. Europe
Middle
East
Coal
Source: International Energy Agency

North Oil
America
Natural gas
Nuclear
South
America Hydropower
Africa
0 1 2 3 4 5
Energy equivalent (in billions of metric tons of oil)
Coal Figure 1.8
Most of the world’s fossil-fuel reserves are made up of coal. Asia and U.S. Electricity Generation
North America are particularly rich in coal deposits, as shown in About one-third of the electricity generated
Figure 1.7. Two major advantages of coal are that it is relatively in- in the U.S. comes from burning coal at power
expensive and that it needs little refining after it has been mined. A plants, such as the one pictured below.
little more than a third of the electricity generated in the United States
Hydroelectricity 7% Oil 1%
comes from coal-fired power plants, as shown in Figure 1.8.
Other
(renewable) 6%
Coal Mining and the Environment

Natural gas
Source: U.S. Department of Energy

The environmental effects of coal mining vary. Underground mines 30%
can have a minimal effect on the environment at the surface. How-
ever, surface coal-mining operations sometimes remove the top of an Nuclear Coal
entire mountain to reach the coal deposit. In addition, if waste rock 19% 37%
from coal mines is not properly contained, toxic chemicals can leach
into nearby streams. A lot of research focuses on developing better
methods of locating the most productive, clean-burning coal deposits
and developing less damaging methods of mining coal. Source: U.S. Department of Energy
Air and Water Pollution

The quality of coal varies. Higher-grade coals, such as bituminous coal,
produce more heat and less pollution than a lower-grade coal, such as
lignite. Sulfur, which is found in all grades of coal, can be a major source
of pollution when coal is burned. When high-sulfur, low-grade coal is
©James Schwabel/Alamy Images
burned, it releases much more pollution than a low-sulfur bituminous

coal does. The air pollution and acid precipitation that result from burn-
ing high-sulfur coal without adequate pollution controls are serious
problems in some countries. Ash from burning coal must be stored, and
the toxic materials from coal ash can pollute both air and water. Carbon
dioxide produced by burning coal contributes to climate change.

Connect to CHEMISTRY Petroleum
Catalytic Converters Oil that is pumped from the ground is also known as crude oil, or
Catalytic converters are one of the petroleum. Anything that is made from crude oil, such as fuels, chemicals,
most important emission-control and plastics, is called a petroleum product. Much of the world’s energy
features on cars. These devices use
needs are met by petroleum products.
two separate catalysts—a reduction
catalyst and an oxidation catalyst.
The reduction catalyst uses platinum Locating Oil Deposits
and rhodium to separate nitrous Oil is found in and around major geologic features, such as folds, faults,
oxides, forming nitrogen and oxygen
and salt domes, that tend to trap oil as it moves in Earth’s crust. These
molecules. The oxidation catalyst uses
features are bound by impermeable layers of rock, which prevent the oil
platinum and palladium to burn—or
from escaping. The world’s largest oil reserves are in the Middle East.
oxidize—hydrocarbons and carbon
Large oil deposits also exist in Venezuela, Canada, Russia, the United
monoxide, forming carbon dioxide,
States, Libya, and Nigeria. The first oil well was 70 feet (21 m) deep in an
which is less harmful.
area with many surface seeps. Now, some exploratory wells reach 35,000
feet (10,685 m). After the oil is removed from a well, it is transported to a
Check for Understanding refinery to be converted into fuels and other petroleum products.
Explain What is the purpose of drilling
exploration wells for oil?
CASESTUDY
The “Gas” Rush—Deep

Hydraulic Fracturing
New technologies and innovative methods are needed to access
unconventional sources of fossil fuels, such as the natural gas
that is trapped in shales thousands of feet below Earth’s surface.
These technologies sometimes raise concerns about environmental
consequences, but high levels of uncertainty about these consequences
have led to ongoing political and scientific debates.
One example is hydraulic fracturing (fracking). Fracking is the use of
fluid pressure to fracture rocks so that trapped oil or gas can flow to a
well. The technique has been applied to extract oil and gas for decades.
So what is new? Fracking is being done on a larger scale and now is
combined with horizontal drilling. Fluids used in fracking include water and
chemical additives to reduce friction, inhibit corrosion and bacterial growth,
and reduce viscosity. Though many components are not toxic, some are
©Ashley Cooper pics/Alamy Images
problematic and many are kept secret. Fracking fluid—often millions of

gallons per well—is injected under very high pressure. Once the pressure
Test drilling sites like the one pictured
in the well is released, some fluid moves back to the well head (flowback). find gas contained within layers of shale
Fifteen to 80% of flowback is recovered for cleaning, reuse, or disposal. rock. When found, gas is extracted using
Horizontal drilling increases the reach of a well four to five kilometers in hydraulic fracturing.
several directions from the vertical bore. Because of favorable economic

Figure 1.9
The Environmental Effects of Using Oil
Oil Spills These workers are
When petroleum fuels are burned, they release pollutants. Internal com-
cleaning up a Puerto Rico shoreline
bustion engines in vehicles that burn gasoline and diesel pollute the air
after an oil spill.
in many cities. These pollutants contribute to the formation of smog and
cause health problems. Emissions regulations and technology such as
catalytic converters have reduced air pollution in many areas. However,
in developing countries, cars are generally older, and the gasoline that
they burn contains significantly more sulfur, a pollutant that contributes
to acid precipitation. In addition, the carbon dioxide released from burn-
ing petroleum fuels may contribute to climate change.
Oil spills, such as the one shown in Figure 1.9, are another potential
environmental problem of oil use. Drilling in deep water or very cold
ecosystems is increasing, and potential spills from the drilling process are
problematic. Compared with surface wells, stopping leaks is very difficult
when the wellhead is 5,000 feet under water. In arctic ecosystems, cold
temperatures hinder clean-up efforts. Non-point pollution from everyday
sources, such as leaking cars or improperly handled motor oil, adds more
pollution to waterways but is less obvious to the public.
conditions, the amount of shale gas recovered using within two years. Supporters of hydraulic fracturing tend to
fracking and horizontal drilling doubled from 2009 to 2010, point to the isolation of the shale layers from surface waters.
and the U.S. Energy Information Administration predicts Little exchange is expected between surface waters and
another tripling of such shale gas extraction by 2035. the horizontal fractures that are separated by thousands of
Benefits of the new technologies are potentially large. feet of rock. The most likely sources of contamination would
Increased access within the United States would allow be from leakage in the casing of the well, at the site of the
65 times the current annual use of natural gas and could well, or from transport and processing of flowback water.
also decrease oil imports by about one-third. Employment The risk from a single well may be small, but the risk per
would be increased within the fossil fuel industry because well must be multiplied by the tens of thousands of wells
new wells are needed to keep up production (recoverable that might be drilled and the millions of gallons of flowback
gas depletes quickly for each well). Burning natural gas water that must be processed.
produces less pollution than oil or coal, and increased use How do we decide? What sources would you consider
of natural gas has helped reduce carbon dioxide emissions to be most reliable in evaluating risks and benefits? Can we
in the United States. Some scientists, though, worry about
Critical Thinking
wait until more information is available?
other pollution created during natural gas production.
What are the issues? Having more and bigger wells will
increase the amount of wastes and potential contamination
of the environment. For example, air or surface waters
could be contaminated with methane that is released during
Critical Thinking
©Andy Levin/Photo Researchers, Inc.
fracking. While some studies found methane from fracking

in surface water, others have found no links between How would your perception of acceptable risk differ
fracking and methane contamination of waters. depending on if you were a business that produces
Keeping fracking fluid and flowback out of drinking natural gas, or a homeowner with a private water well
water and surface streams is another concern. Scientists near a hydraulic fracturing operation, or a person in a
experimentally added hydrofracturing fluids to a forested city who uses natural gas for heating and cooking?
area; ground plants died within days, and half the trees died

Figure 1.10
Natural Gas
Natural Gas Vehicle Except when it is refueling, a vehicle that
About 20 percent of the world’s nonrenewable
runs on natural gas looks like one that runs on gasoline or diesel.
energy comes from natural gas. Natural gas, or
methane (CH4), is a good example of how advances
in technology can make a fuel more common. In the
past, when natural gas was encountered in an oil
well, it was burned off because it was considered a
nuisance. As technology improved, transporting
natural gas in pipelines and storing it compressed in
tanks became more practical. Now, many more oil
wells recover natural gas. Because burning natural
gas produces fewer pollutants than burning other
fossil fuels, vehicles or power plants that run on
natural gas, such as the one in Figure 1.10, require
fewer pollution controls. However, methane is a
potent greenhouse gas, so new technologies will be
needed to reduce methane emissions at wells.
Connect to MATH Fossil Fuels and the Future

In 2011, fossil fuels supplied about 82 percent of the energy used world-
wide. The U.S. Energy Information Administration projects that by 2040
world energy demand will have increased by 54%, mainly as a result of
economic growth in developing countries. As the demand for energy
resources increases, the cost of fossil fuels will likely increase enough to
make other energy sources more attractive. Taxes or caps on emissions
also may enhance the attractiveness of alternative energy sources. Plan-
ning now for the energy we will use in the future is important because it
takes many years for a new source of energy to make a significant contri-
FieldStudy bution to our energy supply.
Ride Along.
Predicting Oil Production
Oil production is still increasing, but it is increasing more slowly than it
has in the past. Many different factors must be considered when pre-
dicting oil production. Oil reserves are oil deposits that can be extracted
profitably at current prices using current technology. Although some oil
deposits are yet to be discovered, the oil industry does not expect to find
major new reserves. However, deposits such as oil sands, once consid-
ered too difficult or not profitable enough to access, are beginning to be
Connect to MATH tapped as technology improves and prices increase.
World Energy Use Finally, all predictions of future oil production are guided by an impor-
In 1980, worldwide production of tant principle: the relative cost of obtaining fuels influences the amount of
©Karen Bleier/AFP/Getty Images
petroleum was 59.6 million barrels per fossil fuels that we extract from Earth. For example, as the supply of readily
day. In 2012, petroleum production was available oil decreases, we may begin to rely less on oil reserves and focus
74.6 million barrels a day. Calculate on using oil more selectively. At that time, oil will begin to be used more for
the percent increase in oil production applications in which it is essential. Cars and power plants, which can be
during this period. powered in many ways, will begin to rely on other energy sources.

Figure 1.11
Offshore Oil Extraction This offshore oil rig is extracting petroleum from beneath the
ocean floor.
Future Oil Reserves

According to the World Energy Council, global oil reserves in 2013
were 25 percent higher than in 1993. Geologists disagree about how
soon oil production from fields accessible from land will peak, with
predictions of peak oil ranging from 2020 to after 2050. Additional oil
reserves are under the ocean, but extracting oil from beneath the ocean
floor is very expensive.
©Corbis

1. Describe five factors that influence the value 4. Analyzing Relationships What is the
of a fuel. relationship between natural gas and petroleum?
2. Describe how fossil fuels are used to produce 5. Making Comparisons Read the description
electricity, and explain how an electric of how fossil-fuel deposits form. Are fossil fuels
generator works. produced today by the same geologic processes
as in the past?
3. Describe how coal, oil, and natural gas form,
how these fuels are used, and how using each 6. Making Inferences There was a dramatic
fuel affects the environment. increase in oil production worldwide after 1950.
What do you think accounts for the increase?

Section 2
Objectives
Describe nuclear fission.

Nuclear Energy
Describe how a nuclear power In the 1950s and 1960s, nuclear power plants were seen as the power source of
plant works. the future because the fuel they use is clean and plentiful. It was predicted that a
nationwide network of nuclear power plants would provide electricity that was “too
List three advantages and three cheap to meter.” But in the 1970s and 1980s, almost 120 planned nuclear power
disadvantages of nuclear energy. plants were canceled, and about 40 partially constructed nuclear plants were
abandoned. What happened? In this section, you will learn how nuclear power
works and why about 14 percent of the world’s electricity comes from nuclear
Key Terms power today.
nuclear energy
nuclear fission
nuclear fusion
Fission: Splitting Atoms
Nuclear power plants get their power from nuclear energy, the energy
within the nucleus of an atom. The forces that hold together the nucleus
of an atom are more than 1 million times stronger than the chemical
bonds between atoms. In nuclear power plants, atoms of the element
uranium are used as the fuel.
The nuclei of uranium atoms are bombarded with atomic particles
called neutrons. These collisions cause the nuclei to split in a process
called nuclear fission. A fission reaction is shown in Figure 2.1. Nuclear
fission releases a tremendous amount of energy and more neutrons,
which in turn collide with more uranium nuclei. If a fission reaction is
allowed to continue, this chain reaction will escalate quickly. One example
of an uncontrolled fission reaction is the explosion of an atomic bomb. In
contrast, nuclear power stations are designed so that the chain reaction is
controlled and produces a controllable level of energy.
Figure 2.1
Nuclear Fission Neutrons are released from the fission, or the splitting, of a uranium
atom’s nucleus. Some of these neutrons then cause other atoms to undergo nuclear fission
in a process called a chain reaction.

How Nuclear Energy Works Figure 2.2
A nuclear reactor is surrounded by a thick pressure Nuclear Power Every year, the Diablo Canyon nuclear plant
vessel that is filled with a cooling fluid. The pressure generates enough energy for 2 million Californian households—the
vessel is designed to contain the fission products energy equivalent of burning 20 million barrels of oil.
in case of an accident. Thick concrete walls
also surround reactors, as shown in Figure 2.2.
Inside a reactor, shown in Figure 2.3, metal
fuel rods that contain solid uranium pellets are
bombarded with neutrons. The chain reaction
that results releases energy and produces more
neutrons. The reactor core contains control rods
that control the rate of fission in the reactor. They
do this by absorbing neutrons, which prevents
the neutrons from causing fission reactions in the
uranium fuel.
The heat released during nuclear reactions is
used to generate electricity in the same way that power plants burn fossil
fuels to generate electricity. In a nuclear power plant, energy released
from the fission reactions heats a closed loop of water that heats another Check for Understanding
body of water. As the water boils, it produces steam that drives a steam Explain What is the function of the
turbine, which is used to generate electricity. pressure vessel of a nuclear reactor?
Figure 2.3
How a Typical Nuclear Power Plant Works

©George Lepp/Corbis

Figure 2.4
Uranium Uranium is a very compact fuel. A

ECOFACT
single uranium pellet (left) can generate as much
energy as almost 1,800 pounds of coal.
ECOFACT The Advantages of Nuclear Energy

Radon Nuclear energy has some advantages. Nuclear fuel is a very concentrated
Uranium occurs naturally in rock energy source, as shown in Figure 2.4. Furthermore, nuclear power plants
and soil. When uranium undergoes do not produce greenhouse gases. When operated properly, nuclear
radioactive decay, it gives off a number plants release less radioactivity than coal-fired power plants do. Many
of products, including an invisible and countries with limited fossil-fuel reserves rely heavily on nuclear plants to
odorless radioactive gas called radon. supply electricity. France, for example, generates about three-fourths of
Radon can seep into buildings from its electricity from nuclear power. France produces less than one-fifth of
the surrounding rock and soil, and if the air pollutants per person than does the United States, which relies on
buildings are not ventilated properly, fossil fuels for almost 75 percent of its electricity needs.
dangerous levels of radon can build up.
It is estimated that radon causes 5,000
to 20,000 people in the United States Why Aren’t We Using More Nuclear Energy?
(inset) ©RIA Novosti/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (tr) ©David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc./Alamy Images
to die from lung cancer each year.
Building and maintaining a safe reactor is very expensive. The last 20
nuclear reactors built in the United States cost more than $3,000 per
kilowatt of electrical capacity. In contrast, wind power is being installed
at less than $1,000 per kilowatt. This cost will decrease as construction
costs decrease.
Storing or Processing Waste

The difficulty of finding a safe place to store nuclear wastes is one of the
greatest disadvantages of nuclear power. The fuel cycle of uranium produces
fission products that remain dangerously radioactive for thousands of years.
Uranium mining and fuel development produce radioactive wastes. In
addition, the used fuel, liquids, and equipment from a reactor core are also
considered hazardous wastes. Storage sites for nuclear wastes must be lo-
cated in areas that are geologically stable for tens of thousands of years. The
Check for Understanding United States has spent decades unsuccessfully trying to develop a storage
Explain Why is it so difficult to find a site. Scientists are also researching ways to recycle the radioactive elements
place that can be used to store nuclear in nuclear fuel. One political problem is that nuclear power can create mate-
waste safely? rials for weapons.

Safety Concerns Connect to HISTORY
In a poorly designed nuclear plant, the fission process can potentially get Three Mile Island
out of control. This is what happened during the world’s worst nuclear The Three Mile Island accident was a
reactor accident, which occurred due to poor design and human error wake-up call for the nuclear industry.
at Chernobyl in the Ukraine in 1986. In 2011, an unusually large earth- Many reforms and safety measures
quake and tsunami overwhelmed the safety technologies of a nuclear were instituted throughout the industry
power plant in Fukushima, Japan. Reactor meltdowns expelled radioac- after the accident occurred. In 1989,
tive materials into the air and ocean. The amounts of radiation released 10 years after the accident, the nuclear
were about 10% of the levels from Chernobyl. The accident stimulated a plant at Three Mile Island received
reevaluation of nuclear technologies and policies in many countries. the best INPO rating in the world.
The most serious nuclear accident in the United States occurred The rating was based on a measure
of reliability, efficiency, and safety. In
in 1979 at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant in Pennsylvania.
1999, the plant set a world record after
Human error, along with blocked valves and broken pumps, caused the
running continuously for 688 days.
accident. Fortunately, only a small amount of radioactive gas escaped.
Since this accident, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission has required
numerous safety improvements to nuclear power plants.
The Future of Nuclear Power Figure 2.5
One possible future energy source is nuclear fusion. Nuclear Fusion During nuclear fusion, the nuclei
Nuclear fusion occurs when lightweight atomic nuclei of two forms of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium in this
combine to form a heavier nucleus and release huge case) join to form helium, which releases large amounts
amounts of energy. Figure 2.5 illustrates the process of of energy.
nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion occurs in all stars, includ-
ing our sun. Fusion is potentially a safer energy source
than nuclear fission because it creates less dangerous ra-
dioactive byproducts. However, the technical problems
are so complex that building a nuclear fusion plant may
take decades or may never happen. The future of fission
nuclear power will be influenced by new technologies
that reduce the capital required to build plants. Possi-
bilities include light water reactors or high temperature
gas reactors. Researchers also are exploring technologies
to use nuclear power to generate hydrogen, which can
be used as a non-polluting fuel for transportation.

1. Compare a power plant that burns fossil fuels 4. Applying Ideas Read about the advantages of
with a nuclear power plant. nuclear energy. Explain why countries such as
France and Japan rely heavily on nuclear power.
2. Describe two advantages and two
disadvantages of nuclear power plants. 5. Making Decisions Which poses more of
an environmental threat: transporting spent
3. Explain the difference between nuclear fission
nuclear fuel or transporting toxic chemicals?
and nuclear fusion.
Write your opinion in the form of a short essay.

Points of View
Pipelines and Oil Sands

Oil sands are mixtures of oil, clay, sand, and water. Many
The world needs oil. Oil is best known for its use as a fuel,
large deposits of oil sands are located in Canada. but it also is used to make plastics, lubricants, and many
chemicals. For decades, oil has been inexpensive and has
been treated as an almost inexhaustible resource.
In the past decade, people have become more aware of
the limited supplies of easily obtainable oil. Also, conflicts
in oil-producing areas have limited supplies. Oil prices have
skyrocketed. The price and new technologies have made it
economically worthwhile to extract oil from places where it
was once too expensive or too difficult to access.
Tar sands, which are also called oil sands, are one
example of hard-to-get oil that is now being extracted. The
oil from tar sands cannot be pumped out of the ground in
the same way as in drilling operations. This is because the
oil is very viscous and is mixed with clay, sand, and water.
To access some oil sand deposits, huge mines must be dug that remove all
of soils above the deposits. Then the oil and sediment mixture is extracted
before the oil is separated. About two tons of sand are needed to produce
one barrel of oil. This type of mining is very expensive and environmentally
destructive, compared with other methods of extracting oil. New technologies
are allowing oil to be extracted from deeper deposits.
There currently is debate about whether oil sands should be mined at
all. The debate became even more intense in 2011 and 2012 because of a
proposed pipeline—the Keystone XL pipeline—that would link the oil sands
of Alberta, Canada to refineries in Texas. The Obama administration denied
the permit to build the pipeline in 2012, but there are plans to submit a
proposal for a similar pipeline that will take a different route.
(bg) ©Accent Alaska.com/Alamy Images; (tl) ©Aurora Photos/Alamy Images

ECOZine
at HMDScience.com
The Case for the Pipeline The Case Against the Pipeline
Supporters of the pipeline argue that the environmental Arguments against the pipeline fall into two major
impacts are outweighed by the creation of jobs and the categories: concerns over using the oil sands at all and
enhancement of national security. Canada and the United concerns about the pipeline’s route through environmentally
States have been close trading partners and have been on sensitive areas.
good terms for decades. The same cannot be said of oil Many scientists and environmentalists are very concerned
producers in the Middle East that supply much of the oil used that the development and use of the oil sands will have dire
in the United States. Also, political instability in the Middle East consequences for climate change. One climate scientist from
could compromise U.S. access to adequate oil supplies. NASA has stated that making full use of the oil sands would
The refineries in Texas where the pipeline would terminate make it impossible to avoid significant and very damaging
are built to refine oil from low-quality starting products, such climate change, because of the huge amount of oil in the oil
as the oil sands. Although these refineries are already near sands. Others claim that having this additional oil available
capacity, a pipeline would bring a reliable supply of oil to would keep fuel prices low, which would slow efforts to switch
them, and they would not have to import oil via tanker ships to clean energy sources, such as solar and wind power. Most
from other parts of the world. of the climate impact comes from the burning of oil. However,
The other argument for the pipeline is that it would create the production of liquid fuels from oil sands produces more
many jobs, both in Canada and the United States. Although greenhouse gases than production from standard oil.
there is disagreement over the numbers, there could be The second major worry is about the pipeline itself. Oil spills
thousands to tens of thousands of jobs created to manufacture happen along pipelines and have the potential to contaminate
parts for and build the pipeline. important habitats, including rivers and underground water
Finally, supporters of the pipeline suggest that the oil supplies (aquifers). Along an existing pipeline from Canada to
sands will be developed, regardless of what happens with the the Midwest of the United States there have been 14 spills,
pipeline, because of increasing global demand for energy. Not including one in 2011. Also in 2011, there were oil spills from
building the pipeline will only deny jobs in the United States, oil sands pipelines into the Yellowstone River in Montana and
supporters argue. Supporters also indicate that there are the Kalamazoo River in Michigan.
continuing efforts to make oil extraction from the Alberta oil The Keystone XL pipeline was proposed to cross a portion
sands more environmentally friendly. of Nebraska above the Ogallala Aquifer. This 174,000-mi2
aquifer provides drinking and irrigation water for portions
of many western states. Studies suggest that a spill could
Workers clean up along the Kalamazoo river in Michigan contaminate huge areas of the aquifer and disrupt drinking
after a pipeline oil spill.
water supplies. This concern was largely responsible for the
Obama administration’s rejection of the pipeline permit.
Finally, opponents to the pipeline question the number of
jobs What DobeYou
that might Think?
created. In addition, some labor groups in
Canada oppose the pipeline because they think the majority
of environmental damage may be done in Canada, while the
majority of jobs created will be in the United States.
What Do You Think?

The debate over pipelines and the use of oil
sands is far from over. There is likely to be another
application for a pipeline to bring oil from Alberta

to Texas or a proposal to pipe oil across Canada to
ships that could take it to refineries in Asia. What
do you think should be done?

Chapter 17 Summary
Section 1 E nergy Resources and Objectives Key Terms

Fossil Fuels
• Most of the world’s energy needs are met by fossil fossil fuel
fuels, which are nonrenewable resources. electric generator
• Coal is abundant in North America and Asia. In the petroleum
United States, coal is used primarily to produce oil reserves
electricity.
• Petroleum can be refined into fuels to power vehicles
and machines. Petroleum can also be used to
manufacture many other products.
• Natural gas is often found above oil deposits.
In general, burning natural gas releases fewer
pollutants than burning coal or oil.
• The extraction, transportation, and use of fossil fuels
cause many environmental problems, including air
and water pollution and habitat destruction.
• Calculations of fossil-fuel reserves predict that oil
production will peak and then decline in the early
21st century.
Section 2 Nuclear Energy Objectives Key Terms
• Nuclear energy is energy that exists within the nucleus nuclear energy
of an atom. When uranium nuclei are bombarded nuclear fission
with neutrons, they undergo fission and release large nuclear fusion
amounts of energy.
• In a nuclear power station, the heat generated by
fission is used to heat water to form steam. The
steam drives turbines that generate electricity.
• The main advantages of nuclear power are that the fuel
is compact and the power stations generally do not
pollute. The main disadvantage is that nuclear power
produces radioactive waste, which will be dangerous
for centuries.
(t) ©Corbis; (b) ©George Lepp/Corbis

Chapter 17 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 13. Which is an example of the direct use of fossil
fuels?
a. a nuclear reactor
1. fossil fuel
b. an oil-fired furnace
2. petroleum
c. a wind generator
3. oil reserves
d. a wood-burning stove
4. nuclear fission
5. nuclear fusion 14. Which of the following statements describes the
process by which modern nuclear power plants
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings of use nuclear energy?
the terms differ.
a. Power plants use nuclear fusion to split
6. petroleum and oil reserve uranium atoms and release nuclear energy.
7. turbine and electric generator b. Power plants use nuclear fusion to combine
8. nuclear fission and nuclear fusion atomic nuclei and release nuclear energy.
9. Concept Map Use the following terms to create c. Power plants use nuclear fission to split
a concept map: oil well, petroleum, refinery, uranium atoms and release nuclear energy.
gasoline, natural gas, plastics, and oil reserve. d. Power plants use nuclear fission to combine
atomic nuclei and release nuclear energy.
Reviewing Main Ideas 15. If fossil fuels are still forming today, why are they
considered nonrenewable resources?
10. Which of the following statements provides a
reason for the widespread use of fossil fuels? a. Fossil fuels are broken down by natural
processes faster than they form.
a. Fossil fuels are a renewable source of energy.
b. We are depleting fossil fuels much faster than
b. Fossil fuels are readily available and
they form.
inexpensive.
c. The fossil fuels being formed today are deep
c. Fossil fuels are not harmful to the environment.
under the ocean, where they cannot be reached.
d. all of the above
d. The only fossil fuels being produced are
methane hydrates, which we cannot use yet.
11. Which of the following pairs are design features
that nuclear power plants and coal-fired power
16. Which of the following is not a disadvantage of
plants share?
nuclear energy?
a. fuel rods and containment buildings
a. the difficulty of safe storage of nuclear waste
b. turbines and generators
b. the high levels of air pollution produced
c. combustion chamber and reactor cores
c. the high cost of construction and maintenance
d. none of the above of a nuclear power plant
12. The main reason for the worldwide slowdown in d. the possibility that a nuclear chain reaction can
the construction of nuclear power plants is that get out of control
a. we have run out of uranium fuel.
b. the electricity from nuclear power is generally
more expensive to produce than electricity
from other sources.
c. nuclear reactors are inherently unsafe.
d. nuclear reactors release large quantities of
greenhouse gases.

Chapter Review

17. Why have fossil fuels become our primary 26. Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment The
energy resource? invention of plastics had a damaging effect on the
18. How did the Three Mile Island accident affect environment because most plastics break down
nuclear safety in the United States? very slowly, so they remain in landfills and are
dangerous to wildlife. However, the invention of
19. What factors make nuclear power expensive? plastics also affected the environment in many
20. What is the difference between oil reserves and positive ways. List as many positive effects as
oil deposits? you can.
27. Analyzing Relationships Read the description
of how fossil-fuel deposits form. Explain why
Interpreting Graphics fossil fuels are a form of stored solar energy.
The graph below shows the different contributions 28. Analyzing Relationships The United States
of various fuels to the U.S. energy supply since 1850. currently imports about half of all the crude oil
Use the graph to answer questions 21–25. it uses. Why might this be a problem? Write a
21. When did oil first become a more important paragraph that describes the recommendations
energy source than coal? that you would make to U.S. lawmakers,
manufacturers, and consumers to reduce the
22. Why do you think the use of coal increased so country’s dependence on foreign oil.
rapidly between 1850 and 1920?
29. Economics What incentives could encourage
23. The data for oil and natural gas are nearly automobile manufacturers in the United States
parallel—they rise and fall together. Why do to produce more fuel-efficient cars? The U.S.
you think this pattern exists? government could increase the requirements for
24. Why do you think the use of coal is on the rise fuel efficiency. However, at least two other strong
after having fallen in the 1950s? forces are likely to change the types of vehicles
25. Why do you think that the use of wood as a fuel that manufacturers produce. What do you think
has not significantly increased or decreased since these forces are?
about 1850? 30. Prepare a Display Find out how petroleum,
natural gas, coal, or uranium are extracted. For
U.S. Energy Use Since 1850 example, engineers have developed methods to
40
drill sideways to reach oil deposits thousands
Wood of feet underground. Research one method and
Coal prepare a model or a posterboard display that
Energy use (in quadrillion Btu)
30 Oil communicates your findings. Be sure to include

Natural gas information about the environmental effects of
Hydroelectric power the method you studied.
20 Nuclear power
10
0
1850 1875 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000
Year
Source: U.S. Department of Energy.

Chapter Review
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
The graph below compares the contribution of each
world region to world oil production. Use the graph 34. Describe how hydraulic fracturing, sometimes
to answer question 31. called fracking, is used to extract natural gas.
31. Analyzing Data If the total sales of oil in 2002 35. What are some of the risks associated with
were $500 billion, what is the value of the oil
STUDYSKILL
hydraulic fracturing?
produced by each region?
36. What are some of the uses of natural gas?
Europe and former
What are some of the benefits of using natural
North America Soviet Union 8%
6% gas, compared with other energy sources?
South America Asia 4%
9% Why It Matters
Why It Matters
Africa 7%
37. Even though
petroleum is a
naturally occuring
substance, it is
Middle East a nonrenewable
66% source of energy.
Research and briefly
describe the process
by which petroleum
is formed. Why is
Source: International Energy Agency.
it considered to be
nonrenewable?
Making Connections
32. Communicating Main Ideas How would our
lives change if oil reserves became so depleted
that gasoline was very expensive?
STUDYSKILL
33. Recognizing Relationships Outline the major Get Organized Being organized can help make studying
forms of environmental change that have resulted more efficient and less confusing. Start by reducing clutter
from fossil-fuel use. Include your thoughts on and consolidating loose papers. Arrange your items by subject,
subjects such as habitat loss, pollution, and and be sure to label your books, notebooks, and dividers.
our use of land. Remember to include positive A planner, or agenda book, can help you balance schoolwork
environmental changes. with other activities. It also can serve as reminder of
upcoming deadlines and help you to prioritize multiple tasks.
©Accent Alaska.com/Alamy Images

ExplorationLab
Data Analysis
Your Household
Objectives
Identify the ways in which
Energy Consumption
electricity is consumed in
your household. We use electricity for many activities at home, such as drying clothes,
cooking food, and heating and cooling. The total amount of energy that
Compute the energy
consumption of your
we use depends both on how much energy each individual appliance
household. consumes and on how long we use the appliance each day. In this lab,
you will survey your household to determine how much electricity you
Interpret an electric utility
consume and you will analyze an electric bill to calculate how much you
bill and an electric meter.
pay for your electricity.
Materials
calculator
electric bill
Procedure
notebook
1. Create a table similar to the one shown below. To determine daily
pen or pencil energy consumption in kilowatt-hours, divide the wattage of an
appliance by 1,000 and then multiply by the number of hours the
item is used per day.
Energy consumed Hours used (per Daily energy

Appliance
in 1 hour (watts) day) consumption (Kwh)
2. Walk through your home, and identify all appliances and devices that
Keeping Track of Energy Use An use electricity. List each item in your table.
electric meter (below) records the
amount of electricity that a household 3. Fill in each column in your table. Determine the wattage of each item
uses. A utility bill (right) calculates the by referring to the table on the next page.
cost of the electricity used.
4. Find the electric meter. It may be on an outside wall of your house
or apartment building. Record the current reading on the meter. The
reading may change as you watch it. If so, electricity is currently being
consumed in your household. If the reading is changing, write down
an estimate of the current reading.
©KAKIMAGE/Alamy Images

Analysis Energy Consumption
1. Organizing Data Add up the energy consumption per day for Common Household
for all items. This number is the total energy consumed by Appliances
your household in one day.
Energy consumed
Appliance
in 1 hour (watts)
2. Organizing Data On your electric bill, find the total num-
ber of kilowatt-hours consumed during this time period. An Ceiling fan 120
electric bill usually lists a meter reading for the beginning of
the time period and for the end of the time period. The dif- Clock radio 10
ference is the energy consumption in kilowatt-hours. Clothes dryer
3,400
(electric)
3. Analyzing Data Divide the number of kilowatt-hours from
your electric bill by the number of days in the time period. Clothes washer 425
This number reflects the average daily energy consumption
for this time period. Coffee maker 1,050
Dishwasher 1,800
4. Analyzing Results Compare the daily energy consumption
that you calculated from your home survey with the average Hair dryer 1,500
calculated from your electric bill. Is there a difference? If so,
what could explain the difference? Heater (portable) 1,100
Iron 1,400
5. Analyzing Data Find the cost of electricity per kilowatt-
hour on your electric bill. How much does washing your Light bulbs 60, 75, 100
clothes in a washing machine cost?
Microwave oven 900
Personal computer 270

Conclusions
Refrigerator
6. Drawing Conclusions What can you conclude about 725
energy consumption in your home? What activities consume (frost free, 16 ft3)
the most energy? How could you reduce the energy con- Stereo 400
sumption in your home?
Television (color) 130
7. Evaluating Methods How could the energy survey be
Toaster 1,100
refined to estimate more accurately your daily energy con-
sumption? Toaster oven 1,225
Vacuum cleaner 1,200

Extension VCR/DVD 19/22
8. Communicating Ideas Even when an appliance is turned
off, it can still consume electricity. This type of electricity Water heater (40 gal) 5,000
consumption is called a phantom load. Find out about phan- Water pump
tom loads and prepare a booklet that shows how people can 650
(deep well)
reduce this type of energy use.
Window fan 150

Renewable
Chapter 18
Section 1
Renewable Energy Today
Energy
Section 2
Developing Energy
Technologies
Why It Matters
The power of the wind is one of
the oldest energy sources used
by humans. These Spanish
windmills were built to grind
grain hundreds of years ago.
Today, wind energy is a rapidly
growing industry.
Why is the development of
renewable and alternative
energy sources important?
CASESTUDY
Learn about the energy efficient
tiny house movement in the
case study A Super-Efficient
Home on pages 482–483.
©Rafael Macia/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Online
HMDScience.com

456
Section 1
Renewable Energy Objectives
Today
List six forms of renewable
energy, and compare their
advantages and disadvantages.
Describe the differences

When someone mentions renewable energy, you may think of high-tech solar- between passive solar heating,
powered cars, but life on Earth has always been powered by energy from the sun. active solar heating, and
Renewable energy is energy from a source that is replenished quickly enough that photovoltaic energy.
it will not be used up faster than it can be produced. In addition to solar energy,
renewable energy sources include wind energy, moving water, and heat produced Describe the current state of
by natural processes within Earth. wind energy technology.
Many governments plan to increase their use of renewable energy sources. For
example, the European Union plans to produce 20 percent of their energy from
Explain the differences in
renewable sources by 2020. Such a change will reduce the environmental and biomass fuel use between
economic problems caused by the use of nonrenewable energy. However, the use developed and developing
of all sources of energy, including renewable sources, affect the environment. nations.
Describe how hydroelectric

Solar Energy—Power from the Sun energy, geothermal energy, and
geothermal heat pumps work.
What does the space station shown in Figure 1.1 have in common with a
plant? Both are powered by energy from the sun. The sun is a medium-
sized star that radiates energy from nuclear fusion reactions in its core.
Only a small fraction of the sun’s energy reaches Earth. However, this
Key Terms
energy is enough to power the wind, the growth of plants, and the water renewable energy
cycle. Nearly all renewable energy comes directly or indirectly from the passive solar heating
sun. You use direct solar energy every day. When the sun shines on a active solar heating
window and heats a room, the room is being heated by energy from the biomass fuel
sun. Solar energy can also be used indirectly to generate electricity in hydroelectric energy
solar cells. geothermal energy
Figure 1.1
Solar Energy What does the plant have in common with a space station’s solar panels?
Both use energy from the sun.
(br) ©Gunter Ziesler/Peter Arnold, Inc./Getty Images; (bl) ©JPL/NASA
Chapter 18: Renewable Energy 457

Figure 1.2
Passive Solar Heating
Passive Solar Heat Seven
The cliff dwellings shown in Figure 1.2 used passive solar heating, the
hundred years ago, the Ancestral
simplest form of solar energy. Passive solar heating uses the sun’s energy
Puebloans, also called the Anasazi,
lived in passive solar heated cliff
to heat something directly. In the Northern Hemisphere, south-facing
dwellings in Mesa Verde, Colorado. windows receive the most solar energy, so passive solar buildings have
large windows that face south. Solar energy enters the windows and
warms the house. At night, the heat is released slowly to help keep the
house warm. Passive solar buildings must be well insulated with thick
walls, ceilings, and floors in order to prevent heat loss.
Passive solar buildings are oriented according to the yearly movement
of the sun. In summer, the sun’s path is high in the sky and the overhang
of the roof shades the building and keeps it cool. In winter, the sun’s path
is lower in the sky, so sunlight shines into the house and warms it. If there
is reliable winter sunlight, an extremely efficient passive solar heating sys-
tem can heat a house even in very cold weather without using any other
source of energy. However, an average household could reduce its energy
bills by using any of the passive solar features shown in Figure 1.3.
CASESTUDY
A Super-Efficient Home
“The sure thing you can do to be sustainable as you are building a new
house is just to build it small,” says California architect Jay Shafer. Recent
Northwestern University engineering graduate Kaycee Overcash agrees.
“The greenest square foot is the one you don’t build,” she says.
Pioneers in the tiny house movement, Shafer and Overcash are
dedicated to finding ever more efficient ways to live well in less space—
often less than 150 square feet. The average tiny house is barely bigger
than a typical walk-in closet.
What makes a tiny house more energy efficient than a large mansion?
The resources needed to heat, cool, or provide electricity for a tiny house
can be equally small in scale. Some tiny houses need such little energy
that they can easily be maintained “off grid,” which means that they do
not need to be connected to a city’s utility system. Instead, these houses
have features that can generate heat and electricity, and may manage to
(t) ©Corbis; (b) ©Jonn/Johner Images/Corbis
provide heated water as well. For example, the house Overcash helped to
design and build uses a rainwater collection system. Sustainable living, energy efficiency, and
self sufficiency are just a few of the tenets
The Simpler Life of the tiny house movement.
What can you fit inside a tiny house? Shafer, who founded the
Tumbleweed Tiny House Company, specializes in finding clever ways
to do more with less. He installs tiny appliances, utilizes every space for
several purposes, and makes use of spaces that often go unused.

Figure 1.3
Passive Solar House A passive solar house is designed to reduce heating and cooling expenses.
For example, one of Shafer’s first homes, at 89 square feet, hiding bathroom appliances cleverly inside the living room
included a “full” kitchen with downsized appliances such of the 84 square-foot house he built. Grassi’s house uses
as a two-burner stove, a dorm-sized refrigerator, and a an antique parlor chair as the seat for a composting toilet
toaster oven. A bathroom the size of a toilet stall doubled concealed under it (located near a wood stove so he can
as a shower stall when waterproof sliding doors were pulled toss ashes into the toilet to improve decomposition rates),
shut. A house this small can easily be heated with a tiny and has a half-sized tiled shower stall hidden under a
stove, and Shafer’s living room included one built right into platform bed. A bag of water for a five-minute shower is
his tiny living room wall. Shafer’s bedroom, a sleeping loft, warmed by a solar water heater.
could be turned into a wind tunnel for cooling by opening “On stage,” Grassi explains, “you learn that everything
windows at both ends. you build affects something else, and everything has to
“We just looked at sailboats and how they manage have multiple purposes.”
their interiors,” says Finnish architect Jussi Palva of the 150
square-foot home that he and his wife created for weekend Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking
getaways. The Palvas’ house features an elevated living
room—so shoes and firewood can be stored under the 1. Inferring Relationships Some tiny house
floor—and a rope ladder to a loft bed.
advocates are using what they have learned
from the tiny house movement to create tiny
Variations on a Theme apartments in big cities. What ideas from the
tiny house movement do you think could also
Depending on what one is willing to give up—privacy, for
be applied to living in a small apartment?
example, or indoor plumbing—it is possible to make a tiny
house even tinier, or to make it more spacious by reducing 2. Applying Ideas Do you think that you and/
its features. The Palvas, for example, made more space in
or your family could live in a house that had
under 100 square feet of living space? What
their weekend house by using the public bathrooms at the
do you think would be the advantages and
beach—their house does not have a bathroom. Colorado
disadvantages of such a living arrangement?
theater set designer Glenn Grassi took a different approach,

Figure 1.4
Active Solar Heating In a solar water heating

system, a liquid is pumped through solar collectors.
The heated liquid flows through a heat exchanger
that transfers the energy to water, which is used in
a household.
Active Solar Heating

Energy from the sun can be gathered by collectors and used to heat water
or to heat a building. This technology is known as active solar heating.
More than 1.5 million homes in the United States use active solar energy
to heat water. Solar collectors, usually mounted on a roof, capture the
sun’s energy, as shown in Figure 1.4. A liquid is heated by the sun as it
flows through the solar collectors. The hot liquid is then pumped through
a heat exchanger, which heats water for the building. About 8 percent of
Figure 1.5 the energy used in the United States is used to heat water; there-
fore, active solar technology could save a lot of energy.
Solar Cell Sunlight falls on a semiconductor,
causing it to release electrons. The electrons flow
through a circuit that is completed when another Photovoltaic Cells
semiconductor in the solar cell absorbs electrons
Solar cells, also called photovoltaic (foht oh vahl TAY ik) cells,
and passes them on to the first semiconductor.
convert the sun’s energy into electricity, as shown in Figure 1.5.
Solar cells have no moving parts, and they run on nonpolluting
power from the sun. So why don’t solar cells meet all of our
energy needs? A solar cell produces a very small electrical cur-
rent. Meeting the electricity needs of a small city would require
covering hundreds of acres of land with solar panels. Solar cells
Light-
absorbing Electrons also require extended periods of sunshine to produce electricity.
coating flow from This energy is stored in batteries, which supply electricity when
front contact
Phosphorus- the sun is not shining.
enriched
silicon
Despite these limitations, the demand for electricity from solar
energy has grown about 30 percent per year over the past 20 years.
Boron-
enriched Solar cells are becoming increasingly efficient and less expensive.
silicon Solar cells have great potential for use in developing countries,
Electrons are where energy consumption is minimal and electricity distribu-
absorbed by
back contact tion networks are limited. Currently, solar cells provide energy for
more than 3 million households in the developing world.

Figure 1.6
U.S. Wind Power Production and Cost: 1981–2010
Wind Power Cost and 5000 50
Efficiency The cost of wind power Cost
Megawatts installed
Cost (dollars/MWh)
4000 40
has been falling steadily as wind
turbines have become more efficient. 3000 30
critical thinking 2000 20

Megawatts installed
Analyze In what year did wind power
1000 10
production begin to experience a
significant spike in growth? 0 0
1981 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year
Source: American Wind Energy Association
Wind Power—Cheap and Abundant

Energy from the sun warms Earth’s surface unevenly, Figure 1.7
which causes air masses to flow in the atmosphere. We
experience these air mass movements as wind. Wind Wind Farms California wind farms, such as this one in
power, which converts wind movement into electric Altamont Pass, generate more than enough electricity to
energy, is the fastest-growing energy source in the world. light a city the size of San Francisco.
New wind turbines are cost effective and can be built in
just a few months. As a result, the cost of wind power has
declined dramatically, as shown in Figure 1.6.
Wind Farms
Large arrays of wind turbines, such as the one shown in
Figure 1.7, are called wind farms. In California, large wind
farms supply electricity to 530,000 homes. In windy rural
areas, small wind farms with 20 or fewer turbines are also
becoming common. Because wind turbines take up rela-
tively little space, some farmers can add wind turbines to
their property and still use the land for other purposes.
Farmers can then sell the electricity the turbines gener-
ate back to the local utility.
An Underdeveloped Resource
Scientists estimate that the windiest spots on Earth could
generate more than ten times the energy used worldwide.
Today, all of the large energy companies are developing
plans to use more wind power. Wind experts foresee a
time when prospectors will travel the world looking for
potential wind-farm sites, just as geologists prospect for
oil reserves today. However, one of the problems of wind energy is trans-
porting electricity from rural areas where it is generated to urban centers
©Schafer & Hill
where it is needed. In the future, the electricity may be used on the wind
farm to produce hydrogen from water. The hydrogen could then be
trucked or piped to cities for use as a fuel.

Figure 1.8
Wood Consumption The consumption of wood as an energy source has increased by nearly
80 percent since 1960. In developing countries such as Nepal, Burma, Guatemala, Congo
(DRC), and Kenya, the use of fuelwood places an enormous burden on local environments.
Biomass—Power from Living Things

Plant material, manure, and any other organic matter that is used as an
energy source is called a biomass fuel. While fossil fuels are organic and
can be thought of as biomass energy sources, fossil fuels are nonrenew-
able. Renewable biomass fuels, such as wood and dung, are major sources
of energy in developing countries, as shown in Figure 1.8. More than half of
all wood cut in the world is used as fuel for heating and cooking. Wood can
become a nonrenewable resource if trees are cut down faster than they
grow. Major habitat loss, deforestation, and soil erosion can result. In ad-
dition, harmful air pollution may result from burning wood and dung.
FieldStudy
Biomass Survey. Methane
When bacteria decompose organic wastes, one byproduct is methane
gas. Methane can be burned to generate heat or electricity. In China,
more than 30 million households use biogas digesters to ferment manure
and produce gas used for heating and cooking. In the developed world,
biomass that was once thought of as waste is being used for energy. For
example, some landfills in the United States generate electricity by using
the methane from the decomposition of trash.
Alcohol
Liquid fuels can also be derived from biomass. For example, ethanol,
an alcohol, can be made by fermenting fruit or agricultural waste. Many
companies are trying to develop commercial-grade ethanol using algae.
Vehicles can run on ethanol or gasohol, a blend of gasoline and ethanol.
Gasohol produces less air pollution than do fossil fuels. Some U.S. states
require the use of gasohol in vehicles as a way to reduce air pollution.

Figure 1.9
Hydroelectric Energy Hydroelectric dams convert the potential energy, or stored energy,
of a reservoir of water into the kinetic energy, or moving energy, of a spinning turbine. The
movement of the turbine is then used to generate electricity.
Hydroelectricity—Power from Moving Water

Energy from the sun causes water to evaporate, condense in the atmo-
sphere, and fall back to Earth’s surface as rain. As water flows across the
land, the energy in its movement can be used to generate electricity.
Hydroelectric energy, which is energy produced from moving water, is
a renewable resource that accounts for about 20 percent of the world’s
electricity. The countries that lead the world in hydroelectric energy gen-
eration are, in decreasing order, China, Canada, Brazil, the United States,
and Russia.
Figure 1.9 shows how a hydroelectric Figure 1.10
power plant works. Large hydroelectric power
plants have a dam that is built across a river to Itaipu Dam Paraguay’s Itaipu Dam supplies about 75 percent of the
hold back a reservoir of water. The water in the electricity used by Paraguay and 25 percent of the electricity used by Brazil.
reservoir is released to turn a turbine, which
generates electricity. The energy of this water is
evident in Figure 1.10, which shows the spillway
of Itaipu Dam in Paraguay.
The Benefits of Hydroelectric Energy

Although hydroelectric dams are expensive
to build, they are relatively inexpensive to
operate. Unlike fossil fuel plants, hydroelectric
dams do not release air pollutants that cause
acid precipitation. In addition, hydroelectric
dams tend to last much longer than fossil

fuel-powered plants. Dams also provide other
benefits such as flood control and water for
drinking, agriculture, industry, and recreation.

Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Energy
A dam changes a river’s flow, which can have far-reaching consequences.
A reservoir floods large areas of habitat above the dam. The water flow
below the dam is reduced, which disrupts ecosystems downstream. For
example, many of the salmon fisheries of the northwestern United States
have been destroyed by dams that prevent the salmon from swimming
upriver to spawn. When the land behind a dam is flooded, people are
often displaced. Between 40 and 80 million people around the world have
been displaced by dam projects. Dam failure can be another problem—
if a dam bursts, people living in areas below the dam can be killed.
Dams can also affect the land below them. As a river slows down, the
Figure 1.11 river deposits some of the sediment it carries. This fertile sediment builds
up behind a dam instead of enriching the land farther down the river. As
Geothermal Energy Geothermal
a result, farmland below a dam can become less productive. Recent re-
power plants generate electricity
search has also shown that the decay of plant matter trapped in reservoirs
using the following steps: steam
rises through a well; steam drives can release relatively large amounts of greenhouse gases, especially in the
turbines, which generate electricity; first decades after forests are flooded.
leftover liquid water is pumped back
into the hot rock. Modern Trends
In the United States, the era of large dam construction is probably over.
But in developing countries, such as Brazil, India, and China, the con-
struction of large dams continues. However, a modern trend is micro-hy-
dropower, which is electricity produced in a small stream without having
to build a big dam. The turbine may even float in the water, there-
fore not disturbing the flow. Micro-hydropower is much cheaper
than large hydroelectric dam projects, and it permits energy to be
generated from small streams in remote areas.
Geothermal Energy—Power from

within Earth
In some areas of the world, underground reservoirs of water in
Earth’s crust are heated by energy within Earth. Such places are
sources of geothermal energy—the energy generated from heat
within Earth. As Figure 1.11 shows, this heat can be used to gener-
ate electricity. Geothermal power plants pump heated water or
steam from geothermal reservoirs and use the water or steam to
power a turbine that generates electricity. Usually the water is
returned to Earth’s crust where it is heated and used again.
The United States is the world’s largest producer of
geothermal energy. The world’s largest geothermal power plant
is The Geysers in California, which produces electricity for about
725,000 households. Other countries that produce geothermal
energy include the Philippines, Iceland, Japan, Mexico, Italy,
and New Zealand. Although geothermal energy is considered a
renewable resource, the water in geothermal reservoirs must be
managed carefully so that it is not depleted.
464
Figure 1.12
Geothermal Heat Pump In winter (left), the ground is warmer than the air. A fluid is
circulated underground to warm a house. In summer (right), the ground is cooler than the
air, and the fluid is used to cool a house.
Geothermal Heat Pumps: Energy for Homes

More than 600,000 homes in the United States are heated and cooled
using geothermal heat pumps such as the one shown in Figure 1.12.
Because the temperature of the ground is nearly constant year-round,
a geothermal heat pump uses stable underground temperatures to warm
and cool homes. A heat pump is simply a loop of piping that circulates a
fluid underground. In warm summer months, the ground is cooler than
the air, and the fluid is used to cool a home. In cooler winter months, the
ground is warmer than the air, and the fluid is used to warm the home.

1. List six forms of renewable energy, and 5. Making Decisions Which renewable energy
compare the advantages and disadvantages source would be best suited to your region?
of each. Write a paragraph that explains your reasoning.
2. Describe the differences between passive solar 6. Identifying Trends Identify a modern trend in
heating, active solar heating, and photovoltaic hydroelectric power and in wind energy.
energy.
7. Analyzing Relationships Write a short essay
3. Describe how hydroelectric energy, that explains the differences in biomass fuel use
geothermal energy, and geothermal heat between developed and developing countries.
pumps work.
4. Explain whether all renewable energy sources
have their origin in energy from the sun.

Section 2
Objectives
Developing Energy
Technologies
Describe three alternative
energy technologies.
Identify two ways that hydrogen

could be used as a fuel source
in the future. To achieve a future where energy use is sustainable, we must make the most of the
energy sources we already have and develop new sources of energy. Alternative
Explain the difference between energy describes energy sources that are still in development. Renewable
energy efficiency and energy alternatives to fossil fuels, also called alternative fuels, are critical for a sustainable
conservation. economy. For an alternative energy source to become a viable option for the future,
the source must be proven to be cost effective. Also, the environmental effects of
Describe two forms of energy- using the energy source must be acceptable. Government investment is often the
efficient transportation. only way to research some of these future energy possibilities.
Identify three ways that you

can conserve energy in your Tidal Power
daily life.
Tides are the movement of water in the oceans and seas caused by
gravitational attraction between the sun, Earth, and the moon. The tides,
which happen once or twice each day, are marked by the rising and fall-
Key Terms
ing of the sea level. The energy of the tides was used nearly a thousand
alternative energy years ago to power mills in France and Britain. Today, tidal power is used
ocean thermal energy to generate electricity in countries such as France, Russia, and Canada.
conversion (OTEC)
As Figure 2.1 shows, a tidal power plant works much like a hydroelec-
fuel cell
tric dam. As the tide rises, water flows behind a dam; when the sea level
energy efficiency
falls, the water is trapped behind the dam. When the water in the reser-
energy conservation voir is released, it turns a turbine that generates electricity. Although tidal
energy is renewable and nonpolluting, there remain major technological
challenges to make it economically viable on a larger scale.
Figure 2.1
Tidal Power Plant As the tide rises, water As the tide rises, water is trapped
enters a bay behind a dam. The gate then closes behind the dam.
at high tide. At low tide, the gate opens and the Gate closes
water in the bay rushes through, spinning a turbine
that generates electricity.
High tide
At low tide, water rushes through the

dam and spins a turbine, which
generates electricity.
Gate opens
Low tide

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Figure 2.2
In the tropics, the temperature difference between the surface Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion In an open
of the ocean, which is warmed by solar energy, and deep ocean cycle OTEC plant, warm surface water is brought to a
waters can be as much as 24°C (43°F). An experimental power boil in a vacuum chamber. The boiling water produces
station off the shores of Hawaii uses this temperature differ- steam to drive a turbine that generates electricity. Cold
ence to generate electricity. This technology, which is shown in deep-ocean water is pumped in to condense the steam.
Figure 2.2, is called ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC). In Fresh water is a byproduct of this type of OTEC plant.
this system, a vacuum is used to boil sea water. This is possible
because water boils at low temperatures when it is at low pres-
sure in a vacuum chamber. The boiling water turns into steam,
which spins a turbine. The turbine runs an electric generator.
Cold water from the deep ocean cools the steam, turning the
steam into water that can be used again.
Japan has also experimented with OTEC power, but so
far, no project has been able to generate electricity cost-
effectively. One problem with OTEC is that the power needed
to pump cold water up from the deep ocean uses about one-
third of the electricity the plant produces. The environmental
effects of pumping large amounts of cold water to the surface
are also unknown.
Hydrogen—A Future Fuel?

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe.
Hydrogen gas, or H2, can be burned as a fuel. Hydrogen gas
does not exist naturally on Earth, but it can be extracted from
compounds such as water (H2O) and natural gas (CH4). This
extraction requires a source of energy, such as electricity,
to split the molecules apart. Hydrogen can be renewable or
not depending on where the energy comes from to obtain it. Check for Understanding
In the future, we may also be able to grow plants to produce Identify What are two advantages of
hydrogen cost-effectively, as shown in Figure 2.3. using hydrogen as a fuel?
Figure 2.3
Hydrogen Fuel from Plants Hydrogen

fuel can be made from any material that
contains a lot of hydrogen, including the
experimental plot of switchgrass shown here.
©Warren Gretz/NREL/PIX

QUICKLAB Figure 2.4
QUICKLAB
Hydrolysis Fuel Cell This diagram shows how a fuel cell produces electrical energy.
PROCEDURE The flow of electrons (e-) produces electricity.
1. Coat a 9 V cell with petroleum jelly.
Be careful not to get any jelly on – +
the terminals.
2. In a beaker, dissolve 15 g of NaCl in
e- e-
600 mL of water.
Hydrogen Oxygen,
3. Completely fill two test tubes with
fuel, H2 e- e- O2 , from air
the saltwater solution. Set aside.
4. Place the 9 V cell into the beaker
H2O
with the remaining salt solution.
5. Quickly invert one of the test
tubes of salt water over one of the Electrolyte Electrodes
solution
battery terminals, so that the liquid
stays within the tube and no air is
trapped inside. Hold it in place.
6. Repeat for the second test tube. The Challenge of Hydrogen Fuel
7. Observe for several minutes and Why is hydrogen the fuel of the future and not of today? There are two
record your findings. main problems. First, the current methods that are used to produce
Analysis hydrogen are not very efficient. They require a lot of energy, are expensive,
1. Using your textbook as a resource, and cause pollution. In the future, this problem may be solved by produc-
what happened at the positive ing hydrogen from water using solar power. Second, a lot of hydrogen
terminal? What happened at the is needed to produce the same amount of energy as a tank of gasoline.
negative terminal? Therefore, the hydrogen must be compressed to fit into a vehicle. Tanks
2. Explain how the function of a that hold hydrogen safely at high pressure are still being developed.
hydrogen fuel cell is different from
this reaction.
3. What are the reasons why Fuel Cells
hydrogen fuel cells are not Fuel cells, such as the one shown in Figure 2.4, may be the engines of
currently in wide use? the future. Like a battery, a fuel cell produces electricity chemically, by
combining hydrogen fuel with oxygen from the air. When hydrogen and
oxygen are combined, electrical energy is produced and water is the only
byproduct. Fuel cells today mostly use hydrogen but they can be fueled
by anything that contains plenty of hydrogen, including natural gas, alco-
hol, or even gasoline. Using fossil fuels, however, undermines the goal of
finding alternative fuels.
Energy Efficiency
Energy efficiency is the percentage of energy put into a system that does
useful work. Energy efficiency can be determined using this simple
equation: energy efficiency (in %) = useful energy out/energy in × 100.
Thus, the energy efficiency of a light bulb is the proportion of electri-
cal energy that reaches the bulb and is converted into light energy
rather than into heat. The relationship between the transfer of energy
to the work done and the heat transferred is known as the first law of
thermodynamics. This law explains that the energy going in must equal
the energy coming out of a system. Therefore any heat transfer reduces
the energy available for work, thus affecting efficiency.

This relationship holds true for biological systems as well as physical figure 2.5
systems. Most of our devices are fairly inefficient. More than 40 percent Energy Efficiency
of all commercial energy used in the United States is wasted. Most of it is of Common
lost from inefficient vehicles, furnaces, and appliances and from leaky, Conversion Devices
poorly insulated buildings. We could save enormous amounts of energy
Device Efficiency
by using fuel cells instead of internal combustion engines in cars, and by
changing from incandescent to fluorescent light bulbs, as shown in Figure Incandescent 5%
2.5. However, many increases in efficiency involve sacrifices or invest- light bulb
ments in new technology.
Fluorescent 22%
light bulb
Efficient Transportation Internal combustion 10%–15%
Nothing would increase the energy efficiency of American life more than engine (gasoline)
developing efficient engines to power vehicles and increasing the use
Human body 20%–25%
of public transportation systems. The internal combustion engines that
power most vehicles use fuel inefficiently and produce air pollution. The Steam turbine 45%
design of these engines has hardly changed since 1900, but they may
change radically in the next 50 years. As gasoline prices increase, so too Fuel cell 60%
will the demand for fuel-efficient vehicles.
Hybrid Cars
Hybrid cars, such as the one shown in Figure 2.6, are examples of energy-
efficient vehicles. Hybrid cars use a small, efficient gasoline engine most
of the time, but they also use an electric motor when extra power is
needed. Hybrid cars feature other efficient technologies. They convert
some of the energy of braking into electricity and they store this energy
in the battery. To save fuel, hybrid cars sometimes shut off the gasoline
engine, such as when the car is idling. Hybrid cars are also designed to
be aerodynamic, and they are made of lightweight materials so they need
less energy to accelerate. Hybrid cars cost less to refuel than conventional
vehicles, and they produce less harmful emissions. These benefits have Check for Understanding
led auto makers to design many hybrid car models, including hybrid Identify Name three ways that hybrid
trucks and sport utility vehicles (SUVs). cars are energy-efficient.
Figure 2.6
Hybrid Car A hybrid car has a

gasoline engine and an electric
motor. The batteries that power
hybrid cars are expensive to
replace, and new technologies
will be needed to recycle
used batteries effectively.

Connect to MATH Cogeneration
Energy Efficiency One way to use fuel more efficiently is cogeneration, the production of
In 2010, each person in the United two useful forms of energy from the same fuel source. For example, the
States used an average of 403 gallons wasted heat from an industrial furnace can power a steam turbine that
of gasoline per year. In Germany, each produces electricity. The industry may use the electricity or sell it to a
person used an average of 81 gallons utility company. Small cogeneration systems have been used for years to
per year. Auto manufacturers estimate supply heat and electricity to multiple buildings at specific sites. Small
that vehicles would use 2 percent units suitable for single buildings are now available in the United States.
less gasoline if everyone kept their
tires inflated to the correct pressure.
How many gallons of gasoline would Energy Conservation
a person in the United States and a
Energy conservation means saving energy. It can occur in many ways,
person in Germany save each year
if their tires were kept inflated to the including using energy-efficient devices and wasting less energy. The
correct pressure? cyclist in Figure 2.7 is conserving energy by bicycling instead of driving.
Many U.S. cities, including Minneapolis, Minnesota; Denver, Colorado;
and Washington, D.C., have instituted bike-sharing programs.
Cities and Towns Saving Energy

The town of Osage, Iowa, numbers around 3,400 people. You might not
think a town this small could make much of a difference in energy con-
servation. Yet the town adopted an energy conservation plan that saves
more than $1 million each year. The residents plugged the leaks around
windows and doors where much of the heat escapes from a house. They
also replaced inefficient furnaces and insulated their
Figure 2.7
hot water heaters. Businesses in Osage found ways
Energy Conservation In Copenhagen, Denmark, companies to conserve energy, too. In addition to saving energy,
provide free bicycles in exchange for publicity. Anyone wishing to the town has greatly improved its economy through
use a bike is free to borrow one after paying a refundable deposit. energy conservation. Businesses have relocated to
The program helps cut down on pollution and auto traffic. the area in order to take advantage of low energy
costs. Unemployment rates have also declined. This
small town in Iowa is just one example of the dra-
matic benefits of energy conservation.
Conservation Around the Home

The average household in the United States spends
more than $1,500 on energy bills each year. Unfor-
tunately, much of that energy is wasted. Most of the
energy lost from homes is lost through poorly insu-
lated windows, doors, walls, and roof. So a good way
to increase energy efficiency is to add to the insula-
tion of a home. Replacing old windows with new
©Dean Pictures/The Image Works
high-efficiency windows can reduce your energy

bill by 15 percent. Two of the best places to look for
ways to conserve energy are doors and windows.

Figure 2.8
Ways to Save Energy Around the House
Figure 2.9
Much of the energy lost from a house escapes as hot air in winter or cold
Energy Conservation
air in summer passes through gaps around doors and windows. Hold a
Tips
ribbon up to the edges of doors and windows. If it flutters, you’ve found
a leak. Sealing these leaks with caulk or weather stripping will help Walk or ride a bicycle for short trips.
conserve energy. There are dozens of other ways to reduce energy use
Carpool or use public transportation
around the home. Some of these are shown in Figure 2.8. whenever possible.
Drive a fuel-efficient automobile.
Conservation in Daily Life
Choose Energy Star® products.
There are many simple lifestyle changes that can help save energy. First,
remember that using less of any resource usually translates into saving Recycle and reuse products
energy. For example, washing your clothes in cold water uses only whenever possible.
25 percent of the energy needed to wash your clothes in warm water.
Set computers to “sleep” mode
Figure 2.9 lists a few ways that you can conserve energy every day. Can you
when they are not in use.
think of other ways?

1. Describe three alternative energy technologies, 4. Making Inferences What factors influence a
and identify two ways that hydrogen gas could person’s choice to conserve energy?
be used as a fuel in the future.
5. Making Comparisons Read the description of
2. List as many ways as you can for individuals hydrogen fuel cells and explain why hydrolysis
and communities to conserve energy. (splitting water molecules with electricity to
produce hydrogen and oxygen) is the opposite of
3. Describe the difference between energy
the reaction that occurs in a hydrogen fuel cell.
conservation and energy efficiency.

Maps in Action
Wind Power in the United States

U.S. Wind Power Projects
Wind resource potential Wind power projects

Fair 1-19
Good 20-99
Excellent 100-999
Outstanding
1,000-9,500
Superb
Alaska and Hawaii are not drawn to scale.

Note: Locations of wind power projects are approximate.
Source: National Renewable Energy Lab, U.S. Department of Energy
Map Skills
1. Analyzing Data Why are most of the wind farms 4. Using the Key The Great Plains states have been
located in the western and central United States and called the “Saudi Arabia of wind energy.” Use the key
not in the eastern United States? to explain what this statement means.
2. Understanding Topography Examine Idaho, 5. Finding Locations The first offshore wind farm in
Wyoming, Montana, and Colorado. What landscape the United States is proposed off the East Coast. Find
feature might account for the strong winds in those where the proposed wind farm will be located, and
western states? describe the wind conditions in that area.
3. Using the Key Use the wind power key to locate 6. Using the Key Use the map to determine which
where you would plan five wind power projects that state has the greatest unused potential for wind
are larger than 50 MW. energy. Explain your reasoning.

at HMDScience.com
Solar Living
What is it like to live in a house powered entirely by
the sun’s energy? You might expect the house to lack
some modern comforts—perhaps it would be cramped,
unattractive, too cold during the winter, too hot during
the summer, or dimly lit at night. And it’s sure to be
expensive, right? These things are not always true,
and none of these issues are the case if the house is a
successful entry in the Solar Decathlon.
Judging the Entries

The Solar Decathlon competition, sponsored by the
United States Department of Energy (DOE), gives teams
of college students a chance to design, build, and run
a solar-powered house. Each entry is evaluated on the
following 10 qualities:
Architecture Comfort Zone
Market Appeal Hot Water
Engineering Appliances
Communications Home Entertainment
Affordability Energy Balance
Meeting the Requirements

The solar panels on each house use energy from the sun to
A house that earns a high score in architecture produce electricity that is used to power appliances, lights,
is comfortable to live in and compatible with its mechanical systems, and electronics.
surroundings, and the overall design pleases and
inspires visitors. Market appeal is judged on practical
livability; engineering on functionality and efficiency; More About the Competition
affordability on cost; and so on. The Solar Decathlon began in 2002. Starting in 2005, the
Each of the measurable requirements is specific: for competition has been held every two years. In addition to
example, the house must be able to deliver 15 gallons of providing
What practical
Do You instruction
Think? for those who take part in the
hot water (110°F) in 10 minutes or less, efficiently run competition, the Solar Decathlon also allows the general
appliances to heat and cool food, and wash and dry laundry. public to learn more about solar-powered homes through
To demonstrate home entertainment, the teams must, among activities such as house tours and workshops. The Solar
other things, give two dinner parties and host a movie night. Decathlon also occurs internationally with competitions held in
Europe and China.
Winning the Competition
The 2011 Solar Decathlon included 20 teams from around the
©The Washington Post/Getty Images
U.S. and the world. The winning house, which was built by
What Do You Think?
a team from the University of Maryland, received a score of What features can you see in the house that
951 out of 1000. After the competition, some houses are sold, might produce or conserve energy? Would you be
interested in taking part in a competition like the
while many are used for research and placed on display for Solar Decathlon?
the public at the universities where they were designed.

Chapter 18 Summary
Section 1 Renewable Energy Today Objectives Key Terms
• Renewable energy is energy from a source that replen- renewable

ishes itself quickly enough so that it will not be used energy
faster than it can be produced. passive solar
heating
• Solar energy can be used to heat a house directly
or to heat another material, such as water, which can active solar
heating
then be used to heat a house. Solar cells can also be
used to generate electricity. biomass fuel
hydroelectric
• Wind power is the fastest growing source of energy energy
in the world.
geothermal
• Many people in developing countries get most of their energy
energy from biomass such as fuelwood or manure.
Biomass is increasingly used in developed countries to
generate electricity.
• Hydroelectric energy is electricity generated by the
energy of moving water.
• Geothermal energy comes from heat generated within
Earth and can be used to generate electricity.
Section 2 Developing Energy Objectives Key Terms

Technologies
• Alternative energy sources are energy sources that alternative
are still in development. energy
• Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) uses the ocean thermal
energy conver-
temperature difference between layers of ocean water
sion (OTEC)
to generate electricity.
fuel cell
• Hydrogen gas may be one of the fuels of the future. It energy efficiency
can be made by combining energy with a compound
energy conser-
that contains hydrogen and produces only water as a vation
waste product when burned.
• Hydrogen fuel cells may be the engines of the future.
Many experiments with them are now underway.
(b) ©Dean Pictures/The Image Works; (t) ©Schafer & Hill
• Energy efficiency is the percentage of energy put into

a system that does useful work. Energy conservation
means saving energy.

Chapter 18 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 12. A passive solar house in the Southern Hemisphere
will face
Use the correct key term to complete each of the
following sentences. a. north.
1. Much of the energy needs of the developing world b. south.
are met by _________, such as fuelwood. c. east.
2. A __________ converts the potential energy of d. west.
moving water into the kinetic energy of a spinning
turbine. 13. Photovoltaic cells convert the sun’s energy into
3. Turning off the lights when you leave a room is an a. heat.
example of __________. b. fuel.
Use each of the following terms in a separate sentence. c. electricity.
4. renewable energy d. light.
5. geothermal energy
14. In a developing country, you are most likely
6. alternative energy to find biomass used
7. energy conservation a. to generate electricity.
8. Concept Map Use the following terms to b. for manufacturing.
create a concept map: sun, hydroelectric energy,
c. for heating and cooking.
solar energy, passive solar heating, active solar
heating, water cycle, biomass fuel, wind energy, d. as a source of hydropower.
photovoltaic cell, and electric current.
15. Which of the following is not true of fuel cells?
a. They produce electricity.
b. They will work with many different fuels.
9. Which of the following forms of renewable energy c. They are more energy efficient than most
uses the sun’s energy most directly? engines used today.
a. biomass fuel d. They cannot be fueled by hydrogen gas.
b. passive solar heating
c. geothermal energy 16. Which renewable energy source is the fastest
d. a hydrogen fuel cell growing energy source in the world?
a. oil
10. Which of the following energy sources is useful in b. wind
most parts of the world?
c. biomass
a. tidal power
d. photovoltaic cells
b. OTEC
c. geothermal energy 17. Which statement describes why geothermal heat
d. active solar energy pumps work?
a. They are located in areas with abundant
11. A house that uses passive solar heating in the geothermal energy.
Northern Hemisphere will
b. The ground is warmer than the air in summer
a. have large south-facing windows. and colder than the air in winter.
b. have little insulation. c. The ground is colder than the air in summer
c. have large north-facing windows. and warmer than the air in winter.
d. lack a vent in the roof. d. They run on hydrogen fuel cells.

Chapter Review

18. Rivers are recharged by the water cycle, so what 24. Making Comparisons Read the description of
is the original source of hydroelectric energy? energy efficiency and energy conservation in this
19. Salt water breaks down metals rapidly. What chapter. How are the two concepts related? Give
effect is this likely to have on the cost of electricity several examples.
produced from tidal power? 25. Analyzing Ideas Does the energy used by fuel
20. Why is it likely that hydroelectric energy will be cells come from the sun? Explain your answer.
generated increasingly by micro-hydropower 26. Analyzing Ideas Explain whether you think the
plants rather than by large hydroelectric dams? most important advances of the 21st century will
be new sources of energy or more efficient use of
sources that already exist.
Interpreting Graphics 27. Drawing Inferences Don Huberts of Shell
Hydrogen said, “The Stone Age didn’t end
Use the information in the figure below to answer
because the world ran out of stones.” He was
questions 21–23.
talking about the future of fossil fuels. Write a
21. Determine Describe the path of the water in the short essay that explains what he meant.
loop during winter. Where is the water warmed?
28. Geography Create a world map that shows at
Where is the water cooled?
least 10 renewable energy or alternative energy
22. Determine Describe the path of the water in the projects currently in operation. Annotate your
loop during summer. Where is the water warmed? map with details and photographs of each project.
Where is the water cooled?
29. Making Comparisons Each of the following
23. Compare What is the difference in the pairs includes one renewable and one
temperature between the house, the closed nonrenewable form of energy. Compare the
loop, and the air in the summer? What is the advantages and disadvantages of the two sources
temperature difference in the winter? of energy in each pair: (a) nuclear power and solar
power (photovoltaic cells) and (b) fossil fuels and
hydrogen fuel.

Chapter Review

CASESTUDY
The circle graph below shows electric generating
capacity from renewable sources in the United States 34. Why is a tiny house more energy efficient than
in 2009. Use the data to answer questions 30–31. a normal-size house?
35.
WhyInIt what ways could you increase the energy
Matters
Wind 19.4%
Biomaass efficiency in the place where you live?
4.8%
Geothermal Why It Matters
3.9%
36. What types of
Solar
0.2% renewable energy
could be used in the
area where you live?
Hydroelectric Explain your answer.
71.6%
Source: U.S. Energy

Information Administration
30. Making Calculations How much generating

capacity came from biomass, geothermal, wind, STUDYSKILL
and solar combined?
Get Some Exercise Ride a bike, go for a walk, or play a
31. Making Calculations In 2009, the United States
game of basketball. Try to get at least a half hour of exercise
had a total of 127,070 MW of electric generating
before you begin studying. Then when you study you will be
capacity from renewable energy. How much of
more relaxed and you will be able to focus on the subject you
that capacity came from biomass? How much
want to learn. As you study, take a moment to notice if the
came from wind power?
exercise helped. Research has shown that regular physical
exercise helps fight memory loss.
Making Connections
32. Communicating Main Ideas Explain why
scientists are working to reduce the use of the two
main sources of energy people use today—fossil
fuels and biomass.
33. Writing Persuasively Write a guide that
encourages people to conserve energy and
offers practical tips to show them how.
©Rafael Macia/Photo Researchers, Inc.

ExplorationLab
Environmental
Engineering Blowing in the Wind
Objectives
Prepare a detailed sketch
of your solution to the design Memo
problem.
Design and build a To: Division of Research and Developers

functional windmill that lifts a
specific weight as quickly as Quixote Alternative Energy Systems is accepting design proposals
possible.
to develop a windmill that can be used to lift window washers to
Materials the tops of buildings. As part of the design engineering team, your
blow-dryer, 1,500 W division has been asked to develop a working model of such a
dowel or smooth rod windmill. Your task is to design and build a prototype of a wind-
foam board mill that can capture energy from a 1,500 W blow-dryer. Your
glue, white model must lift 30 large paper clips a vertical distance of 50 cm
paper clips, large (30) (approximately 2 ft) as quickly as possible.
paper cup, small (1)
spools of thread, empty (2)
string, 50 cm
optional materials for
windmill blades: foam board, Procedure
paper plates, paper cups, 1. Build the base for your windmill (shown below). Begin by attaching
or any other lightweight
the two spools to the foam board using the glue. Make sure the spools
materials
are parallel before you glue them.
2. Pass a dowel or a smooth rod through the center of the spools. The
dowel should rotate freely. Attach one end of the string securely to the
dowel between the two spools.
3. Poke a hole through the middle of the foam board to allow the string
to pass through.
4. Attach the cup to the end of the string. You will use the cup to lift the
paper clips.
5. Place your windmill base between two lab tables or in any other area
that will allow the string to hang freely.
Procedure Step 1 Your windmill

base should allow the dowel to spin
as freely as possible. The pinwheel
shown at the end of the dowel is a
suggested design for your windmill
blades.

HMDScience.com
6. Prepare a sketch of your prototype windmill blades based on the

objectives for this lab. Include a list of the materials that you will
use and safety precautions (if necessary).
7. Have your teacher approve your design before you begin construction.
8. Construct a working prototype of your windmill blades. Test your

model several times to collect data on the speed at which it lifts the
paper clips. Record your data for each trial.
9. Vary the type of material used for construction of your windmill

blades. Test the various blades to determine whether they improve
the original plan.
10. Vary the number and size of the blades on your windmill. Test each
design to determine whether the change improves the original plan.
Analysis
1. Summarizing Results Create a data table that lists the speed for
each lift for several trials. Include an average speed.
2. Graphing Data Prepare a bar graph that shows your results for each
blade design.
Conclusions
3. Evaluating Methods After you observe all of the designs, decide
which ones you think best solve the problem and explain why.
4. Evaluating Models Which change improved your windmill the

most—varying the materials for the blades, varying the number of
blades, or varying the size of the blades? Would you change your
design further? If so, how?
Extension
5. Researching Windmills have been used for more than 2,000
Procedure Step 6 Make a sketch of your windmill
years. Research the three basic types of vertical-axis machines and
blade designs before constructing them.
the applications in which they are used. Prepare a report of your
findings.
6. Making Models Adapt your design to make a water wheel. You’ll

find that water wheels can pull much more weight than a windmill
can. Find designs on the Internet for micro-hydropower water wheels
such as the Pelton wheel, and use the designs as inspiration for your
models. You can even design your own dam and reservoir.

Waste
Chapter 19
Section 1
Solid Waste
Section 2
Reducing Solid Waste
Section 3
Hazardous Waste
Why It Matters
The United States
Environmental Protection
Agency estimates that the
capacity of the remaining
active landfills will be reached
in the next 20 years. Many
communities are unwilling to
have new landfills constructed.
What can be done to decrease
or eliminate the need for
landfills?
CASESTUDY
Expand your knowledge about
the steps pharmaceutical
manufacturers are taking to
make their processes “greener”
in the case study Green
Chemistry on page 496.
Online
HMDScience.com

480
Section 1
Solid Waste Objectives
Name one characteristic

that makes a material
It is lunchtime. You stop at a fast-food restaurant and buy a burger, fries, and a biodegradable.
soda. Within minutes, the food is gone, and you toss your trash into the nearest
wastebasket. Figure 1.1 shows items that might be in your trash. Once you throw Identify two types of solid waste.
away your trash, you probably do not give it a second thought. But where does the
trash go? Describe how a modern
The trash from the wastebasket probably will be picked up by a collection landfill works.
service and taken to a landfill. There the trash will be dumped with thousands
of tons of other trash and covered with a layer of soil. A landfill provides a place
Name two environmental
to store trash, but the trash does not simply disappear. Where will your trash go problems caused by landfills.
when the landfill fills up? What would happen if rainwater ran down into the landfill
and leached a harmful chemical, such as paint thinner, and it seeped into the
groundwater? Suddenly, the trash that was not bothering anyone is causing an Key Terms
environmental problem. solid waste
biodegradable
The Generation of Waste municipal solid waste
landfill
Imagine multiplying the waste disposal problems that come with your
leachate
lunch by the number of things that you and everyone else throw away
each day. Every year, the United States generates more than 10 billion
metric tons of solid waste. Solid waste is any discarded solid material.
Solid waste includes everything from junk mail to coffee grounds to cars.
Many products that we buy today are used once and then thrown away.
As a result, the amount of solid waste Americans produce every year has
almost tripled since the 1960s. Of this amount, about a third is recycled,
and approximately 55 percent is deposited in landfills.
Figure 1.1
Out of Sight—Out of Mind Where does your trash go when you throw it away?
©Michelle Bridwell/Frontera Fotos
Chapter 19: Waste 481

Figure 1.2
No Place to Go The barge Mobro

(right) from Islip, New York, sailed up
and down the East Coast and to the Gulf
of Mexico for five months looking for a
place to dump its load of garbage. The
map below shows its route.
Space and Waste

Today, many towns are running out of space needed to dispose of the
amounts of waste that people produce. For example, in 1987, the barge
shown in Figure 1.2 was loaded with 3,200 tons of garbage and left the town
of Islip, New York, in search of a place to unload its waste. The barge sailed
along the Atlantic coast to the Gulf of Mexico for more than five months
in search of a state that would be willing to dispose of the waste. When no
one would accept the garbage, it was finally burned in New York, and the
430 tons of ash were sent to Islip to be buried.
Population and Waste

While Earth’s human population and the amount of waste we produce
grow larger, the amount of land available for waste disposal becomes
smaller. In pre-industrial times, the human population was smaller and
more of their wastes degraded naturally. This made disposing of the waste
much easier. However, today, the average person living in the United States
produces 4.4 pounds of solid waste per day, as shown in Figure 1.3. With
higher densities of people, more land is needed for agriculture, industry,
and housing, which reduces the land available for waste disposal. Because
the human population and the amount of waste we create are increasing
and the amount of available land is decreasing, it is becoming much harder
to dispose of the waste we create.
Figure 1.3
Municipal Solid Waste The Municipal Solid Waste Generation (U.S.)

300
total amount of municipal solid waste
Total waste generation
generated in the United States has

(pounds/person/day)
250 10
(in millions of tons)
Waste generation
increased by 60% in the past 30 years. Total waste

200 8
generation
critical thinking 150 6
Describe What is meant by
100 4
“solid waste recovery?”
©Rick Maiman/Sygma/Corbis
Waste per person

50 2
0 0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005 2010
Year
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Not All Wastes Are Equal ECOFACT
Problems are caused not only by the amount of solid waste but also by the Breaking Down
type of solid waste. There are two main types of solid waste: biodegradable Biodegradable Material
and nonbiodegradable. A material is biodegradable if it can be broken Decomposers, such as fungi and
down by biological processes. Plant and animal matter are examples of bacteria, are examples of organisms
that break down biodegradable
biodegradable materials. Products made from natural materials are usually
material. Once these materials are
biodegradable. Examples of biodegradable products include newspapers,
broken down, they can be reused by
paper bags, cotton fibers, and leather.
other organisms. Scavengers, such as
Many products made from synthetic materials are not biodegradable. vultures, and insects, such as dung
A nonbiodegradable material cannot be broken down by biological beetles, also help recycle organic waste.
processes. Synthetic materials are made by combining chemicals to form
compounds that do not form naturally. Polyester, plastic, and parts of
electronics, such as those shown in Figure 1.4, are examples of synthetic
materials.
Plastic Problems
Plastics illustrate how nonbiodegradable materials can cause problems.
Plastics are made from petroleum or natural gas. Petroleum and natural
gas consist mostly of carbon and hydrogen, which are the same elements
that make up most molecules found in living things. But in plastics, these
elements are put together in molecular chains that are not found in na-
ture. Over millions of years, microorganisms have evolved the ability to
break down nearly all biological molecules. However, microorganisms
have not yet evolved ways to break down the molecular structures of most
plastics. Therefore, some plastics that we throw away may accumulate and
last for hundreds or even thousands of years. When these do break down,
the small particles can get into the water. There, they are ingested by Check for Understanding
filter-feeding marine animals. Biotoxins that are in the particles are then Determine Is a product made of polyester
passed up the food chain. biodegradable or nonbiodegradable?
Figure 1.4
Electronic Trash These discarded

computers have been exported from the
United States and disposed of overseas.
Unwanted computers, televisions, audio
equipment, and printers are types of
electronic waste.
©Universal Images Group/Getty Images

Figure 1.5
Types of Solid Waste
Papering America Paper makes up Most of what we throw out on a day-to-day basis is called municipal solid
most of the municipal solid waste in the waste. Manufacturing waste, such as the computers shown in Figure 1.4,
United States. HowStates
United much ofMunicipal
the waste Solid Waste and mining waste make up about 70 percent of the other types of solid
shown in this graph could be recycled?
(Percentage by Weight)
waste produced in the United States.
United States Municipal Solid Waste
United States Municipal
GlassSolid Waste
Other
(Percentage by Weight)
(Percentage
Wood by Weight)
4.6% 3.4% Municipal Solid Waste
Connect to MATH
Rubber,
6.4%
Glass Other
leather, Glass 4.6%
Other
3.4%
About 2 percent of the total solid waste in the United States is made up
Wood
and textiles
Rubber,
4.6% 3.4%
Wood 6.4% of municipal solid waste, which is the waste produced by households and
8.4% 6.4%
leather, businesses. Figure 1.5 shows the composition of municipal solid waste
Rubber,
and textiles
leather, in the United States. Although municipal solid waste makes up only 2
8.4% Paper
and textiles
Metals
8.4% 9% 28.5% percent of the total solid waste in the United States, this amounts to about
Paper
Metals
28.5% 250 million tons each year. That is enough waste to fill a convoy of gar-
9%
Metals
Paper bage trucks that would stretch around Earth about six times. However,
28.5%
9% recent data show that waste generation in the U.S. may be slowing.
Plastics
12.4%
Plastics
12.4%
Plastics
Manufacturing, Mining, and Agriculture
12.4% Solid waste from manufacturing, mining, and agriculture makes up most
Yard
Yard waste Food Food
waste waste waste
13.9% 13.4%13.4% of the rest of the total solid waste produced in the United States. This
13.9%
waste includes items such as scrap metal, plastics, paper, sludge, and ash.
Source:U.S.
Source: U.S. Environmental
Environmental Protection
Protection Agency
Agency
Food waste
Yard waste Consumers do not directly produce waste from manufacturing, but they
13.9% 13.4%
indirectly create it by purchasing products that have been manufactured.
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Waste from mining consists of rock and minerals that are left over
from excavation and processing. In the past, these mine tailings were
Connect to MATH left exposed in large heaps and runoff from them contaminated nearby
water sources. Now, tailings are disposed of by refilling and landscaping
Municipal Solid Waste abandoned mines. Agricultural waste includes crop wastes and manure,
The United States generated which are biodegradable and can be broken down and returned to the
approximately 236 million tons of soil. However, the increasing use of fertilizers and pesticides may mean
municipal solid waste in 2003. In that if this waste is returned to the soil, it could harm plants and animals.
1998, the United States generated It could also contaminate groundwater in the area.
approximately 223 million tons of
municipal solid waste. What was the
percent increase in municipal solid
waste generation from 1998 to 2003?
Figure 1.6
Lined Landfills Modern landfills are

lined with clay and plastic, and have a
system for collecting and treating liquid
that passes through the compacted solid
waste.
©Ray Pfortner

Solid Waste Management Figure 1.7
Where Municipal
Around half of municipal waste in the United States is sent to landfills
Solid Waste in the
such as the one shown in Figure 1.6. However, some waste is incinerated,
United States Goes
and more than 30 percent is recycled, as shown in Figure 1.7. By compari-
son, in 1970, we recycled only 6.6 percent of our waste. Percentage
Waste-disposal
of waste by
method
weight
Landfills Stored in landfills 55
A landfill is a permanent waste-disposal facility where wastes are put in
the ground and covered each day with a layer of soil, plastic, or both. A Recycled 30
modern landfill is shown in Figure 1.8. The most important function of a Incinerated 15
landfill is to contain waste so that it does not leach toxins into the
surrounding soil and groundwater.
Problems with Landfills

One problem with landfills is leachate, a liquid that forms when water
seeps down through a landfill and collects dissolved chemicals from de-
composing garbage. Landfills typically have monitoring wells and storage
tanks to measure and store leachate, which can then be treated as waste-
water. However, if not monitored properly, leachate can contaminate
groundwater supplies.
Another problem with landfills is that decomposing organic waste
may produce highly flammable methane gas. The gas can be pumped out Check for Understanding
of landfills and used as fuel. However, if not monitored safely, methane Interpret How can leachate in a landfill
can seep into nearby basements and cause dangerous explosions. affect drinking water in nearby wells?
Figure 1.8
Landfill Structure This landfill generates electricity by burning methane gas produced by decomposing garbage.

Figure 1.9 Safeguarding Landfills
As part of efforts by Congress to reduce landfill pollution problems, as
Safeguards Before laws were passed
shown in Figure 1.9, laws governing solid waste disposal require that new
making safeguards mandatory for
new landfills, leachate could seep out,
landfills be built with certain safeguards in place. New landfills must be
contaminating the surrounding soil and lined with clay and a plastic liner and must have systems for collecting
water. and treating leachate. Vent pipes must be installed to carry methane out
of the landfill, to be released into the air or burned to produce energy.
Adding these safeguards to landfills increases the cost of building
them. Also, finding acceptable places to build landfills is difficult. The
landfills must be close to the city producing the waste but must be far
enough from residents who object to having a landfill near their homes.
This community reluctance is sometimes referred to by the acronym,
NIMBY, which stands for “Not In My Back Yard.” Solutions to landfill
issues are likely to be expensive, either because of the legal fees a
city must pay to fight residents’ objections or because of the cost of
transporting garbage to a more distant site.
Building More Landfills

The total number of active municipal-solid-waste landfills in the
United States in 1988 was about 8,000. By 2008 the total number of active
landfills had declined to about 1,900, but the overall landfill capacity had
actually increased. These changes reflect the fact that as old landfills were
filled up, waste-management companies built fewer but much larger
landfills. The map in Figure 1.10 shows regional differences in the number
of landfills as well as in the percentage of municipal solid waste that is
sent to landfills.
Figure 1.10
Landfill Capacity The map below shows the number of landfills in each region and the percentage of that region’s municipal solid waste (MSW)
sent to landfills in 2008.
Midwest Great Lakes New England
421 landfills 226 landfills 40 landfills
78% of MSW 81% of MSW 31% of MSW
West
450 landfills
52% of MSW
Mid-Atlantic
133 landfills
59% of MSW
©Universal Images Group/Getty Images
South
370 landfills
79% of MSW
Rocky Mountain
268 landfills
88% of MSW
Alaska and Hawaii (included in the West region) Source: BioCycle
are not drawn to scale.

Incinerators
One option for sending less waste to landfills is to burn it in incinerators,
as shown in Figure 1.11. In 2008, the United States had 115 operational
incinerators that were capable of burning in excess of 94,000 metric tons
of municipal solid waste per day. However, the waste that is burned does Figure 1.11
not disappear. Although incinerators can reduce the weight of solid waste
by 75 percent, they cannot separate materials that should not be incin-
Incineration A solid-waste
incinerator reduces the amount
erated before burning the waste. So, some materials that should not be
of trash that goes to landfills
burned, such as cleansers, batteries, and paints, end up in the air as pol-
and can be used to generate
luting gases. The rest of the solid waste is converted into ash that must be
electricity. However, the material
disposed of in a landfill.
that is created by the incinerator
Incinerated material takes up less space in landfills, but the material can can be toxic.
be more toxic than it was before being incinerated. Even incinerators that
have special air pollution control devices release small amounts of poison-
ous gases and particles of toxic heavy metals into the air.

1. Explain what makes a material biodegradable. 4. Identifying Relationships Name two
nonbiodegradable products that you use.
2. Describe how a modern landfill works. List two
What makes them nonbiodegradable? Name
environmental problems that can be caused by
biodegradable products that you can use
landfills. Explain your answer.
instead.
3. Describe one advantage and one disadvantage
5. Identifying Alternatives Explain what you can
of incinerating solid waste.
do to help reduce the amount of solid waste that
you throw away and to reduce what is thrown
away in your community.

Section 2
Objectives
Identify three ways you can

Reducing Solid Waste
produce less waste.
If landfills and incinerators can pollute the environment and are expensive to
Describe how you can use your operate, what else can we do to safely reduce solid waste? This section examines
consumer buying power to ways to reduce solid waste through producing less waste, recycling, and changing
reduce solid waste. the materials and products we use. All of these techniques help reduce waste
before it is delivered to landfills or incinerators. This method of reducing solid
List the steps that an item must waste is known as source reduction. Source reduction is any change in design,
go through to be recycled. manufacture, purchase, or use of materials or products to reduce their amount or
toxicity before they become municipal solid waste.
List two benefits of composting.
Name one advantage and one Consumer Power

disadvantage to producing
If we produce less waste, we will reduce the expense and difficulty of
degradable plastic.
collecting and disposing of it. Many ideas for reducing waste are
common sense, such as using both sides of a sheet of paper and not
Key Terms using unneeded bags, napkins, or utensils at stores and restaurants.
source reduction
recycling Reusing Materials
compost As a consumer, you can influence manufacturers to reduce solid waste.
If you buy products that have less packaging, products that last longer,
or reusable products, you will encourage manufacturers to produce
more of those products. For example, you can buy products such as
dish towels instead of paper towels, as shown in Figure 2.1. You can also
Figure 2.1
buy rechargeable batteries instead of regular batteries to help reduce
Reuse and Reduce Using dish towels solid waste.
instead of paper towels is one way to reduce Until about 1965, nearly all beverages were sold in bottles that were
solid waste. designed to be returned to stores when empty. The empty bottles were
then collected, washed, and refilled at bottling plants. Today, there is a
demand for disposable bottles rather than for refillable bottles. If con-
sumers began to use more refillable bottles similar to those used in the
past, beverage manufacturers would begin producing them again.
Reducing Waste
Manufacturers could also reduce waste and conserve resources by
redesigning products to use less material. A return to products that
last longer and that are designed to be easily repaired would both
save resources and reduce waste disposal problems.

Recovering Resources
In addition to reducing waste, we need to find ways to make the best use
of all the materials we throw away. Recycling is the process of reusing
materials or recovering valuable materials from waste or scrap. Making
products from recycled materials usually saves energy, water, and other
resources. For example, 95 percent less energy is needed to produce
aluminum from recycled aluminum than from ore. About 70 percent less
energy is needed to make paper from recycled paper than from trees.
Recycling: A Series of Steps

When most people think about recycling, they probably think about only
the first step—putting their bottles, cans, and newspapers into a recycling FieldStudy
bin. However, as shown in Figure 2.2, there are a series of steps needed for Go to Appendix B to find the field study
recycling to work. Recycling
First, the discarded materials must be collected from users and taken
to a facility where they can be sorted by type. Next, each type of material
must be cleaned and made ready to be used again. For example, glass is
sorted by color and is crushed, and paper is sorted by type and made into
a pulp with water. Then the materials are used to manufacture new prod-
ucts. Finally, the new products, ranging from newspapers to playground
equipment, are sold to consumers. If more people buy products made
from recycled materials,the increased demand encourages manufactur- Check for Understanding
ers to supply recycled products. When manufacturers build facilities to Infer How can consumer demand
make recycled products, it becomes easier for communities to sell the influence the packaging of bottled
materials they collect from residents for recycling. beverages?
Figure 2.2
(br) ©DPD ImageStock/Alamy Images; (tl) ©Moodboard/Alamy Images; (tr) ©Martin Bond/Photo Researchers, Inc.
The Steps of Recycling include collecting and sorting discarded materials by type, taking the materials to a recycling facility,
cleaning the discarded materials so that they can be shredded or crushed, and reusing the shredded or crushed materials to manufacture
new products.

Figure 2.3 Composting
Benefits of Yard waste often makes up as much as 14 percent of a community’s solid
Composting waste. None of this waste has to go to a landfill. Because yard waste is
keeps organic wastes out of landfills biodegradable, it will decompose in a compost pile. Fruit and vegetable
trimmings and table scraps will also decompose in a compost pile. Add-
provides nutrients to the soil ing meat scraps and animal wastes to compost is not recommended,
though, as they can attract pests and carry disease. The more oxygen and
increases beneficial soil organisms,
moisture there are in a compost pile, the more rapidly microorganisms
such as worms and centipedes
will break down the biodegradable waste. Eventually the material
suppresses some plant diseases becomes compost, a dark brown, crumbly material that is spread on
gardens and fields to enrich the soil. Compost is rich in the nutrients that
reduces the need for fertilizers and help plants grow. More benefits of composting are listed in Figure 2.3.
pesticides
Grass clippings can be composted or left on the lawn to add nutri-
ents back into the soil as they decompose. Sweeping the clippings into
storm drains is against the law in some places, because they can block the
drains and contribute to flooding after heavy rainfall. Some cities collect
yard waste from homes and compost it at a central facility. Compost-
Check for Understanding ing can also be an effective way of handling waste from food-processing
Explain What conditions help biodegradable plants and restaurants. If all biodegradable wastes were composted, the
material break down rapidly? amount of solid waste going to landfills would be reduced.
CASESTUDY
Paper or Plastic?
“Do you want paper or plastic, or did you bring your
own, reusable bags?” Many grocery stores offer a choice
between either paper or plastic bags for sacking grocery
items, or have reusable bags for purchase. Many people
make their choice based on convenience. But what is the
best choice for someone who is concerned about the
environment?
Making an educated decision at the grocery
On the surface, it may seem that paper is the better store will help reduce solid waste.
choice. Paper comes from a renewable resource—trees—
and is biodegradable. Plastic, on the other hand, comes
from petroleum or natural gas, which are usually consid- To make the best decision about which product is bet-
ered nonrenewable resources. In addition,the plastic bags ter for the environment, the following questions should be
available in most stores are not biodegradable. considered:
Upon closer examination, however, the decision may
• H
ow much raw material, energy, and water is needed to
not be as simple as it seems. Plastic bags take up less
manufacture each bag?
room in a landfill, and removing large numbers of trees from
forests to manufacture paper can disrupt woodland eco- • W
hat waste products will result from the manufacture
systems. Plus, a tremendous amount of energy is required of each bag, and what effect will those wastes have on
to convert trees into pulp and then manufacture paper from water, the atmosphere, and the land?
the pulp. Concern has also arisen about reusable bags • Can recycled materials be used in the manufacture of
fostering bacterial growth, and high lead content has been the bag? If so, to what degree will the use of recycled
found in some reusable polypropylene bags. materials reduce the amount of raw materials, energy,

Changing the Materials We Use QUICKLAB
Simply changing the materials we use could eliminate much of the Here Today—Gone Tomorrow?
solid waste we produce. For example, single-serving drink boxes are Procedure
made of a combination of foil, cardboard, and plastic. The drink boxes 1. Place samples of different
are hard to recycle because there is no easy way to separate the three materials into the compartments
of an egg carton and label each
components. More of our waste could be recycled if such products were
compartment.
no longer made and if all drinks came in recyclable glass, cardboard, or
2. Cover the items with soil and add
aluminum containers.
water until the soil is damp.
Recycling other common household products into new, useable 3. Tape the carton shut and leave it
products could also help eliminate solid waste. For example, newspapers on a window ledge.
can be recycled to make cardboard, egg cartons, and building materials. 4. For several months, check weekly
Telephone books, magazines, and catalogs can also be recycled to make for signs of decomposition. Record
building materials. Used aluminum beverage cans can be recycled to your observations. Re-cover the
make new beverage cans, lawn chairs, aluminum siding for houses, and items and re-moisten the soil.
cookware. Used glass jars and bottles can be recycled to make new glass Analysis:
jars and bottles. Finally, plastic beverage containers can be recycled Relate your experiment to what
to make nonfood containers, insulation, carpet yarn, textiles, fiberfill, happens to materials buried in
scouring pads, toys, plastic lumber, and crates. municipal landfills.
and water used and wastes produced in making the

bag?
• H
ow will the bag decompose, and what will the environ-
mental impact be if it is incorrectly disposed of?
A reusable canvas
Although several studies have analyzed these ques-
shopping bag may be
tions, most have been conducted by parties with a vested the best response to
interest, such as plastic or paper manufacturing companies. the paper-or-plastic
Often, the researchers fail to study all of the important fac- question.
tors listed above.
But the debate has caused industries to improve the
way their products affect the environment. Previously, paper
bags were considered best, but new technology has allowed Critical Thinking
the plastics industry to gain a larger market share. By incorpo-
rating recycled plastic into the bags and making plastic bags
from degradable plant materials, manufacturers improved the
image of plastic bags.
Therefore, the debate continues and environmentally Critical Thinking
conscious people are still wondering which is better. Right
1. Identifying Relationships Explain how
now there seems to be no right answer. However, the fol-
environmentally conscious shoppers have helped
lowing are environmentally sound options.
improve paper and plastic bag manufacturing in
• Carry your groceries in bags brought from home (paper, this country.
plastic, or canvas bags).
2. Understanding Concepts Why should a person
• Choose the bag you are most likely to reuse in the future. care which bag he or she is given at the grocery store?
• If you have only a few small items, do not use a bag.

Figure 2.4 Degradable Plastics
As you read earlier, most plastics are not biodegradable. To make plas-
Biodegradable Plastic Green
tic products more appealing to people who are concerned about the
plastics made from living things are
biodegradable.
environment, several companies have developed new kinds of plastics
that they say are degradable. One type, called photodegradable
plastic, is made so that when it is left in the sun for many weeks,
it becomes weak and brittle and eventually breaks into pieces.
Another type of degradable plastic, called green plastic, is
made by blending the sugars in plants with a special chemical
agent to make plastic. Green plastics are labeled as “green” be-
cause they are made from living things and are considered to be
more environmentally friendly than other plastics. The produc-
tion of green plastics requires 20 to 50 percent less fossil fuel than
the production of regular plastics does. A number of items like
the flowerpots in Figure 2.4 are now made of green plastic. This
plastic has been engineered to degrade within a short period of
time after being thrown away. When this plastic is buried, the
bacteria in the soil eat the sugars and leave the plastic weakened
and full of microscopic holes. The chemical agent then gradually
causes the long plastic molecules to break into shorter mol-
ecules. These two effects combine to cause the plastic to eventu-
ally fall apart into small pieces.
Problems with Degradable Plastics

The main problem with these so-called degradable plastics is
that although they do break apart and the organic parts can de-
grade, the plastic parts are only reduced to smaller pieces. This
type of plastic can help reduce the harmful effects that plastic
litter has on animals in the environment, because the plastic pieces will
be too small to get caught in their throats or around their necks. However,
the small pieces of plastic will not disappear completely. Instead, the
©Tim Gainey/Alamy Images

pieces of plastic will be spread around and may affect smaller organisms.
So, these biodegradable plastics can remain in landfills for many years,
just as regular plastics can.

1. Name three things you could do each day to 5. Analyzing Methods What are the advantages
produce less waste. and disadvantages to producing degradable
plastics?
2. Explain how buying certain products can help
reduce solid waste. 6. Applying Ideas Read the Case Study in this
section and decide which type of bag you would
3. Describe the steps it takes to recycle a piece
choose the next time you go shopping. Explain
of plastic.
why you made this choice. What are other uses
4. List two benefits of composting. of the bag you chose?

Section 3
Hazardous Waste Objectives
Name two characteristics of

hazardous waste.
Many of the products we use today, from laundry soap to computers, are
produced in modern factories that use thousands of chemicals. Some of these Describe one law that governs
chemicals make up parts of the products, while other chemicals are used as hazardous waste.
cleaners. Large quantities of the chemicals used are often left over as waste. Many
of these chemicals are classified as hazardous waste, which is any waste that is a Describe two ways to treat
risk to the health of humans or other living things. hazardous waste safely.
Types of Hazardous Waste Key Terms

Hazardous wastes may be solids, liquids, or gases and contain toxic, cor- hazardous waste
rosive, or explosive materials. Hazardous wastes include substances such deep-well injection
as paints, batteries, or biomedical materials. More examples of hazardous surface impoundment
wastes are listed in Figure 3.1.
Disposal of hazardous wastes often is not as carefully planned as the
manufacturing processes that produced them. One case with horrifying
results occurred at Love Canal, in Niagara Falls, New York. Begun in the
late 1800s as an ideal community, the land was eventually sold. By 1920, it
had become a dumping site for toxic materials. Eventually, it was bought
by the Niagara Falls School Board for a dollar, even though the board
knew of the toxins buried there. Schools and low-income housing were
built on the site. In the late 1970s, corroded barrels began popping up
in yards, and an abnormal number of health problems and birth defects
were reported for the area.
The events at Love Canal shocked people into paying more atten-
tion to how hazardous wastes were being m anaged. As a result of Love
Canal and other hazardous waste incidents in the U.S., Federal laws were
passed to clean up old waste sites and regulate future waste disposal.
Figure 3.1
Types of Hazardous Waste
Hazardous Waste Dumping An improperly
dyes, cleansers, and solvents maintained hazardous
waste site can leak toxic
PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) from wastes into the air, soil,
older electrical equipment, such as and groundwater.
heating systems and television sets
solvents, lubricants, and sealants
toxic heavy metals, such as lead, mercury,

cadmium, and zinc
©Shepard Sherbell/Corbis Saba
pesticides
radioactive wastes from spent fuel that

was used to generate electricity

Connect to LAW Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
Resource Conservation and The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), which governs mu-
Recovery Act nicipal solid waste disposal, also requires producers of hazardous waste to
The Resource Conservation and keep records of how their wastes are handled from the time the wastes are
Recovery Act (RCRA) was passed
made to the time the wastes are placed in an approved disposal facility. If
by Congress in 1976 and amended
the wastes cause a problem in the future, the producer is legally respon-
in 1984. The RCRA created the first
sible for the problem. RCRA also requires all hazardous waste treatment
significant role for federal government
and disposal facilities to be built and operated according to standards
in waste management. The act was
that are designed to prevent the facilities from polluting the environment.
established to regulate solid and
hazardous waste disposal and to
protect humans and the environment
from waste contamination.
The Superfund Act
The primary goals of the RCRA Because the safe disposal of hazardous wastes is expensive, companies
include protecting human health or individuals that produce hazardous wastes may be tempted to dump
from the hazards of waste disposal, them illegally to save money. Congress passed the Comprehensive
conserving energy and natural Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA),
resources by recycling and recovering, more commonly known as the Superfund Act, in 1980 and reauthorized
reducing or eliminating waste, and it again in 1986. The Superfund Act gives the U.S. Environmental Protec-
cleaning up waste, which may have tion Agency (EPA) the right to sue the owners of hazardous waste sites
spilled, leaked, or been improperly who illegally dumped waste. The law also gave the EPA the right to force
disposed of. site owners to pay for the cleanup and created a fund to pay for cleaning
up abandoned hazardous waste sites when owners couldn’t be identified.
Cleaning up improperly discarded waste is difficult and extremely ex-
pensive. Underfunded by the government, CERCLA often depends upon
heavy fines to force responsible parties to pay for the cleanup. At Love
Figure 3.2 Canal alone, $275 million was spent to put a clay cap on the site, to install
Superfund Sites This map shows a drainage system and treatment plant for leaking wastes, and to relocate
the number of approved and proposed residents. Many Superfund sites still need to be cleaned up, as shown
Superfund sites as of 2001. These sites in Figure 3.2. As of 2008, cleanup had been completed at only 341 of the
are some of the most hazardous areas in roughly 1,620 approved or proposed Superfund sites.
the United States.
Number of Superfund
Sites in Each State 48
0 to 5 12
18 0
6 to 10
12 11
11 to 15 25 21
9 32
16 to 20 2 86
38
21 to 49 2 67 12
More than 50 96 15
13 12 116
1 40
19 49 31 14
20 9
97 30 19
12 29
14
32
5 9 14
9 14 9 26
6 15 16
49 13
52
3
Source: U.S. Environmental
Alaska and Hawaii are not drawn to scale. Protection Agency

Figure 3.3
Transporting Hazardous
Waste Safely transporting hazardous
waste is an important part of hazardous
waste management.
critical thinking
Describe What security mea-
sures must be taken by trans-
portation companies to prevent
tampering with hazardous waste
shipments?
Hazardous Waste Management

Each year, the United States produces about 252 million metric tons of
hazardous waste, and this amount is growing. It is difficult to guarantee
that the transport (Figure 3.3) and disposal techniques used today will not
eventually pollute our air, food, or water.
Preventing Hazardous Waste

One way to prevent hazardous waste is to produce less of it. In recent
years, many manufacturers have discovered that they can redesign
manufacturing methods to produce less or no hazardous waste. For
example, some manufacturers that used chemicals to clean metal parts
of machines have discovered that they can use tiny plastic beads instead.
The beads act like a sandblaster to clean the parts, can be reused several
times, and are not hazardous when disposed of. Often, such techniques
save the manufacturers money by cutting the cost of materials as well as
by cutting the cost of waste disposal.
Another way to deal with hazardous waste is to find a way to recycle
or reuse it. Companies sometimes work together to reduce waste. For ex-
ample, a company that once would have thrown a cleaning solvent away
after one use may instead sell it to another company that has a use for it.
Conversion into Nonhazardous Substances

Some types of wastes can be treated with chemicals to make the wastes
less hazardous. For example, lime, which is a base, can be added to acids
©Nancy Pierce/Photo Researchers, Inc.
to neutralize them. Also, cyanides, which are extremely poisonous com-

pounds, can be combined with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and Check for Understanding
nitrogen. In other cases, wastes can be treated using bioremediation. Explain How can cleaning machinery
Sludge from petroleum refineries or wastewater treatment facilities, for with plastic beads rather than solvents
example, may be converted by bacteria into less harmful substances. help to reduce hazardous waste?

Connect to CHEMISTRY Land Disposal
Most of the hazardous waste produced in the United States is disposed
Hazardous Chemical of on land. One land disposal facility, illustrated in Figure 3.4, is called
Reactions
deep-well injection. During deep-well injection, wastes are pumped deep
After a material is thrown away, it
may become more hazardous as a
into the ground, where they are absorbed into a dry layer of rock below
result of a chemical reaction with the level of groundwater. After the wastes are buried below the level of
other discarded wastes. For example, groundwater, the wastes are covered with cement to prevent contami-
metallic mercury is considered to be nation of the groundwater. Another common land disposal facility is a
toxic. Metallic mercury is often used surface impoundment, which is basically a pond that has a sealed bottom.
in thermometers and computers. If it The wastes accumulate and settle to the bottom of the pond, while water
is buried in a landfill, the bacteria in evaporates from the pond and leaves room to add more wastes.
a landfill can cause it to react with Hazardous wastes in concentrated or solid form are often put in bar-
methane to form methyl mercury. rels, transported to another location and either stored or buried in land-
Methyl mercury, which is more toxic fills. Hazardous waste landfills are similar to those used for ordinary solid
than metallic mercury, can cause waste, but these landfills have extra safety precautions to prevent leakage.
severe nerve damage.
In theory, if all of these facilities are properly designed and built, they
should provide safe ways to dispose of hazardous wastes. However, if they
are not properly maintained, they can develop leaks that may result in
contamination of the air, soil, or groundwater.
CASESTUDY
Green Chemistry
Walk into any pharmacy, and you will see a wide range of
headache tablets for sale. Several popular brands contain
ibuprofen as the active ingredient. But the production of
ibuprofen used to create a headache itself.
When first developed and patented in the 1960s,
the six-step process to make ibuprofen produced large
quantities of unwanted byproducts. In fact, more waste
was made than useful product. In the 1990s, a new
three-step process was developed. This process uses
millions of metric tons fewer chemicals as raw materials and
prevents the formation of millions of metric tons of waste.
Fewer chemicals used and less waste produced adds up
to a process that is better for the environment and less
expensive for the manufacturer. This is an example of green
chemistry in action.
A set of principles guide green chemists. The
©Krista Kennell/ZUMA/Corbis
first principle of the ACS Green Chemistry Institute is

“Prevention: It is better to prevent waste than to treat or
The annual production of ibuprofen is
clean up waste after it has been created.” Ideally, raw about 14,000 metric tons, enough to make
materials should be renewable, and the product should billions of painkiller tablets.
biodegrade into harmless substances when it is no longer

Figure 3.4
Deep-Well Injection One way to dispose of

hazardous waste is through deep-well injection,
in which hazardous wastes are pumped deep
into the ground.
needed. The ideal process would use little energy and

convert all the raw materials into final product. Chemists are
not usually able to develop processes that meet all of these
guidelines. The closer they can get to an ideal process,
however, the better it is for the environment.
For example, the old process for the manufacture of
ibuprofen used a substance called aluminum trichloride to
increase the speed of one of the reactions. Unfortunately,
aluminum trichloride decayed during the reaction. It ended
up as a waste product that usually went into landfills. In the
new process, a different substance is used to speed up
the reaction. This substance does not break down. It is the The ibuprofen molecule is the same no matter
how it Thinking
Critical is produced.
gas hydrogen fluoride, which is easily separated from the
reactant mixture and reused.
In addition, the original process converted only
40 percent of the weight of the raw materials used into
Critical Thinking
ibuprofen. The new process raises this conversion to
around 99 percent, including the useful byproduct, acetic 1. Making Decisions Think of a chemistry
©Lagowski/Custom Medical Stock Photos
acid (the acid in vinegar). experiment you have done. Write a paragraph
In 1992, a plant for the manufacture of ibuprofen, to explain how the experiment could have
using the principles of green chemistry, opened in Bishop, been “greener.”
Texas. The largest of its kind, the facility is still in use and 2. Evaluate Viewpoints Should subsidies
is capable of producing about 6 billion tablets every year— be given to companies to encourage them
about a quarter of the world’s demand for ibuprofen. The to develop and put into practice greener
company that developed the green process was rewarded processes?
with a Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Award.

Figure 3.5 Remediation
Remediation Chemicals can be used to clean up Some hazardous wastes can be cleaned up, absorbed, or bro-
hazardous wastes. This tractor is applying chemicals to ken down, or their toxicity can be reduced by treatment with
an oil spill to help absorb the oil. biological and chemical agents. This process is known as envi-
ECOFACT ronmental remediation.
Biologically Treating Hazardous Waste

Certain bacteria can be used to clean up an area in the environ-
ment that has been contaminated with hazardous substances,
such as crude oil, PCBs, and cyanide. Plants that absorb heavy
metals can also be planted in contaminated areas. As shown in
Figure 3.5, chemicals are used to neutralize and absorb hazardous
wastes.
Incinerating Hazardous Waste

Some hazardous wastes are disposed of in specially designed
incinerators. Incinerators can be a safe form of disposal, but they
have several problems. Incineration is generally the most expensive form
of waste
ECOFACT disposal because it requires a lot of energy. Incinerators also need
Biomining pollution-control devices and must be carefully monitored so that
Bacteria are not only used to break hazardous gases and particles are not released into the air. After hazard-
down hazardous wastes, but they are ous waste is incinerated, the leftover ash usually needs to be buried in a
also used to extract copper and gold hazardous waste landfill.
from ore. This technique is called When we put hazardous waste into disposal facilities for long-term
biomining. Currently, 25 percent of the storage, they must be closely monitored. For example, the only way to
world’s copper is produced through make radioactive wastes nonhazardous is to let them sit for thousands of
biomining. Today, scientists are years until the radioactivity decreases to safe levels. Therefore, engineers
attempting to bioengineer bacterial and geologists search for disposal sites that probably will not be damaged
strains that can mine poisonous heavy
by movements of Earth for thousands of years.
metals such as arsenic, cadmium, and
mercury from ore.
Exporting Hazardous Waste
Until recently, only local laws regulated waste disposal in the United
States. Companies would often get rid of hazardous wastes by sending
them to landfills in other states, especially the less populated southern
states. In the 1980s, as southern populations grew, these states began to
refuse hazardous wastes from other states.
Check for Understanding Hazardous wastes are also exported through international trade
Describe What are two problems agreements. Some hazardous wastes are exported to other countries
associated with using incinerators to because there may be a facility in another country that specializes in
dispose of hazardous waste? treating, disposing of, or recycling a particular hazardous waste.
©Lawson Wood/Corbis

Hazardous Wastes at Home Figure 3.6
You may think of hazardous waste management as a problem that only

Common Hazardous
Household Products
big industries face. Chemicals, including house paint, pesticides, and
batteries, all create hazardous waste and are used in homes, schools, and motor oil pesticides
businesses ,as shown in Figure 3.6. Hazardous materials poured down
the drain or put in the trash end up in solid-waste landfills. These should paints fertilizers
instead be disposed of in a specially designed hazardous waste landfill. batteries cleaners
computers antifreeze
Disposing of Household Hazardous Waste
mobile phones
To make sure that household hazardous waste is disposed of properly,
cities around the country have begun to provide collection of household
hazardous waste. Some cities collect materials only once or twice a year,
while other cities have permanent facilities where residents can drop off Figure 3.7
hazardous waste. Trained workers sort the hazardous materials and send
some materials for recycling and pack other materials into barrels for Motor Oil Used motor oil should be
disposal. Used batteries and motor oil are recycled. Paint may be blended disposed of at an automobile service
and used for city park maintenance or to clean up graffiti. station or in an oil-collection receptacle.
Motor Oil
If you have ever changed the oil in your car yourself, you have probably
wondered what to do with the old, dirty oil. It is illegal to pour it on
the ground or throw it in the trash, because even a single can of oil can
contaminate as much as 3.8 million liters (1 million gallons) of water. You
may be surprised, however, to find out that people in the United States
illegally throw away about 700 million liters (185 million gallons) of used
©Mark Williamson/Oxford Scientific/Getty Images
motor oil every year. This amount does not include the oil disposed of by
service stations and automobile repair shops.
So what can people do with the oil? One option is to take it to an
automobile service station, where it will be turned in for recycling. Some
cities have designated oil-collection receptacles, as shown in Figure 3.7.
These cities recycle the used oil turned in by citizens. If you do not know
what services your community provides, you can call your local city
government and find out.

1. Identify one law that governs hazardous waste. 4. Evaluating Ideas Suppose that a surface
impoundment site for hazardous waste is
2. Describe two common ways to dispose of
planned for your c ommunity. Would you
hazardous waste in the United States. What is
oppose locating the site in your community?
one advantage and one disadvantage of one of
these methods?
5. Applying Ideas Suppose someone dumped
3. Describe how bacteria could be used to
leftover motor oil on a driveway. Could this
degrade hazardous wastes. Write a short
disposal method contaminate the air, water,
paragraph to explain your answer.
or soil? Explain your answer.

Points of View
How Should Nuclear

Waste Be Stored?
Finland expects to complete such
This map shows nuclear power plants around the United States, all of which are
sources of nuclear waste. a facility in 2020. It is called Onkalo,
which means “hidden.” Onkalo
consists of spiraling steel and concrete
tunnels bored into a mountain of
bedrock. Spent fuel rods will be stored
in copper canisters deposited in beds
of bentonite clay. Once Onkalo is
full, sometime in the 2100s, Finland
plans to backfill it. “It was important
that we found a solution,” says Timo
Seppala, who works for the contractor
constructing the site, “that would
require no surveillance or management
by future generations.” Sweden is
planning a similar facility, expected to
be operational in 2020.
In 1987, Congress chose Yucca
Mountain to be the location for the first
Nuclear fuel is used to generate electricity at power plants. U.S. permanent storage site for waste produced by nuclear
When nuclear fuel rods can no longer serve this function, power plants. But Nevadans and activists lobbied hard to stop
they are classified as high level radioactive waste. High- the project. Opponents argued that in 100,000 years, climate
level radioactive waste includes solids, liquids, and gases changes might increase precipitation in the area. Then Yucca
containing a high concentration of radioactive isotopes that Mountain’s underground water table might rise high enough
take approximately 100,000 years to decay. While nuclear to come into contact with the stored nuclear waste—and
energy is clean energy that can easily provide power for wash radioactive particles into the water supply. Although the
large cities without producing any air pollution, nuclear waste waste is sealed in waterproof canisters, activists point out
poses a major disposal problem. that no canister can be expected to last for 100,000 years.
Current technology can only provide canisters to last for 500
Forever Storage to 1,000 years.
In 2010, President Barack Obama directed the U.S.
One option for disposing of nuclear waste is to take what
Department of Energy to drop its plans for the site.
scientists call a geologic approach, storing the waste in an
underground location, protected by mountain bedrock or
©David Howells/Corbis
desert salt flats, that is not prone to earthquakes and does

not have water flowing through it.

ECOZine
at HMDScience.com
Temporary Storage Recycling Nuclear Waste

Meanwhile, U.S. nuclear waste is being held on site at the “Spent” nuclear fuel is made up of about 95.6 percent unused
nuclear power plants that produced it. More than 65,000 tons uranium. It is possible to reprocess nuclear waste, remove the
of nuclear waste is being held at about 75 different nuclear unused uranium, and use it for fuel. Doing so greatly reduces
reactors around the country (some of these reactors have the amount of nuclear waste that is produced by nuclear
since been shut down, but they continue to be staffed for the power plants. In fact, France has recycled its nuclear waste
sake of protecting the waste that is stored there). Used nuclear since the very first years of its nuclear industry. In France,
fuel rods are stored in canisters that are held in pools of water, producing enough electricity to provide power to a family of
for cooling, or in solid concrete casks. Many of these storage four for 20 years produces a quantity of nuclear waste about
sites, though, have been used for so many decades that they the size of a pack of gum.
are approaching their maximum capacity. However, reprocessing nuclear waste means separating
uranium from plutonium. Plutonium is left over as a byproduct
of nuclear recycling. Since plutonium can be used to make
nuclear weapons, recycling nuclear waste has proven to be
politically controversial in some countries, including the U.S.
Rows of metal drums store nuclear waste from Rhode Island in a facility near Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
What Do You Think?
What Do You Think?

(c) ©Science Source/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Do research and find the locations for nuclear

power plants in the U.S. that currently store
nuclear waste onsite in pools and casks. Plot the
locations on a map. Which option do you think is
safer: transporting nuclear waste to a facility such
as the now-cancelled Yucca Mountain facility,
leaving the waste onsite at power plants, or finding
a way to recycle it?

Chapter 19 Summary
Section 1 Solid Waste Objectives Key Terms
• Every year, people in the United States generate more solid waste
than 10 billion metric tons of soild waste. biodegradable
• Materials that are biodegradable, such as newspapers municipal solid
and cotton fibers, can be broken down by biological waste
processes. Materials that are not biodegradable such landfill
as plastics, are a major cause of disposal problems. leachate
• Municipal solid waste makes up only a small fraction
of the total solid waste generated, but it still amounts
to over 236 million tons per year.
• Landfills and incinerators are two facilities used for
disposing solid waste.
Section 2 Reducing Solid Waste Objectives Key Terms
• Source reduction is a method by which we can source reduction

produce less waste, recycle, and reuse materials. recycling
• Recycling is the process of reusing materials or compost
recovering valuable materials from waste or scrap.
• A compost pile made from plant and animal matter can
be spread on gardens and fields to enrich the soil.
(c) ©Martin Bond/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) ©Shepard Sherbell/Corbis Saba; (t) ©Universal Images Group/Getty Images
• Degradable plastic is a type of plastic that is partially
made from living things.
Section 3 Hazardous Waste Objectives Key Terms
• Hazardous waste is any waste that is a risk to the hazardous waste

health of humans or other living things. deep-well
• The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act injection
(RCRA) and the Superfund Act were established to surface
regulate solid and hazardous waste disposal and impoundment
to protect humans and the environment from waste
contamination.
• Activities at home can create hazardous waste.
Household hazardous wastes should be properly
disposed of at designated collection sites.

Chapter 19 Review
Reviewing Key Terms
Use each of the following terms in a separate sentence. 13. Municipal solid waste is approximately what
1. source reduction percentage of all solid waste?
2. leachate a. 2 percent
3. municipal solid waste b. 20 percent
4. biodegradable c. 60 percent
5. recycling d. 90 percent
Use the correct key term to complete each of the 14. Leachate is a substance that
following sentences.
a. is produced in a compost pile.
6. __________ is any waste that is a risk to the health
b. is a byproduct of bacterial digestion.
of humans or other living things.
c. is produced by incinerators.
7. A dark brown, crumbly material made from
decomposed matter is called _________. d. contains dissolved toxic chemicals.
8. A _________ is a waste disposal facility where
15. Which of the following is not a benefit of
wastes are put in the ground and covered each
incinerating waste?
day with a layer of dirt, plastic, or both.
a. It reduces the material sent to landfills.
a concept map: solid waste, hazardous waste, b. It produces energy in the form of heat.
landfills, types of waste, surface impoundment, c. It can be used to produce electricity.
methods of waste disposal, incineration, and deep- d. It neutralizes all of the toxic materials.
well injection.
16. Manufacturers could reduce waste and conserve
resources by making products that
a. use more materials.
10. Solid waste includes all of the following except
b. are more durable.
a. newspaper and soda bottles.
c. are difficult to repair.
b. food scraps and yard clippings.
c. ozone and carbon dioxide. d. are disposable.
d. junk mail and milk cartons. 17. Which of the following is one way to reduce
an over-supply of recyclable materials?
11. If your shirt is partly cotton and partly polyester,
what part is biodegradable? a. build more recycling plants
a. cotton. b. increase the types of recyclable materials
b. polyester. c. increase the demand for products made
from recycled materials
c. both (a) and (b).
d. put the excess materials in landfills
d. none of the above.
18. Most of the municipal solid waste in the
12. Microorganisms are unable to break down
United States is
plastics because plastics
a. stored in landfills.
a. are made from oil.
b. recycled.
b. are too abundant.
c. are made of unknown elements. c. incinerated.
d. do not occur in nature. d. None of the above

Chapter Review

19. Do you think incineration is an efficient disposal 26. Understanding Concepts During the
method for glass and metal wastes? Write a short 1970s, the production of municipal solid waste
paragraph that explains why or why not. decreased. An economic recession was also
20. How do plastic liners and layers of clay help occurring. How might the reduction in waste have
protect the environment around a landfill? been related to the recession?
21. What are the materials that make up compost? 27. Making Comparisons Read the description
List at least three benefits of composting. of recycling in this chapter and compare the
benefits of buying a product that has been
22. How does the Superfund Act allow the federal recycled to the benefits of buying a brand new
government to ensure proper disposal of product. Which product would you prefer to buy?
hazardous waste? Explain your answer.
28. Evaluating Information How would a ban
on the production of plastics affect both the
Interpreting Graphics environment and society?
The graph below shows the number of active landfills 29. Identifying Relationships When we purchase
in the United States from the year 1988 to the year hazardous household products, such as motor
1998. Use the graph to answer questions 23–25. oil, bleach, and pesticides, what happens to the
23. Determine Approximately how many active containers when they are empty? What happens
landfills existed in 1988? in 1998? to the hazardous waste that these products create?
24. Explain During the span of 10 years, did the 30. Predicting Consequences How might a
overall number of active landfills increase or did person’s current shopping habits affect the quality
the number decrease? What may have caused this of the environment 100 years in the future?
change? Explain your answer. 31. Social Studies Use an almanac to determine
25. Predict If this trend continues, what might the which five states have the greatest number of
graph look like for the year 2028? hazardous waste sites. What factors do you think
might account for the number of hazardous waste
8,000 sites located in a state?
7,000 32. Make a Display Do a special project about
Number of active landfills in the U.S.
recycling in your community. Determine what

6,000 types of materials are collected, where they are
taken for processing, how they are recycled, and
5,000
what products are made from them. Display your
4,000 findings on a poster.
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998
Year
Source: BioCycle.

Chapter Review
STUDYSKILL
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
38. As a consumer, how can you influence
manufacturers to utilize green chemistry?
Paper Products in Municipal
Solid Waste 39. How can using green chemistry help reduce
Whythe
It Matters
amount of hazardous wastes produced?
Product Generation Percentage
(tons) recycled
Newspapers 13,620 56.4 Why It Matters
Books 1,140 14.0 40. How does the United

States compare with
Magazines 2,260 20.8 other developed
countries in terms of
Office papers 7,040 50.4 solid waste produced
per person, per year?
33. Evaluating Data How many tons of paper

products were generated according to the table?
34. Making Calculations How many tons of
newspapers were recycled? How many tons
of newspapers were not recycled?
35. Making Calculations How many tons of office
papers were recycled? How many tons of office
papers were not recycled? STUDYSKILL
Increase Your Vocabulary To learn and remember
vocabulary words, use a dictionary for words you do not
Making Connections understand and become familiar with the glossaries of
your textbooks.
36. Writing Persuasively Pretend that you work for
a company that sells degradable plastics. Write
an advertising campaign that would persuade
consumers to buy materials made from your
company’s brand of degradable plastic.
37. Outlining Topics Describe the various ways in
which hazardous waste can be disposed of. List
the advantages and disadvantages of each way.

ExplorationLab
Data Analysis
Out of Sight—Out of
Objectives
Recognize various categories
Mind
and amounts of solid waste
produced. Do you have any idea what happens to the things you throw away
every day? The items that we can’t reuse or recycle end up in a landfill
Compute percentages of
waste, by category, produced
somewhere. Various government and private agencies study the amount
per person in a single day. and types of waste we produce and are continuously working to solve the
problems of waste disposal. In this lab activity, you will determine how
Generalize data from a
much solid waste you produce during a typical day. You will also predict
small sample for a large
population using calculations.
through calculations how much solid waste your population produces
each day.
Infer from small data
samples the impact that
waste production has on Procedure
a large population.
1. On the day before the lab activity, collect all the items you would
Evaluate how waste data normally throw away. Put all of your waste in a plastic bag, including
can be used to communicate wrappers, napkins, straws, unopened containers of condiments, and
results and offer solutions. disposable trays, notebook or printer paper, drink cans and bottles,
etc. You should not include uneaten food of any kind.
Materials
balance, triple beam, or 2. The day of the lab, each group member should place his or her plastic
electronic bag of waste on the worktable. Each member should separate his or
calculator her waste on a paper towel into the following categories: paper and
paper towels cardboard, plastic, metal, glass, wood, and food.
plastic bags
3. For each category of waste, determine the mass of waste produced by
ruler each person in the group. Create a data table similar to the one shown
below and record the masses.
4. Determine the total mass for each category for the lab group. Then,
determine the average mass of solid waste per student for each
category. Finally, determine the overall total amount of solid waste
produced for each student.
Waste category Student 1 Student 2 Student 3 Total mass of lab group Average mass/student
Paper and
cardboard
Plastic
Metal
Glass
Wood
Food
Total

Analysis
1. Organizing Data Use the equation below to determine the
percentages for the waste categories that make up your total waste as an
individual. Add another column to your data table to record this value.
Mass (in grams) of waste category waste category’s

× 100 = percentage of
Mass (in grams) of total waste total waste
2. Organizing Data Use the equation above to deter-

mine the percentages for the waste categories that
make up the total waste for your lab group. Divide Step 4 Determine the mass of the waste produced in grams for
the total waste for each category from the table on each category of waste.
the previous page by the grand total and multiply by
100. Add another column to your data table to record
these values.
3. Examining Data Compare your averages for the

different categories and your total with other groups
in the class. How and why are the data different or
similar?
4. Examining Data Which category of waste makes

up the greatest percentage of the total waste? Explain
your answer.
Conclusions
5. Making Predictions How can you calculate the
lunch waste produced in each category and overall
by your entire school’s student body in a day? Use
your equation to make this calculation.
6. Applying Conclusions How can you use the knowledge you have
acquired by doing this calculation exercise to reduce the amount of
waste you produce?
Extension
7. Research and Communications Write a letter to the editor of
your school newspaper, the editor of the local newspaper, or your
school principal or cafeteria manager sharing the data your class has
gathered and calculated. Offer creative solutions to eliminate and
reduce some of the waste.

Ecozine
HMDScience.com

Chapter 20: society and

©NHPA/Photo Researchers, Inc.
The environment Water

Challenges
Chapter 21: making A

difference Get Involved with
the Environment
508
a
Our Health
Unit 6
H
and Our Chapter 20
The Environment and
Human Health
Future Chapter 21
Economics, Policy, and the
Future
The casuarina tree is native to Australia

and is one of the few pine trees that
grow in nutrient-poor, sandy areas.
This casuarina plantation on the coast
of South Africa was established to hold
sand dunes in place and to serve as a
local source for wood fuel.
(t) ©Michel Gounot/Godong/Corbis; (b) ©Alex Webb/Magnum Photos
509
CHAPTER 20
Section 1
The
The
Environment
Pollution and Human Health
Section 2
Biological Hazards
Why It Matters
Environment
and Human
Sanitation, the practice of
treating water, wastewater, and
trash, can reduce the incidence
of infectious diseases spread
through polluted water.
and Human
Health
However, safe and reliable
community water supply
systems are expensive to build
and maintain. In some
countries, common water
Health
sources are used for drinking,
bathing, washing dishes and
clothes, and food preparation.
How can water be made safer
for human consumption and
take into account different
cultural practices?
CASESTUDY
Learn about pollutants that
affect fertility in humans and
other animals in the case study
Chemicals that Disrupt
Hormones on page 516.
Online
©Michel Gounot/Godong/Corbis
HMDScience.com

510
Section 1
Pollution and Objectives

List five pollutants, their
Human Health
sources, and their possible
effects on human health.
Explain how scientists use

toxicology and epidemiology.
If you have ever coughed from breathing car exhaust, you have experienced a mild
health effect of air pollution. Pollution of air, water, and soil is frequently in the news. Explain how pollution can come
Because people in the United States are concerned about pollution, our country from both natural sources and
enjoys a relatively clean environment. But this situation is also due to the efforts of human activities.
scientists who have studied the relationship between pollution and human health.
Scientists are also beginning to understand the broader relationships between Describe the relationship
health and the environment. between waste, pollution, and
human health.
Environmental Effects on Health

Pollution causes illnesses in two main ways. First, pollution may cause Key Terms
illnesses directly by poisoning, as in the cases of lead poisoning and lung toxicology
cancer. Second, pollution may cause illnesses indirectly by infectious dose
diseases that are spread in polluted environments. Examples of these dose-response curve
diseases include cholera and river blindness, which are caused by epidemiology
organisms that inhabit polluted water. risk assessment
The World Health Organization (WHO) has begun to collect data on particulates
how the environment affects human health. Figure 1.1 shows the WHO’s
estimate of poor health by world region as a graph. Poor health is repre-
sented by the estimated number of days of healthy life that are lost to
death and disease. The graph shows that, in general, people in developed
countries suffer less from environmental causes of poor health. In devel-
oping countries, environmental causes of poor health are largely due to
parasites and bacteria in polluted water and insect-borne diseases, such
as malaria.
Figure 1.1
Environmental Pollution and World Health

Poor Health by World Region
250
Environmental portion
Estimated days of life lost to death
and disease per person each year
200 Nonenvironmental portion
150
100
50
0
Established Former China Latin Middle East World Southeast India Sub-Saharan
market socialist America and Asia/Islands Africa
economies countries North Africa
Source: Epidemiology.
Chapter 20: The Environment and Human Health 511
Figure 1.2
Types and Effects of Pollutants
Pollutant Source Possible Effects
Pesticides agriculture and landscaping nerve damage, birth defects, and cancer
Lead lead paint and gasoline brain damage and learning problems
Particulate matter vehicle exhaust, burning waste, fires, and tobacco smoke respiratory damage (asthma, bronchitis, cancer)
Coal dust coal mining black lung disease
Bacteria in food poor sanitation and poor food handling gastrointestinal infections
Toxicology
The word toxic means poisonous. Toxicology is the study of toxic sub-
stances, including their nature, effects, detection, methods of treatment,
and exposure control. Figure 1.2 lists some important pollutants and their
toxic effects.
Toxicity: How Dangerous Is It?

We are exposed to small amounts of chemicals every day in food, in the
air we breathe, and sometimes in the water we drink. Almost any chemi-
cal can be harmful if large enough amounts are taken in. The question is
whether the concentration of any particular chemical in the environment
is high enough to be harmful.
To determine the effect of a pollutant on health, we need to know how
much of the pollutant is in the environment and how much gets into the
Figure 1.3 body. Then we need to determine what concentration of the toxin dam-
ages the body. The amount of a harmful chemical to which a person is
Dose-Response Curve A dose- exposed is called the dose of that chemical. The damage to health that
response curve shows the response of an results from exposure to a given dose is called the response. Whether a
organism to different concentrations of a chemical has a toxic effect depends in part on the dose. The response also
substance. depends on the number of times a person is exposed, the person’s size,
100
and how well the person’s body breaks down the chemical.
A persistent chemical is a chemical that breaks down slowly in the
environment. The pesticide DDT is an example of a persistent chemical.
Persistent chemicals are dangerous because more people are likely to
come into contact with them, and these chemicals are more likely to
Percent response
remain in the body.

50
Dose-Response Curves
The toxicity of a chemical can be expressed as a dose-response curve, as
shown in Figure 1.3. A dose-response curve shows the relative effect of
various doses of a drug or chemical on one or more organisms as deter-
mined by experiments. Sometimes, there is a threshold dose. Exposure to
any amount of the chemical less than the threshold dose has no adverse
0
effect on health. Exposure to levels above the threshold dose usually leads
Dose to more or increased adverse effects.
512 Unit 6: Our Health and Our Future

Figure 1.4
Epidemiologic Data This map

shows the location of cases of mercury
poisoning in Virginia. Patterns point
scientists toward areas of mercury
pollution.
Source: Virginia Department of Health
Epidemiology
When an epidemic occurs, such as a widespread flu infection, health
officials use their knowledge of epidemiology to take action. Epidemiology
(ep uh dee mee AHL uh jee) is the study of the spread of diseases.
Epidemiologists collect data from health workers on when and where
cases of a disease have occurred. This information can be used to pro-
duce a map like the one in Figure 1.4.
Then scientists trace the disease to try to find its origin and how to
prevent it from spreading. For example, in a case of mercury poisoning,
health officials may ask questions such as: What did the people with
mercury poisoning have in common? Were they all exposed to the same
chemicals? How widespread is the disease?
Risk Assessment Figure 1.5

In order to safeguard the public, health officials
determine the risk posed by specific hazards. Risk Epidemiologic Modeling Air flow models like this one help
is the probability of a negative outcome. In the scientists predict the path that air pollutants may follow through a
city. The bright orange areas are receiving the most pollutants.
case of human health, risk is the probability of
suffering a disease, injury, or death.
Scientists and health officials work together on
risk assessments for pollutants. A risk assessment
is an estimate of the risk posed by a specific
substance. During a risk assessment, scientists
first compile and evaluate existing information on
the substance. Second, they determine how
people might be exposed to it. Figure 1.5 shows a
diagram from a computer model of how air
pollutants might travel through a city area. The
third step is determining the toxicity of the
substance. Finally, scientists characterize the risk
that the substance poses to the public. Risk
assessments may lead to government regulations
on how and where the substance can be used. In
the United States, the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) formulates these regulations.

Figure 1.6
Natural Causes of Particle Pollution
Dust A dust storm descends upon Marrakesh, Morocco, in the photo above. Dust Volcanic Ash A town is coated with ash after the 1991
is perhaps the most common natural pollutant. eruption of Mount Pinatubo, in the Philippines.
Pollution from Natural Sources

You may think of pollution as being entirely caused by people, but some
pollutants occur naturally in the environment. Naturally occurring
pollutants usually become hazardous to health when they are concen-
trated above their normal levels in the environment. One example is the
radioactive gas radon. In some areas, radon from granite bedrock may
seep into buildings, where it becomes concentrated. Because it is an
odorless gas, people may unknowingly breathe it in. Radon causes an
estimated 15,000 to 22,000 cancer deaths every year in the United States.
(tr) ©Images & Volcans/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (tl) ©John Elk III/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshotot
Particulates
The most common pollutants from natural sources are dust, soot, and
other particulates. Particulates (pahr TIK yoo lits) are particles in the air
that are small enough to breathe into the lungs. These particles become
trapped in the tiny air sacs in our lungs and cause irritation. This irrita-
tion can make lung conditions, such as chronic bronchitis and emphy-
sema, worse. Figure 1.6 shows particle pollution from a dust storm, and
pollution from a volcanic eruption. Wildfires also produce large amounts
of particulates.
Heavy Metals
Another type of pollution from natural sources is caused by heavy metals.
Dangerous heavy metals include the elements arsenic, cadmium, lead,
and mercury. These metals occur naturally in rocks and soil. Most of
these elements cause nerve damage when they are ingested beyond their
threshold dose. Selenium, also found naturally in many soils, is actually a
beneficial element when taken in very small quantities. But larger doses
cause birth defects in birds.

Pollution from Human Activities ECOFACT
Human activities release thousands of types of chemicals into the envi- Sources of Pollution
ronment, but we know surprisingly little about the health effects of most Walk around your neighborhood, and
of them. Only about 10 percent of commercial chemicals have been record potential sources of pollution.
tested for their toxicity, and about 1,000 new chemicals are introduced Suggest ways in which the amount of
every year. Figure 1.7 shows the introduction of pollutants into the envi- pollution from each source might be
ronment by human activities. reduced. Write your observations,
suggestions, and any evidence that
supports your analysis in your science
Recent Improvements journal.
In the United States, regulations have helped reduce our exposure to
pollutants. Most vehicles and factories now have pollution-control
devices. As a result, people living in the United States contain lower levels
of some toxic chemicals in their bodies, on average, than they did in the FieldStudy
recent past. In 2001, 2003, and 2005, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control Go to Appendix B to find the field study
Sources of Pollution.
and Prevention (CDC) released studies on chemical residues in the U.S.
population. Levels of nicotine (from smoking), mercury, and several
other toxic chemicals were considerably lower in these peoples’ tissues
than they had been in 1991. Because we know so little about the effects of
chemicals on our health, new health risks are discovered frequently. For
example, scientists now think that chemical pollution may be at least part
of the cause of Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease.
Burning Fuels
Despite advances in public health resulting from pollution control, air
pollution is still a major health problem. Burning fuels in vehicles, home
furnaces, power plants, and factories introduces enormous amounts of
pollutants into the air. These pollutants include the gas carbon monoxide
and particulates. Gasoline and coal burning contribute to many prema- CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING
ture deaths each year from asthma, heart disease, and lung disorders. A Identify Name three potential effects
recent study found that long-term exposure to air contaminated with soot on human health from burning gasoline
particles raises a person’s risk of dying from lung and heart diseases. and coal.
Figure 1.7
Human Causes of Water and Air Pollution

(bl) ©Peter Turnley/Corbis; (br) ©Still Pictures
Paper mills contribute pollutants to rivers. Vehicle emissions cloud the air in urban areas worldwide.

Connect to MATH Pesticides
Concentration Pesticides are chemicals designed to kill unwanted organisms such as
Concentrations of chemicals in the insects, fungi, or weeds. Pesticides are beneficial in that they allow us to
environment are often expressed in grow more food by reducing pest damage. Many of the increases in food
parts per million (ppm) or parts per production in the past 60 years are partly due to the development and use
billion (ppb). One teaspoon of salt in of more effective pesticides. But because pesticides are designed to kill
two gallons of water produces a salt organisms, they are often dangerous to humans in large enough doses.
concentration of 1,000 ppm. What salt Although we are exposed to pesticide residues on fruits and vegetables,
concentration, in ppm, would result the amounts consumed by most people pose little danger.
from dissolving one teaspoon of salt in Most modern pesticides, such as most of those used in the United
five gallons of water?
States, break down quickly in the environment into harmless substances.
Widely used organophosphate pesticides have replaced more persistent
pesticides, such as DDT. But organophosphates are very toxic, causing
nerve damage and perhaps cancer. In 2004, U.S. poison centers reported
nearly 7,200 cases of organophosphate poisoning. Most cases of pesticide
poisoning affect the people applying the chemicals.
Persistent chemicals are still used in many developing countries. Such
pesticides pose the greatest risk to children, whose internal organs are
still developing and who eat and drink more in relation to their body
weight than adults do.
CASESTUDY Hypothalamus
Chemicals that Pituitary

gland
Pineal
gland
Disrupt Hormones Parathyroid

gland
Thyroid
gland
One important field of environmental science is ecotoxicology, the
study of the effects of pollutants on organisms. Studies may investigate Thymus
genetic, cellular, or reproductive changes in organisms exposed to specific gland
pollutants in the environment. Laboratory experiments are conducted to
determine the threshold dose of the pollutant in the organism. Pancreas
Adrenal
Scientists have collected evidence that many pollutants disrupt the gland
endocrine system. In humans and other organisms, the glands that make
up the endocrine system produce hormones. Hormones are chemicals
that circulate in the bloodstream and control most life processes, including
the development of muscles and sex organs. Some pollutants, called
hormone mimics, behave like natural hormones. Others, called hormone
disrupters, prevent natural hormones from functioning normally. Even low Ovary Testis
levels of these pollutants can affect developing embryos and infants. (females) (males)
Researchers first discovered hormone mimics in male trout and eels

that contained egg-yolk proteins usually produced only by females. These
fish were downstream from sewage treatment plants. Lab experiments
showed that the water contained estrogen-like chemicals and that these
This diagram shows the major
chemicals induced the male fish to make female proteins. The chemicals organs and glands of the human
are thought to have come from detergents and from the urine of women endocrine system.
taking contraceptive pills.

Industrial Chemicals Figure 1.8
We are exposed to low levels of industrial chemicals every day, particu- Industrial Pollutants Lead
larly inside new buildings that have new furnishings. Toxic chemicals are poisoning in children is most
used to make building materials, carpets, cleaning fluids, and furniture. often due to direct exposure to
Older buildings, like the one shown in Figure 1.8, were often painted using lead-based paint.
lead-based paint. Lead is directly linked to brain damage and learning
disabilities. Children under age six are most at risk for lead poisoning.
Often, industrial chemicals are not known to be toxic until they have
been used for many years. For example, polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs) are oily fluids that have been used for years as insulation in
electrical transformers. PCBs break down very slowly in the environment.
In 1996, studies showed that children exposed to PCBs in the womb can
develop learning problems and IQ deficits. The waters of the Great Lakes
are polluted by PCBs, and doctors warn pregnant women not to eat
certain fish from these lakes. Studies have shown that adults with high
concentrations of PCBs in their tissues have more memory problems than
adults who do not.
The fertility of American

alligators, such as this one, has
been reduced by their exposure
to hormone-disrupting pollutants.
Most hormone disrupters interfere with the sex hormones. the environment may also affect humans. In the past 50
They prevent normal production of testosterone in males or years, there has been a large increase in cancers of the
increase the chances of sexual abnormality in females. Some prostate, testicles, ovaries, and breasts in most industrialized
hormone disrupters include phthalates, which are used in countries. All of these forms of cancer can be accelerated by
cosmetics like hair dyes and fingernail polish. Polychlorinated abnormal levels of sex hormones.
Critical Thinking
(cl) ©BVDC/Fotolia; (tr) ©G. DeGrazia/Custom Medical Stock Photo
biphenyls (PCBs), some pesticides, lead, and mercury may Experimentation related to hormone disrupters is difficult
also act as hormone disrupters. and can be ethically challenging. Scientists must rely on
Many cases of pollution by hormone disrupters have been many lines of evidence to determine chemical toxicity, such
documented. Alligators in a polluted Florida lake had such as documented abnormalities and comparative studies of
abnormally small penises and low testosterone levels that the impact of the same chemicals on other species.
they could not reproduce. In 2002, scientists reported that
even small amounts of the widely used herbicide atrazine
disrupt the sexual development of frogs. Killer whales of the
Critical Thinking
Pacific Northwest and beluga whales in the St. Lawrence 1. If humans are increasingly exposed to water
Estuary have high levels of hormone disrupting chemicals pollutants, what are some possible results?
in their bodies. Their populations display reproductive 2. Name some possible ethical challenges related
problems, tumors, and sexual abnormalities, possibly to hormone-disruptor experimentation?
caused by hormone disrupters. Hormone disrupters in

Figure 1.9
Solid Waste Pollution Waste that

is not disposed of properly can pollute
beaches, where it can pose a threat to
swimmers and sunbathers.
critical thinking
Apply What are two examples in
the image of pollution related to
inadequate waste disposal?
Waste Disposal
Much of the pollution in our environment is a by-product of inadequate
waste disposal. Figure 1.9 shows the pollution of a beach with solid waste.
Wastewater from cities can carry oil and dozens of toxic chemicals into
our waterways. Waste incineration plants can emit toxic products into the
air, and mining can release toxic contaminants into streams and rivers.
Methods of disposing of waste have improved. However, problems
remain. Many old landfills are leaking. And many communities still have
sewage treatment plants that release raw sewage into a river or the ocean
after heavy rains. In addition, laws regulating waste disposal are not
always enforced.
The United States government has not decided how it will dispose of
radioactive waste from nuclear power plants. Meanwhile, the waste
remains at or near the plants, and small quantities of radioactive iodine,
cesium, and other elements leak into nearby waterways.
©UNEP

1. List five pollutants, their sources, and their 4. Making Comparisons Write a short para-
possible effects on human health. graph that explains the relationship between
2. Explain how pollution can arise from both toxicology and epidemiology.
natural sources and from human activities. 5. Analyzing Relationships In what ways do
3. Describe the relationship between waste, human activities increase the health risks from
pollution, and human health. natural pollutants?

Section 2
Biological Hazards Objectives

Explain why the environment is
an important factor in the
spread of some diseases.
Some of the damage to human health in which the environment plays a role is List two changes to the
not caused by toxic chemicals but by organisms that carry disease. Today, we
environment that can lead to
have outbreaks of diseases that did not exist or that few people had heard of
100 years ago, such as AIDS, Ebola, West Nile virus, hantavirus, and mad cow the spread of infectious
disease. In addition, diseases that have killed people for centuries, such as malaria, diseases.
tuberculosis, yellow fever, and hookworm, kill many more people today than they
did 50 years ago. All these diseases are caused by organisms. One of the reasons Explain what scientists mean
these diseases are now widespread is that we have altered our environment in when they say that certain
ways that encourage them to spread. viruses are emerging.
The Environment’s Role in Disease Key Terms

Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens, organisms or viruses that pathogen
cause disease. Some of these diseases, such as tuberculosis and whoop-
host
ing cough, are spread from person to person through the air. Other
diseases are spread by drinking water that contains the pathogen. Still
vector
other diseases are transmitted by a secondary host, such as a mosquito.
A host is an organism in which a pathogen lives all or part of its life.
Figure 2.1 lists the most deadly infectious diseases worldwide.
Figure 2.1
Deaths from Diseases in 2004,
Estimated by the World Health Organization
Estimated deaths
Disease and examples Cause per year (in millions)
Total infectious and parasitic diseases bacteria, viruses, and parasites 9.5
Respiratory infections (pneumonia, influenza, bacteria, viruses 4.3
and whooping cough)
AIDS virus 2.0
Diarrheal diseases (cholera, typhus, typhoid, bacteria, viruses, parasites 2.2

and dysentery)
Tuberculosis bacteria 1.5

Childhood diseases (measles and diphtheria) virus 0.8
Malaria parasitic protist 0.9
Tetanus bacteria 0.2
Tropical diseases (trypanosomiasis, Chagas’ bacteria, viruses, and parasites 0.2

disease, schistosomiasis, and leishmaniasis)

QUICKLAB Infectious Disease
Simulating an Epidemic Most infectious diseases are transmitted through water. In developing
Procedure countries, where there is not enough water for basic needs, the local water
1. Using a computer with Internet supply is often used for drinking, washing, and sewage disposal. So, the
service, open the simulation at water is often polluted and is a good breeding ground for pathogens. The
http://www.personal.kent. pathogens breed in water and transfer diseases directly to humans
edu/~mdball/infectious_Disease_ through water, or organisms that carry the pathogens transfer them to
Model.htm
humans through the water. An organism, such as a mosquito, that trans-
2. Using the slider, change the number
mits a pathogen or parasite to another organism is called a vector. The
of initial-healthy to 50.
construction of irrigation canals and dams, particularly in the tropics, has
3. Push the Setup button, then click
increased the habitat for vectors. For example, the Three Gorges Dam in
Go.
China has created a huge freshwater lake. This lake is the habitat of the snail
4. Run the simulation until there are
vector in which the parasitic worm that causes schistosomiasis lives.
no more color changes of the
“people” in the simulation window.
5. Record your observations. Cholera
Analysis The deadliest waterborne diseases come from drinking water polluted
1. What did you observe about the by human feces. Pathogens, such as those that cause cholera and dysen-
spread of disease when the tery, enter the water in human feces. These diseases cause the body to
population was small? lose water by diarrhea and vomiting. Figure 2.2 shows a child being treated
2. Explain the effect the increase in for dehydration. Cholera and dysentery cause most infant deaths around
population had on the way the the world. Up to 80 percent of cases can be successfully treated by
epidemic spread. rehydration.
Malaria
The disease malaria was once the world’s leading cause of death. Today it
remains in the top five causes of death from infectious diseases world-
wide. Malaria is caused by parasitic protists and is transmitted by a bite
from infected females of certain species of mosquitoes. The mosquito
CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING vector lays her eggs in stagnant fresh water, which is where the mosquito
Identify Why are local water supplies in larva develops. No effective vaccine exists, but simple measures like the
developing countries often polluted? use of inexpensive sleeping nets can greatly reduce deaths due to malaria.
Figure 2.2
Treatment for Dehydration This

child is undergoing rehydration therapy
during a cholera epidemic in South Africa. ©Jean-Marc Bouju/AP/Wide World Photos

Figure 2.3
Soil Erosion Soil erosion in Nepal leads to the spread of parasites such as the hookworm, which often enters the body through bare feet.
ECOFACT
Environmental Change and Disease ECOFACT

Many ways in which we alter the environment make the environment Suburbs Spread Lyme Disease
more suitable for pathogens to live and reproduce. For example, soil is Lyme disease is the most widespread
often polluted with chemicals and pathogens. When soil erodes, these vector-borne disease in the United
pollutants blow away and wash away with the soil and may contaminate States. It is caused by a bacterium
areas thousands of miles away. Many parasites are spread through soil similar to the one that causes the
that is contaminated with feces. Hookworm, which causes acute exhaus- sexually transmitted disease syphilis.
tion, was once common in the United States. People are infected by The vector is a tick found on white-
walking barefoot on soil that contains human and animal feces or by tailed deer. The suburbs are a suitable
consuming contaminated food or water. Figure 2.3 shows soil erosion in place for deer to grow and reproduce,
Nepal. Roughly 60 percent of the population in Nepal is infected by and their populations have exploded as
parasitic worms, with much higher incidence in rural areas. The high suburbs have expanded. Lyme disease
number of infections is most likely due to increased contaminated soil infects more than 20,000 people a year
in the United States.
exposure caused by widespread erosion.
Antibiotic Resistance
I(inset) ©Sebastian Kaulitzki/Alamy Images; (t) ©Chloe Hall/Alamy Images
Our actions cause pathogens to evolve resistance to antibiotics that are

used to kill them. For example, in the United States, large quantities of
antibiotics are fed to livestock each year to speed their growth. As a result,
Salmonella, Escherichia coli (E. coli), and other bacteria that live in
livestock evolve resistance to antibiotics. These bacteria make thousands of
people in the U.S. sick each year when they eat contaminated meat that has
been improperly refrigerated or undercooked.
We also use enormous amounts of antibiotics to treat human illnesses.
In 1979, 6 percent of European strains of pneumonia bacteria were
resistant to antibiotics. Ten years later, 44 percent of the strains were
resistant. Tuberculosis (TB) is another illness treated with antibiotics. The
spread of TB in recent years is mostly due to the evolution of antibiotic
resistance in the bacterium that causes TB.

Figure 2.4
Spread of Disease
Diseases can be spread by vectors such as the Anopheles mosquito, which transmits Plasmodium, the parasite that causes malaria.
The dengue virus is transmitted by the Aedes mosquito, and HIV is spread directly from one person to another.
critical thinking
Relate How could changes in the environment influence diseases like malaria and Dengue Fever?
Connect to BIOLOGY
Vector-Borne Diseases
(l) ©CDC/James Gathany/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (c) ©Chris Bjornberg/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (r) ©Eye of Science/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Malaria was common in much of the United States and Europe before the
days of mosquito control. Historically, malaria was controlled by draining
marshes and rice paddies where the mosquitoes breed and by spraying
with pesticides. The Anopheles mosquito, shown in Figure 2.4, breeds in
water and is the secondary host that transmits malaria. However, mosqui-
CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING toes have evolved resistance to most pesticides. Newer methods for
Identify Why was it necessary to controlling mosquitoes involve spreading growth regulators that prevent
develop new methods for controlling mosquito larvae from maturing into adults or that sterilize the female
mosquitoes that transmit malaria? mosquitoes. Malaria is common in tropical countries where mosquito
control is still limited. Also, some epidemiologists think that climate
changes may increase the areas where diseases like malaria and Dengue
Fever occur, including areas of Central America, South America, Africa,
and Asia.
Connect to BIOLOGY
The Viral Advantage
Antibiotics kill bacteria but not viruses,
Emerging Viruses
such as those that cause colds and flu. In recent years, scientists have been focusing on so-called emerging
Antibiotics kill bacteria by interfering viruses that were unknown 100 years ago. One example is AIDS (acquired
with their cellular mechanisms. Viruses immune deficiency syndrome), which is caused by HIV (human immune
do not have cellular mechanisms. deficiency virus), shown in Figure 2.4. Most viral diseases spread directly
Many antibiotics destroy the system a from one person to another. Often, the virus invades the body through a
bacterium uses to make proteins. cut or through mucus membranes. Dengue infection is a leading cause of
Viruses do not make their own illness and death in the tropics and subtropics. Dengue Fever, is caused
proteins. Instead, they take over the by the dengue virus, shown in Figure 2.4, which is transmitted by the Aedes
cellular machinery of the cells they mosquito. Our main defense against viral diseases is vaccination. The
invade and use the cells to make problem with vaccines is that they are very specific. When a new strain of
proteins. a viral pathogen evolves, a new vaccine must be developed.

Cross-Species Transfers
In recent years, scientists have discovered an increasing number of
pathogens that have made a cross-species transfer, or have moved from
one species to another. For example, HIV and West Nile virus fall into this
category. The pathogens that cause these diseases have lived for centu-
ries in some species of wild animals and have done little damage. When
the pathogens invade humans, the pathogens cause serious diseases.
Some ecologists think that the ways in which we are altering the environ-
ment and destroying habitats ensure that diseases like these will become
more common in the future.
Figure 2.5
Examples of Cross-Species Transfers Cross-Species Transfer Poultry markets, such as this one
in Hong Kong, can contribute to the cross-species transfer of
One example of pathogens that made a cross-species
viruses from birds to humans.
transfer occurred in Argentina. Herbicides were sprayed
on crops in Argentina. The herbicide killed the native
grasses and allowed other plants to invade the farmland.
These new plants attracted a species of rodent that feeds
on them. The rodents were carrying viruses for a hemor-
rhagic fever, which infected many of the agricultural
workers. Hemorrhagic fevers cause hemorrhages, or
internal bleeding, by breaking blood vessels. Hantavirus
is an example of a virus that causes hemorrhagic fever.
Influenza, or flu, is highly contagious. The flu virus
passes from humans to animals (particularly birds) and
back to humans again. Hong Kong flu gets its name from
the fact that the virus was transmitted to humans from
ducks bred in Hong Kong for food. Figure 2.5 shows a
©Brad Rickerby/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshotot
poultry market, where the Hong Kong flu virus probably

transferred from birds to people. Because flu is so easily
spread from one person to another, epidemiologists
predict that the greatest threat to human health may be
the outbreak of a new, very virulent strain of influenza
virus, which would spread rapidly through crowded
urban populations.

1. List two changes to the environment that can 5. Understanding Concepts Read the informa-
lead to the spread of infectious diseases. tion under the heading “Antibiotic Resistance.”
2. Explain why some diseases are likely to spread How is the use of antibiotics by humans increas-
as a result of climate change. ing antibiotic resistance in pathogens?
3. Describe why the environment is an important 6. Analyzing Relationships How do human

factor in the spread of cholera. activities cause pathogens to move from one
species to another? Give examples of cross-
4. Explain the term emerging virus. species transfer to help explain your answer.

Maps in Action
Lyme Disease Risk

Lyme Disease risk in the United States
Areas of predicted Lyme

disease transmission
Map Skills
Use the Lyme disease risk map for the United States to answer the questions below.
1. Interpreting Graphics Using the map above, deter- and the concentration of ticks that act as vectors for the
mine the risk of contracting Lyme disease in your city or disease? Explain your answer.
town.
4. Analyzing Data What is the difference between the risk
2. Interpreting Graphics In what general region of the of contracting Lyme disease in rural Massachussetts and
United States is the risk of contracting Lyme disease the risk of contracting Lyme disease in rural Nevada?
greatest?
5. Inferring Conclusions What factors might account for
3. Recognize Relationships Can you determine the the relatively high risk of contracting Lyme disease in the
relationship between the risk of contracting Lyme disease Northeast?

at HMDScience.com
Water Challenges
In the United States and other developed countries it is easy Safe water is a basic human necessity for cleaning,
to get clean water. These countries have systems to deliver cooking, and drinking. At least one in eight people
water to distant places. They also have effective laws and worldwide do not have access to a safe and reliable
management to preserve the water supply and have good water supply.
waste collection and treatment systems. In much of the
world, this is not the case. Access to clean water is one of
the world’s biggest health challenges. For example, in many
African countries, there is not enough water. In places where
there is plenty of water, it often is contaminated with human
wastes or pollutants. Thousands of people die every day from
diarrhea caused by drinking unsafe water.
Making a Difference
For the last several decades, many organizations have been
cooperating to bring clean water to people around the world.
One of these programs is the Global Water for Sustainability
Program (GLOWS). GLOWS is a team of organizations, led by
Florida International University, funded by the United States
Agency for International Development. By working with
governments of developing countries and local communities,
they increase social, economic, and environmental benefits
of clean water. They do this by helping countries develop
management plans for water use and creating infrastructure
to deliver and purify water. This ensures that there is
enough clean water available and that people don’t have to
travel too far to get water. GLOWS trains members of local
communities in waste and water management to maintain
water resources into the future. Although there is still
much to do, international programs including GLOWS have
improved water access and sanitation for more than a billion
What Do You Think?
people already.
(t) ©Paul Hackett/In Pictures/Corbis; (b) ©Anjum Naveed/AP Images
Water in a Changing World

The challenges of ensuring adequate water resources
for people are complicated by environmental changes.
Drought, sea level rise, floods, and other factors associated What Do You Think?
with climate change threaten water supplies. Drought and
salt water moving into freshwater supplies can reduce It is important to invest resources to improve
the amount of water available to people. Floods can make access to water wisely. How would you
concentrate your money if you were going to try to
waters unsafe to drink if pollutants enter the water supply. improve conditions for the largest number of
Understanding the impacts of climate change and natural people in an area?
disasters is a critical part of GLOWS’s work.

Chapter 20 Summary
Section 1 Pollution and Human Health Objectives Key Terms
• Toxic chemicals from both natural sources and toxicology

human activities that pollute air, soil, water, and food dose
may damage human health. dose-response
• Toxicology is used to determine how poisonous a curve
substance is. epidemiology
• After an outbreak of illness occurs, epidemiologists risk assessment
attempt to find its origin and try to find ways to particulates
prevent future epidemics.
• Most pollutants come from human activities, but
some pollutants occur naturally.
• Improperly disposed of wastes may leak hazardous
pollutants into the environment.
Section 2 Biological Hazards Objectives Key Terms
• Most human diseases that have an environmental pathogen

component are caused by pathogens. host
• The environment provides breeding grounds for vector
pathogens and for their secondary hosts and
vectors.
• The transmission of many diseases involves water.
We increase the areas where organisms that carry
these diseases can reproduce when we create
irrigation canals and inadequate sewage systems.
• Environmental changes that help spread infectious
diseases include climate change and expanding
suburbs and farmland.
• Many emerging diseases are caused by pathogens
that have made cross-species transfers from
animals to humans.
(t) ©Jean-Marc Bouju/AP/Wide World Photos; (b) ©Still Pictures

Chapter 20 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 12. Cholera is usually transmitted from person to

person by water because
a. it is caused by a snail that breeds in water.
1. dose
b. it is usually contracted by someone drinking
2. vector water polluted with human feces that contain
3. risk assessment the cholera pathogen.
4. particulates c. it is transmitted by mosquitoes.
5. epidemiology d. it is caused by a virus.
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings of 13. Tuberculosis (TB), which was once almost eradi-
the terms differ. cated, is becoming more common, even in devel-
6. pathogen and host oped countries, because
7. response and dose a. new varieties of the tuberculosis pathogen have
8. toxicology and epidemiology evolved in rodents.
b. livestock are given antibiotics.
a concept map: habitat destruction, pathogen, ani- c. the pathogen that causes TB breeds in polluted
mal, vector, and human disease. water.
d. some strains of the pathogen that causes TB are
resistant to antibiotics.
10. Which of the following is not a true statement environmental pollutants is true?
about the effects of pollution on health?
a. Our environment contains fewer toxic
a. It is difficult to determine how pollution affects chemicals than it did 50 years ago.
health because many factors often contribute
b. Hormone mimics in our water supply pose no
to a disease.
danger to humans.
b. The toxic effects of a pollutant depend upon
c. There is no health risk from pollutants in
the dose to which you are exposed.
indoor air.
c. Many pollutants cause chronic diseases that
d. People who live in the United States contain
result from exposure to the pollutant over the
lower levels of some toxic chemicals in their
course of many years.
bodies than they did 20 years ago.
d. Persistent chemicals are less toxic than chemi-
cals that break down rapidly. 15. Which of the following actions is most likely to
prevent yellow fever, which is transmitted by
11. Which of the following is not a disease? mosquitoes, from becoming epidemic?
a. malaria a. preventing dehydration in patients by treating
b. dengue fever them with oral rehydration therapy
c. human imunodeficiency virus (HIV) b. taking antibiotics
d. schistosomiasis c. encouraging people to empty water out of old
cans, tires, plant saucers, and other areas that
contain standing water
d. spraying the area repeatedly with pesticides

Chapter review

16. How do scientists determine the toxicity of a 23. Compare and Contrast In what ways does a
chemical? disease such as lung cancer, which is caused by
17. How can land use change contribute to the spread breathing pollutants over a long period of time, dif-
of infectious disease? fer from a disease such as malaria, which is caused
by a pathogen?
18. What role does the environment play in the trans-
mission of infectious diseases? 24. Analyzing Information In 1775, Percival Pott
noted that chimney sweeps had a high rate of
19. Why would lung disease be more common in a
cancer of the scrotum. What further investigations
large urban area than in a remote rural area?
might be performed to find out what occupational
hazard might be causing the cancer? How many
of these would have been possible at the time, and
Interpreting Graphics how many require modern technology?
The graph below shows the dose-response curves for 25. Evaluate Viewpoints Write a proposal to reduce
two chemicals. Use the graph to answer questions the mosquito population of an area. How might
20–22. you encourage the public to assist in this effort?
20. Which chemical is more toxic at a lower dose? 26. Form a Model Read about mosquitoes under
21. Which chemical is more toxic at a very large dose? the heading “Malaria.” How would you design an
irrigation system to minimize the chances that
22. Can you tell from the graph which chemical is mosquitoes would breed in it?
more likely to be a problem if it persists in the
environment? 27. Summarizing Information Collect half a dozen
pesticide containers that still have their labels.
Make a table that has three columns. List the
Dose-Response Curve
names of the pesticides in one column. Then read
100 the label on each container. Use this information
to decide which pesticide is the most dangerous
and which pesticide is the least dangerous. In the
second column, label the pesticides as most to
least dangerous. In the third column, list the most
important safety precautions required of anyone
who uses the pesticides. CAUTION: Do not get
Percent response
pesticides on your face, and wash your hands

50 thoroughly after handling the pesticide cans.
0
Dose

Chapter review
STUDYSKILL
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
The table below shows four diseases and the number
of cases of each disease that were reported to the 32. What types of human activities contribute to
United States Centers for Disease Control in 1990 chemical pollution in the environment?
and 1998. Use the table below to answer questions 33.
WhyExplain the relationship between the health of
It Matters
28–29. an organism and its environment.
Disease 1990 1998 Why It Matters

34. Why is safe and clean
Cryptosporidiosis 2 3,793
water important for
Lyme disease 7,943 16,801 human health?
Malaria 1,292 1,611
Typhoid fever 552 375
28. Analyzing Data Malaria cases increased

between 1990 and 1998. What other facts would
you want to know before deciding that the
United States has a growing malaria problem?
29. Making Calculations By what percentage
STUDYSKILL
did the number of typhoid fever cases decline
between 1990 and 1998? Vocabulary Practice To practice vocabulary, write
the terms and definitions on a piece of paper and fold the
paper lengthwise so that the definitions are covered. First,
Making Connections see how many definitions you already know. Then, write the
definitions you don’t know on another piece of paper, and
30. Communicating Main Ideas Why do sew- practice again until you know all of them.
age systems that overflow when it rains need to
be replaced with modern systems that do not
overflow?
31. Writing Persuasively Write a letter to a news-
paper. In the letter, argue either for or against
homeowners’ use of pesticides on their lawns
and gardens.
©Michel Gounot/Godong/Corbis

InquiryLab
Data Analysis
Lead Poisoning
Objectives
Analyze the relationship
and Mental Ability
between lead poisoning and
children’s IQ. People are usually exposed to lead in old buildings that were painted
Graph experimental data.
with lead paint. The lead can enter the body in dust that is breathed in
and can permanently damage the brain and nervous system. Lead
Interpret graphical data. poisoning can cause aggressive behavior, hyperactivity, headaches, and
hearing loss. At high levels, it can cause seizures, coma, and even death.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) state that a lead
level of 10 micrograms per deciliter in the blood can be harmful. (A
microgram is one-millionth of a gram, and a deciliter is one-tenth of a
liter.) Recent studies suggest even levels below 10 micrograms can be
harmful, especially for children. In this lab, you will explore the effect of
lead poisoning on the mental ability of children. The children all grew up
near a lead smelter, a factory where raw lead ore is processed. Scientists
measured the concentration of lead in the children’s blood over time.
Psychologists also performed tests on the children to determine their IQ.
You will analyze the data to see if you can find a pattern.
Procedure
1. Design a hypothesis for the relationship be-
tween the lead concentration in the blood, the
IQs, and the ages of the children. As the blood-
lead concentration increases, how would you
expect the person’s IQ to change? How do you
think this relationship would change as the
children grow older?
2. The table on the next page lists the blood-lead
concentration and IQ data for a group of 494
children. The children were measured five
times between the ages of six months old and
seven years old. The children were divided
into four groups according to the amount of
lead in their blood. Group 1 had the lowest
concentration of lead, and group 4 had the
highest concentration of lead. Prepare a graph
for the data in the table. Plot the blood-lead
concentration on the x-axis and IQ on the
y-axis. Label each axis with the correct units.
Choose an appropriate scale for each axis so
that the entire range of data in the table will fit
©Aristidis Vafeiadakis/Alamy Images
on the graph.
3. Plot the data from the table on your
graph, using a different color for each age
group. Then connect all the data points for
each age group in the color chosen for that
Effects of Lead Lead smelters, such as the one shown here in Romania, can group. You should have five lines of data on
cause air pollution and lead poisoning. your graph.

HMDScience.com
Average blood-lead
Group of Average
concentration (micrograms
children IQ score
per deciliter)
1 8.3 109.4
6 mo 2 12.6 104.7
3 16.8 102.9
4 24.2 100.0
1 11.8 109.3
15 mo 2 18.6 106.5
3 24.4 102.9
4 34.4 101.3
1 11.6 110.2
3 yr 2 17.4 106.5
3 22.4 102.2
4 30.2 100.0
1 8.3 109.3
5 yr 2 12.6 106.1
3 17.2 104.1
4 24.2 98.8
1 6.6 109.6
7 yr 2 10.1 107.7
3 13.7 102.7
Lead Paint Dust from lead paint peelings can cause
4 20.0 98.7 lead poisoning.
Analysis
1. Analyzing Data For a single age group, how does IQ vary with
lead concentration? Is this true for all age groups?
2. Analyzing Data How does the relationship between lead

concentration and IQ change as a child grows older?
Conclusions
3. Draw Conclusions What conclusions can you draw from your
analysis about the effect of lead on IQ?
4. Inferring Conclusions Based on your conclusions, what long-

term effects might lead poisoning have on a community?
Extension
5. Analyzing Conclusions Based on the data presented in this lab,
©Dan McCoy/Rainbow
do you think the CDC’s limit of 10 micrograms per deciliter is

reasonable? Explain your answer.

Economics,
Chapter 21
Section 1
Economics and International
Cooperation
Policy, and
Section 2
Environmental Policies in the
United States
Section 3
The Importance of the Individual
the Future
Why It Matters
These people are using old tires
to insulate a community center
in Ivory Park, South Africa.
Community members created
a sustainable eco-village here
through cooperation with local
and international governments
and organizations.
Why is working together an
important aspect of solving
environmental problems?
CASESTUDY
Learn about the conflict
between international
agreements and the open
oceans fishing industry in the
case study Saving Species
in the Open Ocean on pages
536–537.
Online
©Alex Webb/Magnum Photos
HMDScience.com

532
Section 1
Economics and Objectives
International
Describe some of the
challenges to achieving
sustainability.
Cooperation Describe several agreements

relating to the environment.
Explain how economics

and environmental science
Over seven billion people live on Earth. They are supported by unprecedented
are related.
levels of human resource use, productivity, and scientific knowledge. On average,
people live longer and are more educated than they were 50 years ago. They are Compare two ways that
also less likely to live in acute poverty. But Earth still faces many problems. Our
governments influence
goal must be to live in a sustainable way worldwide. Sustainability is the condition
in which human society can go on indefinitely and future generations can have a
economics.
standard of living as high as our own.
Give an example of a private
To live in a sustainable way, we need to look for new ways to solve problems. effort to address environmental
For example, cheap fuels to produce energy are becoming scarce and many of
problems.
them negatively affect the climate. We need to develop sustainable solutions. We
need to develop cheap, renewable, and minimally-polluting sources of energy.
Many scientists are working on this problem to help people continue to live at a
high standard of living for generations to come.
Key Terms
International Development and Cooperation sustainability
We live in a time of globalization. Environmental and economic economics
conditions are linked across political borders around the world. People
cross these borders in search of economic opportunities and a better
quality of life. Increasingly, governments, organizations, and businesses
around the world must work together. Despite having different opinions, Check for Understanding
world leaders, researchers, and other stakeholders meet to identify com- Summarize What does it mean to live
mon goals and to address worldwide issues, as shown in Figure 1.1. in a sustainable way?
Figure 1.1
Cooperation Researchers from around the world meet to collaborate at an environmental economics conference.
©PhotoStock-Israel/Alamy Images
Chapter 21: Economics, Policy, and the Future 533

Sustainable Development
Many meetings and agreements among international governments have
dealt with environmental concerns along with economic and p olitical
concerns. For example, the first Earth S ummit was held in 1992 in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil. It was a sign of new levels of i nternational environmental
awareness and cooperation. Representatives from around the world drew
up several agreements. One of these agreements was Agenda 21, which
was a general plan to address a range of environmental problems while
allowing continued economic development.
Climate and Atmosphere

One important treaty about the atmosphere was the Montreal Protocol,
which was adopted in 1987. It successfully reduced the amount of ozone-
destroying chemicals in the atmosphere. However, not all agreements are
successful. Any country may choose not to sign, enforce, or provide fund-
ing to implement an agreement, which may lead to the ultimate failure of
the agreement.
For example, the Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997, attempted to avoid
or slow down global warming by reducing greenhouse-gas emissions
around the world. Most of the developed countries promised to reduce
their emissions by about 5 percent by 2012. However, some countries ar-
gued against the Kyoto Protocol, saying that it would be too costly to im-
plement. In contrast, most climate scientists did not think it did enough
to stabilize the climate. The United States did not sign the treaty. As of
2012, post-Kyoto efforts for binding agreements to reduce greenhouse-
gas emissions have failed. Environmental organizations, business leaders,
and governments are trying to find other ways to combat climate change.
Figure 1.2
Other Agreements
International Trade
Hundreds of other international agreements have been made as new
Restrictions The Bengal tiger is
environmental issues have emerged. One important agreement is CITES
one species that has benefited from
(the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
international trade restrictions.
Fauna and Flora). CITES was formed to help save species from extinction
by controlling international trade. Under CITES, international trade is
not permitted for almost 1,000 species of endangered plants and animals,
including the Bengal tiger, shown in Figure 1.2. Thousands more species
are protected by restrictions on trade.
The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

Many people think of governments, ambassadors, and politicians when
they hear about international agreements. They hear about industries
that lobby on behalf of business interests. Non-governmental organiza-
tions (NGOs) also play an important role in international agreements.
NGOs are legally formed groups that are not part of a government or
for-profit business. Many NGOs advocate on behalf of environmental is-
sues at international meetings, while others advocate on behalf of local or
©Corbis
regional issues.

For example, The Nature Conservancy is a nonprofit organization that
uses a simple economic strategy to preserve ecosystems. This organiza-
tion collects donations of money and land. If the donated land is not
targeted for preservation, the organization trades or sells the land. Large
preserves are put together by a combination of donations, exchanges, and
purchases of land. The organization has created preserves in all 50 states
and in more than 30 countries.
Economics and the Environment

Economics is the study of the choices people make as they use and
distribute limited resources. In traditional economics, markets are seen as
self-contained economic systems, in which money and products flow in
cycles. People within a market will decide the value of something by com-
paring the costs and benefits from their own perspective. For example,
people decide how much they will pay for a product or how much they
must be paid to do a certain job. These values change over time as people
see changes in the costs or benefits of their actions.
Economists say that an economic system is successful when it maxi-
mizes societal benefit. Often, that benefit is measured as economic
growth, which is an increase in the flow of money and products within
a market. However, economic systems attempt to account for external
factors that do not have a direct economic value, such as air, wildlife, or
human health. They also attempt to account for economic transac-
tions that affect other people and ecosystems indirectly. As the Figure 1.3
fields of economics and various sciences share knowledge,
economists are able to develop more complex and Resource Use Model A complete
realistic models of resource use. The resource use economic model shows that economic
model illustrated in Figure 1.3 shows that ecosystems operate within natural systems.
nomic systems are both contained within and
dependent upon the environment.
Economists see environmental prob-
lems as market failures. The m arket has
failed if the price of something does not Energy
reflect its true cost. For example, the
AL SYSTEM
price of gasoline does not reflect the other TUR S
NA
expenses caused by vehicle emissions. Ill-
Natural cycles
nesses caused by air pollution cost society
billions of dollars a year. In a balanced eco- ECONOMIC
nomic system, the price of gasoline should re- SYSTEMS Waste,
Production
flect these costs. One difficulty in pricing is that Natural pollution,
sometimes we do not know the environmental resources ecosystem
costs. An economic system can include only those damage
costs that are understood at the time when people Consumption
make decisions. Recycling
and reuse

Ecosystem Value
Many economists believe that if we can place a proper value on ecosys-
tems, then we can incorporate true costs into products. Doing so should
let markets do the work of environmental protection. If materials or ac-
tions are too costly to the environment, people will not be willing to pay
for them. One way economists put value on ecosystems is by asking how
much money people would be willing to pay to have the ecosystem in
its natural form. Another method is to estimate the replacement value of
ecosystem services that are provided. Ecosystem services can include such
things as purifying water, pulling carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere,
or protecting coasts from storms. By quantifying ecosystem services we
can determine the cost of environmental damages.
Assessing the value of environmental resources also makes it possible
to understand trade-offs. Few environmental issues are easy to solve.
What is good, or needed, for one group may not be good for the environ-
ment or another group of people. Research conducted by environmental
scientists and the work done by environmental economists makes it pos-
sible to formulate well-informed decisions about actions that individuals,
companies, or governments should take.
CASESTUDY
Saving Species in the Open Ocean

To a person standing on the shore, the ocean appears the number of whales killed with different strategies, but
limitless. However, within those waters, many ocean fish these strategies did not work well. Finally, the IWC called
and mammal populations have declined, some to near for a total ban on whaling beginning in 1984. Although
extinction. Overharvesting created most of these declines, populations of a few whale species have recovered since
which continue today. Because no country controls the whaling was restricted, other populations of whale species
open ocean, the ocean was treated for many years as have not. One problem is that some countries have violated
if the resources it contained were free for anyone to quotas or claimed that they need to kill whales for scientific
take. Another problem in managing the oceans is that research. Most scientists do not think this “whaling for
many species travel huge distances and move from one research,” which results in the meat being sold, is needed
country’s waters to another’s. International cooperation because there are other ways to gather the data. Even in
is needed to ensure that marine fisheries are rebuilt to 2012, there is still “scientific whaling” occurring in the whale
ensure healthy ecosystems and economic prosperity. This sanctuary around Antarctica.
cooperation takes many forms and involves many types of Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs)
organizations, but requires sound science to work. are organizations created by countries with a fishing
One of the most well-known international organizations interest in an area. RFMOs manage fish populations of
that manages marine species is the International Whaling the open oceans. They also manage populations of fish
Commission (IWC). The IWC was formed because most that migrate through the waters of multiple countries
large whale species were endangered after many years and work to prevent the unintentional catch (also called
of overharvesting. For decades, the IWC tried to limit bycatch) of species such as albatrosses, sea turtles, and

Regulation and Economic Incentives ECOFACT
Governments influence economic systems. They do this by making regu- Environmental Ratings
lations and creating punishments. Governments also create economic in- Each year, researchers from Yale
centives by paying out money for actions that benefit society or charging University and Columbia University
taxes on actions that have a social cost. For example, some governments collaborate to rank countries on an
offer rebates to people who purchase energy-saving appliances. Environmental Performance Index.
Governments have tried many ways to regulate environmental In 2012, the top five countries
amage such as pollution. However, regulations are criticized when they
d were Switzerland, Latvia, Norway,
are difficult to enforce, do not distribute costs evenly, or do not control Luxembourg, and Costa Rica. The
environmental damage. One newer approach is to combine regulation United States ranked 49th of 132
with economic markets by creating markets for pollutants. These are countries studied.
called cap-and-trade strategies. For example, governments can set an
upper limit for industrial emissions of sulfur dioxides, but let companies
freely trade permits for releasing parts of the total pollution allowed. This
strategy encourages innovation by rewarding those that pollute the least.
The hardest resources to manage are those that are not easily con-
trolled. Problems with such open-access resources are called the tragedy
of the commons. Without cooperation, individuals try to get as much as
they can, and the resources are depleted. In the end, everyone loses.
This Japanese whaling ship is harvesting

Antarctic minke whales in the Southern Ocean for
(r) ©Jeremy Sutton-Hibbert/Alamy Images; (l) ©R. Sorensen/J. Olsen/NHPA
alleged scientific purposes.

Critical Thinking
dolphins. RFMOs try to set fishing levels that will prevent fisheries. RFMOs have tried to combat IUU fishing by not
fish populations from crashing, encourage the use of fishing allowing IUU vessels to use the services in their ports. A
practices that reduce bycatch, and reduce illegal fishing. study in 2010 found that even with RFMOs, two-thirds of
RFMOs have had limited successes and face major the high seas fisheries are depleted or overexploited.
challenges. The organizations often lack the legal power to
enforce catch limits. The countries fishing in an area may Critical Thinking
differ greatly in their commitment to fishing sustainably, the 1. Expressing Opinions Write a paragraph
economic challenges they face, or opinions on how catches describing why you think that it is so hard for
should be divided among countries. Another problem is RFMOs to manage fisheries on the high seas.
the presence of illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU)
2. Predicting Outcomes If whale populations
fishing within the areas RFMOs are trying to manage. This increase, should countries be allowed to hunt
fishing makes it almost impossible to effectively manage them again? Explain your answer.

Connect to MATH Private Efforts
Businesses and private organizations also play a role in addressing
Conservation Group Assets
environmental problems. Many businesses have found that recycling their
In 2010, a conservation group owned
wastes saves money and improves their public image. Saving energy makes
land worth a total of $1.3 billion.
In 2011, it gained ownership of business sense and also helps reduce emissions of greenhouse gases that
additional land worth $322 million. In contribute to climate change.
the same year, it also sold land worth Cooperation among private organizations and with governments may
$88 million and gave away land worth include conducting research or creating plans for environmental man-
$12 million to governments and other agement. Figure 1.4 shows an area of Africa that several governments and
groups. What was the value of land private organizations are working together to manage. Local residents are
held by the conservation group at the also included in the process of planning for the area.
beginning of 2012?
Figure 1.4
Collaboration The area around Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania is an important home to wildlife such as
elephants and giraffes. Several governments and organizations are working with local residents to manage the
area for both wildlife preservation and sustainable economic development.
©Gunter Ziesler/Peter Arnold, Inc./Getty Images

1. Describe some of the challenges to achieving 4. Analyzing Processes Write a paragraph that
sustainability. explains why a local government might use tax
money to purchase park lands.
2. Compare two ways that governments influence
economics. 5. Applying Ideas Read about interactions of
economics and the environment. List some ways
3. Give an example of a private effort to address
that both governments and organizations could
environmental problems.
encourage people to conserve resources.

Section 2
Environmental Objectives
Policies in the
Describe two major
developments in U.S.
environmental history.
United States Give examples of three

federal agencies that have
environmental responsibilities.
Explain the purpose of Environ

Many people in the United States have demonstrated a concern about
mental Impact Statements.
environmental problems. In both local and national elections in the United States,
candidates often talk about environmental issues in their campaigns. Each Give an example of how citizens
year, millions of dollars are donated to environmental causes by U.S. citizens
can affect environmental policy
and businesses, and billions of federal tax dollars are spent to uphold environ
mental policies and to manage resources. In recent decades, the United States
at each level of government—
has reduced many types of pollution and improved water quality in many places. local, state, and national.
But the United States is still struggling to use its resources in a sustainable way,
preserve its unique ecosystems, and reduce its impact on the global environment.
Evaluate the media as a
source of information about
the environment.
History of U.S. Environmental Policy
During the 1800s, people in the United States made use of the country’s Key Terms
vast resources. Prairies were turned into cropland, ancient forests were
Environmental Impact Statement
cut down to construct buildings, and several species of animals were
lobbying
hunted to extinction. By the 1900s, people began to realize the conse-
quences of these actions. Their attitudes started to change. Leaders such
as President Theodore Roosevelt and conservationist John Muir, shown
in Figure 2.1, called for increased protection and management of the na-
tion’s resources. Many national forests and parks, and agencies to man-
age them, were established around the early 1900s.
Figure 2.1
Conservation Leaders In the

late 1800s and early 1900s, President
Theodore Roosevelt (on left) and
naturalist John Muir (on right) were
leaders in the conservation of natural
areas. They are shown here at Glacier
Point in Yosemite National Park, one of
the first U.S. national parks.
©Bettmann/Corbis

Connect to LAW Environmental Agencies and Laws
Inherited Laws Throughout the 1900s, U.S. citizens became more aware of environmental
In parts of the United States that problems. Widespread crop disasters in the 1930s showed the country
were previously under the control that poor farming practices were causing soil erosion and poverty.
of European countries, some of the Policies to encourage soil conservation were adopted. People objected to
old laws regarding property and land living near smelly garbage dumps, so research on better methods of waste
use are still in effect. In Texas and disposal began. The public began to complain about pollution. The first
California, many provisions of Spanish Earth Day, celebrated around the world in 1970, was a sign of widespread
land law still apply to the states’ water environmental awareness. In that same year, the U.S. Environmental
sources. Most rivers and creeks in Protection Agency (EPA) was established.
these states are public property. Also, U.S. lawmakers have created many policies and federal agencies to
Texas has ownership of coastal areas manage environmental affairs, as shown in Figure 2.2. For example, the
stretching 10.4 mi from its shores.
EPA enforces the Clean Air Act and the Clean Water Act. These acts set
This gives Texas the ownership of
standards for acceptable levels of pollutants in air and water. The EPA
many offshore oil deposits. Other
uses regulations and economic incentives to encourage individuals and
coastal states own only 3 mi, as
businesses to meet these standards. Environmental laws change as we
established by English common law
learn more and draw different conclusions about how much to spend on
in those states.
preserving the environment. Deciding when to spend money to preserve
the environment is equally important. Usually, anticipating and solving a
possible problem before it occurs costs less than solving the problem after.
Figure 2.2
U.S. Federal Agencies and Their Environmental Responsibilities
Department or Agency Responsibilities
Environmental Protection Agency enforces National Environmental Policy Act; Clean Water Act; Clean Air Act; Solid
Waste Disposal Act; Superfund; Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide
Control Act; Waste Reduction Act; Toxic Substances Control Act; Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act; Energy Policy Act
Department of the Interior enforces Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (managed across several agencies)
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service enforces Endangered Species Act, National Wildlife Refuge System Act, Alaska
National Interest Lands Conservation Act, Species Conservation Act, Fish and
Wildlife Improvement Act, Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act
Bureau of Land Management enforces Federal Land Policy and Management Act, Taylor Grazing Act
National Parks Service manages national parks
Office of Surface Mining enforces Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
Reclamation and Enforcement
Department of Agriculture enforces Soil and Water Conservation Act, National Forests Management Act
Department of Commerce monitors the nation’s resources to support both environmental and economic health
National Oceanic and Atmospheric monitors international atmosphere, climate, and oceans
Administration
National Marine Fisheries Service manages living marine resources and their habitat
Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulates nuclear power stations and nuclear waste
Department of Energy enforces National Energy Act, Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act

Figure 2.3
Mitigating Environmental
Damage The Grand Canyon
ecosystem was changed when the
Glen Canyon Dam was built upstream
in 1962. An Environmental Impact
Statement in the 1980s evaluated
alternative ways to operate the dam.
ECOFACT
Environmental Impact Statements

Most government agencies are required to file an Environmental Impact
Statement (EIS) for any proposed project or policy that would have a
significant effect on the environment. An Environmental Impact Statement
states the need for a project, the project’s impact on the e nvironment,
and how any negative impact can be minimized. Proposals for the con-
struction of dams, highways, airports, and other projects that the federal
government controls or funds must be evaluated with an EIS.
The public can comment on an EIS. For example, if a new dam is
proposed, scientists and citizens may comment on any problems they
foresee. Although public comment on an EIS rarely stops a project, the
feedback may cause changes in the project’s plans.
Federal agencies may also conduct an EIS when they plan changes
in the regulation of public resources. Usually, several alternative
ECOFACT
actions are evaluated. For example, an EIS was conducted in the 1980s U.S. Public Lands
to evaluate alternative ways to release water from Glen Canyon Dam. Twenty-eight percent of the area of
Federal agencies were looking for ways to restore natural conditions the United States is publicly owned.
downstream in the Grand Canyon, shown in Figure 2.3. This means that local, state, or federal
governments hold the land in the
public interest. Most of this public land
Unfunded Mandates and Economic Impacts is federally controlled and is found
Some limits have been placed on the federal government’s power to pass in western states. Eighty percent of
environmental laws. In 1995, Congress passed a law to prevent unfunded Nevada is publicly owned, and more
mandates, which are federal regulations that do not provide funds for than 60 percent of Alaska, Utah, and
state or local governments to implement the regulations. The federal gov- Idaho is publicly owned land.
©Helene Simonin/Alamy Images
ernment must now provide funding for any new laws that will cost more
than $50 million to implement. Congress can no longer pass laws such as
the Clean Water Act, which requires local communities to conduct their
own tests of public water supplies. Another limit being placed on many
federal agencies requires the agencies to evaluate both the economic and
environmental impacts of their policies.

Influencing Environmental Policy
FieldStudy
Go to Appendix B to find the field study You can influence environmental policy. For example, as a citizen, you
Local Politics can contact your elected representatives to tell them your opinion on
issues. There are also many other ways that consumers, businesses, the
media, and organizations can influence policy at all levels of government.
Many laws related to the environment are created at the national
level. However, there are also many state and local laws that affect the
environment. It is easier for an individual to influence policy at the local
level than at the national level. It is also usually easier for citizens to
organize and contact their representatives at the local level.
Local Governments
Local governments make many decisions for their communities. City
councils and governmental agencies hold public meetings, such as the
meeting shown in Figure 2.4. Local governments can decide how land
Check for Understanding may be used and developed, and where businesses and housing may
Identify What is one way that people be located. Local governments and agencies also create plans for public
can influence environmental policy at facilities, for waste disposal and recycling, and for many other facets of
the local level? local life.
One problem with local environmental planning is that communities
often do not coordinate their plans. For example, your community may
plan for clean air or water, but a neighboring community may allow
development that pollutes your area. On the other hand, sometimes local
communities do work together. For example, towns along the Hudson
River in New York are cooperating to provide a “greenway” of natural
areas for public use that stretches hundreds of miles along the river.
Figure 2.4
Decision Making Many environmental decisions are made at the local level. Citizens can participate in local government at public meetings
(left). Some communities set aside local wildlife habitat and green spaces, such as the Barton Creek Greenbelt in Austin, Texas (right).
(br) ©Larry Kolvoord/The Image Works; (bl) ©Jim West/Alamy Images

State Governments Figure 2.5
Environmental policy is also strongly influenced at the state level. The
News Sources A news broadcast
federal government passes laws that set environmental standards, but
may be the only way that many people
often these laws are minimum standards. Individual states may create learn about an environmental problem.
laws that set higher standards. California’s vehicle emission standards
are higher than the federal standards because that state wants to control critical thinking
its problems with air pollution caused by traffic. States also have a lot of Identify From what other sources can
independent control over how to implement laws and manage public people get information?
resources. For example, Ohio’s Department of Natural Resources has
used the state’s endangered plant law to acquire habitats and to educate
the public about the state’s 350 endangered plant species.
Lobbying
Lawmakers are heavily influenced by lobbying on many sides of issues.
Lobbying is an organized attempt to influence the decisions of lawmakers.
Both environmental and industry groups hire lobbyists to provide
information to lawmakers and urge them to vote a certain way. One
way to influence policy is to support an organization that lobbies for
the policies that you agree with.
The Media and Sources of Information

Electronic media, such as television news, as shown in Figure 2.5, is the
main source of information about environmental topics for most of us.
Popular websites, blogs, TV, and radio tell us, for example, when Con-
gress is debating about oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
or when our local government is planning to build a new sewage plant.
However, media reports are usually brief and may leave out information.
If you want to fully understand environmental problems, you will
want to find information from sources other than popular media. Many
other sources are available, and you should evaluate all sources for bias
©Ryan McGinnis/Alamy
and accuracy. Scientists and others who are familiar with e nvironmental
issues produce reports, peer-reviewed articles, magazines, and websites Check for Understanding
that contain in-depth information. Local organizations hold public meet- E xplain Why should you look for
ings and produce newsletters. And through the Internet, you can get first- information about environmental topics
hand information from people all over the world. in sources other than the popular media?

1. Describe two major developments in U.S. 4. Relating Concepts Describe three environmen
environmental history from each of the past two tal issues that are important to your community.
centuries.
5. Expressing Viewpoints Read about the ways
2. Give examples of at least three federal of influencing environmental policy. Explain
agencies with environmental responsibilities. which of these ways you think is most effective.
3. Explain the purpose of Environmental Impact 6. Evaluating Information Write a paragraph
Statements. In what ways are citizens allowed to that evaluates an environmental news story from
respond to an Environmental Impact Statement? a website, newspaper, or TV program.

Section 3
Objectives
The Importance
of the Individual
Give examples of individuals
who have influenced
environmental history.
Identify ways in which the

choices that you make as It is easy to feel that one person does not make much difference to the
an individual may affect the environment, but we all affect the environment with our daily actions. By learning
environment. about environmental problems and solutions, we are able to make responsible
decisions and help others make similar choices. History has shown that one
individual can have an influence on many others.
Figure 3.1
People Who Have Influenced Environmental Thinking
Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) was a David Attenborough (1926–) is a British broadcaster
conservationist and writer who is best known for and naturalist most well-known for his ground-breaking
his essays about his stay in a cabin at Walden Pond documentary series “Planet Earth.”
in Massachusetts.
John Muir (1838–1914) was a Scottish-born Marion Stoddart (1928–) led efforts to save the Nashua
naturalist and writer who founded the Sierra Club, River in Massachusetts from pollution and development.
explored the American West, and was an advocate A River Ran Wild is a book about her efforts. She is still
for preserving western lands as wilderness. active in protecting the Nashua River.
Theodore “Teddy” Roosevelt (1858–1919) was Paul Ehrlich (1932–) is a Stanford ecologist who warned
the first American president to strongly support of the dangers of rapid population growth with his 1968
conservation. He founded the Forest Service and book, The Population Bomb.
created the first National Monuments.
Alice Hamilton (1869–1970) was the first American Jane Goodall (1934–) studied chimpanzees in Tanzania’s
expert on diseases caused by working with Gombe Stream National Park. Her books raised
chemicals. In the early 1900s, she warned workers awareness of the plight of several endangered species
about exposure hazards and opposed the addition and prompted new thinking about primate behavior.
of lead to gasoline.
Aldo Leopold (1887–1948) was an ecologist and Sylvia Earl (1935–) is an American oceanographer. She
forester who wrote about the land ethic in his book is an explorer-in-residence with the National Geographic
A Sand County Almanac, published in 1949. Society. A winner of the 2009 TED Prize, she is an
advocate for the establishment of marine protected areas
around the world.
Rachel Carson (1907–1964) was a biologist Wangari Maathai (1940–2011) was the founder of the
with the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, who raised Green Belt Movement, a grassroots environmental
awareness of toxic pesticides with her 1962 book, nonprofit based in Kenya. She won the 2004 Nobel Peace
Silent Spring. Prize “for her contribution to sustainable development,
democracy, and peace.”
Garrett Hardin (1915–2003) was a distinguishing John Cronin (1950–) is known internationally for his work
professor of human ecology who is best known for as an advocate for New York’s Hudson River. He was
his 1968 essay “The Tragedy of the Commons.” named a “Hero for the Planet” by Time magazine.

Influential Individuals Connect to HISTORY
Some individuals who have influenced thinking about the environment Historical Writers
are listed in Figure 3.1. These people are famous because they brought at- Americans have been influenced by
tention to problems or convinced many people to think about new ideas. descriptions of America written by
Many of these individuals wrote best-selling books about the subjects they early explorers. An example is this
knew well. These books were easy to understand and inspired people to passage written in 1805 by Meriwether
think about environmental problems in a new way. Lewis, from his journal of the famous
Lewis and Clark expedition:
“I beheld the Rocky Mountains
The 1960s Decade for the first time . . . these points of
During the 1960s, environmental issues became widely known. It was the Rocky Mountains were covered
then that biologists such as Paul Ehrlich, Rachel Carson, and Garrett Har- with snow and the sun shone on it in
such manner as to give me the most
din drew public attention to environmental problems such as pollution,
plain and satisfactory view. While I
rapid population growth, and resource depletion.
viewed these mountains I felt a secret
In Silent Spring, Rachel Carson, shown in Figure 3.2, argued that many pleasure in finding myself so near
public lands and resources were not adequately protected. She argued the head of the heretofore conceived
that resources such as water had to be protected and kept in natural, un- boundless Missouri.”
polluted conditions. Partly as a result of Carson’s book, Congress passed
the Wilderness Act in 1964. This let the government set aside some federal
lands as wilderness areas. These areas may only be used for low-impact
recreation such as hiking and camping, and visitor numbers are limited.
Rising Awareness
Also in the 1960s, several environmental disasters made headlines. Air
pollution in New York City was blamed for hundreds of deaths. The bald
eagle became endangered as a result of the widespread use of the pes-
(l) ©Cate Gillon/Getty Images; (c) ©Alfred Eisenstaedt/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images; (r) ©Micheline Pelletier/Corbis
ticide DDT. There was a massive oil spill near Santa Barbara, California.
Lake Erie became so polluted that many of its beaches had to be closed.
Eventually, pressure from the p ublic led to new laws and efforts to reduce
environmental damage. The first Earth Day, held in 1970, was a historic
demonstration of public concern for environmental issues.
Figure 3.2
Influential Individuals Examples of individuals who have brought attention to environmental issues: David Attenborough,
Rachel Carson, and Wangari Maathai.

QUICKLAB Applying Your Knowledge
Think Globally, Act Locally What will you be in the future? At the very least, you can expect to be a
Procedure citizen who has the right to vote, a consumer who has choices of how
1. Using a computer with an Internet to spend your money, and a member of the human race who has a role
connection, perform a search
in the global environment. To make the decisions you will face, you can
using the key terms, “ecological
draw on your knowledge of environmental science.
footprint calculator.”
2. Enter your environmental data into
the calculator to determine how Voting
much land it takes to support your
One of the most important decisions you may make is in the act of voting,
personal lifestyle.
as shown in Figure 3.3. The people we elect will make decisions that affect
3. Construct a data table in your
our environmental future. You have the right to support the candidates
science journal and record each
and laws that you think are best in both local and national elections. You
category, along with your data.
can easily find out what a candidate thinks about environmental issues
Analysis before an election. You can find information about candidates through
1. Does your footprint indicate the media, voter organizations, and websites.
that you are currently living an One way to take action on environmental problems is as part of a
ecologically sustainable lifestyle? group of people who share your concerns and interests. You can find
Explain your answer. many groups in your community asking for volunteers for activities such
2. Compare your results with your as planting trees, picking up trash, or maintaining trails. Many large
classmates. Brainstorm ways that nonprofit organizations hold meetings, educational activities, and trips
you can make your lifestyle more to natural areas all over the country.
ecologically sustainable.
Weighing the Evidence

A popular environmental slogan is to “think globally, act locally.” This
slogan reminds us that our everyday actions have broader effects. Be-
ing aware of the effects of our actions is an important step in making
decisions that affect the environment. What choices of action could you
make today that will affect your environment?
Each of us has the responsibility to educate ourselves as we make the
decisions that affect the world around us. There is a wealth of information
about environmental issues on the Internet, in libraries, and in the media.
When you research a topic, use reliable sources for statistics and informa-
tion. Do not be misled by information that may look convincing but that
has no supporting evidence.
Figure 3.3
Exercise Your Right to

Vote Voting is an opportunity to make
a decision that affects the environment.
©Fred Prouser/Reuters/Corbis

Consumer Choices
Another environmental slogan you may have heard is “reduce, reuse,
recycle.” As consumers, we can reduce the amount of things we buy and
use, we can reuse things that are often used only once, and we can recycle
many materials. How many ways can you think of to apply these ideas in
your everyday life?
As a consumer, you may choose to buy products that are produced
sustainably or that do less damage to the environment. As shown in Figure
3.4, it is not always easy to tell which products meet this standard. But as Check for Understanding
you learn more about environmental science, you’ll be prepared to make ummarize What is an example of
S
decisions that guarantee that your impact on the environment will be a a consumer choice that benefits the
positive one. environment?
Daily Living
As you have learned, the choices you make every day can have an impact
on the environment. Though a decision to turn off the water while you
brush your teeth or to toss a plastic bottle into a recycling bin rather than
in the trash may seem small, each eco-friendly decision you make adds
up. The choices you make can influence the behavior of others, too.
Figure 3.4
Consumer Choice As
consumers, we make many choices
that affect the environment.
critical thinking
Describe What choices could you
make today that will affect your
©Rhoda Sidney/The Image Works
environment?

1. Give examples of at least three individuals in 4. Identifying Relationships Think of one activity
history who have had an impact on environmental that you do often. Write a paragraph explaining
thinking. What traits do they have in common? all the environmental effects, positive and
negative, that this activity might have over time.
2. Identify at least three ways individual citizens
can influence their environment. 5. Predicting Consequences Choose one
environmental issue that you have learned
3. List five choices that you could make today
about in this book and describe all the ways that
that would have some kind of effect on the
you could make a difference on this issue.
environment.

Making a Difference
Get Involved with the

Environment
You can only learn so much environmental science indoors. Sometimes,
you just have to go out and get mud on your boots. Luckily many nonprofit
environmental groups offer programs in which you can do just that—and
make a difference while doing it.
Environmental organizations across the country offer students the
opportunity to learn in living ecosystems. Time commitments and program
formats vary widely—from field trips and weekend workshops to long-term
internships and school partnerships that continue for years.
Center for Land-Based Learning

An organization called the Center for Land-Based Learning, based in northern
California, focuses its work on farmland, ranchland, and other areas where
human activities and environmental needs must be kept in balance. One
of its programs, called Student and Landowner Education and Watershed
Stewardship (SLEWS), teaches habitat preservation and restoration. This
program includes many activities, such as the restoration of a hedgerow
habitat between farm fields for the benefit of local plants and animals.
Another of their programs, called Project GROW (Gathering to Restore
Southwest Conservation Corps crew
members help to build a mountain bike Oak Woodlands), is restoring an oak woodland that was disturbed during
trail in Salida, Colorado. highway construction. By the third year of the project, students had helped to
gather and plant 400 acorns, plant 1,000 native grass plugs, map the area in
geographic information systems (GIS), build and install irrigation systems, as
well as build 15 nest boxes.
(tl) ©Jim West/Alamy Images; (bg) ©Horizon International Images Limited/Alamy Images
Youth Conservation Corps
The Youth Conservation Corps (YCC) program was founded in 1971. On the
national level, the YCC is a partnership between the Department of the Interior
and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The YCC offers paid opportunities for
students between the ages of 15 and 18. YCC projects, which typically last
from 8 to 10 weeks during the summer, include conservation work projects
such as trail construction, habitat preservation, and assistance with wildlife
research. Most projects take place with federal agencies such as the National
Park Service (NPS), U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, and
Bureau of Land Management. Though most programs are non-residential,
students who participate in YCC projects in Yosemite or Yellowstone National
Parks live on-site for the duration of the program.

ECOZine
at HMDScience.com
Many states also offer YCC programs. These programs have

varying age requirements. State YCC projects are similar to
those at the national level, and typically include conservation
projects in state parks.
The Student Conservation Association

The Student Conservation Association (SCA), founded in 1957,
is one of the oldest organizations in resource conservation.
The SCA offers programs in all 50 states, and has more than
50,000 alumni. As a participant in an SCA program, you might
travel to another region for a project, or you could find one close
to home. Many students enter an SCA program during or after
college, but there are also options for high school students
beginning at age 15.
Opportunities for high school students include volunteer
Summer community crew positions with the
positions with Conservation Crews and Community
SCA offer practical experience in the field of
Conservation programs. Conservation Crews are for students conservation.
between the ages of 15 and 19. Crews consist of six to
eight students who work under the supervision of a trained offer stipends for travel to and from the internship site, free
crew leader on month-long projects in the frontcountry or housing, a weekly living allowance, and an education award at
backcountry. Typical Conservation Crew activities include the completion of the internship, which can be used to pay for
trail building and habitat restoration projects. Community future educational expenses or to pay off a portion of student
Conservation programs include year-round Community loans.
Conservation Leadership Corps positions and Summer
Community Crews. These community programs offer students
real-world training and service opportunities in the field of
The Benefits to You
conservation, often in an urban setting. Volunteer and paid opportunities obviously benefit the local
Participation in an SCA program gives students the chance ecosystems, but what do you get from it, in addition to dirt
to serve the land while also gaining practical skills that will last under your fingernails? The following is a short list of just some
a lifetime. In addition, many participants in SCA programs end of the benefits:
up pursuing a career in the field of conservation. In fact, over 60 • Learn a new skill, such as how to build and install an
percent of SCA alumni become conservation professionals, and irrigation system, take a tree inventory, or build a box for
12 percent of National Park Service employees came to the NPS a nesting owl.
initially through an SCA program. • Improve your science classwork by learning the science
What Do You Think?
behind what you see in a living ecosystem.
If you are interested in making a longer commitment to
the SCA, you might choose to participate in a Conservation • Work side-by-side with professional scientists, collecting
Internship, which is available to those 18 and older. An SCA data or samples for ongoing investigations.
internship is an excellent way to test your interest in a variety • Become aware of the career possibilities related to
of environmental careers by offering you the chance to working in the outdoors.
work alongside established professionals in the field. These • Make lasting friendships, working closely with others who
internships typically last between 12 weeks and 12 months. share your interests.
Examples of Conservation Internships include work as a biology
technician at Carlsbad Caverns National Park in New Mexico;,
What Do You Think?
as a fisheries intern in Alaska, or as a backcountry park ranger Are you interested in pursuing a career in the field
in the Red River Gorge in Kentucky. Many of these internships of conservation or environmental science? What
volunteer opportunities exist where you live?

Chapter 21 Summary
Section 1 E conomics and Objectives Key Terms

International Cooperation
• Achieving sustainability will require cooperation and sustainability
communication at many levels of society. economics
• Some goals of international agreements on the
environment have been achieved and successfully
implemented. Other goals have been set but not
yet achieved.
• Economic systems operate within the environment
by using resources and by returning both desired and
undesired results. Economic systems sometimes fail to
balance all the costs and benefits of people’s actions.
Section 2 E nvironmental Policies in Objectives Key Terms

the United States
• Since the early 1900s, the U.S. government has devel- Environmental
oped policies to address environmental problems and Impact State-
has established agencies to implement those policies. ment
lobbying
• Citizens can influence policy at all levels of government
but especially at the local level.
• Lobbying and the media also influence policy and
public opinion.
(t) ©Gunter Ziesler/Peter Arnold, Inc./Getty Images; (c) ©Bettmann/Corbis;(b) ©Rhoda Sidney/The Image Works
Section 3 The Importance of the Objectives
Individual
• Individuals can have an effect on environmental
interactions through leadership and education. Many
environmental problems were brought to the public’s
attention by a few individuals.
• You make important decisions about the environment
every day. How you choose to spend money, vote, and
use resources will have an impact on the environment.
• You can apply scientific thinking and knowledge to
any decisions that you may face.

Chapter 21 Review
Reviewing Key Terms 9. Economic systems
Use each of the following terms in a separate sentence. a. do not depend on limited natural resources.
1. sustainability b. rarely balance the costs and benefits of every
action.
2. economics
c. should not include the costs of pollution with
Use the correct key term to complete each of the the costs of an action.
following sentences. d. must operate within the environment.
3. Every federal project must complete a(n) ________.
4. Many groups try to influence government policies
U.S. environmental policy is not true?
through ________.
a. During most of the 19th century, most
Americans were not concerned about
a concept map: groups, individuals, lobbying, state
environmental consequences.
laws, federal laws, and voting.
b. During the 1960s, several individuals had
strong effects on public thinking about
environmental issues.
c. Before Earth Day 1970, no one in the United
6. Which of the following trends is not a challenge States cared about the environment.
to achieving sustainability?
d. The Environmental Protection Agency was
a. the increasing human population established at a time of increasing public
b. the decreasing supply of fresh water in awareness of environmental problems.
the world
c. disagreement among governments 11. State and local environmental regulations
d. advancement of scientific understanding a. cannot be influenced by individuals.
b. simply enforce federal standards.
7. At the 1992 Earth Summit, representatives from c. do not have to follow federal standards.
around the world
d. are often more strict than federal standards.
a. created the Kyoto Protocol.
b. tried to balance economic development with 12. The main function of an Environmental Impact
environmental sustainability. Statement is
c. could not reach agreement on anything a. to predict the effect a federal project might
important. have on the environment.
d. talked about environmental problems for the b. to produce a record of environmental change
first time ever. throughout history.
c. to satisfy the requirements of international
8. International environmental agreements include agreements.
a. the Montreal Protocol. d. to limit real estate development and the
b. Earth Day. activities of businesses.
c. the World Trade Organization.
13. Local governments do not regulate
d. the Wilderness Act of 1964.
a. recycling.
b. sewage treatment.
c. garbage disposal.
d. Environmental Impact Statements.

Chapter Review

14. What do world leaders do at gatherings such as 23. Expressing a Viewpoint Read the section about
the Earth Summit? influential individuals in this chapter. Describe at
15. Why are some treaties not successful? least one effect that one of these individuals may
have had on your life.
16. In what ways do state or local regulations differ
from federal regulations? 24. Making Predictions What might the effects be if
the United States doubled the tax on gasoline over
17. Describe several ways that citizens can influence the next 10 years?
environmental policy.
25. History Some people argue that developing
18. How can a consumer affect the environment? nations should be allowed to create polluting
industries in order to develop economically, just
as the developed nations did in the past. Explain
Interpreting Graphics your opinion of this argument.
The figures below show a type of label that is required 26. An International Treaty Write a proposal for
by law to be placed on all new appliances. Use the a new international treaty that would address a
figures to answer questions 19–22. pressing environmental problem and that you
19. Compare What is the most likely reason that the think could be agreed upon by many nations.
tag on the right has an “energy star” symbol?
20. Evaluate Which quantity on the tags is the most
important piece of information about these
appliances?
21. Analyze Why do you think the government has
required such labels to be placed on all new
appliances?
22. Justify There are two types of refrigerators
represented on these labels: top-freezer and side-
by-side. Which type is generally more efficient?
How can you tell?

Chapter Review
Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
27. Making Calculations The average amount
of water used to take a shower is 11.7 gallons. If 30. Why is it difficult to manage environmental
a person takes a shower every day, how much STUDYSKILL
issues that affect the world’s oceans?
water do they use every year in showers alone? An 31. What might be a way to entice countries that
energy-efficient shower head reduces the amount Whyopt out of international agreements to change
It Matters
of water used to 8.8 gallons. How many gallons of their decision?
water would you save each year if you installed an
energy-efficient shower head? Why It Matters
32. How can decisions
that you make impact
Making Connections the environment in a
28. Communicating Main Ideas Describe some positive way?
signs that the world may be progressing toward
a sustainable future. What are some likely
challenges ahead?
29. Expressing Original Ideas Describe your
vision of a sustainable future. Consider lifestyles,
technology, forms of government, economic
systems, and social organizations.
STUDYSKILL
Preparing for a Debate Participating in a debate can
help you analyze an issue. To support a point of view, you
must also understand opposing views. For practice, choose
an issue discussed in this chapter or elsewhere in this book.
At the top of a sheet of paper, state the basic problem. Draw
two or more columns, and summarize different points of view
at the top of each column. Then list the arguments in favor
of each view. Try to find arguments that can be made against
each point of view on similar points.
©Alex Webb/Magnum Photos

ExplorationLab
Research
Organizing a
Objectives
Collect Data on the
Sustainable Product
sustainability of common
household products. Guide
Prepare and present the
sustainability of common Sustainability is defined as the condition in which human needs are met
household products. in such a way that a human population can survive indefinitely. The
Summarize your research
goal of sustainability is to improve the quality of life in our communities
in a guide to sustainable without depleting the many resources on which life on Earth depends.
products. Sustainable products are those products providing environmental,
social, and economic benefits, while protecting public health, welfare,
Materials and the environment. To be classified as sustainable, a product must
Internet access, if available accomplish these goals over its full life cycle, from the gathering of raw
magazines and materials, manufacturing the raw materials into a product, shipping it to
newspapers with product the consumer, its use by the consumer, to final disposal. A product is not
advertisements sustainable if it meets these goals in some portions of its life cycle, while
failing to meet them in others.
One function of government is to manage the production sustainability
of the country, since this is key to the economic and environmental
welfare of that country’s population. Although governments manage
production sustainability, many people think it is up to the consumer to
be a force to drive manufacturers toward producing sustainable products.
According to this theory, if many consumers stop purchasing non-
sustainable products, manufacturers will stop making them.
Three simple criteria may be used to determine sustainability.
yclic The product is made from compostable (vegetative) or
C
recyclable (such as paper, metals, plastics, or glass) materials. Not all
materials are manufactured into a form favorable for recycling.
Renewable The manufacture of the product uses forms of renewable
energy that are cyclic and safe (such as solar, wind, geothermal, or
natural gas from decomposing waste).
Safe The product does not use materials that can be toxic during use or
after disposal.
In this lab, you will learn about materials used to make various
products. You will then use this information to classify consumer products
as sustainable or non-sustainable, using the three criteria above. Finally,
you will prepare a consumer guide to sustainable products.

Procedure Sustainable Products Examples of sustainable
1. Devise a scale that rates the sustainability of prod- products include cleaners made from non-toxic
ucts. Find advertisements in newspapers and maga- ingredients and paper towels made from recycled
zines for ten products people commonly use, or paper products.
examine ten actual products.
2. Find information about each product’s ingredients

or the materials used to manufacture it. Include the
packing materials in your research. Consider the
product’s expected lifespan and methods of disposal
for the product.
3. Prepare an index card for each product. You can cut

out a picture of the product from the advertisement
or draw a picture of the product. Each card should
show the product information you researched. Each
card should also indicate a sustainability rating that
you assign to each product.
Analysis
1. Classifying Gather the index cards from all lab team
members. Devise a way to organize the information.
You might sort by product type, by rating, or by any
other category that seems logical.
2. Organizing Data Use the index cards to prepare a guide about

sustainable products as a lab team. Your team also might include
guidelines for choosing products, and information about agencies
and organizations that provide information on sustainable products.
The guide can be delivered in any form, such as a website, computer
presentation, or a pamphlet.
Conclusions
3. Evaluating Methods Compare the presentations of each of the lab
teams. In your opinion, which group’s presentation did the best job of
providing information to consumers on sustainable products. Why?
Extension
4. Research and Communications Locate information on the
production sustainability track record (mining/growing, manufactur-
©Tetra Images/Getty Images
ing, and shipping) of the companies that make the products that you
identified as sustainable. Prepare a chart comparing each product’s
consumer sustainability and a production sustainability track record
of the manufacturer. Present your information to the class.

Student
Appendix A
Lab Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R2
Resources
Appendix B
Field Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R6
Appendix C
Note-Taking and Study Skills . . . . . . . . . . . R12
Appendix D
Math Skills Refresher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R18
Appendix E
Chemistry Refresher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R24
Appendix F
Mineral Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R28
Appendix G
Economics Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R30
Appendix H
SI Conversions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R32
Appendix I
Environmental Careers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R33
Appendix J
Ecoskills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R45
Appendix K
Maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R56
English and Spanish Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R72

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R92
R1
Appendix A
Lab Safety
General Guidelines • Arrange the materials you are using for an
experiment in an orderly fashion on your work
for Laboratory Safety surface. Keep laboratory materials away from
In the laboratory, you can engage in hands-on the edge of the work surface.
explorations, test your scientific hypotheses, and
build practical laboratory skills. However, while
• Tie back long hair and remove dangling jewelry.
Roll up sleeves and secure loose clothing.
working in the laboratory or in the field, it is your
responsibility to protect yourself and other students • Do not wear contact lenses in the laboratory.
by conducting yourself in a safe manner. You will Chemicals could get between the contact lenses
avoid accidents in the laboratory by following and your eyes and cause irreparable eye dam-
directions, handling materials carefully, and taking age. If your doctor requires that you wear
your work seriously. Read the following general contact lenses instead of glasses, then you
safety guidelines and review the descriptions of the should wear eyecup safety goggles— similar to
safety symbols on pp. xxiv–xxv before working in goggles that are worn for underwater swim-
the laboratory. ming—in the laboratory.
• Do not wear open-toed shoes, sandals, or canvas
shoes in the laboratory because they will not
protect your feet if any chemical, glassware, or
SafeEyeProtect SafeClothing SafeCaustic SafeChemical other object is dropped on them.
• Know the location of the nearest phone. Find out
where emergency telephone numbers, such as
the number for the nearest poison control
center, can be found.
SafeAnimal SafePlants SafeElectric SafeHeating
• Know the location of safety equipment such as
eyewash stations and fire extinguishers. Know
how to operate this equipment.
SafeSharp SafeHandGlove SafeFire Gas Safety

• Know the fire evacuation routes established by
your school.
• Before you begin the experiment, review the
supplies you will be using and the safety issues
you should be concerned about. Be on the alert
SafeGlassware SafeDisposal Hygienic Care/ for the safety symbols shown on this page and
Clean Hands
those that appear in your experiment.
Before You Begin…

While You Are Working…
• Be prepared. Study assigned experiments before
class. Resolve any questions about procedures • Do not play in the lab. Take your lab work
before starting work. seriously, and behave appropriately in the
laboratory. Be aware of your classmates’ safety
• Keep your work area uncluttered. Store books, as well as your own at all times.
backpacks, jackets, or other items you do not
need out of the way. • Never perform an experiment not authorized by
your teacher.
R2 Appendix A
• Never work alone in the laboratory. • Never eat, drink, chew gum, or apply cosmetics
in the laboratory. Do not store food or beverages
• Always wear safety goggles and a lab apron
in the lab area.
when you are working in the lab. Laboratories
contain chemicals that can damage your cloth- • Report any accident, chemical spill, or unsafe
ing, skin, and eyes. incident to your teacher immediately.
• Wear protective gloves when working with an • Check labels on containers of chemicals to be
open flame, chemicals, solutions, wild or certain you are using the right material.
unknown plants, or other items as directed by
your teacher.
• When diluting an acid or base with water, always
add the acid or base to water. Do NOT add water
• Never look directly at the sun through any to the acid or base.
optical device or use direct sunlight to illuminate
a microscope. The focused light can seriously
• Dispose of chemicals according to your teacher’s
instructions.
damage your eyes.
• When heating substances in a test tube, always
• Never return unused chemicals to the containers
from which you obtained them. Do not put any
point the test tube away from yourself and others.
object into a bottle containing a laboratory
• Keep your hands away from the sharp or chemical.
pointed ends of scalpels, scissors, and other
sharp instruments.
• Observe all of the safety symbols that accom- Emergency Procedures
pany the procedural steps of the experiment. Be
Don’t panic. In the event of a laboratory emergency,
sure to follow the safety practices that are called
follow these instructions.
for in the experiment.
• In the event of a fire, alert the teacher and leave
• Never put anything in your mouth, and never the laboratory immediately.
touch or taste substances in the laboratory
unless your teacher instructs you to do so. • If your clothes catch fire, STOP, DROP, and
ROLL! The quickest way to smother a fire is to
• If your teacher instructs you drop to the floor and roll.
to smell a chemical in the
laboratory, follow the correct • If your lab partner’s clothes or hair catches fire,
grab the nearest fire blanket and use it to extinguish
procedure. The correct
the flames. Inform your teacher immediately.
method is to fan your hand
gently over the substance, • If a chemical spills on your skin or clothing,
waving its vapors wash it off immediately with plenty of water and
toward your nose. notify your teacher.
Do not put your
nose directly over
the substance.
Lab Safety R3
• If a chemical gets into your eyes or on your face, • Keep each laboratory animal’s container clean.
go to an eyewash station immediately and flush Clean cages of small birds and mammals daily.
your eyes (including under the eyelids) with
running water for at least 15 minutes. Hold your
• Provide each laboratory animal with water at
all times.
eyelids open with your thumb and fingers, and
roll your eyeball around. While doing this, have • Feed animals regularly, according to their
another student notify your teacher. individual needs.
• If a chemical spills on the floor, do not clean it • If you are responsible for the care or feeding of
up yourself. Keep your classmates away from the animals, arrange for necessary care on week-
area and alert your teacher immediately. ends and holidays and during vacations.
• If you receive a cut, even if it is just a small one, • No study that involves inflicting pain on a
notify your teacher. vertebrate animal should ever be conducted.
• Vertebrate animals must not be exposed to
excessive noise, exhausting exercise, overcrowd-
Safety with Animals ing, or other distressing stimuli.
in the Laboratory • When an animal must be removed from the

laboratory, your teacher will provide a suitable
Observing and experimenting with animals can method.
enrich your understanding of environmental sci-
ence. However, you must use extreme caution to
assure your own safety as well as the safety and
comfort of the animals. When working with animals Safety with Plants
in the laboratory, be sure to follow these guidelines. in the Laboratory
• Do not touch or approach any animal unless
Some plants or plant parts are poisonous to the
your teacher specifically gives you permission.
point of fatality, depending on the weight of the
• Handle animals only as your teacher directs. person and the amount of plant material ingested.
Mishandling or abusing any animal will not be Therefore, many plants or plant parts can present a
tolerated. safety hazard to you. When working with plants in
• Do not bring any animal into the laboratory the laboratory be sure to follow these guidelines.
without your teacher’s permission. • Never place any part of any plant in your mouth
unless instructed to do so by your teacher. Seeds
• Wear gloves or other appropriate protective gear
obtained from commercial growers can be par-
when working with animals.
ticularly dangerous because such seeds may be
• Wash your hands after touching any animal. coated with hormones, fungicides, or insecticides.
• Inform your teacher immediately if you are • Do not rub sap or juice of fruits on your skin or
scratched, bitten, stung, or otherwise harmed by into an open wound.
an animal.
• Never inhale or expose your skin or eyes to the
• Always follow your teacher’s instructions smoke of any burning plant or plant parts.
regarding the care of laboratory animals. Ask
questions if you do not clearly understand what
• Do not bring unknown wild or cultivated plants
into the laboratory.
you are supposed to do.
• Keep each laboratory animal in a suitable,
• Do not eat, drink, or apply cosmetics after han-
dling plants without first washing your hands.
Photodisc/Getty Images
escape-proof container in a location where the

animal will not be frequently disturbed. Animal • Provide adequate light and water and appropri-
containers should provide adequate ventilation, ate soil and temperature for plants growing in
warmth, and light. the laboratory.
R4 Appendix A
• If you are responsible for plants, make necessary • Do not approach wild mammals, snakes, snap-
arrangements for their care on weekends and ping turtles, or other animals that may sting,
holidays and during vacations. bite, scratch, or otherwise cause injury.
• Do not touch any animal in the wild without
specific permission from your teacher.
Finishing Up in the Laboratory… • Find out whether poisonous plants or dangerous
• Broken glass, chemicals, and other laboratory animals are likely to be where you will be going.
waste products should be disposed of in sepa- Learn how to identify any hazardous species.
rate special containers. Dispose of waste materi-
als as directed by your teacher.
• Do not pick wildflowers or touch plants or plant
parts unless your teacher gives you permission.
• Clean tables and sinks as directed by your Do not eat wild plants.
teacher.
• Immediately report any hazard or injury to
• Make sure all water faucets, gas jets, burners, your teacher.
and electrical appliances are turned off.
• Be sure you understand the purpose of your
• Return all laboratory materials and equipment field trip and any assignments you have been
to their proper places. given. Bring all needed school supplies and
keep them organized in a binder, backpack, or
• Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and
other container.
water after completing each experiment.
• Be aware of the impact you are having on the
environments you visit. Just walking over fragile
Safe and Successful areas can harm them, so stay on trails unless
your teacher gives you permission to do
Fieldwork otherwise.
Environmental scientists conduct much of their • Sketching, photographing, and writing field
research in the field. For environmental scientists— notes are generally more appropriate than
and environmental science students such as you— collecting specimens for observation. Collecting
there are three important issues to consider when from a field site may be permitted in certain
working in the field. One issue is your personal cases, but always obtain your teacher’s permis-
safety. Another issue is the successful completion of sion first.
the scientific work you set out to do. The third
consideration is protection of the environment you
• Do not leave garbage at the field site. Strive to
leave natural areas just as you found them.
have come to study. The following guidelines will
help you address these three issues.
• Dress in a manner that will keep you comfort-
able, warm, and dry. Wear long pants rather than
shorts or a skirt. Wear sturdy shoes that have
closed toes. Do not wear sandals or heels. Wear
waterproof shoes if you will be working in
wetlands.
• Bring rain gear if there is any possibility of rain.
• Bring sunglasses, sunscreen, and insect repel-
lent as needed.
• Do not go alone beyond where you can be seen
©Getty Images
or heard; travel with a partner at all times.
Lab Safety R5
Appendix B
Field Studies
Taking Notes in the Field section. Turn the page and write the title of the
second section at the top of the right-hand page.
It is essential for someone studying the environ- Do this for each section.
ment to keep a journal with field notes. Field notes
provide a crucial record of observations and
• Starting on the first right-hand page after the Table
of Contents pages, number all of the right-hand
activities that can be used later to verify facts and pages in the journal in the bottom right-hand
track important ecological changes. Keeping a corner. Do NOT number the backs of the pages.
journal that incorporates these observations, along
with your thoughts and ideas, can provide valuable
• Your journal should contain all of the data and
observations collected in your field notes (if
insight into what is going on in the environment
keeping them both in one notebook, page num-
you are investigating.
bers can be given).
To be useful, field notes must be kept up to
date and written in a consistent format. Options for
• If you have been observing or doing population
counts for a particular species or group of species,
keeping your journal might include purchasing an
each day’s observations should be recorded in its
inexpensive, waterproof field notebook or a
own section, headed by the name of the species or
carbonless-copy lab notebook from various online
community being studied (for example, wild-
vendors. A less expensive option is to use a hard-
flower meadow community, monarch butterflies,
bound composition book that can be purchased
pine-bore beetles).
anywhere that sells school supplies.
If your teacher requires that you keep a journal
• Use your field notes, along with field guides and
other references, to identify any unknown species
that is separate from your field notes, you can
found during your excursion.
make a light, easy-to-carry clipboard by cutting out
a 9” x 12” piece of heavy cardboard or foamboard. • Don’t hesitate to record your personal thoughts
Slip a sturdy rubber band around the board to hold and experiences that occurred in the field (for
sheets of paper and a pencil. This will give you a example, “accidentally stepped into fire-ant hill but
surface to write on when you are out in the field managed to brush most of them off without getting
and will keep your notes and pencil from getting bitten”). These can help you remember more
lost. Later, you can insert the loose note pages into details later.
a binder, arranged in chronological order.
Use pencil instead of ink when making field Field Notes
notes. That way, if the pages should become damp
Always begin each day’s field notes on a new page,
for any reason, your writing will not be lost.
with the date and location listed at the top of the
page. If you have been given a specific task to accom-
Science Journal plish while out in the field, write a brief description of
your instructions.
• Begin your journal with a cover page, giving your You might include the following data in your field
name and the year.
notes.
• Decide which sections your journal will need to be
• Current weather conditions — You can use an
divided into (this may be determined by your
teacher), such as warm-up exercises, field notes, armored thermometer to check air temperature or,
and species counts. if available, an electronic weather probe that
provides additional data, such as humidity,
• After the cover page (do NOT write on the back of
barometric pressure, and altitude. If you have a
the cover page), title the next page Table of
smartphone, there are applications you can
Contents. Skip a line and write the name of the first
download that provide the ambient temperature,
R6 Appendix B
GPS coordinates for each data-collection site, and
local weather data. You can also jot down your
• Write down any questions, ideas, predictions, or
other inspirations that come to you while you are
personal observations of the weather.
in the field.
• Note any recent events or disturbances in the area
• Keep all your observations brief, but be sure you
you are observing, such as storms, droughts, fires,
can remember the meaning of any symbols or
construction, plowing or cultivation, and tree or
abbreviations you use when you see them later.
brush removal.
• Give a brief description of the topography and
• If you are not collecting physical specimens and
cannot immediately identify a species while in the
vegetation for the area you are observing. These
field and do not have a field guide with you, assign
include hills, plains, beach, dunes, forest, marsh,
it a number and general designation (for example,
meadow, desert, stream, riverbank, and general
insect #12); make detailed notes of color, shape,
types of plant species (pine trees, shrubs, grasses,
and other characteristics. Make a simple sketch or
reeds). Simple sketches can also be of great value.
take a photograph.
• If you are changing positions during your field-
• If you keep a separate journal, you can expand on
work, make note of the route you take so that each
your thoughts when you record your field notes. If
place you collect data can be located again. Use a
you keep only one combined field notebook/
compass to aid you in this process.
journal, then sit down and write your expanded
• Each time you stop to collect data, make brief observations at the end of the field experience,
notes of the time, location, and surroundings while your thoughts and impressions are fresh in
where you made your observations. Collect as your mind.
much specific information about the area as time
and availability of equipment allow.
For example, if you are observing an aquatic Field Study Activities
ecosystem, collect information on water tempera- There is one Field Study per chapter in this
ture; dissolved oxygen levels; turbidity levels; textbook.
depth of water; composition of bank and bottom
substrate; direction of flow (if any); color of water; Chapter 1, page 10
presence of algae, scum, foam, or oily films on
water surface; and odor. Observations of soil might Measure Up
include color, estimated particle size, sandy, clay, Measure As you begin to study the environment
rocky, shells, pH. around you, one of the skills you will need is making
• Describe the methods you use to collect your data accurate and precise measurements. Select an area
(for example, quadrat, transect, capture-mark- outside your school where you will collect data. In a
release). group of 2–3 students, select the appropriate data-
• For each type of observation or data collection you collection tools provided by your teacher. Construct a
data table in your science journal to record your data.
do, list the materials and equipment you used (for
example, leaf hopper collected in insect net and 1. Determine the following measurements:
preserved in plastic vial with alcohol). •
the circumference of a tree, in meters
• Include any quantitative data you collect, such as •
the temperature of the air in the shade and in
estimates of species numbers, sizes of plants or the sunlight, in °C
animals observed, behavior of organisms (along
with how frequently the behavior occurs), and
•
the mass of a rock, in grams
measurements of the area or conditions.

•
the length of a blade of grass, in millimeters
• Make note of anything you collect, including

•
the volume of a small rock or pebble, in cubic
centimeters
specimens, photographs, and video. If collecting
specimens, note the methods you used to collect •
the area of your observation site, in square
meters
and keep the specimens. If possible, return any
specimens to the same location where you col- 2. Record your raw data and any calculations you
lected them when you are through with them. make in finding your final measurements.
Field Studies R7
Chapter 2, page 43 common plant pollinators are insects. Walk around
your school or neighborhood, or if it is wintertime, a
Organizing Data local store that sells plants and flowers. In your
Conceptual Model Select an area to observe near your science journal, sketch the structure of several
home or school. Choose the type of data you would different types of flowers. Identify and record charac-
like to collect from a short list provided by your teristics of the flowers that are adaptations meant to
teacher. For example, you might choose to identify attract pollinators.
organisms that are part of the same food chain in that
area. Use your textbook as a reference to construct a
Chapter 5, page 132
conceptual model in your science journal that
organizes your data and shows how the pieces of Investigating Succession
information are related. Survey Explore two or three blocks in your neighbor-
hood, and find evidence of succession. Make notes in
Chapter 3, page 72 your science journal about the location and the
evidence of succession that you observe. Pay atten-
Detecting CO2 tion to sidewalks, curbs, streets, vacant lots, and
Investigate buildings, as well as parks, gardens, fields, and other
1. Label two test tubes Control and Exhaust and open areas. Create a map from your data that identi-
place them in a test-tube rack. Into each, add 10 fies where succession is taking place in your
mL of water and 20 drops of bromothymol blue neighborhood.
indicator.
2. Attach the open end of a small balloon to the Chapter 6, page 160
bottom of a glass or metal funnel with rubber Xeriscaping
tubing.
Identify To conserve water or live more sustainably,
3. Go outside, where your teacher will start the test many people have started xeriscaping their yards.
vehicle. Caution: Avoid breathing in the exhaust Xeriscaping involves planting hardy, native plants
fumes or touching the exhaust pipe, which can that thrive with little water. Survey your community
become extremely hot. and identify a yard or public area that has been
4. Place the open end of the funnel over the opening xeriscaped. Use field guides to identify the plants and
on the vehicle’s exhaust pipe. Allow the exhaust record their common and scientific names in your
to fill the balloon to a diameter of about 10 cm. science journal. Use colored pencils to draw a map of
Detach the rubber tubing, pinch the balloon the area you observed, labeling the plants you
closed, and return to the classroom. identified.
5. Stretch the balloon over the top of the Exhaust

Chapter 7, page 184
test tube. Tip the balloon and test tube back and
forth 10 times. Once Upon a Time
6. Construct a data table in your science journal. Explore Most people don’t realize that hundreds of
Use colored pencils to record the color of the millions of years ago, North America was mostly
liquid in both tubes. underwater. In every state, there are places where
evidence of ancient oceans and the organisms that
7. Compare the color of the control liquid with that
lived in them can still be found. With your class,
of the liquid mixed with the exhaust fumes.
explore an area in your community identified by your
Record your observations.
teacher and look for fossils of ancient aquatic life. In
your science journal, draw a simple map of the search
Chapter 4, page 100 area and use your map to record where fossils are
Coevolution found. Make simple sketches or photographs of
anything you find, to identify later. Record all your
Identify Flowering plants evolved simultaneously
observations.
with the organisms that pollinate them. The most
R8 Appendix B
Chapter 8, page 204 Hold a class discussion about what you and other
students observed.
Observing Competition
Investigate You can study competition among bird
Chapter 10, page 257
species at home or at school. Build a bird feeder using
a plastic milk jug, a metal pie pan, or another inex- Simple Biodiversity Assessment
pensive material. Fill the feeder with unsalted bread Identify Discover the diversity of weeds and other
crumbs, sunflower seeds, or commercial birdseed. plants in a small area. Yards, gardens, and vacant lots
Observe the birds that visit the feeder. Sit quietly are good places to conduct such a study. Mark off a
in the same spot, and make observations at the same 0.5 m2 section. Use a field guide to identify every
time each day for several days in a row. plant species that you can. Be specific—don’t just
In your science journal, record your observations, record grass or weeds.
including data about the kinds of birds that use the Identify how many different types of plants there
feeder, the kinds of seeds the birds prefer, the factors are. You may want to sketch or photograph some of
that affect how much the birds eat, and the kinds of the plants. Then count the number of each type of
birds that are better competitors for the birdseed. Add plant you identified. Record your results in your
drawings or photos of the birds you see and then use science journal.
a field guide to identify them.
Chapter 9, page 227
Sources of Water Pollution
Population Issues Identify Walk around your neighborhood, and record
Observe Is your community experiencing rapid potential sources of point or nonpoint water pollu-
growth, or is the population in decline? Both of these tion, such as runoff from parking lots, motor oil being
situations can lead to population-related problems. poured into storm drains, and lawn fertilizer being
Take a walk or drive around your community and used. Suggest ways in which the amount of pollution
record your observations in your science journal. Try from each source might be reduced. Record your
to answer the following questions and any others that observations, suggestions, and any evidence that
you may think of: supports your analysis in your science journal.
• Are more people moving into your community
or moving away? Chapter 12, page 313
• Are there frequent traffic jams on major roads Light Pollution
in your area?
Observe Walk outside your home at night and look up
• Does your community have its own public at the sky. Can you see any stars? If you see very few
services (law enforcement, fire department, or none, then your community may be experiencing
hospital, and so on), or do you depend on a light pollution. Along some coastlines where sea
nearby community? turtles lay their eggs, too much light at night can
• Are schools in your area overcrowded? confuse the hatching babies, causing them to move
• Are houses and other buildings spaced close away from the ocean. How might light pollution affect
together? wildlife or plants in your community? Record your
• Do most people in your community use public observations in your science journal.
water supplies, or do they depend on private
wells? Chapter 13, page 340
• Are there any other environmental issues, such Reducing Your Carbon Footprint
as water quality or loss of wildlife habitat, that
Calculate Use an online carbon-footprint calculator
are associated with the number of people who
to determine your personal level of carbon emissions
live in your community?
and then do a walk around the inside and outside of
• Is your community doing anything to address your school. In your science journal, make a three-
the issues you have cited? Explain. column chart with the headings Pros, Cons, and
Field Studies R9
Solutions. List all the ways your school is reducing Chapter 16, page 411
carbon emissions under Pros. List all the things the
school could be doing better under Cons. In the third
Rock Ore Mineral?
column, list the ways your school could improve its Classify Minerals may be composed of one or more
overall carbon footprint. Compare your findings with elements but are usually compounds. Rocks, on the
those of your classmates and make a master chart. other hand, are made up of multiple minerals. When
Brainstorm ideas of what you could reasonably do to a mineral is economically valuable, it is known as an
help your school become “greener.” ore.
Do an Internet search for information on the key
Chapter 14, page 359 phrase “common minerals and their uses.” In your
science journal, make a list of 10 different minerals.
Land-Use Planning Record what they are used for and whether or not
Survey No community stays the same forever. they are scarce or expensive to use.
Whether you live in a city, a suburb, a small town, or a Walk around your neighborhood, home, and
rural area, you may see old buildings being torn school and record ways in which you see these
down, signs announcing new buildings, evidence of minerals being used in everyday life. For any of the
new road construction, or land being cleared for a minerals that are difficult or expensive to obtain,
new housing subdivision or shopping center. Most make note of any alternative materials or ways in
communities have a Planning Commission that has which existing minerals might be reused or recycled.
to approve these sorts of changes. If there is a major
change proposed, public hearings may be held to give Chapter 17, page 442
citizens a chance to voice their opinions.
In your science journal, construct a three-column Ride Along
data table. Label the first column Change, the second Determine Who is the person in your family who runs
column Pros, and the third one Cons. the most errands in the community? Make arrange-
Walk, ride, or drive around your community and ments with that person to run errands on a day when
keep a record of any changes to your area. In the you can go along. (Note: If you normally use GPS, turn
second column, record ways in which you feel the it off for this activity.)
change will have a beneficial impact. In the last Obtain a street or road map of the area in which
column, note any negative side effects of the change. you will be traveling. Before setting out from home,
Compare your data with those of your classmates. record the time in your science journal and make a
mark on the map to indicate the location of your
Chapter 15, page 391 home. If your vehicle has a trip odometer, you may
want to start it at zero or make a note of the starting
What a Pest! mileage of the vehicle. At the location for each errand,
Identify Walk through the neighborhood around your record the address, the time you arrive, and the time
school or home. In your science journal, keep a you leave again, and mark the location on the map.
record of the pest organisms that you find. These When you have finished all of the errands, record the
might include plants, insects, or other animals that time when you return home.
are harmful to other organisms or to their surround- Use your collected data or trip odometer reading
ings, such as poison ivy, mosquitoes, or fire ants. Do to find out the total distance covered from the time
some research to find out what measures, if any, are you left home until you returned. Then, using either
being taken to deal with pests and record these in your map, a GPS device, or an Internet map website,
your journal. As you work your way through this determine if the routes you took from place to place
study, try to determine if the pests are being dealt were the shortest, most efficient methods of getting
with in a way that is safe for people and the environ- from one place to another.
ment or if abatement efforts create a different sort of Examine your results and determine if there is a
hazard. more time- and fuel-efficient route to use when
running your family’s regular errands.
R10 Appendix B
Chapter 18, page 462 Chapter 21, page 542
Biomass Survey Local Policies
Survey Plant material, decomposing manure, and Identify As a citizen of your community, you can
any other renewable organic matter that is used as an influence local environmental policies. Identify an
energy source is called a biomass fuel. Walk around environmental issue in your area, such as people
your neighborhood and list as many sources of dumping used motor oil into storm drains. Find out
biomass fuel as you can find, such as a pile of fire- what, if anything, is being done to correct the prob-
wood or plant stalks left after harvesting a crop. What lem. Then design and implement a plan to help your
do you think the advantages and disadvantages of community become more aware of the issue and
using biomass as a fuel in your area would be? Record what they can do to improve or correct it. Be sure to
your observations. have your teacher approve your plan before you
implement it.
Recycling
Observe Recycling is the process of reusing or recov-
ering valuable materials from waste or scrap. Making
new products from used cans, bottles, paper, and
wood generally saves energy, water, and other re-
sources. Make observations of the area in which you
live and document ways in which scrap or waste
materials are being recycled or have been used to
make new products such as park benches made from
recycled plastic bottles.

Sources of Pollution
Identify Human activities produce many types of
pollution that can be hazardous to the health of
humans and other organisms. Look around your
community and record potential sources of air, water,
solid-waste, light, and noise pollution. Identify what
type each source is, where it is located, and list
suggestions for ways in which the amount of pollu-
tion from each source might be reduced. Be sure to
support your analysis by listing the evidence you used
to identify each source.
Field Studies R11

Appendix C
Note-Taking and Study Skills
Graphic organizers are tools to help you take notes. Some graphic organizers are
best used as you read to help you understand concepts. Others are best used to
summarize or review information. Using a variety of graphic organizers will help
you to understand and remember what you have learned.
During Reading Supporting Main Ideas Notes

What is it? A main idea graphic helps separate and
Use these graphic organizers while you are organize reading material into important concepts
reading. They help you organize ideas in para- and related details of support. You can choose the
graphs and sections as you read them. main idea graphic that best fits the material. The
first strategy is useful when details follow some type
Process Diagram of order.
What is it? A process is a series of steps that pro- How do you make it? First, find the main idea. The
duces a result. Process diagrams show these steps. main idea may be the title of the section, it may be
How do you make it? Start with the first step and labeled “main idea” or “key concept” in your book,
then write or draw each step, one after the other, or it may be the topic sentence in a paragraph. Write
and connect them with arrows. the main idea in the top box. Next, summarize or
paraphrase details that help explain that idea in the
The next boxes that follow.
Na+ chan- Na+ K+ channels
nels open channels open slowly, Sexual reproduction increases
Neuron is
quickly, open, sending making the genetic diversity.
stimulated.
making the the impulse cell negative
cell positive. down the again.
axon. Chromosomes assort independently
during meiosis.
Cycle Diagram
Chromosomes recombine during
What is it? A cycle, such as the cell cycle, is a repeat- crossing over.
ing series of events that happen one after another.
Cycles do not have a beginning or an end. Cycle
Offspring are produced by the
diagrams identify the steps in a cycle or process that
random combination of gametes.
repeat regularly.
How do you make it? Draw a cycle diagram to show
processes that repeat without a beginning or ending.
Use the arrows between the boxed steps to show the
direction or
G1 order in
S which the
Growth and
DNA synthesis
normal function cycle
happens.
M G2
Mitosis and Additional
cytokinesis growth
R12 Appendix C
Main Idea Web After Reading
Another way you can take notes on main ideas is
to draw a web. Write the main idea in the center Use these graphic organizers after you have read
and the details in the web around it. This is useful material and have taken notes on it. These
when the details do not occur in any particular organizers help you summarize the most impor-
order. tant concepts and relate them to each other.
Plants retain water by hav- Cause-and-Effect Diagram

Plants transport nutrients in
ing a waxy cuticle and clos- What is it? This strategy shows cause-and-effect
their vascular system.
ing their stomata.
relationships. In the diagram below, several effects
result from a single cause. Those effects can cause
Plants have adaptations that more effects. A cause-and-effect diagram can also
help them survive on land. be drawn to show how multiple causes can produce
a single effect.
How do you make it? Write the cause in the first box
and write the effects in the boxes connected to the
Plants have lignin that helps Plants reproduce using
cause. Then think about what effects can result from
them grow upright. pollen and seeds.
the first effects. Connect them.
Cause: The ozone layer is made

thinner by pollutants.
Two-Column Notes
What is it? Two-column notes is a strategy for taking
notes to show Effect: Effect: Sunlight induces
Temperatures rise. more mutations.
• vocabulary and their definitions
• processes or cycles and their steps
• main ideas and supporting details Effect: Ice caps begin Effect: The incidence of
• questions and possible answers to melt. skin cancer increases.
• causes and effects
• comparisons and contrasts
Content Frame
How do you make it? List processes, concepts, main
ideas, or vocabulary in the left column of a two- What is it? A content frame is a table that helps you
column table. Write the description or explanation organize and condense large amounts of
information.
of the words or concepts in the right-hand column
across from the words in the left column. You can How do you make it? To make a content frame, make
also draw pictures in the right-hand column. a table. Label the rows along the side with character-
istics. Label the columns with the topics or catego-
Leave enough space between words or concepts in ries. You can also include a column for drawings or
the left-hand column so that you can write notes in sketches.
the right column.
To study for quizzes and tests, fold your two- Biome Tropical Temperate Tundra
column notes in half vertically so you can see only Climate Warm and Hot summers, Cold and dry
the left column. Ask yourself to describe and explain rainy cold winters
the word in the left column. Vegetation Lush, thick Broadleaf Mosses and
forests forests similar
produces ATP Example Manaus, Burlington, Barrow,
Cellular Respiration occurs in mitochondria Brazil Vermont Alaska
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
absorbs sunlight
Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Note-Taking and Study Skills R13

Venn Diagram Concept Map
What is it? A Venn diagram helps you show how two What is it? A concept map is a diagram that shows
processes, ideas, or things are alike and different. the main concepts from a passage you’ve read as
How do you make it? Draw two circles that overlap, well as the relationships between those concepts.
like the ones below. Write one of the words or Concept maps are useful tools for organizing and
processes that you are going to compare in each reviewing information.
circle. For example, the word arteries is written in How do you make it? First, identify the concepts in
the left circle and the word veins is written in the the section you’ve read. A concept is a single word
right circle. Under arteries, list characteristics or or short phrase that represents an idea, process, or
traits that only arteries possess. Under veins, list important characteristic. Next, identify the major
characteristics or traits that only veins possess. In concept and place it at the top of your concept map.
the intersection of the two circles, list the traits that Then arrange the other concepts from the most
both arteries and veins share. general to the most specific. Each concept should be
When you finish the diagram, write a sentence to enclosed in an oval or box. Finally, use lines to
summarize the similarities and differences: “Both connect concepts and write linking words on the
veins and arteries have three-tissue layers and are lines. Linking words are usually verbs, verb phrases,
each part of the closed circulatory system, but or prepositions that show the relationship between
arteries are thicker and more muscular, and veins the concepts.
are thinner and have valves.”
population
growth
can be
same 3 tissue
Arteries Veins
layers
thicker, more thinner,
part of closed
muscular with valves exponential logistic
system
when when until it
there are there are reaches
abundant resources limited carrying

resources capacity
Y Diagram
What is it? A Y diagram can be used instead of a xylem phloem
Venn diagram to show how two processes, ideas, or vascular tissues vascular tissues
hollow network of tubes hollow network of tubes
things are alike and different.
transports water and transports sugars
How do you make it? On the top parts of the Y, list the minerals
characteristics of each topic separately. Then find
the characteristics that are the same in both halves. vascular tissue
Write them at the bottom part of the Y and cross hollow network of tubes
them out from the top half. When you finish, the top transports nutrients
limbs of the Y show differences, and the bottom part
shows similarities between the two topics.
R14 Appendix C
FoldNotes
FoldNotes are a useful study tool that you can use to organize concepts. One FoldNote
focuses on a few main concepts. By using a FoldNote, you can learn how concepts fit
together. FoldNotes are designed to make studying concepts easier, so you can
remember ideas for tests.
Go to HMDScience.com for step-by-step animated instructions for how to make
these FoldNotes
Tri-Fold Pyramid
A tri-fold is a useful tool that helps you track your A pyramid provides a unique way for taking notes.
progress. By organizing the chapter topic into The three sides of the pyramid can summarize
what you know, what you want to know, and what information into three categories. Use the pyramid
you learn, you can see how much you have as a tool for studying information in a chapter.
learned after reading a chapter.
Layered Book
Booklet A layered book is a useful tool for taking notes as
A booklet is a useful tool for taking notes as you you read a chapter. The four flaps of the layered
read a chapter. Each page of the booklet can book can summarize information into four
contain a main topic from the chapter. Write categories. Write details of each category on the
details of each main topic on the appropriate page appropriate flap to create a summary of the
to create an outline of the chapter. chapter.

Double-Door Fold Two-Panel Flip Chart
A double-door fold is useful when you want to A two-panel flip chart is useful when you want to
compare the characteristics of two topics. The compare the characteristics of two topics. The
double-door fold can organize characteristics of two-panel flip chart can organize the characteris-
the two topics side by side under the flaps. tics of the two topics side by side under the flaps.
Similarities and differences between the two Similarities and differences between the two
topics can then be easily identified. topics can then be easily identified.
Four-Corner Fold Three-Panel Flip Chart

A four-corner fold is useful when you want to A three-panel flip chart is useful when you want to
compare the characteristics of four topics. The compare the characteristics of three topics. The
four-corner fold can organize the characteristics of three-panel flip chart can organize the character-
the four topics side by side under the flaps. istics of the three topics side by side under the
Similarities and differences between the four flaps. Similarities and differences among the three
topics can then be easily identified. topics can then be easily identified.
Table Fold
A table fold is a useful tool for comparing the Key-Term Fold
characteristics of two or three topics. In a table
A key-term fold is useful for
fold, all topics are described in terms of the same
studying definitions of key
characteristics so that you can easily make a
terms in a chapter. Each tab
thorough comparison.
can contain a key term on
one side and its definition on
the other. Use the key-term
fold to quiz yourself on the
definitions of the key terms
in a chapter.
R16 Appendix C
Analyzing Science Terms
You can often unlock the meaning of an unfamiliar science term by analyzing its
word parts. Many parts of scientific words carry a meaning that derives from Latin or
Greek. The parts of words listed below provide clues to the meanings of many
science terms.
Word part Meaning Example

a- not, without abiotic
acr-, agr- field agriculture, acre
amphi- both amphibian
anti- against antibiotic
atmos- vapor atmosphere
auto- self, same autotrophic
benth- depth benthic, benthos
bio- life biology, biosphere, biotic
chloro- green chlorophyll
-cide kill insecticide, fungicide
co-, con- with, together coevolution, cooperation, commensalism
dem-, demo- people demography, epidemic
-duct- to lead, draw reproduction
e-, ec-, ex- out, away from, outside extinction, experiment
eco- home, environment ecology, ecosystem, economics
eu- good, well eutrophic
evolu- to unroll evolution
gen- to give birth, produce genetic, generation, genus
geo- earth geology, geosphere
hetero- different heterotroph
hydro- water hydrosphere, hydroelectric
im-, in-, ir- not, without or in, into invertebrate, immigration, irrigation
-ion the act of pollution, destruction
lith- stone lithosphere
-log- to study ecology, geology
-lu-, -lue- dirt, impurity pollution
mar- sea marine
micro- small microscopic, microorganisms
nutri- food, nourishment nutrient
organ- tool, instrument organic, organism
per- through permeable
photo- light photosynthesis
phyto-, -phyte plant phytoplankton, epiphyte
pre- before, in front of predator, prey, precipitation
pro- forward reproduction
re- back, again recycle, reproduce
spec- appearance or shape species, spectrum
-sphere ball, globe geosphere, ecosphere
stat- position, standing statistics, status
strati-, strato- spread, layer stratosphere
temper- to measure or regulate temperate, temperature
terra-, terre- earth, land terrain, terrestrial
thermo- heat thermosphere, thermal
-troph- to feed, gather eutrophic, autotroph

Appendix D
Math Skills Refresher
Geometry Exponents
A useful way to model the objects and substances An exponent is a number that is superscripted to
studied in science is to consider them in terms of the right of another number. The best way to
their shapes. For example, many of the properties explain how an exponent works is with an exam-
of a wheel can be understood by pretending that ple. In the value 54, the 4 is the exponent of the 5.
the wheel is a perfect circle. The number with its exponent means that 5 is
When using shapes as models, your ability to multiplied by itself 4 times:
calculate the area or volume of shapes is a useful 54 = 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 625
skill. The table below provides equations for the You will frequently hear exponents referred to
area and volume of several geometric shapes. as powers. Using this terminology, you can read the
above equation as “five to the fourth power equals
625” or “five to the power of four equals 625.” Keep
Geometric Areas and volumes
in mind that any number raised to the power of 0 is
Geometric Shape Useful Equations equal to 1: 50 = 1. Also, any number raised to the
power of 1 is equal to itself: 51 = 5.
Rectangle l Area = lw A scientific calculator is a must for solving
w
most problems involving exponents. Many calcula-
tors have dedicated keys for squares and square
Circle r Area = πr2 roots, but scientific calculators usually have a
Circumference = 2πr special key shaped like a caret, ^, for entering
exponents. If you type in “5^4” and then hit the
“=” key or the “Enter” key, the calculator will
Triangle Area =  __12  bh
b
h determine that 5^4 = 625 and display that answer.
Sphere r Surface area = 4πr2

Exponents
Volume =  __43  πr3
Rule Example
r
Cylinder Volume = πr2h
h Zero power x0 = 1 70 = 1
Surface area First power x1 = x 61 = 6

Rectangular w
box h = 2(lh + lw + hw)
Volume = lwh (xn)(xm) = (x2)(x4) =
l Multiplication
(xn+m) x(2+4) = x6
__ 8
 x   = x(8-2)
Division  ___
xn
xm
   = x(n-m)
x2
Practice
= x6
1. Calculate the area of a triangle that has a
base of 900.0 m and a height of 500.0 m. Exponents
raised to a (xn)m = xnm (52)3 = 56 =
2. What is the volume of a cylinder that has a power 15,625
diameter of 14 cm and a height of 8 cm?
3. Calculate the surface area of a 4 cm cube.
R18 Appendix D
Practice Practice
Perform the following calculations: 1. 23 ÷ 2 + 4 × (9 - 22) =

1. 91 = 3. (142)(143) = 2 × (6 - 3) + 8
2.  ____________
4×2-6
    =
 
2. (33)5 = 4. 110 =
Algebraic Rearrangements
Order of Operations
Algebraic equations contain constants and vari-
Use this phrase to remember the correct order for ables. Constants are simply numbers, such as 2, 5,
long mathematical problems: “Please Excuse My and 7. Variables are represented by letters such as
Dear Aunt Sally” (some people just remember the x, y, z, a, b, and c. Variables are unspecified quanti-
acronym “PEMDAS”). This acronym stands for ties and are also called the unknowns. Often, you
“parentheses, exponents, multiplication, division, will need to determine the value of a variable in an
addition, and subtraction.” This is the correct order equation that contains algebraic expressions.
in which to complete operations. These rules are
An algebraic expression contains one or more
summarized in the table below.
of the four basic mathematical operations: addi-
tion, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
order of operations Constants, variables, or terms made up of both
constants and variables can be involved in the
1 Simplify groups inside parentheses. Start basic operations.
with the innermost group and work The key to finding the value of a variable in an
outward.
algebraic equation is that the total quantity on one
2 Simplify all exponents.
side of the equals sign is equal to the quantity on
3 Perform multiplication and division in order
the other side. If you do the same operation on
from left to right.
either side of the equation, the results will still be
4 Perform addition and subtraction in order
equal. To determine the value of a variable in an
from left to right.
algebraic expression, you try to reduce the equa-
tion into a simple one that tells you exactly what x
Look at the following example.
(or some other variable) equals.
43 + 2 × ⎡⎣ 8  - (3 - 1)⎤⎦  = ?
Look at the simple problem below.
First, simplify the operations inside parentheses.
8x = 32
Begin with the innermost parentheses:
If we wish to solve for x, we can multiply or
(3 – 1)= 2
divide each side of the equation by the same factor.
4 + 2 × ⎡⎣ 8  - 2⎤⎦  = ?
3
You can perform any operation on one side of an
Then, move on to the next-outer parentheses: equation as long as you do the same thing to the
⎡⎣ 8  - 2⎤⎦  = 6 other side of the equation. In this example, if we
43 + 2 × 6 = ? divide both sides of the equation by 8, we have:
Now, simplify all exponents: __
 8x  = __
 32  
8 8
43 = 64 The 8s on the left side of the equation cancel
64 + 2 × 6 = ? each other out, and the fraction __ 32
8
  can be reduced
Next, perform the remaining multiplication: to give the whole number 4. Therefore, x = 4.
2 × 6 = 12 Next, consider the following equation.
64 + 12 = ? 2x + 4 = 16
Finally, perform the addition: If we divide each side by 2, we are left with x + 2
64 + 12 = 76 on the left and 8 on the right:
x+2=8
Math Skills Refresher R19

Now, we can subtract 2 from each side of the electron, about 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
equation to find that x = 6. In all cases, whatever 000 9 g, can be rewritten as about 9 × 10-28 g.
operation is performed on the left side of the equals
sign must also be performed on the right side.
Powers of 10
Power of 10 Decimal Equivalent
Practice
104 10,000
Rearrange each of the following equations to
give the value of the variable indicated with 103 1,000
a letter.
1. 8x - 32 = 128 4. -2(3m + 5) = 14 102 100
2. 6 - 5(4a + 3) = 26 [ (8 + 2z)
5. 8 ______
  3z    ]  + 2 = 5 101 10
(6b + 3) 100
3. -3(y - 2) + 4 = 29 6.  _______
3
     -9 = 2 1
10-1 0.1
10-2 0.01
Scientific Notation
10-3 0.001
Many quantities that scientists deal with are very
large or very small values. For example, light Scientific notation is a way to express numbers
travels at about 300,000,000 meters per second, as a power of 10 multiplied by another number
and an electron has a mass of about 0.000 000 000 that has only one digit to the left of the decimal
000 000 000 000 000 000 9 g. Obviously, it is difficult point. For example, 5,943,000,000 is 5.943 × 109
to read, write, and keep track of numbers like when expressed in scientific notation. The number
these. We avoid this problem by using a method 0.000 083 2 is 8.32 × 10-5 when expressed in
dealing with powers of the number 10. scientific notation.
Study the positive powers of 10 shown in the
following table. You should be able to check these
numbers using what you know about exponents. Practice
The number of zeros in the equivalent number
Rewrite the following values using scientific
corresponds to the exponent of the 10, or the
notation.
power to which the 10 is raised. The equivalent of
104 is 10,000, so the number has four zeros. 1. 12,300,000 m/s
But how can we use the powers of 10 to simplify 2. 0.000 000 000 004 5 kg
large numbers such as the speed of light? The 3. 0.000 065 3 m
speed of light is equal to 3 × 100,000,000 m/s. The
factor of 10 in this number has 8 zeros, so it can be 4. 55,432,000,000,000 s
rewritten as 108. So, 300,000,000 can be expressed 5. 273.15 K
as 3 × 108. 6. 0.000 627 14 kg
Negative exponents can be used to simplify
numbers that are less than 1. Study the negative
powers of 10 in the table. In these cases, the
exponent of 10 equals the number of decimal Significant Digits
places you must move the decimal point to the
right so that there is one digit just to the left of the The following list can be used to review how to
decimal point. In the case of the mass of an elec- determine the number of significant digits (also
tron, the decimal point has to be moved 28 decimal called significant figures) in a given value or
places to the right for the numeral 9 to be just to measurement.
the left of the decimal point. The mass of the
R20 Appendix D
Rules for Significant Digits: only have as many decimal positions as the value
that has the fewest number of decimal places.
1. All nonzero digits are significant. For example,
When multiplying or dividing measurements,
1,246 has four significant digits (shown in red).
your answer can only have as many significant
2. Any zeros between significant digits are also digits as the value with the fewest number of
significant. For example, 1,206 has four signifi- significant digits.
cant digits.
3. If the value does not contain a decimal point, Practice
any zeros to the right of a nonzero digit are not
significant. For example, 1,200 has only two 1. Determine the number of significant digits
significant digits. in each of the following measurements:
4. Any zeros to the right of a significant digit and a. 65.04 mL c. 0.007 504 kg
to the left of a decimal point are significant. For b. 564.00 m d. 1,210 K
example, 1,200. has four significant digits.
2. Perform each of the following calculations,
5. If a value has no significant digits to the left of a and report your answer with the correct
decimal point, any zeros to the right of the number of significant digits and units:
decimal point and also to the left of a signifi- a. 0.004 dm + 0.12508 dm
cant digit are not significant. For example, b. 340 m ÷ 0.1257 s
0.0012 has only two significant digits. c. 40.1 m × 0.2453 m
6. If a value ends with zeros to the right of a d. 1.03 g - 0.0456 g
decimal point, those zeros are significant. For
example, 0.1200 has four significant digits.
After you have reviewed the rules, use the follow-
ing table to check your understanding of the rules. Graphing Skills
Cover up the second column of the table and try to
determine how many significant digits each Line Graphs
number in the first column has. If you get con- In laboratory experiments, you will usually be
fused, refer to the rule given. controlling one variable and seeing how it affects
another variable. Line graphs can show these
relations clearly. For example, you might perform
Significant Digits
an experiment in which you measure the growth of
Number of a plant over time to determine the rate of the
Measurement Rule
significant digits plant’s growth. In this experiment, you are control-
12,345 5 1
ling the time intervals at which the plant height is
measured. Therefore, time is the independent
2,400 cm 2 3
variable. The height of the plant is the dependent
305 kg 3 2 variable. The table on the next page gives some
2,350. cm 4 4 sample data for an experiment that measures the
234.005 K 6 2 rate of plant growth.
12.340 5 6 The independent variable is plotted on the
x-axis. This axis will be labeled “Time (days)” and
0.001 1 5
will have a range from 0 to 35 days. Be sure to
0.002 450 4 5 and 6 properly label each axis, including the units.
When performing mathematical operations The dependent variable is plotted on the y-axis.
with measurements, you must remember to keep This axis will be labeled “Plant Height (cm)” and
track of significant digits. If you are adding or will have a range from 0 to 5 cm.
subtracting two measurements, your answer can

Experimental Data for Plant Bar Graphs
Growth Vs. Time Bar graphs are useful for comparing data values. If
you wanted to compare the area or depth of the
Time (days) Plant height (cm)
major oceans, you might use a bar graph. The table
0 1.43 below gives the data for each of these quantities.
7 2.16
Depth of the Major Oceans
14 2.67
Ocean Depth (m)
21 3.25
Pacific Ocean 4,028
28 4.04
Atlantic Ocean 3,926
35 4.67
Indian Ocean 3,963
Think of your graph as a grid with lines running Arctic Ocean 1,205
horizontally from the y-axis and vertically from the
x-axis. To plot a point, find the x value on the
To create a bar graph from the data in the table,
x-axis. For the example above, plot each value for
begin on the x-axis by labeling four bar positions
time on the x-axis. Follow the vertical line from the
with the names of the four oceans. Label the y-axis
x-axis until it intersects the horizontal line from the
“Depth (m).” Be sure the range on your y-axis
y-axis at the corresponding y value. For the exam-
encompasses 1,205 m and 4,028 m. Then draw the
ple, each time value has a corresponding height
bars to represent the area of each ocean, with a bar
value. Place your point at the intersection of these
height on the y-axis that matches each ocean’s area
two lines.
value, as shown in the bar graph below.
The line graph below shows how the data in the
table might be graphed. 4,500
4,000
Plant Growth vs. Time
3,500
5
3,000
Depth (m)
2,500
4 2,000
1,500
1,000
Plant height (cm)
3
500
0
Pacific Atlantic Indian Arctic
2 Ocean Ocean Ocean Ocean
1 Circle Graphs
Circle graphs are an easy way to visualize how
many parts make up a whole. Frequently, Circle
0 graphs are made from percentage data. For exam-
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
ple, you could create a circle graph showing
Time (days)
percentage of different materials that make up the
waste generated in cities of the United States. Study
the example data in the table on the next page.
R22 Appendix D
United States Municipal Answers
Solid Waste
Geometry
Material Percentage of total waste
1. 225,000 m2
Paper 28.5% 2. 1,230 cm3 (rounded to three significant figures)
Food waste 13.4% 3. 96 cm2
Exponents
Yard waste 13.9%
1. 9
Plastics 12.4%
2. 14,348,907
Metals 9.0% 3. 537,824
Rubber, leather, 4. 1
8.4%
and textiles
Order of Operations
Wood 6.4%
1. 24
Glass 4.6%
2. 7
Other 3.4% Algebraic Rearrangements
1. x = 20
To create a circle graph from the data in the
table, begin by drawing a circle to represent the 2. a = -1.75
whole, or total. Then imagine dividing the circle 3. y = -6.3
into 100 equal sections to represent 100 percent.
Shade in 28 consecutive sections and label that 4. m = -4
area “Paper.” Continue to shade sections with other 5. z = 2
colors until the entire circle graph has been filled
6. b = 5
in and until each type of waste has a corresponding
area in the circle, as shown in the graph below. Scientific Notation
1. 1.23 × 107 m/s
United States Municipal Solid Waste
(Percentage by Weight) 2. 4.5 × 10-12 kg
3. 6.53 × 10-5 m
Glass Other
Wood 4.6% 3.4% 4. 5.5432 × 1013 s
6.4%
Rubber, 5. 2.7315 × 102 K
leather,
and textiles 6. 6.2714 × 10-4 kg
8.4%
Significant Digits
Paper
Metals 1. a. 4
28.5%
9%
b. 5
c. 4
Plastics
12.4% d. 3
2. a. 0.129 dm
Food waste
b. 2700 m/s
Yard waste
13.4%
13.9% c. 9.84 m2
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency d. 0.98 g

Appendix E
Chemistry Refresher
Atoms and Elements
Every object in the universe is made up of particles
of matter. Matter is anything that has mass and
takes up space. An element is a substance that
cannot be separated into simpler substances by
chemical means. Elements cannot be separated in
this way because each element consists of only one
kind of atom. An atom is the smallest unit of an
element that maintains the properties of that
element.
Atomic Structure
Atoms are made up of small particles called
subatomic particles. The three major types of
subatomic particles are electrons, protons, and
neutrons. Electrons have a negative electrical
charge, protons have a positive charge, and neu-
trons have no electrical charge. The protons and The nucleus of the atom contains the protons and
neutrons. The protons give the nucleus a positive
neutrons are packed close to one another and form
charge. The negatively charged electrons are in the
the nucleus. The protons give the nucleus a electron cloud surrounding the nucleus.
positive charge. The electrons of an atom are
located in a region around the nucleus known as
an electron cloud. The negatively charged elec-
Periodic Table of the Elements
trons are attracted to the positively charged
nucleus. An atom may have several energy levels in A periodic table of the elements is shown on the
which electrons are located. next page. In a periodic table, the elements are
arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
Each element in the table is found in a separate
Atomic Number box. In each horizontal row of the table, each
To help in the identification of elements, scientists element has one more electron and one more
have assigned an atomic number to each kind of proton than the element to its left. Each row of the
atom. The atomic number is equal to the number table is called a period. Changes in chemical
of protons in the atom. Atoms with the same properties across a period correspond to changes
number of protons are all of the same element. In in the elements’ electron arrangements. Each
an uncharged, or electrically neutral, atom there vertical column of the table, known as a group,
are an equal number of protons and electrons. contains elements that have similar properties. The
Therefore, the atomic number also equals the elements in a group have similar chemical proper-
number of electrons in an uncharged atom. The ties because they have the same number of elec-
number of neutrons, however, can vary for a given trons in their outer energy level. For example, the
element. Atoms that have different numbers of elements helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon,
neutrons but are of the same element are called and radon all have similar properties and are
isotopes. known as the noble gases.
R24 Appendix E
Molecules and Compounds Acids, Bases, and pH
When the atoms of two or more elements are An ion is an atom or group of atoms that has an
joined chemically, the resulting substance is called electrical charge because it has lost or gained one
a compound. A compound is a new substance or more electrons. When an acid, such as hydro-
with properties different from those of the ele- chloric acid (HCl), is mixed with water, it separates
ments that compose it. For example, water (H2O) is into ions. An acid is a compound that produces
a compound formed when atoms of hydrogen (H) hydrogen ions (H+) in water. The hydrogen ions
and oxygen (O) combine. The smallest complete then combine with a water molecule to form a
unit of a compound that has all of the properties of hydronium ion (H3O+). A solution that contains
that compound is called a molecule. hydronium ions is an acidic solution. A base, on
the other hand, is a substance that produces
Chemical Formulas hydroxide ions (OH-) in water.
A chemical formula indicates what elements a To determine whether a solution is acidic or
compound consists of. It also indicates the relative basic, scientists measure pH. pH is a measure of
number of atoms of each element present. The how many hydronium ions are in solution. The
chemical formula for water is H2O, which indicates pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. The middle point,
that each water molecule consists of two atoms of pH = 7, is neutral, neither acidic nor basic. Acids
hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. have a pH of less than 7; bases have a pH of more
than 7. The lower the number, the stronger the
acid. The higher the number, the stronger the base.
Chemical Equations
A pH scale is shown in Chapter 12.
A chemical reaction occurs when a chemical
change takes place. (In a chemical change, new
substances with new properties are formed.) A
chemical equation is a useful way of describing a
chemical reaction by means of chemical formulas.
The equation indicates what substances react and HMDScience.com
what the products are. For example, when carbon
Atoms and Atomic Structure
and oxygen combine, they can form carbon The Periodic Table
dioxide. The equation for this reaction is Acids, Bases, and Salts
C + O2 → CO2.
Chemistry Refresher R25

Periodic Table
HYDROGEN
Hydrogen is found in
all organic compounds.
Hydrogen ions (H+) are CHROMIUM
needed for the produc- Chromium is needed for
tion of ATP.
1 glucose metabolism and
1 may have a role in the reg-
1 H SODIUM, POTASSIUM,
CALCIUM
ulation of the activity of
insulin. Above trace
Hydrogen amounts, chromium is
1.008 2 In their elemental forms, sodium,
P ecalcium
potassium, and r io dare soft, highly toxic.
3 4 explosive metals. In their ionic forms
2 Li Be (Na+, K+, and Ca2+) in animals, they
are all necessary for the proper func-
IRON
The iron found in the
Lithium Beryllium
6.94 9.012 tioning of the nervous system. center of hemoglobin
molecules transports
11 12 oxygen in the blood of
3 Na Sodium
Mg
Magnesium
vertebrates.
22.990 24.305 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt
39.098 40.078 44.956 47.87 50.942 51.996 54.938 55.845 58.933
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium
85.468 87.62 88.906 91.224 92.906 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.906
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir
Cesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium
132.905 137.327 138.906 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium
(223) (226) (227) (261) (262) (266) (264) (277) (268)
58 59 60 61 62
BARIUM
G o
r up Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm
Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium
Barium and most of its com- 140.116 140.908 144.24 (145) 150.36
pounds are highly toxic. In one
of its nontoxic compounds, 90 91 92 93 94
barium is used in medical
imaging.
Th Pa U Np Pu
Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium
232.038 231.036 238.029 (237) (244)
Metal Metalloid Nonmetal Fe Solid Hg Liquid O Gas

R26 Appendix E
OXYGEN
Oxygen is found in many organic mol-
ecules, and is needed for the aerobic
NITROGEN stages of cellular respiration. Oxygen
Proteins and nucleic acids both is also a waste product of photosyn-
CARBON contain nitrogen. Although nitro- thesis and in some cases it is even
All organic molecules, gen makes up almost 80 percent toxic to cells.
which are the basic build- of Earth’s atmosphere, plants and
ing blocks of life, contain animals cannot directly use nitro- 18
carbon. gen gas.
2
Metals and Nonmetals
He
Helium
ZINC 13 14 15 16 17 4.003
CHLORINE
Zinc is found in many 5 6 7 8 9 10 Chlorine gas is a deadly
enzymes. Zinc is also impor-
tant for maturation of human
B C N O F Ne poison. Chloride ions (Cl-)
Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon are necessary for the
reproductive systems. 10.81 12.01 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.180
transmission of certain
13 14 15 16 17 18 types of signals in the
Al Si P S Cl Ar nervous system.
Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
10 11 12 26.982 28.085 30.974 32.06 35.45 39.948
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr PHOSPHORUS
Phosphorus is found in
Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
58.69 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.63 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.80 the lipids that make up
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 all cell membranes. It is a
Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe part of the “backbone” of
both DNA and RNA mol-
Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
106.42 107.868 112.4 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.904 131.29 ecules. On a larger scale,
78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 both bones and teeth
Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn contain phosphorus.
Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
195.078 196.967 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.980 (209) (210) (222)
110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Ununtrium Flerovium Ununpentium Livermorium Ununseptium Ununoctium
(281) (272) (285) (284) (289) (288) (292) (294) (294)
63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
151.964 157.25 158.925 162.50 164.930 167.26 168.934 173.04 174.967
95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
(243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
Atomic number Symbol

Number of protons Each element has a symbol. The symbol’s color represents the
in the nucleus of 1 element’s state at room temperature.
the element
H
Hydrogen
Atomic mass
This value is the average atomic mass of isotopes of this element. Each
Name element for which this value is bolded and italicized has an atomic
1.008
mass that is officially expressed as a range of values. In nature, the
average atomic mass often varies depending on the properties of the
material in which the element is found.
Chemistry Refresher R27

Appendix F
Mineral Uses
Chemical
Mineral Identifying Characteristics
Formula
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 brassy color; iridescent tarnish; soft for metal; brittle
Chromite FeCr2O4 iron-black color; weakly magnetic

Metallic Minerals
high density; perfect cleavage in four directions, which forms a

Galena PbS
cube; low hardness
golden color; low hardness; high density; malleable (can be
Gold Au
pressed into various forms)
Ilmenite FeTiO3 tabular crystals; no cleavage
Magnetite Fe3O4 8-sided crystals; magnetic
Uraninite UO2 black to steel black color; dull luster; radioactive
Barite BaSO4 high density for nonmetal
Borax Na2B4O7•10H2O low hardness; low density; dissolves in water
perfect cleavage in three directions; low hardness; fizzes in

Calcite CaCO3
dilute hydrochloric acid
extreme hardness; transparency; perfect cleavage in four
Diamond C
Nonmetallic Minerals
directions
Fluorite CaF2 cubic or 8-sided crystals; perfect cleavage in four directions
softness; perfect cleavage in one direction and good in two

Gypsum CaSO4•2H2O
others
low hardness; perfect cleavage in three directions, which forms
Halite NaCl
cubes; salty taste
Sulfur S yellow color; low hardness; poor conductor of heat; odor
Kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4 low hardness; white color; noncrystalline
Quartz SiO2 hardness; conchoidal fracture; crystals form six-sided prisms
very low hardness; massive; perfect cleavage, which forms

Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
thin, flexible flakes; soapy or greasy feel
Explanation of Terms fracture: the tendency of a mineral hardness: a measure of a mineral to
cleavage: the splitting of a mineral to break along curved or irregular resist scratching
along smooth, flat surfaces surfaces; conchoidal fracture is a luster: the way the surface of a
smooth, curved fracture mineral reflects light
R28 Appendix F
Economically
Important Uses
Important Deposits
power transmission, electrical and electronic products, building wiring,
Chile, USA, Indonesia
telecommunications equipment, industrial machinery and equipment
South Africa, Kazahkstan, India production of stainless steel, alloys, metal plating
Australia, China, USA batteries, ammunition, glass and ceramics, x-ray shielding
computers, communications equipment, spacecraft, jet engines,

South Africa, USA, Australia
dentistry, jewelry, coins
jet engines; missile components; white pigment in paints, toothpaste,
Australia, South Africa, Canada
and candy
China, Brazil, Australia steelmaking
Canada, Australia fuel in nuclear power reactors, manufacture of radioisotopes
weighting agent in oil well drilling fluids, automobile paint primer, x-ray
China, India, USA
diagnostic work
glass, soaps and detergents, agriculture, fire retardants, plastics and
Turkey, USA, Russia
polymer additives
China, USA, Russia cement, lime production, crushed stone, glassmaking, chemicals, optics
Australia, Democratic Republic

jewelry, cutting tools, drill bits, computer chip production
of the Congo, Russia
hydrofluoric acid, steelmaking, water fluoridation, solvents, glass
China, Mexico, South Africa
manufacture, enamels
USA, Iran, Canada wallboard, building plasters, manufacture of cement
chemical production, human and animal nutrition, highway de-icer, water

USA, China, Germany
softener
Canada, USA, Russia sulfuric acid, fertilizers, gunpowder, tires
USA, Uzbekistan, Czech

glossy paper, whitener and abrasive in toothpaste
Republic
USA, Germany, France glass, computer chips, ceramics, abrasives, water filtration
China, USA, Republic of Korea ceramics, plastics, paint, paper, rubber, cosmetics
Mineral Uses R29

Appendix G
Economics Concepts
You may think that economics is about the compli- system has activities at multiple levels of industry
cated numbers of stock markets and interest rates, is called economic diversity. For example, the
but the field of economics is based on simple con- United States has a high degree of economic
cepts. Economics is the study of how people make diversity, but a small island that subsists on fishing
decisions about the production, distribution, and and tourism has low economic diversity.
consumption of limited resources as they attempt to
fulfill their needs and wants. While economics can be
a complex subject to study, it is a key part of under- Economic Systems and
standing the relationship of humans and their
environment. Here we will present some of the most Governments
basic concepts of economics. Most societies use some type of economic system to
decide what to produce, how to produce, and for
whom to produce. The main difference between
Resources and Value economic systems is in how much the government
Resources that people use to create useful and regulates the activities of businesses or controls
desirable products are called economic resources or access to resources.
capital. Products and capital may exist in the form In a market economy (also called a capitalist,
of goods or services. There are three general types free-market, or free-enterprise system), people own
of capital: natural, manufactured, and human. businesses and make their own decisions about
Natural resources, sometimes called earth capital, what to make, sell, or buy. The theory of a market
are resources such as land, fertile soil, air and economy is that competition in open markets will
water, oceans, wildlife, and minerals. result in the highest-quality goods being produced
Manufactured capital includes tools, machines, in the most efficient way and for the lowest price.
buildings, and other things that are made from In market theory, individuals acting in self-interest
natural resources and that are used to produce will efficiently decide what goods and services to
goods and services. Human capital includes the buy or sell, so supply will be balanced with
mental and physical abilities for which people may demand.
be paid wages or salaries. In a command economy, or a centrally planned
A given resource or product has a specific value economy, the government controls production and
to a given group of people at a particular time. determines the amount and price of goods and
Generally, the value of something is the amount of services produced. Command economies are
money most people are willing to pay for it. For typically practiced by communist governments. A
example, if many people are willing to pay $10 for a few countries and cultural groups still practice a
music download, the value of that download is $10. traditional economy, which means they make
But value is not always the same as price. Some economic decisions based on local customs or
e-stores might sell the same music download for traditions.
$5. If the download’s price were lower than its However, economic systems are rarely prac-
value, an economist would say the download is ticed exactly according to theory. Most countries
undervalued. have a mixed economy in which a combination of
Economic activities that produce goods and government control and free markets exist.
services are called industries. A basic industry Governments may produce goods and services or
involves people using natural resources directly. may try to influence the flow of goods and services
The highest level of industry involves people by charging taxes, paying out subsidies, or making
working mostly with information instead of goods. regulations.
The degree to which a single business or economic
R30 Appendix G
Government Product market
m Resource market
on
ey
ts
pa
s
en
) mo
ym
)
es
ym
ne
er
or
ax
en
vic
lab
pa
ts (
(t
es
s(
ey
pa
ts
p
taxe
s
rce
en
ym
mon
ice
ym
ro
resou
ent
s)
du
serv
money pa
s
cts
m s
on
e y p a y m e nt
Households p ro d u c t s Businesses
(individuals) )
mo co me
ney p
a y m e n t s (i n
r e s o u rc e s ( l a b o r )
An Economic System Model This circular-flow

model illustrates the exchange of resources,
products, and money payments in the economic
system of nations such as the United States.
Economic Growth and categories are difficult to apply because countries

may develop in different ways and because the
Development economies of different countries are intercon-
nected as people and goods move between
The economic growth within a country is usually
countries.
measured by looking at the country’s gross domes-
The economies of the world are now so inter-
tic product (GDP), or by looking at the gross
connected that economists often refer to the global
national product (GNP). A country’s GDP is the
economy. In the 20th century, most countries
total value of all goods and services produced
became more developed and tended toward
within the country in a year. The GNP is like the
market system economies. Also, international
GDP, but the GNP includes income from outside of
trade continued to increase. Many countries now
the country generated by individuals or companies
work together to help manage the global economy.
based within the country. To represent each
International organizations such as the World
person’s part in the economy, economists calculate
Bank, the World Trade Organization, and the
the GNP or GDP per capita, which means the
European Union have become as influential as
average GNP or GDP per person in the country.
national governments.
Economists and social scientists often catego-
rize countries based on indicators of their eco-
nomic and social development. Countries that
have high average incomes, slow population
growth, diverse economies, and strong social
support systems are considered to be more devel-
oped. Countries that have low average incomes,
simple economies, and rapid population growth
are considered to be less developed. However, these
Economics Concepts R31

Appendix H
SI Conversions
The metric system is used for making measurements in science. The official name of this
system is the Système International d’Unités, or International System of Measurements (SI).
SI Units From SI to English From English to SI

Length
kilometer (km) = 1,000 m 1 km = 0.62 mile 1 mile = 1.609 km
meter (m) = 100 cm 1 m = 3.28 feet 1 foot = 0.305 m
centimeter (cm) = 0.01 m 1 cm = 0.394 inch 1 inch = 2.54 cm
millimeter (mm) = 0.001 m 1 mm = 0.039 inch
micrometer (μm) = 0.000 001 m
nanometer (nm) = 0.000 000 001 m

Area
square kilometer (km2) = 100 hectares 1 km2 = 0.386 square mile 1 square mile = 2.590 km2
hectare (ha) = 10,000 m2 1 ha = 2.471 acres 1 acre = 0.405 ha
square meter (m2) = 10,000 cm2 1 m2 = 10.765 square feet 1 square foot = 0.093 m2
square centimeter (cm2) = 100 mm2 1 cm2 = 0.155 square inch 1 square inch = 6.452 cm2
Volume
liter (L) = 1,000 mL = 1 dm3 1 L = 1.06 fluid quarts 1 fluid quart = 0.946 L
milliliter (mL) = 0.001 L = 1 cm3 1 mL = 0.034 fluid ounce 1 fluid ounce = 29.577 mL
microliter (μL) = 0.000 001 L
Mass
kilogram (kg) = 1,000 g 1 kg = 2.205 pounds 1 pound = 0.454 kg

gram (g) = 1,000 mg 1 g = 0.035 ounce 1 ounce = 28.35 g
milligram (mg) = 0.001 g
microgram (μg) = 0.000 001 g
Energy
British Thermal Units (BTU) 1 BTU = 1,055.056 joules 1 joule = 0.00095 BTU
Temperature
°F 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
°C –20 –10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Freezing point of water Normal human body temperature
Room temperature
Conversion of Fahrenheit to Celsius: Conversion of Celsius to Fahrenheit:
°C =  __
5
9
 (°F - 32) °F = __
 9 (°C) + 32
5
R32 Appendix H
Appendix I
Environmental Careers
ENVIRONMENTAL Q: How does your current job relate to environ-
mental education?
EDUCATOR Espy: I use the principles of environmental educa-

tion to teach about natural and cultural history. The
As a child who watched The basics of awareness, appreciation, knowledge, and
Underwater World of Jacques action assist me daily in my educational endeavors. I
Cousteau on public television believe that if we don’t have an understanding of the
every chance she had, Niki world, we can’t begin to value or protect our re-
Espy dreamed of one day sources. The museum’s educational programs lead
studying aquatic mammals for students to question, explore, analyze, evaluate, and
a living. She went to college discuss how the introductions of exotic plants and
with the intent of continuing on animals and the urbanization of the Milwaukee area
to graduate school to focus on behavioral studies in have affected biodiversity. While interpreting the
marine biology. But while pursuing a bachelor’s plant and animal changes, we don’t forget the
(bl) ©Selvakumar Ramakrishman; (tl) ©Ted M. Conde/Courtesy Niki Espy
degree in biology, she interned as a naturalist. people and how indigenous groups used the land.
Today, Espy works for the Milwaukee Public
Museum. She provides educational programs for Q: What is the importance of including people
children, adults, and families and is responsible for in a discussion on biodiversity and environ-
developing and implementing school programs that mental impact?
focus on cultural and natural history. Espy also
Espy: If we look at humans as a separate compo-
facilitates training for educators, including teachers,
nent of the world, we will not be able to truly reach
student teachers, museum volunteers, and museum
sustainability. By placing people in the equation, we
docents.
can look at our behaviors and our impact on local
and global ecoregions, economies, and social
systems and can obtain the answers we need to
If we look at humans as a separate component of
create a sustainable future.
the world, we will not be able to truly reach
sustainability.
MORE ON THIS CAREER
Many museums have volunteer programs in which
volunteers work directly with the public or in
different administrative or scientific departments.
For example, volunteers at the Milwaukee Public
Museum may provide assistance at the information
desk, give tours to the public through the exhibit
galleries, demonstrate objects visitors can touch,
help educate visitors about special exhibits, and
work at special events. In addition, volunteers may
work “behind the scenes” in research areas such as
anthropology, archeology, botany, geology, paleon-
tology, and zoology. For more information on
volunteer programs, contact a museum near you.
One of Niki Espy’s goals as an environmental

educator is to increase awareness and knowledge
of the natural world.
Environmental Careers R33

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEER
John Roll began college studying chemistry and
biology. Halfway through his undergraduate degree, I have found out through firsthand experience
he switched to agricultural engineering with a focus that environmental issues require very careful
on water-quality issues. Roll completed his master’s
communication skills.
degree in agricultural engineering and expanded his
environmental background to include livestock
waste management. He spent the first three years
after graduation on a project involving treated solids
from a municipal wastewater treatment facility. For
the next 14 years, Roll was manager of land reclama-
tion and environmental permits for a surface coal
mining company in Illinois. In 1990, Roll entered
Oklahoma State University, where he studied
groundwater transport of contaminants and re-
ceived a doctorate in Biosystems Engineering.
Q: What does an environmental engineer study

in college?
Roll: First and foremost, a student must obtain an
engineering degree. The individual must have a
desire to study hard, and it helps to possess an
aptitude for the math and hard-science courses John Roll is shown conducting a survey of plant
cover on reclaimed mined land.
(physics, chemistry, and mechanics) required by
engineering programs. An environmental engineer
can come from different engineering study areas, neering graduates may work on controlling air
but all individuals should share a common desire to pollution from factories and producing changes in
apply engineering principles to an aspect of the manufacturing methods to create less waste.
environment that is interesting to them. Agricultural Agricultural engineers often work on environmental
engineering, chemical engineering, civil engineer- issues involving livestock waste, runoff-water
ing, general engineering, geological engineering, quality, erosion control, and application methods to
and mechanical engineering programs routinely lower the quantity of fertilizer, herbicides, and
graduate individuals who work on environmental insecticides used to grow crops.
issues specific to their discipline.
Q: What is the most important skill an environ-
Q: What kind of jobs does an environmental mental engineer should possess?
engineer do?
Roll: An environmental engineer must be skilled in
Roll: The range of jobs performed by an environ- the application of science and engineering prin-
mental engineer is extremely varied. A chemical ciples to help solve a problem. Using a team ap-
engineer may develop new manufacturing methods proach to an environmental problem will yield a
that remove toxic contaminants from a product. A broader view on the issue. Team members usually
civil engineer may be involved in the design of water have expertise in different environmental disci-
and wastewater treatment plants, the development plines, and this results in multiple views on how to
of better methods to treat wastes, the development solve the problem at hand. Therefore, probably the
of road-building processes that are more environ- least expected but the most important skill for an
mentally friendly, and the design of groundwater environmental engineer is the ability to communi-
treatment schemes. Mechanical and general engi- cate clearly through written and spoken words.
R34 Appendix I
Q: Do you feel that environmental issues are Q: What is the future need for environmental
often misunderstood? engineers?
Roll: I have found out through firsthand experience Roll: My feeling is that the future will be a good one
that environmental issues require very careful for environmental engineers. Since 1970, the
communication skills. Environmental issues are environment has been an important focus for many
often controversial. However, open communication people. Congress passed new laws and created new
between all interested parties, including those agencies such as the Environmental Protection
individuals who are against a project, can prevent Agency (EPA) to specifically address environmental
misunderstanding. For example, the plans for the problems. The agencies wrote regulations based on
Industry Coal Mine were finalized after discussions laws passed by Congress and approved by the
with governmental agencies, local citizens, and President, and this resulted in new or additional
authorities. The planning and public meetings permits, approvals, and public comment require-
lasted almost three years, and during this time ments for activities that might harm the environ-
everyone had a chance to question the coal comment. In order to enforce the regulations, new
pany about its plans and to express their views. The agencies were created in the states as well as the
public opinion ranged from very favorable to a few federal government. Industry and government
individuals who were totally against the project. By currently hire many environmental engineers to
addressing the issues with good faith, a reclamation meet regulatory requirements.
plan was developed that was ultimately approved by
all state and federal agencies, local county officials, MORE ON THIS CAREER
and zoning boards. For more information on environmental engineer-
ing as a career, contact the American Academy of
Environmental Engineers.
John Roll managed the reclamation of this surface coal mine in Illinois. Land that
has been reclaimed is seen to the right of the cut that is being mined.

ENVIRONMENTAL architect
To Michael Reynolds, a house is not just a home, ing code requirements. One engineer even com-
and old tires and empty soda cans are not just trash. mented that the design could be used to construct
For almost 30 years, this Taos, New Mexico, architect dams!
has been designing and building energy-efficient
houses out of automobile tires, cans, and other Building an Earthship
discarded items. These houses, which Reynolds now The tire-stack design is used for three of the outside
calls “Earthships,” not only provide a comfortable, walls of an Earthship. These walls are approximately
affordable place for people to live but also contrib- 1 m (3 ft) thick, and this large mass causes the walls
ute to a sustainable future for our planet. to act as a battery, storing energy from the sun and
releasing the energy when needed. The base of the
The Origin of the Earthship Design Earthship is built below the frost line (the deepest
In 1970, a TV report about the growing number of level to which the ground freezes). Below this line,
beverage cans littering the streets and fields of the the ground maintains a constant temperature—
United States started Reynolds thinking about ways around 15ºC (59ºF)—and walls anchored below the
in which trash could be used to build houses. frost line usually stay at that temperature too. The
Through many years of experimentation, he found fourth wall, which faces south, is constructed
that sturdy walls could be built by packing soil into completely of glass to capture as much sunlight as
old tires, stacking the tires like bricks, and covering possible. In the winter, the tire-stack walls hold in
them with cement or adobe, a heavy clay often used the sun’s warmth. In the summer, cool air enters
in buildings in the Southwest. Reynolds had this through windows in the front while warm air
design tested by structural engineers to ensure that escapes through a skylight in the back.
the walls would meet or surpass any existing build-
To Reynolds, an Earthship is not just a home—it’s a lifestyle.
(br) ©Solar Survival Architecture, Taos; (l) ©ZUMA Press/Alamy Images
Earthships, above, often look more like natural land formations than
like houses. Michael Reynolds, left, uses discarded materials, such
as used soda cans, to construct environmentally friendly houses.
R36 Appendix I
is built entirely above the ground and uses more
A greenhouse, built
along the Earthship’s cans and tires.
southern glass wall, More tires in the design certainly wouldn’t
can provide residents be a problem. According to the Environmental
with a sustainable food Protection Agency, more than 250 million tires are
source. discarded in the United States every year. But most
landfills do not accept tires because of their ten-
Even the soil that is dency to rise to the surface even when the landfill is
excavated for the site of covered over. Tire dealers usually pay to have used
the house is used to tires hauled away to stockpile areas, where they sit
build the house. Some of indefinitely. Earthships provide one way to diminish
the soil is pounded into the stockpiles.
the tires to construct the Michael enthusiastically shares his Earthship
walls, and the remaining concept with others. To Michael, an Earthship is not
soil is piled against the just a home—it’s a lifestyle. His dedication to
outside of these walls and on top of the roof (con- designing Earth-friendly homes is a result of his
structed of beams) for further insulation. The most commitment to “reducing the stress involved in
suitable location for this design is a south-facing living on the Earth, for both humans and the planet.”
slope of a hill, where the Earthship can simply be
built into the hill. Often, Earthships look more like
natural formations of land than houses.
Inside the house, walls between rooms are
constructed by embedding empty beverage cans
into mortar or mud. When these walls are covered
with cement and then painted with latex paint or
some other durable finish, they look just like walls
constructed with conventional materials. Other
inside surfaces, including stairs and even bathtubs,
can be built using the beverage-can technique.
Because the cans are so lightweight, this method
can even be used to create dramatic interior struc- The tire-stack design of the outer walls accounts
tures such as arches and domes. for much of the Earthship’s energy efficiency.
These tire stacks will be covered with cement or
The Environmental Impact of the Earthship Design adobe for a finished exterior.
Earthships are typically built to obtain electricity
from photovoltaic cells that convert sunlight to MORE ON THIS CAREER
electricity. All household water is supplied by For more information on environmentally friendly,
rainwater that is collected on the roof. Wastewater energy-efficient housing, use the Internet to locate
from sinks, tubs, and the laundry room is recycled to government and nonprofit organizations that are
nourish plants in the greenhouse, which can provide involved in “green” building projects.
a sustainable source of food. With these features,
©Pamela Freund/Solar Survival Architecture, Taos
people who live in Earthships use fewer of the

Earth’s resources and often have no utility bills.
Because Earthships are environmentally friendly
and inexpensive to buy and maintain, more and
more people are choosing them instead of conven-
tional homes. Earthships now exist in almost every
state and in many countries around the world,
including Canada, Mexico, Bolivia, and Japan.
Wetter environments simply require that the house

ENVIRONMENTAL filmmaker
Haroldo Castro considers himself a “citizen of the that have tropical rain forests, such as those in Latin
planet.” It’s easy to see why: he was born in Italy to a America, Asia, and Africa.
Brazilian father and a French mother, he was
educated in France, he speaks five languages, and Q: Can you describe one of your
he has visited more than 80 countries. Furthermore, documentaries?
Castro has devoted his life to improving the planet’s
Castro: Sure. We made a documentary in
well-being. He has accomplished this by taking
Guatemala about products that local people can
photographs, writing books and articles, and
sustainably harvest from the northern tropical
producing award-winning video documentaries.
forests.
Castro works for Conservation International (CI), an
environmental organization that establishes part- After one year of production, we completed a
nerships with countries all over the world to develop half-hour documentary called Between Two Futures.
and implement ecosystem conservation projects. CI then distributed the video to government offi-
cials, environmental organizations, university
professors, and teachers. We also encouraged its
Q: What do you do at CI?
broadcast on TV channels in Guatemala and other
Castro: I am the International Communications Latin American countries.
Project Director. What I do is make documentaries The film has been a real success story. I think our
and take photographs of CI’s conservation projects. ability to be culturally sensitive to the Guatemalan
These videos and photos are designed to teach people contributed in large part to the film’s success.
people how to better interact with their local Each of us who worked on the project had a Latin
environment. Most of our work is done in countries American background. We worked closely with the
Guatemalan people, we had a Guatemalan narrator,
and we used only Guatemalan music. If you are
trying to deliver an important message to people of
Haroldo Castro, below left, is shown directing a
video crew in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. a different culture, it’s important to step into their
shoes and deliver it from their point of view.
Q: What is your educational background and

experience?
Castro: Although I do have a degree in economics,
my best education and training has definitely come
from traveling and other real-life experiences. I
learn by studying the diverse cultures around the
world.
Once I spent two years traveling around Latin
America by van; another time I drove from Europe
to India in six months. These experiences are my
education. When my friends say that it is necessary
to have a master’s degree or doctorate to gain
respect, I respond by saying that I have a PhD in
“Travelology.” That’s a degree I think my real-world
©Haroldo & Flavia Castro
If you are trying to deliver an important message experience on the road has earned me.
to people of a different culture, it’s important to
step into their shoes and deliver it from their point
of view.
R38 Appendix I
Q: Do you ever have to deal with crisis
situations?
Castro: [laughter] If there is not a crisis when I’m
traveling, I’m worried—it usually means there will
be a disaster later! Anyone who travels a lot has to
deal with crises, such as getting sick on local food or
getting robbed. I’ve had equipment stolen from
Lebanon to Peru!
I would like to tell you a story. Several years ago
we were working in a remote rain-forest region of
Mexico for 10 days. When we were ready to leave, we
boarded a small plane and set out for the nearest
commercial airport, only to learn that it had been
closed. We were forced to go to a nearby military
airport instead.
When we landed and began to unload our large Haroldo Castro is filming slash-and-burn agriculture.
boxes of equipment, the military personnel got very
nervous. We looked pretty grungy and unshaven impressions. If you like gardening, start experiment-
and covered with mud. It was obvious that we’d ing with seedlings. Whatever your interest, my
been in the rain forest awhile. They thought we were advice is just go for it!
terrorist guerrillas and surrounded us with machine
guns. For three hours we pleaded our case, and MORE ON THIS CAREER
finally they let us go. I think you might call that a Many government offices, publishers, and environ-
crisis situation! mental organizations have in-house communica-
tions departments for producing films or photo-
Q: If a high school student were to ask you graphs. Have a librarian help you make a list of
what he or she could do to help the en- such places, and then call these places for more
vironment, what would your answer be? information and for possible volunteer or intern-
ship ideas.
Castro: I would say . . . Learn all you can,
appreciate the world around you, and follow your While you’re at the library, look through The
passion. If you like photography, go out and take Guide to International Film and Video Festivals for
pictures of things that leave you with good and bad any mention of environmental film festivals in your
area. Castro recommends attending a film festival
if at all possible. “Doing so,” he
said, “would give you the
invaluable opportunity to see
some of the best films pro-
duced and to talk to the
people who made them.” If
you can’t find the guide or
(bl, tr) ©Haroldo Castro; (br) ©Haroldo & Flavia Castro
For Castro, would like further informa-

capturing images tion, contact the
on film—such as Association of
this Guatemalan Independent Video &
girl holding a Filmmakers.
hummingbird—
allows him to recall
rich travel
experiences.

CLIMATE RESEARCHER
One summer when Dr. Richard Q: What most appeals to you about your job?
Somerville was just a child, he built
Somerville: Probably the most exciting aspect of
a weather station in his family’s
any scientist’s work involves those few, rare
backyard. His creation grew out of a
“Eureka!” moments when you realize that you’ve
fascination for the great power of
discovered something that no one else on Earth
weather—a phenomenon that
knows about. That’s quite a feeling. It’s also reward-
affects all of us every day. Using
ing to know that you’re adding to the knowledge of
instruments made out of coffee cans, balloons, and
others, transferring important pieces of information
rubber bands, young Richard began keeping track of
to important people who can use that information to
daily weather conditions and questioning how the
improve this world.
world’s weather systems worked. As time went on,
he began to question more than just the weather—
Q: What does your research involve?
he looked at clouds, oceans, and the world of living
things as well. These pursuits led Somerville to the Somerville: Well, I do research on the greenhouse
prestigious Scripps Institution of Oceanography. effect, on climate changes in general, and on the
Today he is a professor of meteorology at the Scripps effects of long-range climate changes. I also study El
Institution, which is part of the University of Niño events and Indian monsoons. I see how these
California at San Diego in La Jolla, California. events and phenomena affect people—such as
people involved in agriculture. The climate really
Q: What exactly is meteorology? affects the way people live!
Somerville: Simply put, it is the science of the I’m also researching whether the activities of
atmosphere—especially the study of weather and humans are affecting the atmosphere. For example,
weather forecasting. each year, the world’s growing population uses more
and more energy by burning coal, oil, natural gas,
and wood. When all of these substances are burned,
they add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. So I
There are two general classes of technology that study the atmosphere to see how much the added
are most important to my work: satellites and carbon dioxide is intensifying the greenhouse effect.
computers. Then I try to determine how those changes will
affect humans. You see, the more we know about the
atmosphere, the better we can predict what will
happen next.
Q: How are your research data used?

Somerville: Many of my findings can affect public
policy. For instance, how should the energy of the
world be generated? I can help policymakers
explore this question by providing them with data
about the effects of fuels such as coal, oil, and gas on
the atmosphere. Then I can recommend that they
establish policies to reduce human reliance on those
©Michael Newman/PhotoEdit
Richard Somerville records observations while

standing on a bridge in San Diego, California.
R40 Appendix I
atmosphere and the ocean, and thereby help us
answer questions and make predictions.
We also have access to ships and airplanes that
are loaded with highly specialized equipment.
These research platforms can be sent to specific
areas of the world to gather more information about
a situation or condition.
Q: What are the most frustrating aspects of

your job?
Somerville: Other demands that limit the time I
spend doing research. There’s a large fraction of
time and energy that must be spent making research
possible—you have to find money, so you spend lots
of time writing proposals and doing other adminis-
trative work.
Q: What school subjects turned out to be the

most important for your career?
Somerville: You might be surprised. Math and
This scientist uses state-of-the-art equipment to science classes are essential, but in retrospect I
gather information about changes in ocean value my English courses the most. Scientists are
temperatures over time. writers—the final products of their research are
shown in published papers.
fuel sources. I can also encourage the use of
resources such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric
Q: What personal qualities do you think are
power.
most essential for a successful person in
your field?
Q: What tools do you use to obtain your data?
Somerville: There are an enormous variety of
Somerville: There are two general classes of
scientists—some are sloppy, some are organized,
technology that are most important to my work:
some like to work alone, and some in teams. One
satellites and computers. Together these two
thing all good scientists have in common,
items have virtually revolutionized this field by
though, is dedication—they all want to do sci-
hugely expanding what we’ve been able to ob-
ence above anything else. I think Thomas
serve and understand. Satellites, for example, can
Edison’s famous quotation “Genius is 1 percent
provide us with a whole different perspective of
inspiration and 99 percent perspiration” is really
our world. The photographs generated by a
on the mark. Not everyone can be born a genius,
satellite allow us to look at global temperatures as
but anyone who is really dedicated can have a
well as specific weather and sea conditions. Data
good career in science.
are also collected on clouds, soil, and vegetation.
By analyzing these observations, we can monitor
MORE ON THIS CAREER
changing conditions and identify possible prob-
lem areas. If you are interested in learning more about a career
in meteorology, contact the American
Computers help us make sense of the data.
Meteorological Society.
Computer equipment in the satellites helps to
answer our questions and helps us better visualize
the data. Personal computers help us record and
summarize our findings. Then we have “super
computers,” which can simulate the motions of the

RESEARCH WILDLIFE biologist
Many people imagine wildlife Q: What organisms are you studying in the field
biologists wrestling large game right now?
animals to the ground, slapping
Yamasaki: I’m studying small mammals, such as
radio collars around their necks,
mice, shrews, voles, and squirrels. My colleagues
and then creeping through the
and I also study insectivorous bats, migratory birds,
forest for weeks on end to study the
and terrestrial salamanders. These are animals that
creatures. According to Mariko
we know something about, such as their basic
Yamasaki, research wildlife biologist for the U.S.
biology, but we don’t know how they respond to
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, there is a
forest management. We’re looking at these critters
lot more to wildlife biology than that. To her, “Nature
to get a sense of how they fit into the bigger picture.
is fascinating on many, many levels, from the tiniest
ant all the way up to charismatic animals such as
Q: What types of questions are you trying to
bears and wolves. We have to get away from the
answer about these animals?
notion that animals with feathers or fur and big
brown eyes are more important than slimy, scaly Yamasaki: One question my colleagues and I are
creatures with beady eyes. All organisms have a trying to answer right now is how terrestrial sala-
role—we must be sure that their contribution to the manders respond to “even-aged management” of
big picture is recognized.” northern hardwoods. Even-aged management
involves harvesting a large area of trees whose ages
Q: What is your educational background and are within 20 years of each other.
experience?
Yamasaki: My background is basically a long and We have to get away from the notion that
colorful stringing together of different experiences. animals with feathers or fur and big brown eyes
I have bachelor’s degrees in anthropology and are more important than slimy, scaly creatures
zoology and a master’s degree in natural resources with beady eyes.
(specific to wildlife). By the time I got out of school
in the late 1970s, I came up against a surprising
attitude—people in my home state really couldn’t
conceive of having female biologists supervising in
the field. So I looked outside my home state. I ended
up studying bald eagles for the Bureau of Land
Management out West. This sort of snowballed into
a permanent appointment in Washington as a
wildlife biologist for the Bureau of Land
Management. Today I work at the Northeastern
Forest Experiment Station, where I do research in
forested lands that cover a 200-mile radius, includ-
ing parts of Maine and New Hampshire.
©Ken Dudzik/U. S. Department of Agriculture
To Mariko Yamasaki, every creature, no matter how

small or seemingly insignificant, has an important
role in this biosphere. She is shown here searching
for salamanders in the wild.
R42 Appendix I
analyze it as thoroughly as possible so that I can
stand behind what I’m saying. It’s also important to
realize that everyone is entitled to an opinion.
Q: What are the most interesting or exciting

aspects of your work?
Yamasaki: Oh, heavens! Being out and observing
the natural world. Being able to test hypotheses.
Being up real early on a bird survey. It’s never the
same twice. I also enjoy discovering something
new—there’s nothing any more special than that.
Yamasaki wants to know if the way trees are
There’s a lot out there! The scale of things to observe
harvested from forested areas like this one affects
and study is mind-boggling.
the survival of terrestrial salamanders.
Foresters often use even-aged management

Q: What advice might you give to someone who
because it is an efficient means of harvesting large
is searching for a career?
amounts of timber at one time. My hypothesis is that Yamasaki: I think it’s important to do something
when a large area of trees has been harvested, the you are really interested in. My career, just like
ground temperature might change because the area anybody else’s, is not always a bed of roses. But if
is suddenly exposed to direct sunlight. This might you really care about what you do, you can get
affect the population and distribution of terrestrial beyond the problems and complications inherent to
salamanders in a negative way. I use the data I any job. It’s also important to think that you’ve got
gather to make recommendations to forest something to contribute. I think that I can help
managers about how they can manage tracts of contribute to the way people view wildlife, and that’s
forest to best support the needs of salamanders and important to me.
other wildlife.
Q: Do you work with other people a lot?

Yamasaki: There’s an old stereotype that a wildlife
biologist leads a solitary life studying nature. This
simply isn’t true—it’s important to know how to
work with people and how to understand and deal
with a variety of viewpoints. There is rarely a day
that I sit alone in my office. But I will say that a
(t) ©Alex S. Maclean/Landslides; (cr) ©Ken Dudzik/U.S. Dept of Agriculture (USDA)
wildlife biologist does have some control over the

matter—generally, you can work with people as
much or as little as you want.
Q: Do you ever have to deal with crisis This group of community leaders, politicians, and
situations? scientists is discussing how best to use the natural
resources of a forested region in Maine.
Yamasaki: Not really, but I do see a lot of contro-
versy, particularly related to wildlife and the use of
natural resources. My work has often become the MORE ON THIS CAREER
object of heated debate. Some people will support If you are interested in learning more about a career
my findings wholeheartedly, while others call them in wildlife biology, contact The Wildlife Society or
worthless. There are any number of ways of dealing the American Institute of Biological Sciences.
with this kind of pressure. I’ve found that it’s real
important to get my information together and

any job can be environmental
You don’t have to be in an environmental career to In the first 16 years of the company’s existence,
make a positive impact on the environment. Gun Hanna Andersson customers donated over one
Denhart is an excellent example of how you can million pieces of recycled clothes to children in
make a difference through your career, even if your need. These clothes could have ended up in landfills
career doesn’t directly involve the environment. but have instead clothed kids all over the world.
Hanna Andersson In the first 16 years of the company’s existence,

Gun Denhart is the cofounder of Hanna Andersson Hanna Andersson customers donated over one
in Portland, Oregon. Hanna Andersson is a com- million pieces of recycled clothes to children in need.
pany that specializes in selling baby clothing and
children’s clothing through a mail-order catalog
service. The company began in 1983 as an in-home
enterprise, in which a spare room was used as the
company office and the garage served as the ware-
house. One-inch-square fabric samples were cut
and pasted into each of the 75,000 catalogs that were
mailed that first year. Hanna Andersson has grown
enormously since 1983. An adult line of clothes was
added, several retail stores were opened, and a Web
site was established.
The Used Clothing Recycling Program

As a parent, Gun Denhart realized that children
outgrow their clothing very quickly and that clothing
purchased at Hanna Andersson will last for more
than a single child. Rather than waste clothing, she
reasoned, why not pass these clothes on to children
in need? So Denhart instituted a program called
Hannadowns®. The purpose of the program is to
encourage the purchasers of Hanna Andersson
clothing to recycle their used clothes. Denhart says,
“You can make a critical difference. Most often, my
clothes last for more than one child’s use, and it’s a
great feeling to pass them on to younger children in
your family, to your friends, or to charitable organi-
This clothing will be recycled because of an
zations. It is heartbreaking to realize how many innovative program designed by Gun Denhart.
children live at risk—an unbelievable 22 percent of
children live below the poverty level in America.
Providing them with nourishing food and warm
clothing is a never-ending job. Fortunately, there are
organizations that offer clothing and supportive
services. To help them make a critical difference in
©Courtesy Hanna Andersson
children’s lives, please send your outgrown chil-

dren’s clothes in good condition to these
organizations.”
R44 Appendix I
Appendix J
Ecoskills
Boosting your home’s
energy efficiency
Many people don’t realize the impact that energy wall. Hold the hanger still. If the paper moves,
production has on the environment. No matter what you’ve found a draft. Note the location of the draft in
kind of energy plant serves your area, the produc- your science journal. Check all around the window,
tion of that energy carries with it certain environ- making comments about the drafts you find. Then
mental risks. For example, when we burn coal to examine all the other windows, doors, electrical
create electricity, many pollutants are released into outlets, plumbing pipes, and baseboards that are on
the air. These pollutants may cause environmental the outer walls of your home. Note every place
problems such as global warming and acid rain. The where the tissue moves.
more energy each of us uses, the more we contribute These drafts of air that you’ve discovered can
to these problems. So it makes environmental sense add 20 to 35 percent to your heating and cooling
to conserve energy. Conservation is also a good way bills. Fortunately, you can seal these air leaks with
to save money—just a few energy-saving measures weatherstripping and caulk. Weatherstripping is for
can substantially lower an energy bill. moving parts, such as doors and window frames.
Could the energy efficiency of your home be Caulk is for sealing cracks along joints and edges.
improved? Perform the following energy audit to These materials are relatively inexpensive, can be
find out. found at any hardware store, and can save 7 to
20 percent on your heating and cooling bills.
The Wind Test

One day when it’s windy outside, fasten a sheet of FOR MORE INFORMATION
tissue paper onto a hanger with a piece of tape, as Your local electric company can probably send you
shown below. Next, hold the hanger in front of a a packet of energy- and cost-saving ideas. In addi-
window at the point where the window meets the tion, your city may sponsor thorough in-house
energy audits as well as rebates and loans for
improving the energy efficiency of your home.
Contact your city’s electric utilities conservation
department for more information.
Consult your library or bookstore for books on
improving your home’s energy efficiency. You might
find these books helpful.
Consumer Guide to Home Energy Savings, 9th ed.,
by Jennifer Thorne Amann, Alex Wilson, and Katie
Ackerly, American Council for an Energy-Efficient
Economy. Gabriola Island, BC, Canada: New Society
Publishers, 2007.
The Homeowner’s Handbook to Energy
Efficiency, by John Krigger and Chris Dorsi. Helena,
Montana: Saturn Resource Management, Inc., 2008.
This simple device could help you improve the

energy efficiency of your home.
Ecoskills R45
ELIMINATING PESTS
Naturally
A huge cockroach is crawling around your shelves and cabinets,

across your floor. How will you get Even the tidiest of homes can or pour a line of cream of tartar,
rid of it? Don’t reach for an expen- be bugged by insect pests. If red chili pepper, salt, paprika,
sive store-bought chemical that
this happens to your home, dried peppermint, or talcum
fight back—naturally!
could possibly contaminate the powder where ants enter your
local water supply or even harm home. These substances either
someone in your household. Instead, try a n atural repel or kill the pests. Another effective remedy for
remedy! ridding your home of ants or cockroaches is to
sprinkle a mixture of equal parts of boric acid and
confectioners’ sugar in dry areas where ants and
Cockroaches cockroaches are found. The pests will eat the sugar
Make a roach trap by putting honey in the bottom of and then die from the effects of the boric acid.
a jar and setting it upright where the pests are most Caution: If ingested, boric acid is acutely toxic to
likely to visit. The sweet smell of the honey will lure pets and small children. Use boric acid only in areas
roaches into the jar, but the stickiness of the sub- that are out of reach of kids and pets.
stance will make it impossible for them to escape.
You could also line the cracks where you think
roaches are entering your home with bay leaves. The Ticks and Fleas
smell of bay leaves repels roaches. Prevent roaches If your pet has a problem with ticks or fleas, try
from entering your home by keeping all food feeding the animal brewer’s yeast or vitamin B. Also
covered and stored and by cleaning dirty dishes. wash your pet regularly with soap and water, then
Seal cracks in walls, baseboards, and ducts with dry the animal and spray an herbal mixture of
caulk so that roaches and other pests can’t get in. rosemary and water onto its coat. (You can make the
mixture by steeping ½ cup of fresh or dried rose-
mary in one quart of boiling water. Let the liquid
Ants cool, pour it into a pump bottle, and then spray it
Sealing cracks with caulk will also help keep ants out onto your a nimal’s coat.)
of your home. In the meantime, squeeze fresh
lemon or lime juice into the holes or cracks. Then
leave the peels where you’ve seen ants. Scatter mint
R46 Appendix J
You can help reduce the number of ticks and fleas that bother your pet
by bathing it frequently and spraying an herbal mixture on its coat.
You can control the ticks and fleas in your yard For More Information
by sprinkling the grass with diatomaceous earth, Your city’s environmental and conservation services
which is available at many nurseries. Diatomaceous department (if there is one) may have other rem-
earth consists of tiny glasslike skeletons of diatoms edies for pests and recipes for nontoxic household
(a type of single-celled algae). These skeletons cleaners. Check your local bookstore or library for
scratch the outer layer of an insect’s body as it crawls books on natural pesticides, organic gardening, and
along the ground. The insect eventually dies of chemical-free homes. You might find these books
dehydration. Bacteria can also enter the insect’s helpful.
body through the open wounds, exposing the insect The Organic Gardener’s Handbook of Natural
©Young-Wolff Photography/Alamy Images
to disease. Caution: Diatomaceous earth can be Pest and Disease Control, by Fern Marshall
harmful to your lungs if inhaled. Wear a p rotective Bradley, Barbara W. Ellis, and Deborah L. Martin.
mask when spreading the substance. New York, New York: Rodale Inc., 2009.
Natural Pest Control Alternatives to C hemicals for
the Home and Garden, by A. Lopez. Malibu, CA:
Invisible Gardener, 2004.
Ecoskills R47
ENVIRONMENTAL
shopping
Try to count how many products guidelines on the back of an old

you’ve used today. It’s probably not On your next few shopping grocery receipt and then adhere
as easy as you think. In the first few trips, think about the products the receipt to the refrigerator with
minutes of your day, you may have you choose. If you’re like most a magnet so that it will be handy
used a dozen products. Americans, you’ll probably be for the other shoppers in your
amazed at how many wasteful household. The options are
All of those products and their
shopping habits you have.
packaging are made from v aluable limitless, so be creative. Try to
resources. More often than not, incorporate recycled items into
once those resources are used, they’re tossed in a your design!
trash can and eventually hauled to the local landfill. Before you create your personal shopping guide,
You can cut back on the amount of waste you you may want to review Chapter 19 Section 2,
send to the landfill and conserve resources in the “Reducing Solid Waste.”
process. On your next few shopping trips, think
about the products you choose. If you’re like most
Americans, you’ll probably be amazed at how many For More Information
wasteful shopping habits you have. But after a while Consult your local library or a bookstore to find
you’ll begin to know instinctively which products references that will help you with your environmen-
are best for you and the environment. tal shopping. You might find one of the following
books helpful.
Your Personal Shopping Guide The Rough Guide to Shopping with a Conscience,
by Duncan Clark and Richie Unterberger. New York,
Read the information on the following page, and New York: Duncan Clark and Richie Unterberger,
think of a way to reproduce it so that you (and other 2007.
members of your household) have it handy when
The Better World Shopping Guide, by Ellis Jones.
you set out on a shopping trip. For example, you
British Columbia, Canada: Ellis Jones, 2010.
may want to copy the questions and answers on the
side of a brown paper bag. That way you’ll have a
shopper’s guide and you’ll need one less sack at the
checkout stand. Another option is to write your
R48 Appendix J
An Environmental Shopper’s Guide
Do I really need this product? Can I use something Borrow or rent products you don’t use often.
I already have?
Is this a “throwaway” item that is designed to be Avoid using disposable products whenever
used once or twice and then thrown away? possible. Nondisposable alternatives may be more
expensive initially, but in the long run they often
save you money.
Does this product have more packaging than it Look for alternatives with less packaging or
really needs? wrapping. Purchase products in bulk or in a larger
size so that in the long run you use less packaging
(and save money!). Buy fresh vegetables and fruit
instead of frozen or canned products.
Choose products that have recycled paper,

Was this product’s container or packaging made
aluminum, glass, plastic, or other recycled materials
with recycled materials?
in their packaging.
Is this product’s container or packaging made from Find out which materials you can conveniently
cardboard, aluminum, glass, or another material that recycle, and then buy those sorts of containers.
I can easily recycle? Also, think of ways to reuse old containers rather
than throwing them out.
Does this product have bleaches, dyes, or Phosphates and many other chemicals can pollute
fragrances added to it? Does it contain water sources. Look for natural, organic, and
phosphates? Is it made from a petroleum-based phosphate-free alternatives. When purchasing
synthetic fabric, such as polyester? clothing, choose cotton or wool over synthetic fabrics.
Does the company that makes this product have a You may have to do a little research to answer this
good environmental record? one. Try the references listed on the facing page.
Don’t be deceived by advertising and product

Although this product has a “green” label, is it really
labeling; carefully examine the contents of a product
good for me and the environment?
before you purchase it.
Do I really need a shopping bag to carry home the If you purchase just one or two items, tell the grocer
items I’m purchasing? If so, will I be more likely to that you don’t need a bag to carry them. For more
recycle or reuse a plastic shopping bag or a items, bring old paper or plastic sacks with you
paper one? when you go to the store, or use a canvas bag,
which will last through many trips.
How much energy do I If possible, ride your bike or walk to the

spend getting to the store? store. If not, condense several short
trips into one longer trip for
a bigger supply of items.
Ecoskills R49
Making
Your Own
Compost Heap
Why on Earth would you want to pile a bunch of

garbage in your yard and let it rot? Crazy as the idea By making your own compost heap, you can
may sound, it’s actually a very good one—copied reduce the amount of waste you send to the local
straight from nature itself.
landfill and create an excellent natural fertilizer
for your garden.
Compost is the natural product of Earth’s organic
decaying process. When a dead organism decom-
poses, nutrients are returned to the soil. A compost
heap is a collection of organic materials such as
leaves, grass, and fruit peelings that will decompose
over time to create rich, fertile soil. By making your
own compost heap, you can reduce the amount of
waste you send to the local landfill and create an
excellent natural fertilizer for your garden.
There are many opinions on how to construct
the best compost heap—it can be as basic or as You may choose to keep your compost pile in a
fancy as you like. Either way, composting is easy, ready-made container similar to this one.
and it’s almost impossible to foul up the process.
A compost heap can be placed just about any-
where in the yard. Either a sunny or a shady spot will
be fine. You will want to keep it out of the way of
normal activity, however.
Many people choose a spot on a concrete slab or
a grassy area and then simply pile their materials
there. This method is easy and effective.
A compost heap contains a mishmash of many
different organic materials. Most of your heap will
probably consist of grass clippings and leaves. You
can also add raw vegetables, other uncooked food
scraps, coffee grounds, tea bags, cotton, dust,
discarded plants, and weeds. Avoid adding pet
manure, cooked foods, and meat of any kind. If you
add raw food wastes, cover them with leaves to keep
away flies and to prevent an unpleasant odor.
Your heap will begin to decompose through the
action of microorganisms. It’s a good idea to shovel
a couple of scoops of soil from your yard into the
©Cultura/Alamy
heap. The microorganisms in the soil will immedi-

ately begin decomposing the items in the heap.
R50 Appendix J
Anatomy of a Compost Heap
Leaves and grass clippings
Garden and kitchen wastes
Soil from your garden
Leaves and grass clippings
Small tree branches and twigs
Turn the heap at least once a month to keep it

well aerated and active. After the organic matter has
Compost Container
broken down to the point that no single item is If you choose to contain your compost pile, you will
recognizable, it’s ready to work into your garden’s be able to add more materials to a smaller area. You
soil. The entire process can take anywhere from two can buy a ready-made container from a hardware
months to one year, depending on the kinds of store or you can build one yourself.
materials being decomposed and how often the If you decide to build one, you may wish to use
heap is turned. Composting is more of an art than a metal stakes and chicken wire to create a container
science, so be prepared to experiment! like the one shown at left. Keep in mind, however,
that as long as the container allows air to get in and
out, the type of container you choose is limited only
by your imagination!
Compost Heap Container
Metal stakes For More Information

Chicken wire
Consult your library for a manual on composting.
You might find one of these helpful.
The Complete Compost Gardening Guide, by
Barbara Pleasant and Deborah L. Martin. North
Adams, Massachusetts: Barbara Pleasant and
Deborah L. Martin, 2008.
Learn to Compost: 30 Easy Tips to Turn You into
the Master Composter, by Alex Masters. Alex
Masters, 2012.
Loose wire can be twisted around two sections of chicken wire to
create a “door” for easy turning.
You can build this container for your compost heap

with a few materials from your local hardware store.
Ecoskills R51
creating a
wildlife garden
Manicured lawns and non-native vegetation are not
part of a natural ecosystem. Although these have
Plants
been standard in urban and suburban neighbor- Plants are probably the most crucial element of
hoods for years, they usually require pesticides, your wildlife garden. Whether you have a lot of
fertilizers, water, and attention just to survive. In space for planting a wildflower meadow, a balcony
addition, they often exclude wildlife by removing on which you can create a container garden full of
some of their natural sources of food, water, native plants, or a few windows to which you can
and shelter. attach boxes full of bright and cheerful wildflowers,
To attract wildlife to your home, you simply need you will need a variety of native plants. Check with
to provide native plants and the sorts of water a local nursery, library, or bookstore for
sources and shelters naturally available to the recommendations.
wildlife in your area.
To attract wildlife to your home, you simply need
to provide native plants and the sorts of water
sources and shelters naturally available to the
wildlife in your area.
Water
People often overlook the
need all animals have for
water. Although some animals obtain enough water
from the foods they eat, most require additional
water for drinking and bathing.
Water sources are easy to provide. Many people
purchase hanging or standing birdbaths from a
nursery or hardware store. Others create ponds. You
can make a simple pond by setting an old trash-can
lid upside down in a corner of your yard and filling it ©Hans Reinhard/Bruce Coleman Inc/Photoshot USA/Canada
with water. Surround your water source with plants,
rocks, and other items so that the wildlife can find
cover if necessary. In addition, make sure your pond
or birdbath is at least partially shallow so that no
animal is in danger of drowning, and keep the water
clean.
R52 Appendix J
Food and Shelter Caution: A shelter like the one described above may
also attract poisonous snakes. Find out if any live in
Many different kinds of birdhouses and feeders are your area; if so, you may want to refrain from making
available at nature stores, hardware shops, and a shelter pile.
nurseries. Most of these can be hung on a balcony,
and some can even be adhered to a window. You
could also make your own birdhouse or feeder. A For More Information
milk jug with a large hole cut in its side that is filled
Consult your library or bookstore for books
with seed and hung from a tree or balcony is an
on gardening with plants native to your area,
excellent way to feed many birds. If you would like
gardening for the wildlife in your area, and xeriscape
to attract bats to your yard, use the Internet to find
techniques. You might find these books helpful.
out how to make (or purchase) a bat house.
The Wildlife Gardener’s Guide, by Brooklyn
Woodpiles, rock piles, and brush piles are
Botanic Garden All-Region Guides. Brooklyn, New
valuable sources of shelter for wildlife such as
York: Brooklyn Botanic Garden, 2008.
lizards and toads that might not otherwise frequent
your backyard habitat. The most successful pile is Welcoming Wildlife to the Garden, by Catherine J.
one that incorporates different-sized spaces among Johnson, Susan M. McDiarmid, and Edward R.
the various components. You can make your pile Turner. British Columbia, Canada: Edward R.
attractive by planting vines in and around it. Turner, 2002.
(br) ©Brian Hoffman/Alamy Images; (tl) ©David Stuckel/Alamy Images; (bl) ©Jessica Holden Photography/Getty Images
Ecoskills R53
flushing less water
A typical American uses over
100 gallons of water before
he or she even leaves for
work or school in the morn-
ing, and much of that water is
wasted. You may wish to
review Figure 2.3 in Chapter 11, which shows daily
water use in the United States per person.
Many Americans are beginning to change their
wasteful practices, however. One simple and inex-
pensive way you can waste less water is by making a
water-displacement device for your t oilet’s tank.
This device takes up space in the tank so that less
water is required to fill the tank with every flush. It
takes only about 10 minutes to make, and with it you
can save 1–2 gallons of water every time you flush.
This may not sound like much, but it adds up
quickly. Most toilets use 5–7 gallons of water with
every flush. If a toilet is flushed an average of eight
times per day, it uses around 52 gallons of water per
day, or 18,980 gallons per year. If you can save 11–12
gallons of water with every flush, you’ll save 4,380
gallons of water each year. If just 250 other people
take similar measures, over 1 million gallons of
water could be saved each year. Making a Quick and Easy Water
Displacer
1. Remove the label from a plastic container. (Milk jugs,
juice bottles, and dishwashing soap bottles work well.
Be prepared to experiment with different-sized
containers.) Drop a few rocks into the container to
weigh it down, fill the container with water, and put the
lid back on.
2. Place the container in the toilet tank, as shown at left.
3. Be certain that the container doesn’t interfere with the
flushing mechanism inside the tank.
4. Experiment with different containers. Your goal is to
use the largest container that the tank will hold while
still maintaining an effective flush.
One Final Important Note

©Photodisc/Getty Images
The more water you save, the less you pay for. No
matter which water-saving device you install, your
water bill should be noticeably lower.
R54 Appendix J
Appendix K
Maps
N
80ºN OCEA
World Physical Relief BEAUFORT SEA

ARC
T IC
Victoria
Baffin
BAFFIN
BAY
Greenland
rait Island
ing
St Island it ait
Ber a St r Arctic
er e
tr rk
Riv nzi
Great Bear ma Iceland
iver
S
n
ck e
Yukon R Lake De
s
vi
Ma
Da
Great
60ºN Slave
BERING GULF OF Lake HUDSON
SEA ALASKA BAY
NS
Lake
Winnipeg
AI
nI slands
Aleutia Vancouver
NT
Island Great ce
en Bay
Lakes wr
MOU
ouri La
iss of
River
M St. ver
Rive
Biscay
Ri
N O Rr T H A M E R I C A TS
.
AT L A N T I C
r
M
40ºN N
e IA
Riv H
Y
rado pi AC Strait
OCEAN
CK
o L
ip PA of
AP
l
Co
is s
Gibraltar
RO
AS
ss
ATL
Mi
Ri o
Gran
GULF
OF
MEXICO Bahamas S
e d
Tropic of Cancer
Hawaii
20ºN Gr
ea
te
r An
tilles
CARIBBEAN
illes
Antsser
r
SEA ge
Ni
Le
PACIFIC
Isthmus
of
GUIA
NA
HIG
N
Panama HL
AN
DS G
0� Equator W E
A N D E
ver
Amazo n Ri
OCEAN
SOUTH S
AMERICA
S
M BRAZILIAN
S
T
. HIGHLANDS
20ºS
er
R iv
Tropic of Capricorn
A N
SCALE Paraná AT L A N T I C
0 1,000 2,000 Miles
D E
0 1,000 2,000 Kilometers OCEAN

S
Projection: Mollweide
40ºS
M T
20ºW
S .
40º
Strait of
Magellan
Falkland W
Islands
Tierra del
Fuego
Cape Horn
60ºS 12 10 80
160 140 0ºW 0º ºW
60
ºW ºW W SOUTHERN OCEAN
ºW
0º
Antarctic Circle
Weddell Sea
ELEVATION
Feet Meters
13,120 4,000
6,560 2,000
1,640 500
656 200
(Sea level) 0 0 (Sea level)
Below Below
sea level sea level
Ice cap
R56 Appendix K
#?--30c45m
#?--70m60y
ARCTIC
80ºN OCEAN
KARA LAPTEV SEA EAST
North BARENTS SEA SIBERIAN
Cape SEA SEA
L en
Ye a Ko
Circle nis
e Ri v e lyma
y r Ri v
UR
er
AL
Ob Rive Riv
r er
MO
Volga
60ºN
BALTIC SEA OF KAMCHATKA
UN
Rive
SEA r Lake OKHOTSK PENINSULA
TA
Baikal Am
IN
ur
EUROPE
S
Riv Sakhalin
AL er
Lake TA
ARAL Balkhash I M
TS
ALPS SEA .
CA
AN BI –
GO
BLACK SEA Hokkaido
N SH
SPI
TIA (Yello SEA

ASIA
AN
OF 40ºN
w)
SE
ang
JAPAN Honshu–
A
Ri v
JAPAN
Ti
Hu
MTS
er
gri
Eup
MEDITERRANEAN SEA h ra Ri
HI
s
ve
dus River
MA ze) River Shikoku

sR Ch gt
te
– –
r
LA EAST Kyushu
ive
r an an
YA S g (Y CHINA
Pe
an n THAR SEA
rs
i
DESERT Gan
I
Gu
Ni
A H A R A lf
le
RE
ARABIAN ge s Ri
ver
M
D
Tropic of Cancer
ek
Taiwan
on g
SE
PENINSULA
A
20ºN
Bay
PA C I F I C
River
ARABIAN
Ri
of
ve
Philippine
AFRICA SEA Bengal SOUTH
r
Islands
CHINA
SEA OCEAN
Riv
Sri Strait
er
Lanka of
Malacca
MALAY
Gulf Riv PENINSULA
of e
Guinea r
Singapore 0�
Borneo Equator
go
Co n
Lake Sumatra New

Lake Victoria Sulawesi
Tanganyika (Celebes) Guinea Solomon
Islands
Java
East Timor
INDIAN OCEAN
CORAL
el
SEA
nn
ha
Madagascar GREAT
eC
SANDY New
S
RANGE
iqu
DESERT Caledonia
KALAHARI
AUSTRALIA
mb
DESERT Tropic of Capricorn

za
Mo
NG
GREAT
VICTORIA er
DI
DESERT Riv I
g IV
rlin D
T
Da
Cape of EA
GR
North
Good Hope Island
TASMAN
SEA
NEW
ZEALAND
Tasmania South
Island
50 60 80
10ºE
ºE
20º
30
ºE
40
60ºS ºE KARA
North
º
ºE
E E ºE E E
0�
º SEA
E
º
E
º º
140
20ºE
20 160
ºE
ºE
Cape
80 1 00 1 BARENTS
60
40
SEA
10ºW
Strait N SCALE
ark
.
TS
nm
De
M
0 250 500 750 Miles

EN
Iceland W E
AN T A R C T I C A
ØL
KJ
UR
0 250 500 750 Kilometers

AL
S Projection: Mollweide
M
60ºN
TS
.
BALTIC Volga
SEA River
NORTH
British SEA
Isles EUROPE
Rh ver
Ri
ine
50ºN
ATLANTIC Danu
be
OCEAN PS
AL
Bay
Riv
of r
e
Biscay
BLACK SEA
40ºN
Euphrate
Tig
MEDITERRANEAN SEA ri
R. s
Strait of Crete R.
s
Gibraltar
Maps R57
95p5w x 58ph
World Physical Relief
World Climate Regions
80º
Arctic C
60º
NORTH
40º AMERICA
NORTH NORTH
PACIFIC ATLANTIC
OCEAN OCEAN
Tropic of Cancer
20º
0º Equator
SOUTH
AMERICA
SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN
Tropic of Capricorn SCALE
0 1,500 3,000 Miles
SOUTH
0 1,500 3,000 Kilometers ATLANTIC
Scale is accurate only along the equator. OCEAN
Monsoon Air Flow Projection: Robinson
Wet monsoon
Dry monsoon
Major World Ocean Currents SOUTHERN OCEAN

Cool currents
Antarctic Circle
Warm currents
Climate Geographic Distribution Major Weather Patterns Vegetation

along equator; particularly equatorial South warm and rainy year-round, with rain totaling anywhere from 65 to tropical
TROPICAL
HUMID America, Congo Basin in Africa, Southeast Asia more than 450 in. (165–1,143 cm) annually; typical temperatures are rain forest
90º–95ºF (32º–35ºC) during the day and 65º–70ºF (18º–21ºC) at night
Tropical
between humid tropics and deserts; tropical warm all year; distinct rainy and dry seasons; precipitation during tropical
TROPICAL
WET AND DRY regions of Africa, South and Central America, the summer of at least 20 in. (51 cm); monsoon influences in some areas, grassland with
South and Southeast Asia, Australia such as South and Southeast Asia; summer temperatures average 90ºF scattered trees
(32ºC) during the day and 70ºF (21ºC) at night; typical winter temperatures
are 75º–80ºF (24º–27ºC) during the day and 55º–60ºF (13º–16ºC) at night
centered along 30º latitude; some middle- arid; precipitation of less than 10 in. (25 cm) annually; sunny and hot in sparse drought-
ARID
latitude deserts in interior of large continents the tropics and sunny with great temperature ranges in middle latitudes; resistant plants;
and along western coasts; particularly Saharan typical summer temperatures for lower-latitude deserts are 110º–115ºF many barren,
Africa, Southwest Asia, central and western (43º–46ºC) during the day and 60º–65ºF (16º–18ºC) at night, while winter rocky, or sandy
Australia, southwestern North America temperatures average 80ºF (27ºC) during the day and 45ºF (7ºC) at night; areas
in middle latitudes the hottest month averages 70ºF (21ºC)
Dry
generally bordering deserts and interiors semiarid; about 10–20 in. (25–51 cm) of precipitation annually; grassland;
SEMIARID
of large continents; particularly northern and hot summers and cooler winters with wide temperature few trees
southern Africa, interior western North ranges similar to desert temperatures
America, central and interior Asia and
Australia, southern South America
west coasts in middle latitudes near cool ocean dry sunny warm summers and mild wetter winters; precipitation scrub
MEDITERRANEAN
woodland
Middle Latitudes
currents; particularly southern Europe, part of averages 14–35 in. (35–90 cm) annually; typical temperatures are
Southwest Asia, northwestern Africa, California, 75º–80ºF (24–27ºC) on summer days; the average winter temperature and grassland
southwestern Australia, central Chile, south- is 50ºF (10ºC)
western South Africa
east coasts in middle latitudes; particularly hot humid summers and mild humid winters; precipitation year-round; mixed forest
HUMID
SUBTROPICAL southeastern United States, eastern Asia, coastal areas are in the paths of hurricanes and typhoons; precipitation
central southern Europe, southeastern parts averages 40 in. (102 cm) annually; typical temperatures are 75º–90ºF
of South America, South Africa, and Australia (24º–32ºC) in summer and 45º–50ºF (7º–10ºC) in winter
R58 Appendix K
ARCTIC OCEAN
80ºN
Circle
60ºN
EUROPE
ASIA
40ºN
NORTH
PACIFIC
OCEAN
20ºN
AFRICA
INDIAN OCEAN
20ºS
AUSTRALIA
40ºS
20ºE
40ºE
E
E
E
0º
0º
0º
0º
60º
0º
80º
10
12
14
16
60ºS
ANTARCTICA 80ºS
Climate Geographic Distribution Major Weather Patterns Vegetation

west coasts in upper-middle latitudes; cloudy mild summers and cool rainy winters; strong ocean influence; temperate
MARINE
particularly northwestern Europe and precipitation averages 20–98 in. (51–250 cm) annually; westerlies bring evergreen forest
Middle Latitudes
WEST COAST
North America, southwestern South storms and rain; average temperature in hottest month is usually between
America, central southern South Africa, 60ºF and 70ºF (16º–21ºC); average temperature in coolest month usually
southeastern Australia, New Zealand is above 32ºF (0ºC)
east coasts and interiors of upper-middle four distinct seasons; long cold winters and short warm summers; mixed forest
HUMID latitude continents; particularly precipitation amounts vary, usually 20–50 in. (51–127 cm) or more
CONTINENTAL
northeastern North America, northern annually; average summer temperature is 75ºF (24ºC); average winter
and eastern Europe, northeastern Asia temperature is below freezing
higher latitudes of interior and east extremes of temperature; long cold winters and short mild summers; northern
SUBARCTIC
coasts of continents; particularly low precipitation amounts all year; precipitation averages 5–15 in. evergreen
northern parts of North America, (13–38 cm) in summer; temperatures in warmest month average forest
Europe, and Asia 60ºF (16ºC) but can warm to 77ºF (25ºC); winter temperatures average
High Latitudes
below 0ºF (–18ºC)
high-latitude coasts; particularly far cold all year; very long cold winters and very short cool summers; low moss, lichens,
TUNDRA
northern parts of North America, precipitation amounts; precipitation average is 5–15 in. (13–38 cm) low shrubs;
Europe, and Asia, Antarctic Peninsula, annually; warmest month averages less than 50ºF (10ºC); coolest month permafrost bogs
subantarctic islands averages a little below 0ºF (–18ºC) in summer
polar regions; particularly Antarctica, freezing cold; snow and ice year-round; precipitation averages less than no vegetation
ICECAP
Greenland, Arctic Basin islands 10 in. (25 cm) annually; average temperatures in warmest month do not
reach higher than freezing
high mountain regions, particularly greatly varied temperatures and precipitation amounts over short forest to tundra
HIGHLAND
western parts of North and South distances as elevation changes; prevailing wind patterns can affect vegetation,
America, eastern parts of Asia and Africa, rainfall on windward and leeward sides of highland areas depending on
southern and central Europe and Asia elevation
Maps R59
45w x 58ph
World Political Regions
N
OCEA
TIC Greenland
ARC
(DENMARK)
Arctic Cir
Alaska Nuuk
(U.S.) (Godthåb)
60ºN
nds
Is la
u t ia n
A le
Winnipeg
Vancouver
Ottawa Montreal
NORTH
AMERICA Chicago Toronto
ATLANTIC
40ºN New York City
Washington,
D.C.
OCEAN Rabat Al
Los Angeles Casablanca
Bermuda
Houston (U.K.)
WESTERN
SAHARA
Tropic of Cancer (Claimed by
Morocco)
Mexico
20ºN City
Hawaii Nouakchott
(U.S.)
Dakar Bamako
Caracas
Georgetown
PACIFIC Bogotá Paramaribo FRENCH GUIANA N
(FRANCE)
Quito
0º Equator Galápagos W E
Islands
OCEAN (ECUADOR)
SOUTH S
AMERICA
American Lima
Samoa Brasília
La Paz
Sucre
20ºS
Rio de Janeiro
Tropic of Capricorn
Asunción São Paulo
ATLANTIC
Santiago
Buenos Montevideo OCEAN
Aires
40ºS
SCALE
20ºW
40ºW
0 1,000 2,000 Miles
0 1,000 2,000 Kilometers

Projection: Mollweide Falkland
Islands South
(U.K.)
Georgia South Sandwich
Island Islands
(U.K.)
N 90ºW 80ºW 60ºS
160 140 12 10 80
FLORIDA (U.S.) 0ºW 0º ºW
SOUTHERN OCEAN
60
ºW ºW W
º
W
W E Antarctic Circle
Nassau 70º W
S GULF OF MEXICO BAHAMAS
Tropic of Cancer
Havana
Turks and Caicos Is. 60ºW
CUBA (U.K.)
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Puerto Rico
(U.S.) 20ºN
DOMINICAN Virgin Islands
Cayman Is. HAITI (U.S. and U.K.)
(U.K.) Port-au-Prince REPUBLIC
JAMAICA Santo 1
Caribbean
MEXICO BELIZE Kingston Domingo
Belmopan 2 Country Capital
Guadeloupe (FRANCE)
GUATEMALA CARIBBEAN SEA 3 1 Antigua and Barbuda St. Johns
HONDURAS Netherlands Martinique (FRANCE)
Guatemala City Tegucigalpa Antilles
4 2 St. Kitts-Nevis Basseterre
Aruba (NETHERLANDS)
San Salvador NICARAGUA (NETHERLANDS) 5 6 3 Dominica Roseau
EL SALVADOR Managua
7 4 St. Lucia Castries
Port-of-
Spain TRINIDAD AND 5 St. Vincent and the Grenadines Kingstown
PACIFIC OCEAN COSTA RICA Panama TOBAGO 6 Barbados Bridgetown
City 30º N
SCALE San José 7 Grenada St. George’s
0 200 400 Miles VENEZUELA
PANAMA
COLOMBIA GUYANA
0 200 400 Kilometers
Projection: Mercator
R60 Appendix K
Boundaries
ARCTIC
OCEAN
National capitals
Other cities
Circle
60ºN
Moscow
E U ROPE Astana
Ulaanbaatar Harbin
Almaty ASIA
Istanbul Baku Tashkent Beijing
Ankara P’yŏngyang 40ºN
Tunis Tianjin Seoul
Ashgabat Tokyo
Nicosia Pusan Nagoya
Algiers Damascus Tehran Kabul Yokohama
Beirut Baghdad Islamabad
Tripoli Osaka
Jerusalem Wuhan
Amman Shanghai
Cairo Delhi Kathmandu Chongqing
New
Karachi Delhi Taipei
Riyadh Dhaka Guangzhou Tropic of Cancer
Masqat
A F R I CA (Muscat) Kolkata
(Calcutta) Hanoi
Hong
Kong
20ºN
Mumbai
(Bombay)
Yangon
Northern
Mariana
PACIFIC
(Rangoon) Manila Islands
Niamey Khartoum
Asmara Sanaa Chennai (U.S.)
N’Djamena Bangkok Guam (U.S.)
(Madras)
Phnom Penh OCEAN
Abuja Ho Chi
Addis Ababa Minh City
Lagos Colombo
Juba Kuala
Lumpur
Singapore
Equator 0º
Nairobi
CABINDA Kinshasa
Jakarta Surabaya
(ANGOLA) Dar es Salaam Port Moresby
Luanda
INDIAN OCEAN
Lusaka
Harare Antananarivo
New Caledonia 20ºS
Windhoek Réunion (FRANCE)
(FRANCE) Tropic of Capricorn
Gaborone Pretoria
Maputo
Johannesburg
Cape Town Sydney

Canberra
Melbourne
Wellington
Tasmania
SCALE
0 250 500 750 Mi
0 250 500 750 Km

Projection: Mollweide
70 80
50 60 ºE
10ºE
ºE
20º
30
ºE
40
60ºS ºE
ºE
ºE
0º
ºE ºE E 0ºE
0ºE
E
40º
20ºE
ºE
ºE
80 10
0 12 1 16
60
40
10ºW
N Arctic
Circle
ICELAND W E
Reykjavik
A N T ARCTICA NORWAY
SWEDEN FINLAND
S Helsinki
60ºN Oslo 10 St. Petersburg
Stockholm RUSSIA
NORTH SEA
UNITED DENMARK 9
KINGDOM Copenhagen 8
Europe NETHERLANDS Minsk Moscow
Dublin Amsterdam
The Hague Berlin Warsaw BELARUS
Country Capital IRELAND
London
Brussels GERMANY POLAND Kiev
1 Czech Republic Prague 50ºN BELGIUM 1
UKRAINE
Vienna 2
2 Slovakia Bratislava Paris LUXEMBOURG
Budapest MOLDOVA
ATLANTIC Bern AUSTRIA Chişină u
3 Slovenia Ljubljana SWITZERLAND 3
HUNGARY
ROMANIA
4
4 Croatia Zagreb OCEAN FRANCE
LIECHTENSTEIN
ITALY 5 Bucharest
5 Bosnia and Herzegovina Sarajevo MONACO
7 BULGARIA
SAN MARINO BLACK SEA
Corsica Sofia
6 Macedonia Skopje ANDORRA
(FRANCE) Rome 6
VATICAN CITY Tiranë
7 Serbia Belgrade 40ºN
PORTUGAL Balearic Sardinia ALBANIA
Madrid Is. (SPAIN)
8 Lithuania Vilnius SPAIN
(ITALY) GREECE
Lisbon MEDITERRANEAN SEA
9 Latvia Riga Sicily Athens
10 Estonia Tallinn Gibraltar (U.K.) MALTA Crete
11 Montenegro Podgorica
Maps R61
World Population Density
ºW
20ºW
ºW
ºW
ºW ºW 0ºW
160 140 12 0ºW 80 60
10
40
80ºN
Arctic
60ºN
NORTH AMERICA
Par
40ºN
New York
Los Angeles
AT L A N T I C
OCEAN
Tropic of Cancer
20ºN
Mexico City
0º Equator W E
PACIFIC S
SOUTH
AMERICA
OCEAN
20ºS
Rio de Janeiro
Tropic of Capricorn
São Paulo
SCALE
0 1,500 3,000 Miles
AT L A N T I C
Projection: Robinson
Buenos Aires OCEAN
40ºS
20ºW
40ºW
60ºS
SOUTHERN OCEAN
Antarctic Circle
10
12
80
0º
0º
14 W
W
ºW
0º
Persons per Persons per W
sq mi sq km
16
520 200
80ºS 0ºW
AN
260 100
130 50
25 10
3 1
0 0
Metropolitan areas with more
than 10 million inhabitants
R62 Appendix K
80 10 12 140 160
20ºE
0º
0º 0ºE
40
ºE ºE ºE
60
E
ºE
ºE
80ºN
A R C TIC OCE A N
tic Circle
60ºN
AS I A
Moscow
EUROPE
aris
Istanbul Beijing 40ºN
Tokyo
Osaka
Delhi Shanghai
Cairo
Dhaka
Karachi Tropic of Cancer
Kolkata 20ºN
AFRICA Mumbai (Calcutta)
(Bombay) Manila
PA C I F I C
Lagos OCEAN
Equator 0º
Jakarta
INDIAN OC E A N
20ºS
Tropic of Capricorn
AUSTRALIA
40ºS
60ºS
40ºE
E
20ºE
ºE
E
E
ºE
0º
0
60º
0º
14
0º
80
10
12
Antarctic Circle
E
0º
16
NTA R C T I C A
Maps R63
World Carbon Dioxide Emissions Per Person
N
OCEA
TIC Greenland
ARC
(DENMARK)

Arctic
ICELAND
Alaska
(U.S.)
60ºN
s
la n d CANADA
n Is
A le
u t ia
NORTH
AMERICA ATLANTIC
40ºN UNITED
STATES
OCEAN
Bermuda MOROCCO
(U.K.)

WESTERN
MEXICO SAHARA
Tropic of Cancer (Claimed by
Morocco)
20ºN Hawaii
MAURITANIA
(U.S.)
MALI

CAPE VERDE SENEGAL
GAMBIA
BURKINA
GUINEA-BISSAU FASO
GUINEA

GHANA
VENEZUELA GUYANA SURINAME SIERRA CÔTE

LEONE D’IVOIRE
LIBERIA
PACIFIC FRENCH GUIANA N
(FRANCE) EQUATORIAL
COLOMBIA GUINEA

0º Equator Galápagos ECUADOR W E
KIRIBATI Islands
OCEAN (ECUADOR)
PERU
SOUTH S
AMERICA
BRAZIL
SAMOA American
Samoa French
Polynesia BOLIVIA

20ºS TONGA
PARAGUAY
Tropic of Capricorn
CHILE
ARGENTINA ATLANTIC

URUGUAY
OCEAN
40ºS
SCALE
0 1,000 2,000 Miles
20ºW
40ºW
Projection: Mollweide Falkland
Islands South
(U.K.)
Georgia South Sandwich
Island Islands
(U.K.)
N 90ºW 80ºW 60ºS
160 140 12 10 80
FLORIDA (U.S.) 0ºW 0º ºW
SOUTHERN OCEAN
60
ºW ºW W

ºW
W E Antarctic Circle
BAHAMAS 70º W
S GULF OF MEXICO
Tropic of Cancer
Turks and Caicos Is. 60ºW
CUBA (U.K.)
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Puerto Rico
(U.S.) 20ºN
Cayman Is. HAITI DOMINICAN Virgin Islands
(U.S. and U.K.)
(U.K.) REPUBLIC

JAMAICA

1
Caribbean
MEXICO BELIZE
2 Country
Guadeloupe (FRANCE)
GUATEMALA CARIBBEAN SEA 3 1 Antigua and Barbuda
HONDURAS
Netherlands Martinique (FRANCE)
Aruba
Antilles
4 2 St. Kitts-Nevis
(NETHERLANDS)
EL SALVADOR NICARAGUA (NETHERLANDS)
5 6 3 Dominica

7 4 St. Lucia
TRINIDAD AND
5 St. Vincent and the Grenadines
PACIFIC OCEAN COSTA RICA TOBAGO 6 Barbados
30º N
SCALE 7 Grenada
0 200 400 Miles VENEZUELA
PANAMA
COLOMBIA GUYANA
Projection: Mercator
R64 Appendix K
ARCTIC
OCEAN
Carbon Dioxide Emissions
(metric tons per capita)
20+
Circle
15–19
RUSSIA
60ºN 10–14
5–9
E UROPE <5
KAZAKHSTAN Data not available
MONGOLIA

GEORGIA
UZBEKISTAN ASIA NORTH Developed countries
KYRGYZSTAN KOREA
ARMENIA 40ºN
TURKEY
TURKMENISTAN
TAJIKISTAN JAPAN Developing countries
AZERBAIJAN
SYRIA CHIN A SOUTH Least-developed countries
TUNISIA

CYPRUS IRAQ IRAN KOREA
LEBANON
AFGHANISTAN

Sources: UN Population Division
KUWAIT
ALGERIA
JORDAN
ISRAEL BAHRAIN PAKISTAN NEPAL and World Bank Group.
LIBYA BHUTAN
EGYPT QATAR OMAN

SAUDI
ARABIA BANGLADESH
INDIA HONG TAIWAN
Tropic of Cancer
A F RICA UNITED ARAB
EMIRATES
OMAN
MYANMAR
(BURMA) LAOS
KONG
MACAU 20ºN

LI
NIGER CHAD ERITREA
Northern
Mariana
PACIFIC
YEMEN
THAILAND Islands
SUDAN VIETNAM
CAMBODIA
(U.S.)
PHILIPPINES Guam (U.S.)
A
O
BENIN
DJIBOUTI

OCEAN MARSHALL
ISLANDS
A NIGERIA SRI
TOGO CENTRAL ETHIOPIA LANKA PALAU
AFRICAN S. SUDAN
BRUNEI
REPUBLIC FEDERATED STATES
CAMEROON
L SOMALIA MALAYSIA
OF MICRONESIA
A UGANDA

MALDIVES
REP. KENYA SINGAPORE
Equator 0º
GABON OF THE
SÃO TOMÉ CONGO RWANDA I N D O N E S I A NAURU KIRIBATI
AND DEMOCRATIC BURUNDI
PRÍNCIPE

REPUBLIC
OF THE CONGO
SEYCHELLES
PAPUA
NEW
CABINDA TANZANIA GUINEA
(ANGOLA) SOLOMON TUVALU
EAST TIMOR ISLANDS
COMOROS
INDIAN OCEAN (U.N. Administered)
ANGOLA
MALAWI
ZAMBIA MOZAMBIQUE

FIJI
VANUATU
MADAGASCAR New Caledonia
ZIMBABWE
(FRANCE)
20ºS
NAMIBIA MAURITIUS
Réunion
BOTSWANA (FRANCE)
Tropic of Capricorn
AUSTRALIA
SWAZILAND

LESOTHO

SOUTH
AFRICA

NEW
ZEALAND

Tasmania
50 60 70 80
ºE ºE
10ºE
20º
30
ºE
40
60ºS ºE
ºE
ºE
0º
E E ºE E E
E
º º
0º º
140 160
20ºE
20
ºE
ºE
8 1 00 1
60
40
0º
10ºW
N Arctic
Circle
ICELAND W E
SCALE
AANNTTAARCTICA
RCTICA NORWAY
SWEDEN
FINLAND 0 250 500 750 Mi
S
60ºN
10
0 250 500 750 Km
NORTH SEA
UNITED DENMARK 9 Projection: Mollweide
KINGDOM 8
Europe NETHERLANDS
IRELAND BELARUS
RUSSIA
Country POLAND
GERMANY

BELGIUM
1 Czech Republic 50ºN 1 UKRAINE
2
2 Slovakia LUXEMBOURG MOLDOVA
ATLANTIC FRANCE AUSTRIA HUNGARY
3 Slovenia 3
SWITZERLAND ROMANIA
4 Croatia 4

OCEAN MONACO
LIECHTENSTEIN
ITALY 5
5 Bosnia and Herzegovina SAN MARINO
7
BULGARIA BLACK SEA
Corsica
6 Macedonia ANDORRA
(FRANCE) ALBANIA 6
7 Serbia PORTUGAL Balearic
VATICAN CITY
40ºN SPAIN Sardinia
Lithuania Is. (SPAIN)
8 (ITALY) GREECE
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
9 Latvia Sicily
10 Estonia Gibraltar (U.K.) MALTA Crete
11 Montenegro
90pw x 58ph
Maps
World Carbon Dioxide Emissions R65
HES04SBKMMAP005A
HRW Environmental Sciences
U.S. Physical Relief
50N
120W
115W
110W
105W
100W
W
130
Jua S
n detrait of
Fuc
a
W
Frank
125
Pu Roos lin D.
Flathe
Sou get evelt
nd Lake Pend
Mou Oreille
nt R
ad River
Lake
LE
E
14,4 ainier
WI
(4,3910 ft.
G
45N
Cl
Milk
S
R
2 m) Riv
ar
RA
Flathe er
kF
N
Lake ad
NG
E
or
BIT
A
k
Colu M is souri Rive
O
mbia r
River
TER
Red R
r Lake
Fort Peck Sakakawea
G
ive
RO
Lake
C
S al
ette R
E
E S
m
iver
O T er
COLU
o n Ri
v
D
llam
Rive r
R
e
ston
K
SALM
A
low
N G
Yel
Wi
R IV E O N
RA
C
R
MBIA
MTS.
NG
Lake
E
Y
S SAW
r
E
R A
TOO
ve
Oahe
MTS. TH
A
BI
Ri
Yellowsto
GH
ne
Bigho River
CO
C
PLA
Lake
A
ORN TS.
er
NTI
RAN ON
Powd
GE
Snake er
Jam
iv e Riv
rn
NE
r
TET
lamath R Goose
TE
BLACK
M
40N
NTA
W
es
ve Gannett HILLS
K
Ri
Lake
ne
Ri ind
T
Men Cape Pea
AU
r
13,804 k ve en
L
doc White Riv e r
C O A S T
E
ino r ey
Riv e
(4,207 mft.
RANG
Ch
WIIVER E
R NG
)
RA
Shas
ND
PA Lake ta
r
C
OC IFIC
River
brara
S a cramento River
M O
ATCH
N Nio Misso
EA
SIE R R A
Pyram or
FR
Lake id u
N
GRE
Great
th
I
WAS
Pla
N
ri R
DI
Salt
AT
CENTRAL VA
ON
t te
VID
iver
Lake
UINTA Riv T
E
er
E
T
MTS.
te River
San Lake T Utah
Fran
cisc ahoe Lake
iver R lat
I OP
U N
o Ba
eR
y
att
BAS S o ut h Pl
NE
er
RANGE
R
Riv
IN
P
Republican
Green
VA
r
L LE
Mon ve River
tere o Ri
San
Bay
y ad
or
DA
Y
Mount El
L
er
C OA
bert
125W
Jo
l
aq
u i n R iv
Co
T A I N
14,433 ft. Pikes Peak sa
COLO (4,399 m Kan s
14,110 ft.
RADO ) Smoky Hill Rive
ST
(4,301 m) r
A
35N Moun Lake
tW
14,49 hitney Powell
RA
DEA T
(4,41 4 ft. San J
E DE CRISTO
9 m)
NG
I
GRAN ua
VA
D R iv
n
PLATE
ES
Lake er SAN
LL
Y CANY AU LUIS
E
orado R iver
MOJAVE Mead ON
MTS.
VALLEY
N
PAIN
Ark
DESERT
an s
SANGR
Ch as
TED
an
ne ID E Keystone Lake
l DI V
S
ian River
S
nad
Col
Isl
D
an Ca
ES
ds
ER
Salton
T
Sea
IM ALL
PE E
V
RI Y
AL
G il a River Lake
N TAL
Texoma
30 N SONO
RAN
NE
DESER
TI
N
CO
T
Tr
in
Gulf o
Bra
ity
Califo f
zos
rnia Peco
sR Colo
ive
r
rad
Riv
o Ri
115W
120W
er
r
e v
Rio Amistad
Reservoir
Kauai
0
22N ARCTIC OCEAN

18
F
Gr
Oahu
Niihau PACIFIC OCEAN
an
Arc
N
R Utic Circ L
de
Molokai
BR U
160W
S S le OOK Nue
it
W E Lanai 170E
Maui IA S RANGE G
ra
ce er
Riv
St
s
g
Kahoolawe
rin
S 6Mauna Kea
M E X IC O
Be
0 N13,796 ft. er
SCALE St. n Riv
(4,205 m) Law Y uko
0 75 150 Miles Hawaii ren Ta 65 N Falcon Padre
Isla ce n an Lake
155W
nd aR Island
19N St. i ve
105W
M A
CANAD
0 75 150 Kilometers Isla atth r
nd ew RANGE
60 N Mount McKinley
r
ve
55
A
20,320 ft.
Ri
SK
N N BERING SEA Nun Kusko k w i (6,194 m)

m
W
0E
ALA
iv 25N
At
SCALE Isla ak
17
tu nd
Isl
an 0 250 500 Miles 60 N
d E
S
130 W
50 A
140 W
N l e 0 250 500 Kilometers

u Projection: Albers Equal Area
t i GULF OF
a n Kodiak
I s l a n d
s Island ALASKA Alexander
Archipelago
150 W
PACIFIC
W
160 W
OCEAN 55 N
170
100W
0
18
R66 Appendix K
#?--30c45m
80W
70 W
75W
90W
85W
60 W
65W
50 N
CA NA DA
St.
Jo
hn
iv e 45N
R
r
ay
aw
Se
S.
Isle ce
MT
Royale
P enobscot
GE Supe
re
ke
OW
RAN rio
aw
La
R i v er
MESABI r
.L
LL
er
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Projection: Albers Equal Area 20N
90 W
85W
80 W
Maps R67
U.S., Canada, and Mexico Climate Regions
10ºE
0º
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20ºW 0º
30
40 ºW
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SCALE
Chihuahua Houston
20º 0 100 200 Miles
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Miami
N MAS Can
Monterrey P e te rsburg BAHA
Trop
ic o f
St.
Projection: Albers Equal Area
MEXICO GULF OF MEX
ICO 20ºN
CUBA AN
INIC
Tampico DOM BLIC
Guadalajara I REPU
HAIT RICO
110ºW
RTO (U.S.)
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Mexico Veracruz JAMAIC

A
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GUATEMALA
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W E SCALE COSTA RIC

A
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S MBIA
Mediterranean Icecap 0 250 500 Kilometers COLO
Projection: Azimuthal Equal Area
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100ºW
90ºW
tor
80ºW
70ºW
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R68 Appendix K
#48--20c60y
U.S., Canada, and Mexico Fossil Fuel Deposits
0º
ND
10º
W
LA
AR d
K)
M n
A CE
ICE
º
N nla
180 Beri
60ºN
ng
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Strait
T
BER
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ee
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70
N
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W
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Edmon Jame
s
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cou OF NC
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ºN ane 40
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0 250 500 Miles

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BB EAN
Projection: Azimuthal Equal Area BELIZE
CARI
10º
N W E GUATEMALA
HONDURAS
10ºN
A
EL SALVADOR NICARAGU LA
S EZUE
Oil (Petroleum) VEN
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110ºW
100ºW
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70ºW
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Maps R69
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U.S., Canada, and Mexico Mineral and Energy Resources
0
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ICO
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Ag
Projection: Albers Equal Area 20N
MEXICO CUBA
INIC
AN
Ag Tampico DOMUBLIC
130W
Guadalaja I REP
HAIT
120W
ra S RIC
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Salt power plant 0 250 500 Miles
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COLO
Ag Silver Hydroelectric 0 250 500 Kilometers
power Projection: Azimuthal Equal Area
0
tor
100W
Equa
90W
80W
70W
R70 Appendix K
U.S., Canada, and Mexico Land Use
10E
0
10W
20W
30W
Land Use
4
50 0W
D
W Livestock raising
LAN
60
70W
80W
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110W
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W
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120W
MEXICO CUBA AN
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Guadalajar Tampico DOMUBLIC
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a HAIT RIC
O
RTO (U.S.)
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Mexico JAMA
SEA
130W
City AN
BE
BELIZE
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10N
GUATEMALA
155W
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N HONDURAS
10N
Honolulu A
EL SALVADOR NICARAGU ELA
160W
EZU
HAWAII VEN
W E
20N CA
SCALE COSTA RI A
PANAM
0 100 200 Miles S SCALE
0 250 500 Miles
MBIA
Projection: Albers Equal Area COLO
0 0 250 500 Kilometers
Projection: Azimuthal Equal Area 0
110W
120W
tor
100W
Equa
90W
80W
R71
70W
Maps
english and spanish Glossary
A agriculture the raising of crops and livestock for

food or for other products that are useful to
abiotic (ay bie AHT ik) factor describes the non- humans (10)
living part of the environment, including water, agricultura cultivar cosechas y criar ganado para
rocks, light, and temperature (94) usarlos como alimento o para producir productos
factor abiótic un factor ambiental que no está útiles para los seres humanos (10)
asociado con las actividades de los seres vivos (94)
air pollution the contamination of the atmosphere
acid precipitation precipitation, such as rain, sleet, by the introduction of pollutants from human and
or snow, that contains a high concentration of natural sources (303)
acids, often because of the pollution of the atmo- contaminación del aire la contaminación de la
sphere (314) atmósfera debido a la introducción de contami-
precipitación ácida precipitación tal como lluvia, nantes provenientes de fuentes humanas y naturals
aguanieve o nieve, que contiene una alta concen- (303)
tración de ácidos debido a la contaminación de la
atmósfera (314) alternative energy energy that does not come from
fossil fuels and that is still in development (466)
acid shock the sudden runoff of large amounts of energía alternativa energía que no proviene de
highly acidic water into lakes and streams when los combustibles fósiles y que todavía se encuentra
snow melts in the spring or when heavy rains en desarrollo (466)
follow a drought (316)
cambio brusco de la acidez entrada súbita de altitude the height of an object above a reference
grandes cantidades de agua muy ácida a los lagos y point, such as sea level or the Earth’s surface (145)
arroyos cuando la nieve se derrite en la primavera altitud la altura de un objeto sobre un punto de
o cuando llueve en abundancia después de una referencia, tal como el nivel del mar o la superficie
sequía (316) de la Tierra (145)
active solar heating the gathering of solar energy by angiosperm (AN jee oh spuhrm) a flowering plant
collectors that are used to heat water or heat a that produces seeds within a fruit (105)
building (460) angiosperma una planta que da flores y que
calentamiento solar activo la recopilación de produce semillas dentro de la fruta (105)
energía solar por medio de colectores que se usan
para calentar agua o un edificio (460) aquaculture (AK wuh kuhl chuhr) the raising of
aquatic plants and animals for human use or
adaptation the process of becoming adapted to an consumption (396)
environment; an anatomical, physiological, or acuacultura el cultivo de plantas y animales
behavioral change that improves a population’s acuáticos para uso o consumo humano (396)
ability to survive (99)
adaptación el proceso de adaptarse a un ambi- aquifer a body of rock or sediment that stores
ente; un cambio anatómico, fisiológico o en la groundwater and allows the flow of groundwater
conducta que mejora la capacidad de superviven- (273)
cia de una población (99) acuífero un cuerpo rocoso o sedimento que
almacena agua subterránea y permite que fluya
age structure the classification of members of a (273)
population into groups according to age or the
distribution of members of a population in terms of
age groups (220)
estructura de edades la clasificación en grupos de
los miembros de una población en función de su
edad, o bien, la distribución de los miembros de
una población en función de grupos de edad (220)
R72 English and Spanish Glossary

archaea prokaryotes (most of which are known to
live in extreme environments) that are distiguished
B
from other prokaryotes by differences in their bacteria extremely small, single-celled organisms
genetics and in the makeup of their cell wall; that usually have a cell wall and reproduce by cell
members of the domain Archaea (singular, ar- division (singular, bacterium) (102)
chaeon) (102) bacterias organismos extremadamente pequeños,
arqueas procariotes (la mayoría de los cuales unicelulares, que normalmente tienen pared
viven en ambientes extremos) que se distinguen de celular y se reproducen por división celular (102)
otros procariotes por diferencias genéticas y por la
diferente composición de su pared celular; miem- barrier island a long ridge of sand or narrow island
bros del dominio Archaea (102) that lies parallel to the shore (182)
isla barrera un largo arrecife de arena o una isla
artificial eutrophication a process that increases angosta ubicada paralela a la costa (182)
the amount of nutrients in a body of water through
human activities, such as waste disposal and land benthic zone the bottom region of oceans and bodies
drainage (288) of fresh water (174)
eutrificación artificial un proceso que aumenta la zona bentónica la región del fondo de los océanos
cantidad de nutrientes en una masa de agua y de las masas de agua dulce (174)
debido a actividades humanas, tales como el
desecho de residuos y el drenaje de la tierra (288) benthos organisms that live at the bottom of oceans
or bodies of fresh water (173)
artificial selection the selective breeding of organ- benthos organismos que viven en el fondo de los
isms (by humans) for specific desirable character- océanos o de las masas de agua dulce (173)
istics (100)
selección artificial la reproducción selectiva de biodegradable capable of being broken down by
organismos (por los seres humanos) para obtener biological processes, such as the action of bacteria
características específicas deseables (100) (483)
biodegradable algo que puede ser descompuesto
asbestos any of six silicate minerals that form por medio de procesos biológicos, tales como la
bundles of minute fibers that are heat resistant, acción de las bacterias (483)
flexible, and durable (312)
asbesto cualquiera de seis minerales de silicato biodiversity the variety of organisms in a given area,
que forman montones de fibras diminutas que son the genetic variation within a population, the
resistentes al calor, flexibles y resistentes (312) variety of species in a community, or the variety of
communities in an ecosystem (15, 241)
asthenosphere the solid, plastic layer of the mantle biodiversidad la variedad de organismos que se
beneath the lithosphere; made of mantle rock that encuentran en un área determinada, la variación
flows very slowly, which allows tectonic plates to genética dentro de una población, la variedad de
move on top of it (61) especies en una comunidad o la variedad de
astenosfera la capa sólida y plástica del manto, comunidades en un ecosistema (15, 241)
que se encuentra debajo de la litosfera; está
formada por roca del manto que fluye muy lenta- Biodiversity Treaty an international agreement
mente, lo cual permite que las placas tectónicas se aimed at strengthening national control and
muevan en su superficie (61) preservation of biological resources; associated
with the UN Conference on Environment and
atmosphere a mixture of gases that surrounds a Development (UNCED or Earth summit) in 1992
planet, such as Earth (67) (257)
atmósfera una mezcla de gases que rodea un Tratado de la Biodiversidad un acuerdo interna-
planeta, tal como la Tierra (67) cional cuyo objetivo es fortalecer el control y
conservación nacional de los recursos biológicos;
asociado con la Conferencia de las Naciones
Unidas sobre el Medio Ambiente y el Desarrollo
(UNCED o Cumbre de la Tierra) en 1992 (257)

biological pest control the use of certain organisms carrying capacity the largest population that an
by humans to eliminate or control pests (391) environment can support at any given time (200)
control biológico de plagas el uso de ciertos capacidad de carga la población más grande que
organismos por parte de los seres humanos para un ambiente puede sostener en cualquier mo-
eliminar o controlar plagas (391) mento dado (200)
biomagnification the accumulation of pollutants at cellular respiration the process by which cells
successive levels of the food chain (292) produce energy from carbohydrates; atmospheric
bioaumento la acumulación de contaminantes en oxygen combines with glucose to form water and
niveles sucesivos de la cadena alimenticia (292) carbon dioxide (120)
respiración celular el proceso por medio del cual
biomass fuel plant material, manure, or any other las células producen energía a partir de los carbo-
organic matter that is used as an energy source hidratos; el oxígeno atmosférico se combina con la
(462) glucosa para formar agua y dióxido de carbono
combustible de biomasa material vegetal, abono (120)
o cualquier otra materia orgánica que se
use como fuente de energía (462) chaparral a type of vegetation that includes broad-
leafed evergreen shrubs and that is located in areas
biome a large region characterized by a specific type with hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters (158)
of climate and certain types of plant and animal chaparral un tipo de vegetación que incluye
communities (143) arbustos de hoja perenne y ancha, y que se ubica
bioma una región extensa caracterizada por un en áreas donde los veranos son calientes y secos y
tipo de clima específico y ciertos tipos de comuni- los inviernos son templados y húmedos (158)
dades de plantas y animales (143)
chemical weathering the process by which rocks
biosphere the part of Earth where life exists (80) break down as a result of chemical reactions (66)
biosfera la parte de la Tierra donde existe la vida desgaste químico el proceso por medio del cual
(80) las rocas se fragmentan como resultado de reaccio-
nes químicas (66)
biotic factor an environmental factor that is associ-
ated with or results from the activities of living chlorofluorocarbons hydrocarbons in which some
organisms (94) or all of the hydrogen atoms are replaced by
factor biótico un factor ambiental que está chlorine and fluorine; used in coolants for refrig-
asociado con las actividades de los seres vivos o erators and air conditioners and in cleaning
que resulta de ellas (94) solvents; their use is restricted because they
destroy ozone molecules in the stratosphere
(abbreviation, CFCs) (335)
clorofluorocarbonos hidrocarburos en los que
C algunos o todos los átomos de hidrógeno son
reemplazados por cloro y flúor; se usan en líquidos
canopy the layers of treetops that shade the forest
refrigerantes para refrigeradores y aires acondicio-
floor (148)
nados y en solventes para limpieza; su uso está
dosel vegetal las capas de las copas de los árboles restringido porque destruyen las moléculas de
que dan sombra al suelo del bosque (148) ozono de la estratosfera (abreviatura: CFCs) (335)
carbon cycle the movement of carbon from the climate the average weather conditions in an area
nonliving environment into living things and back over a long period of time (144, 327)
(124)
clima las condiciones promedio del tiempo en un
ciclo del carbono el movimiento del carbono del área durante un largo período de tiempo (144, 327)
ambiente sin vida a los seres vivos y de los seres
vivos al ambiente (124) climax community a final, stable community in
equilibrium with the environment (132)
comunidad clímax una comunidad final y estable,
que está en equilibrio con el ambiente (132)

commensalism a relationship between two organ- consumer an organism that eats other organisms or
isms in which one organism benefits and the other organic matter instead of producing its own
is unaffected (209) nutrients or obtaining nutrients from inorganic
comensalismo una relación entre dos organismos sources (118)
en la que uno se beneficia y el otro no es afectado consumidor un organismo que se alimenta de
(209) otros organismos o de materia orgánica, en lugar
de producir sus propios nutrientes o de obtenerlos
community a group of various species that live in de fuentes inorgánicas (118)
the same habitat and interact with each other (96)
comunidad un grupo de varias especies que viven control group in an experiment, a group that serves
en el mismo hábitat e interactúan unas con otras as a standard of comparison with another group to
(96) which the control group is identical except for one
factor (33)
competition the relationship between two species grupo de control en un experimento, un grupo
(or individuals) in which both species (or individ- que sirve como estándar de comparación con otro
uals) attempt to use the same limited resource such grupo, al cual el grupo de control es idéntico
that both are negatively affected by the relationship excepto por un factor (33)
(204)
competencia la relación entre dos especies (o convection the movement of matter due to differ-
individuos) en la que ambas especies (o individ- ences in density that are caused by temperature
uos) intentan usar el mismo recurso limitado, de variations; can result in the transfer of energy
modo que ambas resultan afectadas negativamente as heat (70)
por la relación (204) convección el movimiento de la materia debido a
diferencias en la densidad que se producen por
compost a mixture of decomposing organic matter, variaciones en la temperatura; puede resultar en la
such as manure and rotting plants, that is used as transferencia de energía en forma de calor (70)
fertilizer and soil conditioner (388, 490)
composta una mezcla de materia orgánica en coral reef a limestone ridge found in tropical
descomposición, como por ejemplo, estiércol y climates and composed of coral fragments that are
plantas en estado de putrefacción, que se usa como deposited around organic remains (183)
fertilizante y acondicionador del suelo (388, 490) arrecife de coral una cumbre de piedra caliza
ubicada en climas tropicales, formada por frag-
conceptual model a verbal or graphical explanation mentos de coral depositados alrededor de restos
for how a system works or is organized (43) orgánicos (183)
modelo conceptual una explicación verbal o
gráfica acerca de cómo funciona o está organizado core the central part of the Earth below the mantle;
un sistema (43) also the center of the sun (61)
núcleo la parte central de la Tierra, debajo del
condensation the change of state from a gas to a manto; también, el centro del Sol (61)
liquid (73)
condensación el cambio de estado de gas a correlation the linear dependence between two
líquido (73) variables (35)
correlación la dependencia linear entre dos
conduction the transfer of energy as heat through a variables (35)
material (70)
conducción la transferencia de energía en forma crust the thin and solid outermost layer of the Earth
de calor a través de un material (70) above the mantle (60)
corteza la capa externa, delgada y sólida de la
Tierra, que se encuentra sobre el manto (60)

D demography the study of the characteristics of
populations, especially human populations (219)
dam a structure that is built across a river to control demografía el estudio de las características de las
a river’s flow (280) poblaciones, sobre todo las poblaciones
presa una estructura que se construye a través de humanas (219)
un río para controlar el flujo del río (280)
density the number of individuals of the same
data any pieces of information acquired through species that live in a given unit of area (198)
observation or experimentation (34) densidad el número de individuos de la misma
datos cualquier parte de la información que se especie que viven en una unidad superficial
adquiere por medio de la observación o experi- determinada (198)
mentación (34)
desalination (dee sal uh NAY shuhn) a process of
decibel the most common unit used to measure removing salt from ocean water (283)
loudness (abbreviation, dB) (312) desalación (o desalinización) un proceso de
decibel la unidad más común que se usa para remoción de sal del agua del océano (283)
medir el volumen del sonido (abreviatura: dB)
(312) desert a region that has little or no vegetation, long
periods without rain, and extreme temperatures;
decision-making model a conceptual model that usually found in warm climates (160)
provides a systematic process for making decisions desierto una región con poca vegetación o sin
(45) vegetación, largos períodos sin lluvia y tempera-
modelo de toma de decisiones un modelo turas extremas; generalmente se ubica en climas
conceptual que brinda un proceso sistemático para calientes (160)
tomar decisiones (45)
desertification the process by which human
decomposer an organism that feeds by breaking activities or climatic changes make arid or semiarid
down organic matter from dead organisms; areas more desertlike (386)
examples include bacteria and fungi (119) desertificación el proceso por medio del cual las
descomponedor un organismo que desintegra la actividades humanas o los cambios climáticos
materia orgánica de organismos muertos y se hacen que un área árida o semiárida se vuelva más
alimenta de ella; entre los ejemplos se encuentran parecida a un desierto (386)
las bacterias y los hongos (119)
diet the type and amount of food that a person eats
deep-well injection deep-well disposal of hazard- (380)
ous waste (496) dieta el tipo y cantidad de alimento que come una
inyección a pozo profundo método de desecho persona (380)
de residuos peligrosos por inyección a pozo (496)
dispersion in ecology, the pattern of distribution of
deforestation the process of clearing forests (366) organisms in a population (198)
deforestación el proceso de talar bosques (366) dispersión en ecología, el patrón de distribución
de organismos en una población (198)
demographic transition the general pattern of
demographic change from high birth and death distribution the relative arrangement of the mem-
rates to low birth and death rates, as observed in bers of a statistical population; usually shown in a
the history of more-developed countries (223) graph (39)
transición demográfica el patrón general de distribución la organización relativa de los
cambio demográfico de tasas de nacimiento y miembros de una población estadística; normal-
mortalidad altas a tasas de nacimiento y mortali- mente se muestra en una gráfica (39)
dad bajas, tal como se observa en la historia de los
países más desarrollados (223) domesticated describes organisms that have been
bred and managed for human use (395)
domesticado término que describe a organismos
que han sido reproducidos y criados para uso
humano (395)

dose the amount of a harmful substance to which a ecosystem services the role that organisms play in
person is exposed; the quantity of medicine that creating a healthful environment for humans (357)
needs to be taken over a period of time (512) servicios del ecosistema el papel que juegan los
dosis la cantidad de medicina que se necesita organismos en la creación de un ambiente salu-
tomar durante un período de tiempo; también, la dable para los seres humanos (357)
cantidad de una sustancia dañina a la que está
expuesta una persona (512) ecotourism a form of tourism that supports the
conservation and sustainable development of
dose-response curve a graph that shows the relative ecologically unique areas (244)
effect of various doses of a drug or chemical on an ecoturismo una forma de turismo que apoya la
organism or organisms (512) conservación y desarrollo sustentable de áreas
curva de dosis-respuesta una gráfica que muestra ecológicamente únicas (244)
el efecto relativo de varias dosis de un medica-
mento o substancia química en un organismo u electric generator a device that converts mechani-
organismos (512) cal energy into electrical energy (436)
descarga eléctrica la liberación de electricidad
almacenada en una fuente (436)
E El Niño (el NEEN yoh) the warm phase of the El

Niño–Southern Oscillation; a periodic occurrence
ecological footprint a calculation that shows the in the eastern Pacific Ocean in which the surface-
productive area of Earth needed to support one water temperature becomes unusually warm (332)
person in a particular country (19)
El Niño la fase caliente de la Oscilación Sureña “El
huella ecológica un cálculo que muestra el área Niño”; un fenómeno periódico que ocurre en el
productiva de la Tierra que se requiere para océano Pacífico oriental en el que la temperatura
mantener a una persona en un cierto país (19) del agua superficial se vuelve más caliente que de
costumbre (332)
ecological succession a gradual process of change
and replacement in a community (129) emergent layer the top foliage layer in a forest
sucesión ecológica un proceso gradual de cambio where the trees extend above surrounding trees
y sustitución en una comunidad (129) (148)
capa emergente la capa superior de follaje en un
ecology the study of the interactions of living
bosque, en la que los árboles se extienden sobre los
organisms with one another and with their envi-
árboles circundantes (148)
ronment (6)
ecología el estudio de las interacciones de los seres endangered species a species that has been identi-
vivos entre sí mismos y entre sí mismos y su fied to be in danger of extinction throughout all or
ambiente (6) a significant part of its range, and that is thus under
protection by regulations or conservation measures
economics the study of how individuals and groups (245)
make decisions about the production, distribution,
especie en peligro de extinción una especie que
and consumption of limited resources as the
se ha identificado como en peligro de extinción en
individuals or groups attempt to fulfill their needs
toda su zona de distribución o en una parte
and wants (535)
importante de ella, y que, por lo tanto, se encuentra
economía el estudio de cómo los individuos y protegida por normas y medidas de conservación
grupos toman decisiones acerca de la producción, (245)
distribución y consumo de recursos limitados, al
mismo tiempo que estos individuos o grupos Endangered Species Act an act that the U.S.
intentan satisfacer sus necesidades y deseos (535) Congress passed in 1973 to protect any plant or
animal species in danger of extinction (255)
ecosystem a community of organisms and their
Ley de Especies en Peligro de Extinción una ley
abiotic environment (93)
que el Congreso de los Estados Unidos emitió en
ecosistema una comunidad de organismos y su 1973 cuyo fin es proteger las especies de animales
ambiente abiótico (93) o plantes que están en peligro de extinguirse (255)

endemic species a species that is native to a par- erosion a process in which the materials of Earth’s
ticular place and that is found only there (248) surface are loosened, dissolved, or worn away and
especie endémica una especie que es nativa de transported from one place to another by a natural
un lugar particular y que únicamente se encuentra agent, such as wind, water, ice, or gravity (66, 386)
allí (248) erosión un proceso por medio del cual los mate-
riales de la superficie de la Tierra se aflojan,
energy conservation the process of saving energy disuelven o desgastan y son transportados de un
by reducing energy use and waste (470) lugar a otro por un agente natural, como el viento,
conservación de energía el proceso de ahorrar el agua, el hielo o la gravedad (66, 386)
energía al reducir el uso y el gasto inútil de energía
(470) estuary an area where fresh water from rivers mixes
with salt water from the ocean; the part of a river
energy efficiency the percentage of energy put into where the tides meet the river current (179)
a system that does useful work (468) estuario un área donde el agua dulce de los ríos se
eficiencia energética el porcentaje de energía que mezcla con el agua salada del océano; la parte de
se pone en un sistema que realiza un trabajo útil un río donde las mareas se encuentran con la
(468) corriente del río (179)
Environmental Impact Statement an assessment of eutrophication an increase in the amount of

the effect of a proposed project or law on the nutrients, such as nitrates, in a marine or aquatic
environment (541) ecosystem (175)
Evaluación del Impacto Ambiental una evalu- eutrofización un aumento en la cantidad de
ación del efecto que una propuesta de proyecto o nutrientes, tales como nitratos, en un ecosistema
ley tendrá en el ambiente (541) marino o acuático (175)
environmental science the study of the air, water, evaporation the change of state from a liquid to a
and land surrounding an organism or a commu- gas (73)
nity, which ranges from a small area to Earth’s evaporación el cambio de estado de líquido a gas
entire biosphere; it includes the study of the impact (73)
of humans on the environment (5)
ciencias ambientales el estudio del aire, agua y evolution a heritable change in the characteristics
tierra circundantes en relación con un organismo o within a population from one generation to the
comunidad, desde un área pequeña de la Tierra next; the development of new types of organisms
hasta la biosfera completa; incluye el estudio del from preexisting types of organisms over time (97)
impacto que los seres humanos tienen en el evolución un cambio hereditario en las caracter-
ambiente (5) ísticas de una población que se produce de una
generación a la siguiente; el desarrollo de nuevos
epidemiology (ep uh dee me AHL uh jee) the study
tipos de organismos a partir de organismos
of the distribution of diseases in populations and
preexistentes a lo largo del tiempo (97)
the study of factors that influence the occurrence
and spread of disease (513) exotic species a species that is not native to a
epidemiología el estudio de la distribución de las particular region (247)
enfermedades en poblaciones y el estudio de los especie exótica una especie que no es originaria
factores que influyen en la incidencia y propa- de una región en particular (247)
gación de las enfermedades (513)
experiment a procedure that is carried out under
epiphyte a plant that uses another plant for support, controlled conditions to discover, demonstrate, or
but not for nourishment (148) test a fact, theory, or general truth (33)
epifita una planta que utiliza otra planta para experimento un procedimiento que se lleva a
sostenerse pero no para alimentarse (148) cabo bajo condiciones controladas para descubrir,
demostrar o probar un hecho, teoría o verdad
general (33)

experimental group in an experiment, a group that fossil fuel a nonrenewable energy resource formed
is identical to a control group except for one factor from the remains of organisms that lived long ago;
and that is compared with the control group (33) examples include oil, coal, and natural gas (435)
grupo experimental en un experimento, un grupo combustible fósil un recurso energético no
que es idéntico al grupo de control, excepto por un renovable formado a partir de los restos de organis-
factor, y que es comparado con el grupo de control mos que vivieron hace mucho tiempo; algunos
(33) ejemplos incluyen el petróleo, el carbón y el gas
natural (435)
exponential growth logarithmic growth, or growth
in which numbers increase by a certain factor in fresh water water that contains insignificant
each successive time period (199) amounts of salts, as in rivers and lakes (79)
crecimiento exponencial crecimiento logarítmico agua dulce agua que contiene una cantidad
o crecimiento en el que los números aumentan en insignificante de sales, como el agua de los ríos y
función de un cierto factor en cada período de lagos (79)
tiempo sucesivo (199)
fuel cell a device that produces electricity chemi-
cally by combining hydrogen fuel with oxygen from
the air (468)
F pila de combustible un aparato que produce
electricidad químicamente al combinar combus-
famine widespread malnutrition and starvation in
tible de hidrógeno con oxígeno del aire (468)
an area due to a shortage of food, usually caused by
a catastrophic event (379) fungus an organism whose cells have nuclei, rigid
hambruna desnutrición e inanición generalizadas cell walls, and no chlorophyll and that belongs to
en un área debido a una escasez de alimento, the kingdom Fungi (103)
normalmente causada por un suceso catastrófico hongo un organismo que tiene células con
(379) núcleos y pared celular rígida, pero carece de
clorofila, perteneciente al reino Fungi (103)
fertility rate the average number of children a
woman of childbearing years would have in her
lifetime, if she had children at the current rate for
her country (221) G
tasa de fertilidad el número promedio de hijos
que una mujer en edad fértil tendría durante su gene a segment of DNA that is located in a chromo-
vida si tuviese hijos de acuerdo con el índice some and that codes for a specific hereditary trait
vigente para su país (221) (242)
gene un segmento de ADN ubicado en un cromo-
food chain the pathway of energy transfer through soma, que codifica para un carácter hereditario
various stages as a result of the feeding patterns of específico (242)
a series of organisms (122)
cadena alimenticia la vía de transferencia de genetic engineering a technology in which the
energía través de varias etapas, que ocurre como genome of a living cell is modified for medical or
resultado de los patrones de alimentación de una industrial use (393)
serie de organismos (122) ingeniería genética una tecnología en la que el
genoma de una célula viva se modifica con fines
food web a diagram that shows the feeding relation- médicos o industriales (393)
ships between organisms in an ecosystem (122)
red alimenticia un diagrama que muestra las geographic information system an automated
relaciones de alimentación entre los organismos de system for capturing, storing, retrieving, analyzing,
un ecosistema (122) manipulating, and displaying geographic data
(abbreviation, GIS) (351)
sistema de información geográfica un sistema
automatizado que sirve para capturar, almacenar,
obtener, analizar, manipular y mostrar datos
geográficos (abreviatura: SIG) (351)

geosphere the mostly solid, rocky part of Earth; gymnosperm (JIM noh spuhrm) a woody vascular
extends from the center of the core to the surface of seed plant whose seeds are not enclosed by an
the crust (59) ovary or fruit (105)
geosfera la capa de la Tierra que es principal- gimnosperma una planta leñosa y vascular, la
mente sólida y rocosa; se extiende desde el centro cual produce semillas que no están contenidas en
del núcleo hasta la superficie de la corteza terrestre un ovario o fruto (105)
(59)
geothermal energy the energy produced by heat

within Earth (464) H
energía geotérmica la energía producida por el
calor del interior de la Tierra (464) habitat the place where an organism usually lives
(96)
germ plasm hereditary material (chromosomes and hábitat el lugar donde un organismo vive normal-
genes) that is usually contained in the protoplasm mente (96)
of germ cells (253)
plasma germinal material hereditario (cromoso- habitat conservation plan a land-use plan that
mas y genes) que normalmente se encuentra attempts to protect threatened or endangered
contenido en el protoplasma de las células germi- species across a given area by allowing some
nales (253) tradeoffs between harm to the species and addi-
tional conservation commitments among cooper-
global warming a gradual increase in average global ating parties (255)
temperature (341) plan de conservación del hábitat un plan de uso
calentamiento global un aumento gradual de la de la tierra que tiene como objetivo proteger a las
temperatura global promedio (341) especies amenazadas o en peligro de extinción en
un área determinada, permitiendo algunas com-
greenhouse effect the warming of the surface and pensaciones entre el daño a las especies y compro-
lower atmosphere of Earth that occurs when misos adicionales de conservación entre las partes
carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases in the en cooperación (255)
air absorb and reradiate infrared radiation (72)
efecto de invernadero el calentamiento de la hazardous wastes wastes that are a risk to the
superficie terrestre y de la parte más baja de la health of humans or other living organisms (493)
atmósfera, el cual se produce cuando el dióxido de residuos peligrosos residuos que son un riesgo
carbono, el vapor de agua y otros gases del aire para la salud de los seres humano y otros seres
absorben radiación infrarroja y la vuelven a irradiar vivos (493)
(72)
heat island an area in which the air temperature is
greenhouse gas a gas composed of molecules that generally higher than the temperature of surround-
absorb and radiate infrared radiation from the sun ing rural areas (360)
(339) isla de calor un área en la que la temperatura del
gas de invernadero un gas compuesto de molécu- aire es generalmente más alta que la temperatura
las que absorben radiación infrarroja del Sol y la de las áreas rurales circundantes (360)
vuelven a irradiar (339)
host an organism from which a parasite takes food
groundwater the water that is beneath the Earth’s or shelter (519)
surface (272) huésped el organismo del cual un parásito obtiene
agua subterránea el agua que está debajo de la alimento y refugio (519)
superficie de la Tierra (272)
hydroelectric energy electrical energy produced by
growth rate an expression of the increase in the size the flow of water (463)
of an organism or population over a given period of energía hidroeléctrica energía eléctrica produ-
time (198) cida por el flujo del agua (463)
tasa de crecimiento una expresión del aumento
en el tamaño de un organismo o población a lo hydrosphere the portion of Earth that is water (59)
largo de un cierto período de tiempo (198) hidrosfera la porción de la Tierra que es agua (59)

hypothesis (hie PAHTH uh sis) a testable idea or
explanation that leads to scientific investigation
L
(32) landfill an area of land or an excavation where
hipótesis una idea o explicación que conlleva a la wastes are placed for permanent disposal (485)
investigación científica y que se puede probar (32) entierro de residuos un área de terreno o una
excavación donde se colocan los residuos para
deshacerse de ellos permanentemente (485)
I land-use planning a set of policies and activities

related to potential uses of land that is put in place
infrastructure the basic facilities of a country or before an area is developed (361)
region, such as roads, bridges, and sewers (225,
planeación del uso de tierras un conjunto de
359)
políticas y actividades relacionadas con los usos
infraestructura los servicios básicos de un país o potenciales de la tierra, que se establecen antes de
región, tales como caminos, puentes y drenaje desarrollar un área (361)
(225, 359)
La Niña (lah NEEN yah) the cool phase of the El
invertebrate (in VUHR tuh brit) an animal that does Niño–Southern Oscillation; a periodic occurrence
not have a backbone (106) in the eastern Pacific Ocean in which the surface-
invertebrado un animal que no tiene columna water temperature becomes unusually cool (332)
vertebral (106) La Niña la fase fría de la Oscilación Sureña “El
Niño”; un fenómeno periódico que ocurre en el
océano Pacífico oriental en el que la temperatura
del agua superficial se vuelve más fría que de
K costumbre (332)
keystone species a species that is critical to the
latitude the distance north or south from the
functioning of the ecosystem in which it lives
equator; expressed in degrees (145, 328)
because it affects the survival and abundance of
many other species in its community (242) latitud la distancia hacia el norte o hacia el sur del
ecuador; se expresa en grados (145, 328)
especie clave una especie que es crítica para el
funcionamiento del ecosistema en el que vive law of supply and demand a law of economics that
porque afecta la supervivencia y abundancia de states that as the demand for a good or service
muchas otras especies en su comunidad (242) increases, the value of the good or service also
increases (17)
Kyoto Protocol an international treaty according to
which developed countries that signed the treaty ley de la oferta y la demanda una ley de
agree to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide economía que establece que al aumentar la
and other gases that may contribute to global demanda de un bien o servicio, el valor del bien o
warming by 2012 (345) servicio también aumenta (17)
Protocolo de Kyoto un tratado internacional en leachate a liquid that has passed through solid
función del cual los países desarrollados que lo waste and has extracted dissolved or suspended
firmaron acceden a reducir sus emisiones de materials from that waste, such as pesticides in the
dióxido de carbono y otros gases que pueden soil (485)
contribuir al calentamiento global para el año 2012
lechado un líquido que ha pasado a través de
(345)
desechos sólidos y ha extraído materiales disueltos o
suspendidos de los desechos, como por ejemplo,
pesticidas en el suelo (485)

least developed countries countries that have been
identified by the United Nations as showing the
M
fewest signs of development in terms of income, malnutrition a disorder of nutrition that results
human resources, and economic diversification when a person does not consume enough of each
(228) of the nutrients that are needed by the human body
países menos desarrollados países que la (379)
Organización de las Naciones Unidas ha identifi- desnutrición un trastorno de nutrición que resulta
cado como los que muestran las menores señales cuando una persona no consume una cantidad
de desarrollo en términos de ingresos, recursos suficiente de cada nutriente que el cuerpo humano
humanos y diversificación económica (228) necesita (379)
life expectancy the average length of time that an mangrove swamp a tropical or subtropical marine
individual is expected to live (222) swamp that is characterized by the abundance of
esperanza de vida la longitud promedio de low to tall trees, especially mangrove trees (182)
tiempo que se espera que un individuo viva (222) manglar un pantano marino tropical o subtropical
que se caracteriza por la abundancia de árboles
lithosphere the solid, outer layer of the Earth that bajos a altos, especialmente árboles de mangle
consists of the crust and the rigid upper part of the (182)
mantle (61)
litosfera la capa externa y sólida de la Tierra que mantle in Earth science, the layer of rock between
está formada por la corteza y la parte superior y the Earth’s crust and core (61)
rígida del manto (61) manto en las ciencias de la Tierra, la capa de roca
que se encuentra entre la corteza terrestre y el
littoral zone a shallow zone in a freshwater habitat núcleo (61)
where light reaches the bottom and nurtures plants
(174) mathematical model one or more equations that
zona litoral una zona poco profunda del hábitat represent the way a system or process works (44)
de agua dulce donde la luz llega al fondo y nutre a modelo matemático una o más ecuaciones que
las plantas (174) representan la forma en que funciona un sistema o
proceso (44)
livestock domesticated animals that are raised to be
used on a farm or ranch or to be sold for profit mean the number obtained by adding up the data
(398) for a given characteristic and dividing this sum by
animales de cría animales domesticados que se the number of individuals (39)
crían para usarse en una granja o rancho o para ser media el número que se obtiene al sumar los
vendidos con el fin de obtener una ganancia (398) datos de una característica determinada y dividir
esta suma entre el número de individuos (39)
lobbying an attempt to influence the decisions of
lawmakers (543) migration in general, any movement of individuals
cabildeo un intento de ejercer una influencia en or populations from one location to another;
las decisiones de los legisladores (543) specifically, a periodic group movement that is
characteristic of a given population or species (221)
migración en general, cualquier movimiento de
individuos o poblaciones de un lugar a otro;
específicamente, un movimiento periódico en
grupo que es característico de una población o
especie determinada (221)

mineral a natural, usually inorganic solid that has a niche (NICH) the unique position occupied by a
characteristic chemical composition, an orderly species, both in terms of its physical use of its
internal structure, and a characteristic set of habitat and its function within an ecological
physical properties (411) community (203)
mineral un sólido natural, normalmente in- nicho la posición única que ocupa una especie,
orgánico, que tiene una composición química tanto en lo que se refiere al uso de su hábitat como
característica, una estructura interna ordenada y en cuanto a su función dentro de una comunidad
propiedades físicas y químicas características (411) ecológica (203)
model a pattern, plan, representation, or description nitrogen cycle the process in which nitrogen
designed to show the structure or workings of an circulates among the air, soil, water, plants, and
object, system, or concept (42) animals in an ecosystem (126)
modelo un diseño, plan, representación o descrip- ciclo del nitrógeno el proceso por medio del cual
ción cuyo objetivo es mostrar la estructura o el nitrógeno circula en el aire, suelo, agua, plantas y
funcionamiento de un objeto, sistema o concepto animales de un ecosistema (126)
(42)
nitrogen-fixing bacteria bacteria that convert
municipal solid waste waste produced by house- atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia (126)
holds and businesses (484) bacterias fijadoras de nitrógeno bacterias que
desechos sólidos municipales desechos produci- transforman el nitrógeno atmosférico en amoniaco
dos por las casas y negocios (484) (126)
mutualism a relationship between two species in nonpoint-source pollution pollution that comes
which both species benefit (208) from many sources rather than from a single
mutualismo una relación entre dos especies en la specific site; an example is pollution that reaches a
que ambas se benefician (208) body of water from streets and storm sewers (285)
contaminación no puntual contaminación que
proviene de muchas fuentes, en lugar de provenir
de un solo sitio específico; un ejemplo es la
N contaminación que llega a una masa de agua a
partir de las calles y los drenajes (285)
natural resource any natural material that is used
by humans, such as water, petroleum, minerals, nuclear energy the energy released by a fission or
forests, and animals (14) fusion reaction; the binding energy of the atomic
recurso natural cualquier material natural que es nucleus (444)
utilizado por los seres humanos, como agua, energía nuclear la energía liberada por una
petróleo, minerales, bosques y animales (14) reacción de fisión o fusión; la energía de enlace del
núcleo atómico (444)
natural selection the process by which individuals
that are better adapted to their environment nuclear fission the process by which the nucleus of
survive and reproduce more successfully than a heavy atom splits into two or more fragments; the
less well adapted individuals do; a theory to process releases neutrons and energy (444)
explain the mechanism of evolution (97)
fisión nuclear el proceso por medio del cual el
selección natural el proceso por medio del cual núcleo de un átomo pesado se divide en dos o más
los individuos que están mejor adaptados a su fragmentos; el proceso libera neutrones y energía
ambiente sobreviven y se reproducen con más (444)
éxito que los individuos menos adaptados; una
teoría que explica el mecanismo de la evolución nuclear fusion the process by which nuclei of small
(97) atoms combine to form a new, more massive
nucleus; the process releases energy (447)
nekton all organisms that swim actively in open
fusión nuclear el proceso por medio del cual los
water, independent of currents (173)
núcleos de átomos pequeños se combinan y
necton todos los organismos que nadan activa- forman un núcleo nuevo con mayor masa; el
mente en las aguas abiertas, de manera independi- proceso libera energía (447)
ente de las corrientes (173)

O ozone hole a thinning of stratospheric ozone that
occurs over the poles during the spring (336)
observation the process of obtaining information by agujero en la capa de ozono un adelgazamiento
using the senses; the information obtained by del ozono estratosférico, el cual occure encima de
using the senses (31) los Polos durante la primavera (336)
observación el proceso de obtener información
por medio de los sentidos; la información que se ozone layer the layer of the atmosphere at an
obtiene al usar los sentidos (31) altitude of 15 to 40 km in which ozone absorbs
ultraviolet solar radiation (335)
ocean thermal energy conversion the use of capa de ozono la capa de la atmó-sfera ubicada a
temperature differences in ocean water to produce una altitud de 15 a 40 km, en la cual el ozono
electricity (abbreviation, OTEC) (467) absorbe la radiación solar (335)
conversión de la energía térmica del océano el
uso de diferencias en la temperatura del agua del
océano para producir electricidad (abreviatura:
OTEC, por sus siglas en inglés) (467) P
oil reserves oil deposits that are discovered and are parasitism a relationship between two species in
in commercial production (442) which one species, the parasite, benefits from the
other species, the host, which is harmed (208)
reservas de petróleo depósitos de petróleo que
son descubiertos y se encuentran en producción parasitismo una relación entre dos especies en la
comercial (442) que una, el parásito, se beneficia de la otra, el
huésped, que resulta perjudicada (208)
ore mineral a mineral that contains one or more
elements of economic value (412) particulates (pahr TIHK yoo lihts) fine particles that
are suspended in the atmosphere and that are
mineral metalífero un mineral que contiene uno
associated with air pollution (514)
o más elementos de valor económico (412)
materia particulada partículas finas que se
organism a living thing; anything that can carry out encuentran suspendidas en la atmósfera y que
life processes independently (95) están relacionadas con la contaminación del aire
organismo un ser vivo; cualquier cosa que pueda (514)
llevar a cabo procesos vitales independientemente
passive solar heating the use of sunlight to heat
(95)
buildings directly (458)
overgrazing the depletion of vegetation due to the calentamiento solar pasivo el uso de la luz solar
continuous feeding of too many animals (364) para calentar edificios directamente (458)
sobrepastoreo el agotamiento de la vegetación
pathogen a microorganism, another organism, a
debido a la alimentación continua de demasiados
virus, or a protein that causes disease; an infectious
animales (364)
agent (277, 519)
overharvesting catching or removing from a patógeno un microorganismo, otro organismo, un
population more organisms than the population virus o una proteína que causa enfermedades; un
can replace (395) agente infeccioso (277, 519)
sobrecosechar capturar o sustraer de una po-
permafrost in arctic regions, the permanently
blación más organismos de los que la población
frozen layer of soil or subsoil (162)
puede reemplazar (395)
permafrost en las regiones árticas, la capa de
ozone a gas molecule that is made up of three suelo o subsuelo que se encuentra congelada
oxygen atoms (69) permanentemente (162)
ozono una molécula de gas que está formada por
permeability the ability of a rock or sediment to let
tres átomos de oxígeno (69)
fluids pass through its open spaces or pores (273)
permeabilidad la capacidad de una roca o
sedimento de permitir que los fluidos pasen a
través de sus espacios abiertos o poros (273)

pesticide a poison used to destroy pests, such as placer deposit a deposit that contains a valuable
insects, rodents, or weeds; examples include mineral that has been concentrated by mechanical
insecticides, rodenticides, and herbicides (389) action (419)
pesticida un veneno que se usa para destruir yacimiento de aluvión un yacimiento que
plagas, tales como insectos, roedores o maleza; contiene un mineral valioso que se ha concentrado
entre los ejemplos se encuentran los insecticidas, debido a la acción mecánica (419)
rodenticidas y herbicidas (389)
plankton the mass of mostly microscopic organisms
petroleum a liquid mixture of complex hydrocarbon that float or drift freely in the waters of aquatic
compounds; used widely as a fuel source (440) (freshwater and marine) environments (173)
petróleo una mezcla líquida de compuestos plancton la masa de organismos casi microscópi-
hidrocarburos complejos; se usa ampliamente cos que flotan o se encuentran a la deriva en aguas
como una fuente de combustible (440) (dulces y marinas) de ambientes acuáticos (173)
pH a value that is used to express the acidity or poaching the illegal harvesting of fish, game, or
alkalinity (basicity) of a system; each whole other species (247)
number on the scale indicates a tenfold change in caza furtiva la cosecha ilegal de peces, presas u
acidity; a pH of 7 is neutral, a pH of less than 7 is otras especies (247)
acidic, and a pH of greater than 7 is basic (314)
pH un valor que expresa la acidez o la alcalinidad point-source pollution pollution that comes from a
(basicidad) de un sistema; cada número entero de specific site (284)
la escala indica un cambio de 10 veces en la acidez; contaminación puntual contaminación que
un pH de 7 es neutro, un pH de menos de 7 es proviene de un lugar específico (284)
ácido y un pH de más de 7 es básico (314)
polar stratospheric cloud a cloud that forms at
phosphorus cycle the cyclic movement of phospho- altitudes of about 21,000 m during the Arctic and
rus in different chemical forms from the environ- Antarctic winter or early spring, when air tempera-
ment to organisms and then back to the environ- tures drop below -80°C (336)
ment (127) nube polar estrato-sférica una nube que se forma
ciclo del fósforo el movimiento cíclico del fósforo en altitudes de aproximadamente 21,000 m
en diferentes formas químicas del ambiente a los durante el invierno ártico y antártico o al principio
organismos y de regreso al ambiente (127) de la primavera, cuando la temperatura del aire
disminuye a menos de -80°C (336)
photosynthesis the process by which plants, algae,
and some bacteria use sunlight, carbon dioxide, pollution an undesirable change in the natural
and water to produce carbohydrates and environment that is caused by the introduction of
oxygen (117) substances that are harmful to living organisms or
fotosíntesis el proceso por medio del cual las by excessive wastes, heat, noise, or radiation (14)
plantas, algas y algunas bacterias utilizan la luz contaminación un cambio indeseable en el
solar, dióxido de carbono y agua para producir ambiente natural, producido por la introducción
carbohidratos y oxígeno (117) de substancias que son dañinas para los organis-
mos vivos o por desechos, calor, ruido o radiación
pioneer species a species that colonizes an unin- excesivos (14)
habited area and that starts an ecological cycle in
which many other species become established population a group of organisms of the same
(130) species that live in a specific geographical area and
especie pionera una especie que coloniza un área interbreed (95, 197)
deshabitada y empieza un ciclo ecológico en el cual población un grupo de organismos de la misma
se establecen muchas otras especies (130) especie que viven en un área geográfica específica
y se reproducen entre sí (95, 197)

porosity the percentage of the total volume of a rock probability the likelihood that a possible future
or sediment that consists of open spaces (273) event will occur in any given instance of the event;
porosidad el porcentaje del volumen total de una the mathematical ratio of the number of times one
roca o sedimento que está formado por espacios outcome of any event is likely to occur to the
abiertos (273) number of possible outcomes of the event (40)
probabilidad termino que describe qué tan
potable suitable for drinking (277) probable es que ocurra un posible evento futuro en
potable que puede beberse (277) un caso dado del evento; la proporción matemática
del número de veces que es posible que ocurra un
precipitation any form of water that falls to the resultado de cualquier evento respecto al número
Earth’s surface from the clouds; includes rain, de resultados posibles del evento (40)
snow, sleet, and hail (73)
precipitación cualquier forma de agua que cae de producer an organism that can make organic
las nubes a la superficie de la Tierra; incluye a la molecules from inorganic molecules; a photosyn-
lluvia, nieve, aguanieve y granizo (73) thetic or chemosynthetic autotroph that serves as
the basic food source in an ecosystem (118)
predation an interaction between two organisms in productor un organismo que elabora moléculas
which one organism, the predator, kills and feeds orgánicas a partir de moléculas inorgánicas; un
on the other organism, the prey (206) autótrofo fotosintético o quimiosintético que
depredación la interacción entre dos organismos funciona como la fuente fundamental de alimento
en la que un organismo, el depredador, mata a otro en un ecosistema (118)
organismo, la presa, y se alimenta de él (206)
protist an organism that belongs to the kingdom
prediction a statement made in advance that Protista (104)
expresses the results that will be obtained from protista un organismo que pertenece al reino
testing a hypothesis if the hypothesis is supported; Protista (104)
the expected outcome if a hypothesis is accurate
(32)
predicción una afirmación que se hace por
anticipado, la cual expresa los resultados que se R
obtendrán al poner a prueba una hipótesis si ésta
es corroborada; el resultado esperado si la hipóte- radiation the energy that is transferred as electro-
sis es correcta (32) magnetic waves, such as visible light and infrared
waves (70)
primary pollutant a pollutant that is put directly radiación la energía que se transfiere en forma de
into the atmosphere by human or natural activity ondas electromagnéticas, tales como las ondas de
(303) luz y las infrarrojas (70)
contaminante primario un contaminante que es
colocado directamente en la atmósfera por las recharge zone an area in which water travels
actividades humanas o naturales (303) downward to become part of an aquifer (274)
zona de recarga un área en la que el agua se
primary succession succession that begins in an desplaza hacia abajo para convertirse en parte de un
area that previously did not support life (129) acuífero (274)
sucesión primaria sucesión que comienza en un
área donde previamente no podía existir la vida reclamation the process of returning land to its
(129) original condition after mining is completed (424)
restauración el proceso de hacer que la tierra
vuelva a su condición original después de que se
terminan las actividades de explotación minera (424)
recycling the process of recovering valuable or

useful materials from waste or scrap; the process of
reusing some items (489)
reciclar el proceso de recuperar materiales
valiosos o útiles de los desechos o de la basura; el
proceso de reutilizar algunas cosas (489)

reforestation the reestablishment and development rural describes an area of open land that is often
of trees in a forest land (367) used for farming (355)
reforestación el restablecimiento y desarrollo de rural término que describe un área de tierra
los árboles en un bosque (367) abierta que a menudo se usa para la labranza (355)
renewable energy energy from sources that are

constantly being formed (457)
energía renovable energía que proviene de S
fuentes que se están formando constantemente
(457) salinity a measure of the amount of dissolved salts
in a given amount of liquid (76)
reproductive potential the maximum number of salinidad una medida de la cantidad de sales
offspring that a given organism can produce (199) disueltas en una cantidad determinada de líquido
potencial reproductivo el número máximo de (76)
crías que puede producir un determinado organ-
ismo (199) salinization (sal uh nie ZAY shuhn) the accumula-
tion of salts in soil (388)
reservoir an artificial body of water that usually salinización la acumulación de sales en el suelo
forms behind a dam (280) (388)
represa una masa artificial de agua que normal-
mente se forma detrás de una presa (280) salt marsh a maritime habitat characterized by
grasses, sedges, and other plants that have adapted
resistance in biology, the ability of an organism to to continual, periodic flooding; salt marshes are
tolerate a chemical or disease-causing agent (101) found primarily throughout the temperate and
resistencia en biología, la capacidad de un subarctic regions (182)
organismo de tolerar a un agente químico o marisma un hábitat marino que se caracteriza por
causante de enfermedades (101) tener pasto, juncias y otras plantas que se han
adaptado a la inundación continua y periódica; las
risk the probability of an unwanted outcome (41) marismas se encuentran principalmente en las
riesgo la probabilidad de que se produzca un regiones templadas y subárticas (182)
resultado no deseado (41)
sample the group of individuals or events selected
risk assessment the scientific assessment, study, to represent a statistical population (40)
and management of risk; a scientific estimation of muestra el grupo de individuos o sucesos que se
the likelihood of negative effects that may result seleccionan para representar a una población
from exposure to a specific hazard (513) estadística (40)
evaluación de riesgos la evaluación, estudio y
administración del riesgo por medios científicos; un savanna a plain full of grasses and scattered trees
cálculo científico de la probabilidad de que ocurran and shrubs; found in tropical and subtropical
efectos negativos debido a la exposición a un peligro habitats and mainly in regions with a dry climate,
específico (513) such as East Africa (155)
sabana una planicie llena de pastizales y árboles y
river system a flowing network of rivers and streams arbustos dispersos; se encuentra en los hábitats
draining a river basin (271) tropicales y subtropicales y, sobre todo, en regiones
sistema fluvial una red de ríos y arroyos en flujo con un clima seco, como en el este de África (155)
que drenan una cuenca fluvial (271)
secondary pollutant a pollutant that forms in the
ruminant (ROO muh nuhnt) a cud-chewing mam- atmosphere by chemical reaction with primary air
mal that has a three- or four-chambered stomach; pollutants, natural components in the air, or
examples include sheep, goats, and cattle (398) both (303)
rumiante un mamífero que mastica los alimentos contaminante secundario un contaminante que
dos veces, el cual tiene un estómago con tres o se forma en la atmósfera por medio de una reac-
cuatro cámaras; entre los ejemplos se encuentran ción química con contaminantes primarios del
los borregos, cabras y ganado (398) aire, componentes naturales del aire o ambos (303)

secondary succession the process by which one species a group of organisms that are closely related
community replaces another community that has and can mate to produce fertile offspring; also the
been partially or totally destroyed (129) level of classification below genus and above
sucesión secundaria el proceso por medio del subspecies (95)
cual una comunidad reemplaza a otra, la cual ha especie un grupo de organismos que tienen un
sido parcial o totalmente destruida (129) parentesco cercano y que pueden aparearse para
producir descendencia fértil; también, el nivel de
sick-building syndrome a set of symptoms, such as clasificación debajo de género y arriba de subespe-
headache, fatigue, eye irritation, and dizziness, that cie (95)
may affect workers in modern, airtight office
buildings; believed to be caused by indoor pollut- statistics the collection and classification of data
ants (310) that are in the form of numbers (38)
síndrome del edificio enfermo un conjunto de estadística la recolección y clasificación de datos
síntomas, como dolor de cabeza, fatiga, irritación que encuentran en forma de números (38)
de los ojos y mareo, que puede afectar a las
personas que trabajan en edificios modernos que stratosphere the layer of the atmosphere that lies
cuentan con ventanas selladas; se cree que es between the troposphere and the mesosphere and
producido por los contaminantes del interior del in which temperature increases as altitude in-
edificio (310) creases; contains the ozone layer (69)
estratosfera la capa de la atmósfera que se
smelting the melting or fusing of ore in order to encuentra entre la troposfera y la mesosfera y en la
separate impurities from pure metal (420) cual la temperatura aumenta al aumentar la
fundir derretir una mena con el fin de separar las altitud; contiene la capa de ozono (69)
impurezas del metal puro (420)
subsidence the sinking of regions of the ground
smog urban air pollution composed of a mixture of surface with little or no horizontal movement (423)
smoke and fog produced from industrial pollutants hundimiento del terreno el hundimiento de
and burning fuels (308) regiones de la superficie del suelo con muy poco o
esmog contaminación urbana del aire, compuesta sin ningún movimiento horizontal (423)
por una mezcla de humo y niebla producida por
contaminantes industriales y combustibles (308) subsurface mining a mining method in which ore is
extracted from beneath the ground surface (416)
solid waste a discarded solid material, such as minería subsuperficial un método de explotación
garbage, refuse, or sludges (481) de minas en el que la mena se extrae de la parte
desechos sólidos un material sólido desechado, inferior de la superficie del suelo (416)
como por ejemplo, basura, residuos o sedimentos
(481) surface impoundment a natural depression or a
human-made excavation that serves as a disposal
source reduction any change in the design, manu- facility that holds an accumulation of wastes (496)
facture, purchase, or use of materials or products to separación superficial una depresión natural o
reduce their amount or toxicity before they become una excavación hecha por el hombre que sirve
municipal solid waste; also the reuse of products or como vertedero de basura para acumular desechos
materials (488) (496)
reducción de la fuente cualquier cambio en el
diseño, manufactura, compra o uso de materiales o surface mining a mining method in which soil and
productos para reducir su cantidad o toxicidad rocks are removed to reach underlying coal or
antes de que se conviertan en desechos sólidos minerals (417)
municipales; también, la reutilización de produc- minería superficial un método de explotación de
tos o materiales (488) minas en el que se remueven el suelo y las rocas
para llegar al carbón o minerales subyacentes (417)

surface water all the bodies of fresh water, salt
water, ice, and snow that are found above the
T
ground (270) taiga a region of evergreen, coniferous forest below
agua superficial todas las masas de agua dulce, the arctic and subarctic tundra regions (153)
agua salada, hielo y nieve que se encuentran arriba taiga una región de bosques siempreverdes de
del suelo (270) coníferas, ubicado debajo de las regiones árticas y
subárticas de tundra (153)
survivorship the percentage of newborn individuals
in a population that can be expected to survive to a tectonic plate a block of lithosphere that consists of
given age (220) the crust and the rigid, outermost part of the
supervivencia el porcentaje de individuos recién mantle; also called lithospheric plate (62)
nacidos de una población que se espera que placa tectónica un bloque de litosfera formado
sobrevivan hasta una edad determinada (220) por la corteza y la parte rígida y más externa del
manto; también se llama placa litosférica (62)
sustainability the condition in which human needs
are met in such a way that a human population can temperate deciduous forest a forest (or biome) that
survive indefinitely (21, 533) is characterized by trees that shed their leaves in
sustentabilidad la condición en la que se cumple the fall (152)
con las necesidades humanas de una forma tal que bosque caducifolio templado un bosque (o
una población humana pueda sobrevivir indefini- bioma) que se caracteriza por árboles a los que se
damente (21, 533) les caen las hojas en el otoño (152)
symbiosis a relationship in which two different temperate grassland a community (or biome) that
organisms live in close association with each other is dominated by grasses, has few trees, and is
(209) characterized by cold winters and rainfall that is
simbiosis una relación en la que dos organismos intermediate between that of a forest and a desert
diferentes viven estrechamente asociados uno con (156)
el otro (209) pradera templada una comunidad (o bioma) que
está dominada por pastos, tiene pocos árboles y se
caracteriza por inviernos fríos y precipitación
pluvial que es intermedia entre la de un bosque y
la de un desierto (156)
temperate rain forest a forest community (or

biome), characterized by cool, humid weather and
abundant rainfall, where tree branches are draped
with mosses, tree trunks are covered with lichens,
and the forest floor is covered with ferns (151)
selva tropical templada una comunidad de
bosque (o bioma) caracterizada por tiempo frío y
húmedo y lluvia en abundancia, en la cual las
ramas de los árboles están cubiertas por moho, los
troncos de los árboles están cubiertos por líquenes
y el suelo del bosque está cubierto por helechos
(151)
temperature inversion the atmospheric condition

in which warm air traps cooler air near Earth’s
surface (308)
inversión de la temperatura la condición atmos-
férica en la que el aire caliente retiene al aire frío
cerca de la superficie terrestre (308)

thermal pollution a temperature increase in a body troposphere the lowest layer of the atmosphere, in
of water that is caused by human activity and that which temperature drops at a constant rate as
has a harmful effect on water quality and on the altitude increases; the part of the atmosphere
ability of that body of water to support life (289) where weather conditions exist (68)
contaminación térmica un aumento en la troposfera la capa inferior de la atmósfera, en la
temperatura de una masa de agua, producido por que la temperatura disminuye a una tasa constante
las actividades humanas y que tiene un efecto a medida que la altitud aumenta; la parte de la
dañino en la calidad del agua y en la capacidad de atmósfera donde se dan las condiciones del tiempo
esa masa de agua para permitir que se desarrolle la (68)
vida (289)
tundra a treeless plain that is located in the Arctic or
threatened species a species that has been identi- Antarctic and that is characterized by very low
fied to be likely to become endangered in the winter temperatures; short, cool summers; and
foreseeable future (245) vegetation that consists of grasses, lichens, and
especie amenazada una especie que se ha perennial herbs (162)
identificado como candidata para estar en peligro tundra un llano sin árboles que se ubica en la
de extinción en el futuro inmediato (245) región ártica o antártica y se caracteriza por
temperaturas muy bajas en el invierno, veranos
topsoil the surface layer of the soil, which is usually cortos y frescos y vegetación que consiste en pasto,
richer in organic matter than the subsoil is (385) líquenes y hierbas perennes (162)
capa superior del suelo la capa superficial del
suelo, la cual normalmente es más rica en materia
orgánica que el subsuelo (385)
U
toxicology the study of toxic substances, including
their nature, effects, detection, methods of treat- understory a foliage layer that is beneath and
ment, and exposure control (512) shaded by the main canopy of a forest (148)
toxicología el estudio de las substancias tóxicas, capa sumergida una capa de follaje que se
incluyendo su naturaleza, efectos, detección, encuentra debajo de la bóveda principal de un
métodos de tratamiento y control de exposición bosque y está cubierta por ella (148)
(512)
urban describes an area that contains a city (355)
trophic level one of the steps in a food chain or food urbana término que describe a un área que
pyramid; examples include producers and primary, contiene una ciudad (355)
secondary, and tertiary consumers (122)
nivel trófico uno de los pasos de la cadena urbanization an increase in the ratio or density of
alimenticia o de la pirámide alimenticia; entre los people living in urban areas rather than in rural
ejemplos se encuentran los productores y los areas (227, 358)
consumidores primarios, secundarios y terciarios urbanización un aumento en la razón o densidad
(122) de las personas que viven en áreas urbanas en
lugar de en áreas rurales (227, 358)
tropical rain forest a forest or jungle near the
equator that is characterized by large amounts of urban sprawl the rapid spread of a city into adjoin-
rain and little variation in temperature and that ing suburbs and rural areas (359)
contains the greatest known diversity of organisms derrame urbano la rápida propagación de una
on Earth (146) ciudad hacia los suburbios adjuntos y áreas rurales
selva tropical un bosque o jungla que se encuen- (359)
tra cerca del ecuador y se caracteriza por una gran
cantidad de lluvia y poca variación en la tempera-
tura, y que contiene la mayor diversidad de
organismos que se conoce en la Tierra (146)

V watershed the area of land that is drained by a water
system (271)
value a principle or standard that an individual cuenca hidrográfica el área del terreno que es
considers to be important (45) drenada por un sistema de agua (271)
valor un principio o norma que un individuo
considera importante (45) wetland an area of land that is periodically under-
water or whose soil contains a great deal of mois-
variable (VER ee uh buhl) a factor that changes in ture (173)
an experiment in order to test a hypothesis (33) pantano un área de tierra que está periódica-
variable un factor que se modifica en un experi- mente bajo el agua o cuyo suelo contiene una gran
mento con el fin de probar una hipótesis (33) cantidad de humedad (173)
vector in biology, any agent, such as a plasmid or a wilderness a region that is not cultivated and that is
virus, that can incorporate foreign DNA and not inhabited by humans (368)
transfer that DNA from one organism to another; área silvestre una región que no ha sido cultivada
an intermediate host that transfers a pathogen or a ni está habitada por seres humanos (368)
parasite to another organism (520)
vector en biología, cualquier agente, como por
ejemplo un plásmido o un virus, que tiene la
capacidad de incorporar ADN extraño y de trans- Y
ferir ese ADN de un organismo a otro; un huésped
yield the amount of crops produced per unit area
intermediario que transfiere un organismo
(381)
patógeno o un parásito a otro organismo (520)
rendimiento la cantidad de cosechas producidas
vertebrate an animal that has a backbone; includes por unidad de área (381)
mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish
(107)
vertebrado un animal que tiene columna verte-
bral; incluye a los mamíferos, aves, reptiles,
anfibios y peces (107)
W
wastewater water that contains wastes from homes
or industry (286)
agua de desecho agua que contiene desechos de
los hogares o la industria (286)
water cycle the continuous movement of water

between the atmosphere, the land, and the oceans
(73)
ciclo del agua el movimiento continuo del agua
entre la atmósfera, la tierra y los océanos (73)
water pollution contamination of water by waste

matter or other material that is harmful to organ-
isms that are exposed to the water (284)
contaminación del agua contaminación del agua
con materiales de desecho u otros materiales que
dañan a los organismos que están expuestos al
agua (284)

Index
Note: Page references genetic engineering, alternative energy, 466. See porosity and permeability
followed by f refer to figures. 393–394, 393f, 400–401 also renewable energy of, 273, 274f–275f
green revolution, 383 altitude, 140, 141, 145, 145f recharge zones, 79, 274,
habitat preservation and, 275f
254, 254f AMD (acid mine drainage),
422, 422f archaea, 102, 102f
A
irrigation, 276, 278–279,
amino acids, 379 architect, environmental,
281, 281f, 387–388
R36–R37
land shortages, 227, 227f amphibians
abiotic factors, 94, 94f livestock, 398–399, 398f, near lakes and ponds, 174, Arctic. See polar region
acid, R25 399f 174f Arctic Ocean, 75, 75f, 185
organic, 392 UV light and, 337, 337f
acidification, 315, 347 Arendt, Randall, 366–367
pest control, 389–392, 391f, vertebrates, 107
acid mine drainage (AMD), 392f Argentina, 523
worldwide decline in, 247
422, 422f rangelands, 364, 364f,
Anasazi, 233, 233f arsenic, 514
acid precipitation, 314–317 370–371
angiosperm, 105, 105f artificial eutrophication,
aquatic ecosystems and, resistance in, 101, 101f
288, 288f
316, 316f salinization, 388 animal. See also birds; fish;
causes of, 314–315, 314f, soil conservation, 387, 387f habitat; livestock; specific artificial selection, 100, 100f
315f, 324–325, 439 soil erosion, 386, 386f biomes asbestos, 312, 312f
human health and, 316 soil fertility, 385, 385f, 388, characteristics of, 102f, asthenosphere, 61, 61f
international effects of, 388f 106–107, 106f, 107f
316–317, 317f solid waste from, 484 climate change and, 344, Atlantic Ocean, 75, 75f
soil and plant impacts, 315, subsistence, 382 344f atmosphere, 67–72. See also
315f sustainable, 394, 394f domesticated, 395 air pollution; climate
acid shock, 316 traditional vs. modern, 384, in estuaries, 180 air movement in, 352–353
388 genetically engineered, 400 air pressure, 68, 68f, 330
acquired immune deficiency water use in, 276, 278–279, invertebrates, 106, 106f carbon dioxide in, 125, 340,
syndrome (AIDS), 519, 522 279f livestock, 398–399, 398f, 340f
active solar heating, 460, AIDS (acquired immune 399f composition of, 67–68, 67f
460f. See also solar energy deficiency syndrome), 519, mining and, 422 in Earth system, 59, 59f
activism, 257, 257f 522 raptor rehabilitation, global air circulation,
548–549, 548f, 549f 252–253, 329–331, 329f,
adaptation air pollution
vertebrates, 107, 107f 331f
in aquatic ecosystems, 174 acid precipitation, 128,
Antarctic Bottom Water, 78 greenhouse effect, 72, 72f,
to competition, 205 314–317, 324–325
339–341, 339f, 340f
natural selection and, 97, from coal burning, 439, 439f Antarctic ecosystem, 185. See heating of, 70–71, 70f–71f
99–100, 99f, 100f, 105, 107 health effects of, 307–311 also polar region layers of, 67f, 68–69, 68f
predator-prey, 206–207, history of, 304, 305
antibiotic resistance, 101, temperature inversions,
206f, 207f indoor, 310–312, 311f
521 308, 308f
aerosols, 67 industrial, 307–308, 307f,
319, 319f ants, 258–259 atomic number, R24
aerosol cans, 338,
aerosol particles, 347 from mining, 422 apatite, 127 atomic structure, R24
motor vehicle emissions,
Africa aquaculture, 396–397, 396f Attenborough, David, 544f,
305–306, 306f, 308f, 440
cattle in, 398 aquatic ecosystem, 173–178. 545f
primary and secondary
desertification in, 386 pollutants, 303–304, 303f, See also coastal wetland; aurora borealis, 68f, 69
diamonds in, 421f 304f marine ecosystem; ocean Australia, 200, 200f
fertility rates in, 232f smog, 308, 308f, 319, 319f acid precipitation and, 316,
gold in, 427, 427f 316f automobile
sources of, 304–308 carbon dioxide from, R8
insect damage in, 389 temperature inversions, algal blooms in, 128, 128f,
malaria in, 520f 175, 175f, 288 emissions from, 305–306,
308, 308f 306f, 308f, 440
predators in, 22–23, 22f characteristics of, 173
air pressure, 68, 68f, 330 fuel cells in, 306, 468, 468f
Agenda 21, 534 food chains and webs in,
Alaska, 41, 291, 291f 120–121, 122, 122f hybrid, 306, 469, 469f
age structure, 220, 220f, pollution regulation, 306,
alcohol fuel, 462 freshwater wetlands,
238–239, 238f 306f, 440
175–177, 175f, 176f, 177f
aggregate, 417 algal bloom urban sprawl, 359, 359f
lakes and ponds, 174–175,
eutrophication, 175, 175f zero-emission, 306
agricultural revolution, 10, 174f, 175f
fertilizers and, 128, 128f,
10f rivers, 178, 178f autotrophs, 118, 118f
288, 288f
agriculture. See also fish; aqueduct, 279–280, 279f averages, 39
algebraic rearrangement,
food R19–R20 aquifer. See also
aquaculture, 396–397, 396f groundwater
biodiversity and, 243–244 Allen, Charles, 164–165, 164f,
anatomy of, 274f–275f
165f
climate change, 344, 344f
crop origins, 224, 224f allergic reaction, 401
contamination of, 289–290,
290f B
desertification, 386 alloy, 414 effects of climate change
efficiency of, 381 baby boom, 221f
on, 343–344
farmland management, Alonso, Alfonso, 108–109, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt),
location of, U.S., 79f, 272f
363, 363f 108f 391, 393, 393f
Ogallala, 272–273, 272f
R92 Index
bacteria biological pest control, geothermal energy in, 464 environmental filmmaker,
antibiotic resistance, 521 391–392, 391f habitation conservation in, R38–R39
characteristics of, 102–103, biology, 7f 255, 255f wildlife biologist, R42–R43
102f hydraulic mining, 418–419, carnivores, 119, 119f
in deep-ocean ecosystems, biomagnification. Also 418f, 419f
biological magnification, salinization in, 388 carrying capacity, 200, 200f,
118
120–121, 120f, 121f, 292, San Andreas fault, 63 201, 216–217
diseases from, 519f
environment and, 103, 103f 292f temperature inversions in, cars. See automobiles
eutrophication and, 128, biomass fuel, 462, 462f, R11 308, 308f Carson, Rachel, 6, 544f, 545,
175 biomes wind farms in, 461, 461f 545f
in genetic engineering, 393, chaparral, 158–159, 159f California Floristic Province, casuarina tree, 508–509
393f climate and, 144–145, 144f, 251
mutualism and, 208, 209 145f catalytic converters, 306,
nitrogen-fixing, 103, 126, Calories, 121, 379, 380f, 381 306f, 440
definition of, 143
126f, 394 desert, 160–161, 160f, 161f camouflage, 154, 154f, 159, catfish, 174
as producers, 118, 118f identifying, 170–171 206, 207f
cause-and-effect diagram,
in remediation, 498 latitude and, 327, 328, 328f Canada R13
Bamberger, David, 370–371 savanna, 155–156, 155f, 156f acid precipitation in, 315,
taiga, 153–154, 153f, 154f 316–317, 317f cell, 102, 104
Bamberger Ranch Preserve,
temperate deciduous forest, climate regions, R70f cellular respiration, 120,
370–371
152–153, 152f fossil fuel deposits, R71f 120f, 124
Bangladesh, 150–151 temperate grassland, land use, R73f Center for Land-Based
bar graph, 34, 34f, R22 156–158, 157f, 158f, 159f mineral and energy Learning (CLBL), 548
barnacle, 205, 205f temperate rain forest, 151, resources, R72f
CERCLA (Superfund Act),
151f Canada–U.S. Air Quality
barrier island, 182, 182f, 187 293f, 424, 494
tropical rain forest, Agreement, 317
bases, R25 146–150, 146f, 147f, 148f, CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons),
149f cancer, 517 335, 335f, 336, 338, 338f,
bat, 51, 51f, 134f, 424
tundra, 144f, 162–163, 162f, canopy, 148, 148f 346–347
bauxite, 413 163f cap-and-trade strategies, chain reaction, 444, 444f
beach, 88–89 vegetation and, 143, 143f 537 Challenger Deep, 74
bell-shaped curve, 39, 39f biomining, 498 captive breeding, 252, 252f chameleon, 97, 97f
benthic zone, 174, 174f, 176 biosphere carbohydrate, chaparral biome, 158–159,
benthos, 173 in the Earth system, 59, 59f in photosynthesis and 159f
energy flow in, 81, 81f cellular respiration,
biodegradable material, 15, chemical equation, 121, R25
illustration of, 80, 80f, 95 117–118, 117f, 120–121,
483
biosphere reserve, 368, 368f 124–125 chemical formula, R25
biodiversity, 241–257
benefits of, 242–244, 242f, biotic factor, 94, 94f, 96 carbon cycle, 124–125, 124f chemical weathering, 66, 385
243f, 244f, 248–249 biotic potential, 199 carbon dioxide chemistry, 7f
captive-breeding programs, bird atmospheric levels, 125, chemosynthesis, 118–119
252, 252f air pollution and, 307 340, 340f
chemosynthetic organism,
conservation of, 252–257 in aquatic ecosystems, in the carbon cycle,
184
counting species, 264–265 175–176, 175f 124–125, 124f
critical areas of, 248–249, deforestation and, 366 Chernobyl accident, 447
characteristics of, 107
248f, 249f climate change and, 342, efforts to reduce, 345, 345f Chesapeake Bay, 180–181,
definition of, 15, 241 344 emissions, R8, R66f–R67f 180f
ecotourism and, 244 raptor rehabilitation, as greenhouse gas, 331, 341
China
endangered species, 548–549, 548f, 549f in photosynthesis, 117, 117f
aquaculture in, 396
245–246, 246f, 255, 255f wetlands and, 175
botanical gardens, 253, 253f coal burning in, 317, 439
endemic species, 248 carbon footprint, R10 hydroelectric power in, 463
exotic species, 247 bottleneck of genetic
carbon monoxide (CO), 303f, population issues in, 218,
extinctions, 15, 245–247, diversity, 243, 243f
304, 304f 230f
245f, 246f, 247f
poultry in, 399
genetically engineered carbon sink, 124–125
Three Gorges Dam,
organisms and, 401 careers 294–295, 294f, 295f, 520
hotspots, 250, 250f
human needs and, 257 C butterfly ecologist, 108–109,
108f
Yangtze River flooding, 150,
150f
keystone species, 242, 242f climate researcher,
known vs. unknown cadmium, 514 chlorofluorocarbon (CFC),
R40–R41
species, 241, 241f Cajun prairie, 164–165, 164f, 335, 335f, 336, 338, 338f,
climate scientist, 346–347,
legal protection for, 165f 346–347
346f
255–257 environmental architect, chlorophyll, 117, 117f
calcium carbonate, 316
levels of, 242 R36–R37
California cholera, 37, 37f, 227, 519f, 520
in the United States, 251, environmental educator,
251f biodiversity hotspot in, 151 circle graph, R22–R23
R33
Wilson and, 258–259, 258f, chaparral in, 158, 159f
environmental engineer,
259f development in, 360, 360f
R34–R35
emission controls in, 306
Biodiversity Treaty, 257
Index R93
CITES (Convention on coral reefs, 92f, 93, 183, Convention on International in the nitrogen cycle,
International Trade in 183f, 249 Trade in Endangered 126–127
Endangered Species), 256, estuaries, 179–181, 179f Species (CITES), 256, 256f, in tropical rain forests, 147
256f, 534 mangrove swamps, 182, 534 deep-well injection, 496, 497f
Clean Air Act (1970), 305, 307 182f copper mining, 14, 14f, 422f,
rising sea levels and, 343 deforestation, 9, 150–151,
Clean Water Act (1972), 432–433 150f, 151f, 366
salt marshes, 182
292–293, 293t, 305, 424 storm surge and, 74–75, 75f coral bleaching, 183 demographic transition,
climate, 327–334 cod fish, 343 coral polyp, 183, 183f 223–224, 223f, 224f
altitude and, 145, 145f coral reef demography, 219–221. See
biomes and, 144–145, 144f, coevolution, 100, 100f,
209, R8 critical biodiversity in, 249 also population (human)
145f as ecosystems, 92f, 93, 183,
climate regions, North cogeneration, 470 density, 198, 198f
183f
America, R60f–R61f, R70f Colorado River, 280 latitude and, 328 density-dependent
deforestation and, 150 threat to, 183 regulation, 202, 202f
global air circulation, coloration, warning, 206
core, 61, 61f desalination, 283, 283f
252–253, 329–331, 329f, commensalism, 204f, 209,
209f correlations, 35, 35f, 37 desert biome, 160–161, 160f,
331f
161f
greenhouse effect and, 72, community, 96, 130 cost-benefit analysis, 17
72f, 339–341, 339f, 340f desertification, 386
competition, 201, 204–205, coyotes, 205
latitude and, 327, 328, 328f deserts, latitude and, 329
204f, 205f, R9 critical biodiversity areas,
ocean circulation patterns,
compost, 388, 490, R52–R53 248–249, 248f, 249f. See also developed vs. developing
332, 332f
biodiversity countries, 18–19, 18f, 19f,
seasons and, 334 compound, R25 228–229, 229f
sun cycle and, 333, 333f Cronin, John, 544f
Comprehensive Response, diagrams, 32f, 43, 43f,
topography and, 327, 333,
Compensation, and crop origin, 224, 224f. See R12–R14
333f
Liability Act (CERCLA), also agriculture
volcanic eruptions and, 65, diatoms, 104
293f, 424, 494 crop rotation, 389
333
computer model, 342 diet, 380, 380f. See also food
weather vs., 327 cross-species transfer, 523
concept mapping, R14 disease. See also human
climate change, 339–345 cruise ship discharge, 291 health; specific diseases
attempts to slow, 345, 345f, conceptual model, 43, 43f crust, 60, 61f cross-species transfers, 523
534
condensation, 73, 73f, 269, Cryptosporidium, 286 deaths from, 519f
consequences of, 342–344,
269f environment and, 519, 519f,
343f Cuyahoga River, 292, 292f
condor, 252, 252f 521–523, 522f
global warming, 341–342, cyanide heap leaching, 417, global warming and, 343
341f, 342f, 522f conduction, 70, 70f 417f infectious, 519, 519f, 522
greenhouse effect, 72, 72f, conifer, 105, 105f, 154, 154f cycle diagrams, R12 pollution and, 226–227,
339–341, 339f, 340f
conservation. See also 226f, 510f, 511
ice core data on, 330–331,
renewable energy vector-borne, 522, 522f
330f, 331f, 340
of aquifers, 272–273 waterborne, 520
modeling, 341–342, 342f
of energy, 470–471, 470f,
D
recent findings on, 35, 344, dispersion, 198, 198f
347 471f dissolved oxygen, 288, 289
energy efficiency, 468–470,
climate scientist, 346–347, 469f, R47 dam removal, 12–13, 13f dissolved solids, 76, 76f
346f, R40–R41 of habitats and ecosystems, dams, 280–281, 280f, 463–464, distributions, 39, 39f
climatogram, 170–171, 170f 108–109, 109f, 254–257, 463f, 541 diversity, levels of, 242. See
climax community, 132 254f, 255f Darwin, Charles, 97–98, 98f, also biodiversity
in planning, 366–367, 367f, 197. See also evolution
closed system, 12, 81, 81f, DNA, 42, 42f, 337
542
352–353, 353f data, 34, 34f
private efforts in, 538 domain, 102, 102f
cloud, polar stratospheric, recycling, 489–490, 489f, DDT domesticated animal, 395.
336, 346, 346f 491, 499, R46 in aquatic food chains, See also animals; livestock
coal of soil, 387, 387f 120–121, 120f, 121f
student conservation clubs, Doppler radar, 134f
electricity from, 304, 324, biological magnification of,
436, 439, 439f 548–549, 548f, 549f 120–121, 292, 292f dose, 512
formation of, 438 of water, 281–282, 281f, endangered species and, dose-response curve, 512,
mining, 417, 420, 424, 424f 282f, R8, R56 247, 545 512f
pollution from, 341, 422 consumer, 118, 118f persistence of, 390
dredging, 419, 419f, 422
sea coal, 305 decibel (dB), 312, 312f
consumer choice, 18–19, 18f, drinking water, 276–277, 276f
coal-burning power plant, 547, R50–R51 decision making, 45–49, 45f,
304, 324, 341, 436, 436f drip irrigation, 281, 281f, 387
content frame, R13 46f, 47f, 48f
coastal wetland, 179–182 drought, 35, 35f, 344, 344f
contour plowing, 387, 387f decomposer
barrier islands, 182, 182f, in the benthic zone, dust storm, 514, 514f
187 control group, 33
173–174, 174f dwarf wedge mussel, 5f,
biodiversity in, 249 convection, 70, 71f in ecosystems, 119, 119f 31–33, 32f, 38–39, 38f
R94 Index
E definition of, 93, 93f
diversity of, 242
emission, motor vehicle,
305–306, 306f, 308f, 440
environmental economics,
535–538, 535f
Earl, Sylvia, 544f energy flow in, 117–123 Encyclopedia of Life (EOL), environmental educators,
Earth. See also atmosphere energy pyramids, 123, 123f 259 R33
biosphere, 59, 59f, 80–81, factors influencing, 140–141
food chains and webs in, endangered species, environmental engineers,
80f, 81f 245–246, 246f, 255, 255f, R34–R35
as closed system, 12, 81, 81f 120–123, 135
habitat in, 96, 96f 534 environmental filmmakers,
geosphere, 59–66
hydrosphere, 59, 59f, 73–79, in the human body, 209 Endangered Species Act, R38–R39
73f, 79f keystone species, 242, 242f 255, 255f Environmental Impact
seasons on, 334, 334f marine, 179–185, 179f, 183f, endemic species, 248 Statement (EIS), 541
from space at night, 318f 184f
endocrine system, 516, 516f Environmental Performance
stratosphere and ozone, niche, 203, 204, 205f
nitrogen cycle in, 126–127, energy. See also fossil fuel; Index, 537
333, 335–338, 346–347
126f renewable energy environmental policy (U.S.).
Earth Day, 545 observation of, 28–29 alternative, 466 See also regulations
earthquake phosphorus cycle in, in the atmosphere, 70–72 agencies, 540, 540f
earthquake zones, 63–64, 127–128, 127f, 192 in the biosphere, 81 history of, 539–541, 539f
63f, 64f, 82f photosynthesis in, 117, 117f conservation of, 470–471, influencing, 542–543
magnitude of, 63 pollution in, 120–121, 292, 470f, 471f environmental problem,
seismic waves, 60, 60f 292f, 516–517 in ecosystems, 117–123 14–15. See also specific
Earth science, 7f producers and consumers nonrenewable, 436f, 437f, problems
in, 118–119, 118f, 119f 438–443, 442f
Earth Summit, 256, 534 nuclear, 444–447, 444f, 447f, Environmental Protection
restoration of, 180–181,
Easter Island, 233, 233f 500–501, 518 Agency (EPA), 305, 494,
180f, 370–371
494f, 540f
ecological footprint, 19, 19f, species interactions in, energy conservation,
R10 204–211, 204f, 205f, 207f 470–471, 470f, 471f environmental science, 5–8,
succession in, 129–133, 7f
ecological succession energy efficiency, 468–470,
130f, 131f, 132f, 133f environmental scientist,
fire and, 129–133, 132f 469f, R47
trophic levels in, 122–123, 554–555
old-field, 132–133, 132f, energy flow, in ecosystems,
122f, 123f
133f 117–123 epidemic, 513, 520
value of, 535–536
primary, 129, 130–131, 130f, epidemiology, 513, 513f
131f ecosystem services, 357, energy pyramid, 123, 123f
secondary, 132–133, 132f, 357f, 535–536 energy use epiphyte, 148, 148f
133f ecotourism, 244 household, 454–455 equation, chemical, 121, R25
ecology, 6, 7f wasting energy, 313 equator, 328, 328f
ecotoxicology, 516
world patterns, 437, 437f
economics Eden Project, 81, 81f erosion
cost-benefit analysis, 17 engineer, environmental, on beaches, 88
education R34–R35
economic systems and deforestation and, 366
environmental, 546, R33
governments, R30, R31f engineering, 7f, 393–394, disease and, 521, 521f
of women, 224, 224f, 232f
environment and, 535–538, 393f, 400–401 from mining, 423
535f educators, environmental, of soil, 366, 386, 386f
environmental action,
growth and development, R33 from water and wind, 66,
544–547, 544f
R31 Ehrlich, Paul, 544f 66f, 88, 366, 386
environmental architect,
incentives, 536–537 electricity Escherichia coli (E. coli), 103,
R36–R37
resources and value, R30 fossil fuels, 439, 439f 103f
risk assessment, 17, 513 environmental careers. See
fuel cells, 306, 468–469, 468f essential amino acid, 379
supply and demand, 17, 17f careers
generators for, 436, 436f
unfunded mandates, 541 environmental change. See estivating, 161
geothermal power, 464–465,
ecosystem. See also aquatic 464f, 465f also climate change estuary, 179–181, 179f
ecosystem; biomes; hydroelectric power, 280, agricultural revolution and, ethanol fuel, 462
marine ecosystem; 281f, 463–464, 463f 10, 10f
disease and, 521–523, 521f, Eukarya, 102
population (ecosystem) methane power, 462
Arctic and Antarctic, 185 nuclear power, 278, 445, 522f, 523f European Union, 457
Cajun prairie, 164–165, 445f hunter-gatherers and, 9, 9f eutrophication
164f, 165f photovoltaic cells, 460, 460f individual action, 544–547, algal blooms, 128, 128f, 175,
carbon cycle, 124–125, 124f wind power, 456f, 461, 461f, 544f 175f, 288
carrying capacity, 200, 200f, 472f, 478–479 Industrial Revolution and, artificial, 192–193, 288, 288f
201, 216–217 11, 11f process of, 288
electronic waste, 483f
cellular respiration in, 120, raptor rehabilitation,
electrostatic precipitator, 548–549, 548f, 549f evaporation, 73, 73f, 269, 269f
120f
components of, 94–96, 94f, 307 Spaceship Earth, 12, 12f evaporites, 414
95f elements, native, 411, 412f sustainability, 21 Everglades (Florida), 46–47,
connections in, 93–94 El Niño, 332 environmental decision- 47f, 176
conservation of, 254–255, making, 45–49, 45f, 46f, 47f,
254f, 255f emergent layer, 148, 148f
48f
coral reefs as, 92f, 93 emerging virus, 522
deep-ocean, 118, 118f
Index R95
evolution, 97–101 fire fossil fuel. See also coal; oil; geosphere, 59–66
by artificial selection, 100, secondary succession, oil spills earthquakes, 60, 60f, 63–64,
100f 130–131, 130f, 131f, 133 acid precipitation from, 63f, 82f
coevolution, 100, 100f underground, 424, 424f 314–315, 315f in the Earth system, 59, 59f
by natural selection, fire ants, 147, 147f in the carbon cycle, 125 interior structure, 60–61,
97–100, 98f, 99f, 100f definition of, 435 60f, 61f
of resistance, 101, 101f first law of thermodynamics, deposits of, 438, 438f, R71f plate tectonics, 62, 62f, 63f
468–469 drilling for, 42, 440 volcanoes, 64–65, 64f, 65f,
exotic species, 247, 247f
fish electricity from, 439, 439f 333, 514
experiment, 33 acid precipitation and, 316, environmental impacts of, weathering and erosion, 66,
experimental group, 33 316f 305–306, 422, 441, 515 66f, 366, 385–386
experimental method, 31–34, aquaculture, 396–397, 396f future production of, geothermal energy, 464–465,
32f, 34f ocean warming and, 343 442–443, 442f 464f, 465f
overharvesting, 135, 183, hydraulic fracturing,
exponent, R18–R19 185, 395, 536 440–441, 440f geothermal heat pump, 465,
exponential growth, 199, as vertebrates, 107 natural gas, 438, 442 465f
199f, 219, 219f fish farm, 396–397, 396f petroleum, 438, 440–443, germ plasm, 253
extinction 442f, 448–449 GIS (geographic information
fish kills, 289, 289f, 316, 316f pricing of, 535
endangered species, system), 361, 361f
245–246, 246f, 255, 255f, fission, nuclear, 444, 444f tundra disruption and, 163
U.S. oil production, 163, globalization, 533–534
534 Fleming, Alexander, 36
from habitat destruction, 443f global warming. See also
flood climate change
150 deforestation and, 150–151, fossils, evolution and, 97
humans as cause of, extinction and, 247
150f, 151f fracking, 440–441, 440f disease spread and, 522
246–247, 246f, 247f global warming and, 343
mass, 245, 245f Frank, Laurence, 22–23, 22f modeling, 341–342, 341f,
in New Orleans, 187, 187f 342f
rates of, 15, 15f, 248 wetlands and, 175 fresh water, 79, 79f
risk measurement, 256 freshwater wetland, 175–177, Global Water for
Florida, 217, 246, 246f Sustainability Program
Exxon Valdez, 41, 291, 291f 175f, 176f, 177f
Florida Everglades, 46–47, (GLOWS), 525
47f, 176, 177 fuel cell, 306, 468–469, 468f
glossary, R74–R87
flow-chart diagrams, 43, 43f fuelwood, 226, 226f, 462, 462f
gold
Fukushima, Japan, 501
F flowering plant, 105, 105f
FoldNotes, R15–R16 fungi (singular, fungus), 102f,
from Ghana, 427, 427f
mining, 417, 417f
103, 103f mining of, 417–419, 417f,
famine, 379 food. See also agriculture;
fusion, nuclear, 447, 447f 418f, 419f
farmlands, 363, 363f. See also fish; livestock
uses of, 414f
agriculture ecology of, 381, 381f
genetically engineered, Goodall, Jane, 36, 36f, 544f
fault, 63
393–394, 400–401 grain, 380, 380f, 382, 383f
fertility rate
education for women and,
green revolution and, 383
malnutrition, 379, 382, 383f G Grand Canyon, 541, 541f
224, 224f nutrients in, 379–380, 379f Grant, Peter and Rosemary,
Fertility Rates and Female Galápagos Islands, 98–99, 99
origins of, 224, 224f
Literacy (Maps in 98f, 99f
world production of, 380, graphical model, 42, 42f
Action), 232 380f gangue minerals, 412
graphic organizer, R12–R16
in the U.S., 221, 221f garden, wildlife, R54–R55
food chain, 120–123 graphing skill, 34, 34f,
worldwide trends, 230–231,
aquatic, 120–121, 122, 122f gas R21–R23
230f, 231f
DDT in, 120–121, 120f, 121f atmospheric, 67, 67f, 72
fertilizer energy flow in, 122, 122f greenbelt, 362
greenhouse, 72, 125, 339,
eutrophication from, 175, overfishing and, 135, 135f 339f, 341 green chemistry, 496–497,
288 trophic levels in, 122–123, radon, 312, 514 497f
in the nitrogen and 122f water vapor, 341 greenhouse effect, 72, 72f,
phosphorus cycles, 128,
food web, 122, 122f gasohol, 462 339–341, 339f, 340f
128f
water pollution from, 285f forest gemstone, 414 greenhouse gas, 72, 125, 339,
world use of, 388f biomes, 146–153, 146f, 147f, 339f, 341, 345
gene, 242
151f, 152f Greenpeace International,
field notes, R6–R7 generation rate, 216–217
classification of, 365 257, 257f
filmmakers, environmental, deforestation, 9, 150–151, generation time, 199
R38–R39 150f, 151f, 366 green plastic, 492
genetic diversity, 98, 98f,
filter feeder, 106 managing, 365–367, 365f, green revolution, 383
242–243, 243f
367f grizzly bear, 119, 119f
filtration system, 276f–277f, genetic engineering, 393f,
reforestation, 345, 345f, 367,
300–301, 300f 400–401
367f
finches, Darwin’s, 98–99, 98f, geographic information
formaldehyde, 310
99f system (GIS), 361, 361f
geometry, R18
R96 Index
groundwater heterotroph, 118, 118f oceans, 74–78, 75f irrigation
aquifers, 79, 79f, 272–274, Himalayas, 62, 63f, 150 water cycle in, 73, 73f drip, 281, 281f, 387
274f–275f hydrothermal solution, 413 erosion and, 387
conservation of, 272–273, HIV (human immunodefi- methods, 278–279, 279f
272f ciency virus), 522, 523 hydrothermal vent, 118, 118f salinization and, 388
pollution of, 289–290, 290f honeycreepers, 100, 100f, 249 hypothesis (plural, water used in, 276
water table, 272 Hong Kong, 359, 359f, 523 hypotheses), 32 islands
wells, 274–275, 275f barrier, 182, 182f, 187
hookworm, 521, 521f
growth, exponential, 199, biodiversity on, 249
hormone mimics and carrying capacity of, 200
199f, 219, 219f
disrupters, 516–517, 517f
growth rate, 198, 198f, 201
horseshoe crab, 180, 181f I heat, 360, 360f
sustainable development
growth regulator, 392 of, 534
host, 519 ibuprofen, 496–497, 497f
Gulf Stream, 77, 77f, 78, 343 Israel, 281
hotspot, biodiversity, 250, iceberg, 283, 343, 343f
gymnosperm, 105, 105f 250f IUU (illegal, unregulated, and
ice core, 330–331, 330f, 331f
gypsum, 414 household unreported), 537
immigration, 221, 221f
gypsy moth, 93 air pollution, 310–312, 311f ivory trade, 256, 256f
energy use, 454–455 incinerators, 487, 487f, 498
hazardous waste, 496, India, 276–277, 334, 383, 398
498–499, 499f
Indian Ocean, 75, 75f
solid waste from, 488–492
H water use, 276–277, 277f, indirect competition, 205 J
282, 282f individual action, 544–547,
habitat. See also biomes; 544f Jamestown colony, 35, 35f
human health. See also
ecosystems Japan, 74, 467, 501, 537f
disease indoor air pollution,
adaptation to, 114–115
acid precipitation, 316 310–312, 311f jetties, 89
conservation of, 108–109,
air pollution and, 307–311 industrial air pollution,
109f, 254–255, 254f, 255f Jihlava, 425
environmental effects on, 307–308, 307f
destruction, 150, 246, 246f
511, 511f, 512f
in ecosystems, 96, 96f Industrial Revolution, 11, 11f
epidemiology of, 513, 513f
engineering for, 51, 51f
genetically engineered infant mortality, 222, 222f
niche vs., 203
restoration, 164–165, 164f,
foods and, 400–401
global warming and, 343
influenza (flu), 523 K
165f, 180–181, 180f infrastructure, 225, 359
ground-level ozone, Katrina, Hurricane, 187, 187f
wildlife gardens, R54–R55
310–311 insect
habitat conservation plan, hormone mimics and biodiversity of, 258–259 Keeling, Charles, 340
255, 255f disrupters, 516–517, 517f characteristics, 106, 106f keystone species, 242, 242f
Hamilton, Alice, 544f lead poisoning, 514, 517, pest control, 389–392, 391f, Kilimanjaro, Mount, 333,
530–531, 531f 392f 528f
Hardin, Garrett, 16–17, 16f,
mercury poisoning, 496, species of, 241f
544f kilocalories, 379
513f, 514 tracking, 134f
hazardous waste, 493–499 ozone thinning, 337, 337f kingdom, 102, 102f
integrated pest
exporting, 498 pesticides and, 390, 516 management, 392, 392f Kuwait, 283, 283f
household, 496, 498–499, toxicology, 512, 512f
499f intellectual honesty, 37 Kyoto Protocol, 345, 534
human immunodeficiency
land disposal, 496, 497f intelligence, pollution and,
virus (HIV), 522, 523
management, 495–497, 497f 517, 530–531, 531f
nuclear, 446, 500–501, 518 human population. See
Intergovernmental Panel on
L
reducing, 495 population (human)
Climate Change (IPCC),
regulation of, 494, 494f hunter-gatherer, 9, 9f 344
remediation, 498, 498f
hurricane, 69f, 187, 187f, 326f International Conference on lab safety, xxiv, R2–R5
types of, 493, 493f
hybrid car, 306, 469, 469f Population and lake, 174–175, 174f, 175f. See
Hazzah, Leela, 23
hydraulic fracturing, Development (ICPD), 230, also aquatic ecosystem
health. See human health 230f
440–441, 440f land. See also wetland
heat, atmospheric, 70–71, international cooperation, arable, 227, 227f, 384
hydraulic mining, 418–419,
70f–71f 230, 344, 533–534, 536–537 degradation of, 386
418f, 419f
heat island, 360, 360f International Union for the marginal, 360, 360f
hydroelectric energy, 280,
heat pump, geothermal, 465, Conservation of Nature national parks, 368–369,
281f, 463–464, 463f
465f and Natural Resources 368f
hydrogen fuel, 467–468, 467f, (IUCN), 256 public, 541
468f rangeland, 364, 364f,
International Whaling
heavy metal, 286f, 307, 316, hydrolysis, 468 370–371
Commission (IWC), 536
514 urban, 355, 355f, 357, 357f
hydrosphere, 73–79 invasive species, 247, 247f
hedgerow, 363 in the Earth system, 59, 59f
fresh water, 79, 79f invertebrate, 106, 106f
hemorrhagic fevers, 523
groundwater, 79, 79f ionosphere, 69
herbivore, 119, 119f
Index R97
landfill lion, 22–23, 203f relief, world, R56f–R57f mineral. See also mining
capacity, 486, 486f literacy rates, 229, 232f Superfund sites, U.S., 494f exploration for, 415, 415f
chemical reactions in, 496 topographic, 50, 50f formation of, 413–414, 413f
design, 484–485, 484f, 485f lithosphere, 61, 61f tropical rain forests, 147f gangue, 412
estuaries as, 181 littoral zone, 174, 174f wetlands, 186f metallic, 412, 414, 414f
groundwater pollution livestock, 398–399, 398f, 399f wind power, U.S., 472f native elements, 411, 412f
from, 290, 290f, 485 marginal land, 360, 360f nonmetallic, 413, 414, 414f
lobbying, 543 ore minerals, 412–413, 412f
hazardous waste, 496
methane from, 485 local governments, 542 marine ecosystem. See also in U.S., 411, 411f, 426f, R72f
regulation of, 486 coastal wetland uses of, 414, 414f, R28–R29
Loihi Seamount, 74 Arctic and Antarctic, 185
land management longleaf pines, 130 coral reefs, 92f, 93, 183, 249, mine subsidence, 423, 423f
farmlands, 363, 363f 328 mining. See also minerals
longshore currents, 88–89
forests, 365–367, 365f, 367f oceans, 184–185, 184f biomining, 498
parks and preserves, longwall mining, 416, 416f
Marine Protection, coal, 417, 420, 424, 424f
368–369, 368f Love Canal, 493, 494 copper, 14, 14f, 422f,
rangelands, 364, 364f, Research, and Sanctuaries
lung function, 310–311, 311f, Act (1972), 293f 432–433
370–371 cyanide heap leaching, 417,
312
land use market, 17, 535
417f
Lyme disease, 93, 521, 524,
agriculture, 363–364, 363f, marsh, 175, 176, 176f, 182 environmental impacts of,
524f
370–371 mass extinction, 245, 245f 421–424, 421f, 422f, 423f,
categories of, 355f 424f
mass transit system, 362,
conservation planning, exploration, 415, 415f
362f
366–367, 367f gold, 417–419, 417f, 418f,
ecosystem services, 357,
357f, 535–536
M mathematical model, 44, 44f
matter, 124
427, 427f
hydraulic, 418–419, 418f,
map, North America, R71f Maathai, Wangari, 544f, 545f 419f
mean, 39
models of, 376–377 mercury pollution from,
Madagascar, 150 measurement, 31, 31f
urbanization, 227, 227f, 427
358–360, 358f, 360f magnitude, earthquake, 63 media influence, 543 mine fires, 424, 424f
urban planning, 361–362, malaria, 520, 520f, 522f placer, 419, 419f
medicine, from plants, 148,
361f, 542 regulation and reclamation,
malnutrition, 379, 382 243, 243f
urban vs. rural, 356, 356f 424–425, 425f
Man and the Biosphere Mediterranean climate, smelting, 420, 420f
La Niña, 332
Program, 368, 368f 158–159, 159f subsurface, 416, 416f
latitude surface, 417–418, 417f, 420
manatees, 172, 172f menhaden, 396–397, 396f
biomes and, 145, 145f undersea, 420
climate and, 327, 328, 328f mangrove swamps, 74, 177, mercury
from coal, 43, 43f U.S. mineral production,
deserts and, 329 182, 182f
from gold mining, 418, 427 426f
ecosystems and, 140–141 mantle, 61, 61f waste from, 484
in landfills, 496
lava, 64 maps Mississippi River, 187, 187f,
poisoning by, 513f, 514
law of conservation of acid precipitation, 317f 271
aquifers, U.S., 79f mesosphere, 61f, 68, 69
energy, 124 model
biomes, 143f methane
law of conservation of computer, 342
carbon dioxide emissions, as fuel, 462
matter, 124 conceptual, 43, 43f
R64f–R65f as greenhouse gas, 341
law of supply and demand, from hydraulic fracturing, decision-making, 45, 45f
climate change models,
17, 17f 441 epidemiologic, 513, 513f
342f
from landfills, 485–486, 485f global warming, 341–342,
lawyers, environmental, climate regions, R68f
341f
R40–R41 coral reefs, 183f methanol, 306 graphical, 42, 42f
Earth at night, 318f
leachate, landfill, 485 Mexico land use, 376–377
earthquake hazards, 82f
lead, uses of, 305, 414f air pollution in, 14, 15f mathematical, 44, 44f
fertility rates and female
climate regions, R68f physical, 42, 42f
lead poisoning, 514, 517, literacy, 232f
fossil fuel deposits, R69f molecule, R25
530–531, 531f fossil fuel deposits, 438f,
green revolution in, 383
least developed countries, R69f monarch butterflies,
land use, R71f
228–229, 229f, 230f landfill capacity, U.S., 486f 108–109, 109f
mineral and energy
land use, North America,
legislation. See regulations resources, R70f Montreal Protocol, 338, 534
R71f
legumes, 126 malaria, 522f micro-hydropower, 464 moss, 104, 104f
Lewis, Meriwether, 545 mineral and energy migration motor oil disposal, 499
resources, R72f of animals, 156, 156f, 163
lichen, 130–131, 130f motor vehicle emission,
mineral production, 426f of humans, 221, 221f 305–306, 306f, 308f, 440. See
life expectancy, 222, 222f national parks, U.S., 368f
mimicry, 206–207, 207f also automobile
light pollution, 313, 313f, natural resources, U.S., R72f
political regions, R60f–R61f mountain, 62, 63f, 333
318f, R9
population density, Muir, John, 539, 539f, 544f
limiting resource, 201 R62f–R63f municipal solid waste, 482,
line graph, R21–R22 relief, U.S., R66f–R67f 482f, 484, 484f, 485
R98 Index
mushroom, 103, 103f North America. See specific Ogallala aquifer, 272–273, ozone hole, 336–337, 336f,
mussel, dwarf wedge, 5f, countries 272f 337f, 346, 346f
31–33, 32f, 38–39, 38f Northern Hemisphere oil ozone layer protection, 338,
climate, 334, 334f cosmic, 443 338f, 346–347
mutualism, 204f, 208, 208f ultraviolet light and, 335,
Northern Lights, 68f, 69 environmental effects of,
441 335f
“no-take” fishing zone, 135 exploration for, 440
no-till farming, 387, 387f formation of, 438, 443
N nuclear energy, 444–447 future production of,
national park, 368–369, 368f

advantages of, 446
fission, 444, 444f
442–443, 442f
petroleum products, 440 P
fusion, 447, 447f pipelines and oil sands,
native element, 411, 412f Pacific Ocean, 74, 75f
power plants, 278, 445, 445f 448–449
natural gas, 438, 442 packaging, reducing, 488,
safety concerns, 447 Oil Pollution Act (1990), 293,
natural resources. See also 488f, 491
waste from, 446, 500–501, 293f
nonrenewable resources; 518 pack ice, 75
oil refinery, 307
renewable resources water use and, 278 pampas, 156, 157f
limiting resource, 201 oil reserve, 442, 442f
nuclear fission, 444, 444f panthers, 246, 246f
rapid population growth oil sand, 448–449
and, 225–227, 225f, 226f, nuclear fusion, 447, 447f paper vs. plastic, 490–491
oil spill
227f nuclear waste, 446, 500–501, paper waste, 484, 484f
Deepwater Horizon, 83
renewable vs. nonrenew- 518 effects of, 291, 441 parasite, 521, 521f
able, 14, 14f
nucleus, cell, 102 in North America, 83, 291,
U.S. map of, R72f parasitism, 204f, 208, 208f
291f
natural selection, 97–100, sources of, 41, 41f parks and preserves,
98f, 99f, 100f in the tundra, 163 368–369, 368f
O
The Nature Conservancy, old-field succession, particulate
538 131–132, 132f from fuel burning, 304
nekton, 173 from natural sources, 514,
observation, 31 omnivore, 119, 119f
514f
Nepal, 521, 521f ocean. See also coastal open-pit mining, 417, 417f as primary air pollutants,
New Orleans, 187, 187f wetlands open space, 362 303f, 304f
niche, 203, 204–205, 205f Arctic and Antarctic parts per million (ppm), 290
open system, 81
ecosystems, 185
niche restriction, 205, 205f beaches, 88–89 operation, order of, R19 passive solar heating,
nicotine, 515 circulation patterns, 332, 458–459, 458f, 459f
orchid, 209, 209f
Nile River, 227, 227f 332f pathogen
ore, 412–413, 412f, 432. See
coral reefs, 92f, 93, 183, 249, in biological pest control,
nitrogen cycle, 126–127, 126f also mineral; mining
328 391, 391f
nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 103, currents in, 78, 78f, 83, 83f, organic agriculture, 392 diseases from, 519–520,
126, 126f, 394 88–89 organic chemistry, 392 519f, 522, 522f
nitrogen oxide, 303f, 304f, deep-ocean ecosystems, organic matter, 286f environmental change and,
315f, 341 118, 118f 521–523, 522f
global warming and, 343, organophosphate pesticides, in waterborne diseases, 520
noise pollution, 312, 312f, 516
343f water pollution from, 286,
422
Gulf Stream, 77, 77f, 78 OTEC (ocean thermal energy 286f
nondegradable pollutant, 15 large predators in, 210–211 conversion), 467, 467f water treatment and, 277
non-governmental organiza- layers of, 184, 184f overburden, 417 PCB (polychlorinated
tion (NGO), 534 locations of, 74–75, 75f biphenyl), 517
ocean thermal energy overfishing
nonpoint-source pollution, coral reefs and, 183 penicillin, 36
conversion, 467, 467f
285, 285f international cooperation,
ocean water, 76, 76f Penobscot River, 12–13, 13f
nonrenewable energy. See overfishing, 135, 183, 185, 536–537
marine mammals and, 185, percolation, 290f
also coal; fossil fuel 395, 536
electricity production, 436, 185f Periodic Table, R24, R26–R27
plants and animals of, 184,
436f 184f no-fishing zones, 395 permafrost, 162
future production, 442–443, pollution of, 291, 291f trophic levels and, 135, 135f
permeability, 273
442f rising sea levels, 343 overgrazing, 158, 364
natural gas, 438, 442 persistent chemical, 512, 516
saving species in, 536–537 ozone
nuclear, 278, 444–447, 444f, submarine volcanoes, 74 Peru, 227
in the atmosphere, 68f, 69,
500–501, 518 temperature zones, 76–77, pest control, 389–392, 391f,
336
petroleum, 438, 440–443, 76f 392f
chlorofluorocarbons and,
442f threats to, 185, 185f 335, 335f, 338, 338f,
use patterns, 437, 437f undersea mining, 420 346–347
uses of, 435
ocean thermal energy depletion of, 335, 335f
nonrenewable resource, 14, conversion (OTEC), 467, formation of, 310
14f 467f ground-level, 303, 308f,
normal distribution, 39, 39f 310–311, 336
Index R99
pesticide, 389–390 climate change and, noise, 312, 312f, 422 population pyramids,
biological magnification of, 144–145, 144f, 145f, 342, nonpoint-source, 285, 285f 238–239, 238f
120–121, 292, 292f 344 of oceans, 83, 83f, 185, 291, survivorship, 220, 220f
cross-species transfers and, defensive chemicals in, 391 291f U.S., 221f
523 flowering, 105, 105f from pesticides, 178, 292, waste and, 482, 482f
DDT, 120–121, 247, 390, 545 genetically engineered, 390 of the world, 357, R62f–R63f
genetically engineered 393–394, 400–401 point-source, 284, 284f population, statistical, 38, 38f,
foods and, 400–401 gymnosperms, 105, 105f recent improvements in, 40
human health and, 6, 390, hydrogen fuel from, 467, 514
516 467f of rivers, 178 population change equation,
natural, R48–R49 medicines from, 148, 243, from runoff, 128, 175, 238, 221
organophosphate, 516 243f 285, 288 population clock, 223
persistent, 390, 512 pest resistance, 101, 101f, from solid waste, 518, 518f population pyramid, 220,
regulation of, 390 390 thermal, 289, 289f 220f, 238–239, 238f
resistance to, 101, 101f, 390 photosynthesis, 117, 117f, toxicology of, 512, 512f
in rivers, 178 124, 124f, 174 from vehicle emissions, porosity, 273
pest management, 391–392, ultraviolet radiation and, 515, 515f potable water, 277
391f 337, 337f polychlorinated biphenyl poultry, 399, 399f
petroleum. See oil Plasmodium, 104 (PCB), 517 power plant
pH, 314–315, 314f, R25 plastic, 483, 490–491, 492 pond, 96, 174–175, 174f, 175f coal-burning, 304, 324, 436,
plate tectonics, 62, 62f, 63f pond community, 96. See 436f
pheromone, 392 generators for, 436, 436f
also aquatic ecosystem
phosphates, algal blooms geothermal, 464–465, 464f,
and, 128, 288 poaching, 247, 256, 256f population (ecosystem), 465f
197–209. See also biodiver- hydroelectric, 280, 281f,
phosphorus cycle, 127–128, point-source pollution, 284, sity; ecosystem
127f, 192 284f 463–464, 463f
carrying capacity, 200, 200f, nuclear, 444–445, 444f, 445f
photodegradable plastic, 492 polar region 201, 216–217 tidal, 466, 466f
photosynthesis melting ice, 343, 343f competition, 201, 204–205,
ozone hole, 336–337, 336f, 204f, 205f, R9 prairie, 156–158, 164–165,
in the carbon cycle, 124, 164f, 165f
124f 337f, 346, 346f definition of, 95, 95f, 197,
energy production by, 117, prevailing winds, 329f, 331 197f prairie dog, 158, 158f
117f sunlight at, 328, 328f density and dispersion of, precipitation
by phytoplankton, 174 polar stratospheric clouds, 198, 198f acid, 128, 314–317, 324–325
UV light and, 337, 337f 336, 346, 346f disappearance of, 233, 233f biomes and, 144, 144f
genetic diversity in, 243, extremes in, 334
photovoltaic cells, 460, 460f polar vortex winds, 336 243f global air circulation and,
phthalates, 517 political regions, world map growth limits in, 200–201, 329
physical model, 42, 42f of, R60f–R61f 200f, 201f pH of, 314–315, 314f, 315f
pollen, 105, 106 growth rates of, 198–199, urbanization and, 360, 360f
physical relief map 198f, 199f, 201, 216–217
United States, R66f–R67f pollution. See also air water cycle, 73, 73f, 269,
predator-prey, 206, 207f 269f
world, R56f–R57f pollution; water pollution
regulation of, 202, 202f
physics, 7f acid precipitation and, 128, predation, 204f, 206, 207f
314–317, 324–325 population (human)
phytoplankton age structure, 220, 220f, predator
biodegradability and, 15 adaptations by, 206–207,
importance of, 80, 174 definition of, 14 238–239, 238f
in lakes and ponds, 173, consumption, 18–19, 18f 206f, 207f
epidemiology of, 513, 513f in Africa, 22–23, 22f
174, 174f of estuaries, 180–181, 180f demographic diversity,
in the ocean, 184 228–229, 229f protection of, 210–211
extinction from, 247
ozone thinning and, 337 from fossil fuels, 422, 424, demographic transition, prediction, 32
as protists, 104 424f, 515 223–224, 223f, 224f prevailing winds, 329f, 331,
Pinatubo, Mount, 65, 514f of groundwater, 289–290, development and, 230, 230f 331f
290f disappearance of, 233, 233f
pioneer species, 130 prey, 206–207, 206f, 207f
hormone mimics and fertility rates, 221, 221f, 232f
pipeline, 448–449 disrupters, 516–517, 517f forecasting, 220–221, 220f, Pribilof Islands, 200
placer deposit, 419, 419f human health and, 511, 221f, 231, 238–239 primary pollutants, 303, 303f
511f, 512f government policies and,
planet, Earth-like, 20 primary succession, 129,
of indoor air, 310–312, 311f 228–229, 230f
plankton, 173, 180, 185. See 132–133, 133f
from industrial chemicals, growth impacts, 225–227,
also phytoplankton 225f, 226f, 227f probability, 40, 40f
517
plant. See also agriculture; from landfills, 290, 290f, 485 growth of, 13, 13f, 19, 219, process diagram, R12
food; specific biomes lead poisoning, 530–531, 225–229
producer, 118, 118f
acid precipitation effects 531f life expectancy, 222, 222f
on, 315, 315f migrations, 221, 221f protective covering, 207, 207f
light, 313, 313f, 318f, R9
angiosperms, 105, 105f from mining, 421–424, 421f, natural selection in, 97–99, protist, 102f, 104, 104f
characteristics of, 102f, 422f, 423f, 424f 98f, 99f public lands, 541
104–105, 104f, 105f from natural sources, 514, pollution and, 218
514f
R100 Index
Public Rangelands unfunded mandates, 541 S smelting, 420, 420f
Improvement Act (1978), water pollution, 292–293, smog, 308, 308f, 319, 319f
364 293f Safe Drinking Water Act
wilderness areas, 368–369, (1975), 293f, 424 Snow, John, 37, 37f
369f safety symbols, xxiv social sciences, 7f
remediation, 498, 498f Sahel region, 386 sociobiology, 259
Q renewable energy
biomass fuel, 462, 462f, R11
salamanders, 96f soil
acid precipitation, 315
salinity, 76, 76f, 176 arable, 227, 227f, 384
quality of life, 11, 11f cogeneration, 470
energy efficiency and, salinization, 388 conservation, 387, 387f
quarrying, 417, 417f depth measurement, 365
468–469, 469f, 470 salt, 418, 418f
geothermal, 464–465, 464f, erosion, 366, 386, 386f
salt marshes, 182 fertility of, 385, 385f, 388,
465f
hydroelectric, 280, 281f, salt water, 76, 76f 388f
R 463–464, 463f
hydrogen fuel, 467–468,
sampling, 40 mining and, 423
moisture, 406–407
San Andreas fault, 63
rabbits, 200, 200f 467f, 468f salinization, 388
ocean thermal energy satellite images, 44, 44f in temperate grasslands,
radiation, thermal, 70, 70f conversion, 467, 467f 157, 157f
savannas, 155–156, 155f, 156f
radioactive waste, 446, solar, 457–460, 458f, 459f, topsoil, 385, 385f
schistosomiasis, 520
500–501, 518 460f, 473 in tropical rain forests, 147
tidal, 466, 466f scientific methods, 31–44
radon, 312, 514 Solar Decathlon
wind, 456f, 461, 461f, 472f, correlation method, 35, 35f,
rainfall. See precipitation competition, 473
478–479 37
rain forests. See temperate experimental method, solar energy, 457–460
renewable resources, 14, 14f 31–34, 32f, 34f active heating, 460, 460f
rain forests; tropical rain
forests replacement level, 221, 221f habits of mind and, 36–37 latitude and, 328, 328f
reproductive potential, 199, models, 42–44, 42f, 43f, 44f passive heating, 458–459,
rain shadow effect, 333, 333f 458f, 459f
199f statistics and, 38–41, 38f,
rangelands, 364, 364f, 39f, 41f photovoltaic cells, 460, 460f
370–371 reptile, 107 solar-powered houses, 473,
scientific notation, R20
raptor rehabilitation, reservoir, 280–281, 280f, 464 473f
Scilly Isles, 78 source of, 457
548–549, 548f, 549f resistance, evolution of, 101,
101f, 390, 521 scrubbers, 307, 307f solar evaporation, 418, 418f
RCRA (Resource
Conservation and Recovery resource. See natural sea-coal, 305 solar maximum, 333, 333f
Act), 486, 494 resource sea otters, 242, 242f solid waste
recharge zone, 79, 274, 275f Resource Conservation and secondary pollutant, 303 biodegradable, 15, 483
reclamation, 424–425, 425f Recovery Act (RCRA), 486, secondary succession, 129, compost, 388, 490
494 132–133, 132f, 133f disposal problems, 482,
recycling, 489–490, 489f, 491,
resource depletion 482f, 486, 518, 518f
499, R46 sedimentation, 288
definition of, 14 generation of, 481
reforestation, 345, 345f, 367, seed bank, 253, 253f incinerators, 487, 487f, 498
limiting resource, 201
367f landfills, 484–486, 484f,
population growth and, seismic wave, 60
Regional Fisheries 225–227, 225f, 226f, 227f 485f, 486f
selective cutting, 365 municipal, 482, 482f, 484,
Management
rice paddies, 399 selenium, 514 484f, 485
Organizations (RFMOs),
536–537 Richter scale, 63 sewage sludge, 287 plastic, 483
Ring of Fire, 64f recycling, 489–490, 489f,
regulations shark, 135, 210–211 491
acid precipitation, 316–317, risk, 41, 41f, 256 shopping, R50–R51 source reduction, 488–492,
317f risk assessment, 17, 513 shore, 88, 182, 343 489f
air quality, 307
river system, 79, 79f, 178, 271, types of, 483–484, 484f
asbestos, 312 sick-building syndrome, 310
biodiversity, 255–257 422 Solomon, Susan, 346–347,
SI conversions, R32
economic incentives, room-and-pillar mining, 416 346f
536–537 significant digits, R20–R21
Roosevelt, Theodore, 539, source reduction, 488–492,
endangered species, 255, 539f, 544f Silent Spring (Carson), 6, 489f
255f, 534 544f, 545
ruminants, 398, 398f Southern Hemisphere
environmental agencies, silicon, 414f climate, 334
540, 540f runoff
Environmental Impact eutrophication from, 175, silver, 414f Spaceship Earth, 12, 12f
Statements, 541 238, 238f, 288 skepticism, 36
hazardous waste, 494, 494f fertilizers in, 128, 128f skyglow, 313, 313f
landfills, 486 rivers and, 178
marine protection, 293f water pollution from, 285, slag, 420
mining, 424–425, 425f 285f slash-and-burn, 10, 10f
pesticides, 390 rural, 355 smelter, air pollution from,
rangelands, 364 304, 306, 307, 319
Index R101
species Superfund (CERCLA), 293f, topographic map, 50, 50f, biodiversity, 251, 251f
counting, 264–265 424, 494 R58f–R59f, R68f–R69f climate regions, R68f
definition of, 95 supply and demand, 17, 17f topography, climate and, 333, diet, 380
endangered or threatened, 333f ecological footprint, 19, 19f,
245–246, 246f, 255, 255f surface impoundment, 496 R10
endemic, 248 surface mining, 417–418, 417f topsoil, 385, 385f ecosystem services, 357
estimating loss of, 248 Surface Mining Control and toxicology, 512, 512f electricity, 439f
exotic, 247, 247f Reclamation Act of 1977 trade winds, 329f, 331 energy use, 437, 437f, 439f
extinct, 246f (SMCRA), 424 environmental policies,
Tragedy of the Commons,
genetic diversity, 242, 243, 539–543, 540f
surface water, 270 16–17, 16f, 537
243f fertility rate, 221, 221f
keystone, 242, 242f survivorship, 220, 220f transpiration, 150 fossil fuel deposits, 438,
legal protection, 255–257 sustainability, 21, 394, 394f, transportation, 283, 362, 362f 438f, R69f
number of, 241, 241f 533–534 geothermal power, 464
trash. See solid waste
preserving, 252–253, 252f, hazardous waste, 494, 494f
swamp, 175, 177, 177f, 182, tree ring data, 35, 35f
253f irrigation, 279
182f
recovery plans, 255 tributary, 79, 79f landfill capacity, 486f
tropical rain forests, 149, symbiosis, 209 land use map, R71f
trophic level, 122–123, 122f
149f mineral and energy
tropical rain forest, 146–150 resources, R70f
species interaction
biodiversity in, 149, 149f, national parks, 368, 368f
commensalism, 204f, 209,
248–249, 248f, 249f
209f
competition, 201, 204–205,
T climate in, 146
nuclear waste, 500–501
population growth, 221,
layers of, 148, 148f 221f
204f, 205f, R9 taiga biome, 153–154, 153f, location of, 146, 147f relief map, R66f–R67f
mutualism, 204f, 208, 208f 154f
parasitism, 204f, 208, 208f tropical seasonal forest, 155 species protection, 255,
predation, 204f, 206–207, Tasmanian tiger, 15, 15f 255f
tropopause, 67f
206f, 207f tectonic plates, 62, 62f, 63f urbanization, 358–359, 358f
troposphere, 68, 68f, 71 water quality, 292–293, 293f
species recovery plan, 255 temperate deciduous forest,
Troy, fall of, 9 water use, 276–277, 277f
spot map, 37f 152–153, 152f
tsunamis, 74 wetlands, 176f, 186f
state government, 543 temperate grassland,
tuberculosis (TB), 521 uranium, 444, 444f, 446f
156–158, 157f, 158f, 159f
statistical population, 38, 38f, tube worm, 118, 118f urban, 355
40 temperate rain forest, 151,
151f tundra biome, 144f, 162–163, urban crisis, 359, 359f
statistics, 38–41, 38f, 39f, 41f 162f, 163f urbanization, 227, 358–360
temperature
steppes, 156, 156f, 157f atmospheric, 68–69, 68f turbine, 436, 436f, 445f conservation planning in,
St. Helens, Mount, 65, 65f, biomes and, 144, 144f 366–367, 367f
two-column notes, R13 heat islands, 360, 360f
130, 130f, 131f in cities, 360, 360f
global surface, 341, 341f land-use planning,
Stoddart, Marion, 544f 361–362, 361f, 542
ice core data on, 330–331,
storm surge, 74 330f marginal lands, 360, 360f
stratosphere, 68f, 69, 333,
335–338, 346–347
oceanic, 76–77, 76f U metropolitan areas, 358,
358f
temperature inversion, 308,
urban crisis, 359, 359f
Student Conservation 308f ultraviolet (UV) radiation
urban sprawl, 359, 359f
Association (SCA), 549 chlorofluorocarbons and,
Teotihuacan, 361
335, 335f urban land, 355, 355f, 357,
submarine volcano, 74 terracing, 387f human health and, 337, 357f
subsidence, 423, 423f territories, 201 337f urban planning, 361–362,
subsistence farmer, 382 Thailand, 228–229, 228f ozone and, 69, 335, 335f 361f, 542
subsurface mining, 416, 416f plant and animal impacts
thermal pollution, 289, 289f urban sprawl, 359, 359f
of, 337, 337f
suburban sprawl, 227, 227f thermal radiation, 70–71, sun cycle and, 333 UV radiation. See ultraviolet
succession. See ecological 70f–71f (UV) radiation
underground storage tank,
succession thermocline, 76, 76f 289–290
succulents, 161, 161f thermosphere, 69 understory vegetation,
sulfur dioxide, 304f, 315, 319, 108–109, 148, 148f
324
threatened species, 245–246,
246f, 255 unfunded mandate, 541 V
sulfur oxide Three Gorges Dam, 294–295, unit conversions, R32
acid precipitation from, values, 45, 45f, 48–49, 48f
294f, 295f, 520 United Nations (UN), 228,
315, 315f, 324 variable, 33
climate change and, 342f Three Mile Island, 447 230
vectors, 520, 522, 522f
in U.S. air pollution, 303f, threshold dose, 512 United States. See also
304f, 319 regulations vegetation. See plant
tidal power, 466, 466f
sun. See solar energy acid precipitation, 316–317, Venn diagram, R14
titanium, 414f 317f
sun cycle, 333, 333f vertebrates, 107, 107f
aquifers, 79f
viruses, 522
R102 Index
volatile organic compounds groundwater, 289–290, 290f women, effect of education
(VOCs), 303f, 304f, 307 hydraulic fracturing, 441 on fertility of, 224, 224f,
volcano, 64–65 legislation, 292–293, 293f 232f
ash from, 514, 514f mining, 422, 422f wood fuel, 226, 226f, 462, 462f
climate and, 333 nonpoint-source, 285, 285f,
285f world ocean, 74
eruption effects, 65, 65f
location of, 64, 64f of oceans, 291, 291f wulfenite, 412f
submarine, 74 point-source, 284, 284f
pollutants, 286, 286f
voting, 546 thermal, 289, 289f
X
wastewater, 286–287, 287f
Water Quality Act, 293f
water resource
W
xeriscaping, 282, 282f, R8
desalination, 283, 283f
global distribution of, 270,
Wallace, Alfred, 98 270f–271f
warning coloration, 206–207, groundwater, 272–275, 272f,
206f 274f–275f Y
surface water, 270–271
waste disposal
transporting water, 283 Yangtze River, 150, 150f
compost, 388, 490
water cycle, 73, 73f, 269, Yanomamö people, 249, 249f
hazardous, 493–499, 497f
269f
motor oil, 499 Y diagram, R14
nuclear, 466, 500–501, 518 watershed, 271
yeast, 103
recycling, 489–490, 489f, water table, 272, 274–275
491 Yellowstone National Park,
water use 131, 210, 210f, 368, 368f
source reduction, 488–492,
agricultural, 276, 278–279,
489f Youth Conservation Corps
279f
space limitations for, 482, (YCC), 548
dams and reservoirs,
482f, 518, 518f Yucca Mountain, 500–501
280–281, 280f
wastewater, 286–287, 287f diversion projects, 280, 280f
water. See also coastal global, 276, 277f
wetland; groundwater; industrial, 278, 278f, 281
oceans; water pollution
access to clean, 226–227,
residential, 276–277, 277f,
282, 282f Z
226f, 510, 511, 525 water vapor, 341 zero-emission vehicle, 306
conservation, 281–282,
wave, ocean, 88–89, 88f zinc, 414f
281f, 282f, R8, R54
drinking, 276–277, 276f wave, seismic, 60, 60f zoo, 253
erosion by, 66, 66f, 88, 366, weather, 71, 343. See also zooplankton, 173, 184, 343,
386 climate 344, 344f
fresh, 79, 79f
weathering, 66, 385
in garden soils, 406–407
hydroelectric energy, 280, westerlies, 329f, 331, 331f
281f, 463–464, 463f wetland. See also coastal
lakes and ponds, 174–175, wetland
174f, 175f freshwater, 175–177, 175f,
ocean, 76, 76f 176f, 177f
reservoirs, 280–281, 280f, functions of, 175f, 177
464 human impact on, 177, 177f
river systems, 79, 79f, 178, marshes, 175, 176, 176f
271, 422 swamps, 175, 177, 177f
treatment, 276f–277f, 277, in the U.S., 176f, 186f
286, 287f whale, 185, 517, 536, 537f
use of, 276–279, 276f–277f,
278f, 279f wilderness, 368–369, 369f
wetlands, 175–177, 175f, wildfire, 130–131, 130f, 131f
176f, 177f, 186f wildlife biologist, R42–R43
water cycle, 73, 73f, 269, 269f wildlife garden, R52–R53
water management project, Wilson, E. O., 258–259, 258f,
279–281, 279f, 280f 259f
water pollution, 284–293. See wind, 329, 329f, 331, 331f, 336
also oil spill
artificial eutrophication, wind energy, 456f, 461, 461f,
288, 288f 472f, 478–479
Cryptosporidium, 286 wind erosion, 66
in ecosystems, 292, 292f wolves, 210, 210f
Index R103

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Copyright © 2013 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

Michael R. Heithaus, Ph.D.

Karen Arms, Ph.D., J.D.

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Chapter 2 TOOLS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 30

Chapter 3 The Dynamic Earth 58

Chapter 4 The Organization of Life 92

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Chapter 7 Aquatic Ecosystems 172

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