SOUTH INDIA

600-750 AD
q BADAMI CHALUKYAS
q PALLAVAS OF KANCHI
 BADAMI CHALUKYAS
• In Deccan and Karntaka
• Badami/VATAPI is in Bagalakote (KA)
• 543 AD-753 AD
• feudatories of KADAMBAS
• JAYASIMHA was the first ruler
• Soveriegn from: PULIKESHIN I

• PULIKESHIN II(610−642 CE)

• most powerful and famous
 PULIKESHIN II
• defeated Harsha near Narmada (date disputed)
• title:Dakshinapatheshvara
• Repulsed first Arab Invasion in 636 AD
• It was an invasion to capture konkan coast
• defeated USMAN using Navy
• embassy to Persian king Khusro II
• the reception of this embassy is depicted in the Ajanta Caves
• Huen-Tsang visited his kingdom
• Defeated MAHENDRAVARMAN I of pallavas
• But got defeated by :NARASIMHAVARMAN (Vatapikonda)
• court poet:RAVIKIRTI-Aihole inscription(sanskrit)
 VIKRAMADITYA I
• 655-680 AD
• pushed pallavas out of Badami
• captured KANCHI

q Vikramaditya II (c. 733−743 CE)

• repeatedly defeated Pallavas
• Nandivarman II
• Victory pillar at virupaksha temple at Pattadakallu
• known for benevlence as he did not loot Kanchi after defeating
• The Kanchi inscription of Vikramaditya II, found on a pillar of the mandapa in front of Rajasimhesvara temple
mention it.
q KIRTIVARMAN II 757 CE
q got defeated by :DANTIDURGA ,founder of Rashtrakuta dynasty
 PALLAVAS OF KANCHI
qSIMHA VISHNU
• first major ruler
• defeated Ikshavakus

qMAHENDRAVARMAN I
• 590−630 CE
• Got defeated by Pulikeshin II at PULALLUR
• He wrote the Mattavilasa Prahasanna(SANSKRIT) and
• initiated the construction of the famous cave temple at Mahabalipuram.
• took up Shaivism under influence of APPAR from being a Jain
 PALLAVAS OF KANCHI
qNarasimhavarman I/Mahamalla (c.630−668 CE)
• defeated Pulikeshin II with the help of MANAVARMA, SriLanka prince
• VATAPIKONDA
• Port at Mahabalipuram
• ordered the Rathas of Mahabalipuram to be built
• in his honour it is also called:MAMALLAPURAM

qNarsimhavarman II/ Rajasimha (c.700−728 CE)

• Constructed Rajasimheshvara/Kailashnatha Temple-Kanchi
• Shore temple at Mahabalipuram

qDantivarman (c.795−846 CE)

• During his reign, Rashtrakuta king Govind III invaded Kanchi.
 BADAMI CHALUKYAN ADMINISTRATION
• Modelled on Magadhan and satavahana
• Province→MAHARASHTRAKAS
• Mandalas→RASHTRAKAS
• Districts→VISHAYAS
• Villages 0f 10→BHOGA
 CHALUKYA TAX NAMES
• BILKODE-sales tax
• SIDDAYA-land tax
• KIRUKULA-tax on retail goods in transit
• HERJUNKA- No info
 CHALUKYAN COINAGE
• Hun/Honnu
• FANA/FANAM/HANA
• GADYANA-gold coin
• VARAHA
PALLAVAS ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS
• MANDALAM
↓
• KOTTAM
↓
• NADU
↓
• UR
 EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA
750-1000/1200 CE
q FEUDALISM
q TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE
q RAJPUTS
 FEUDALISM
• Decentralised
• fractured polity after Guptas and Harsha
• centralisation during Mauryas declined completely
• major reason
• LAND GRANTS which began during satvahanas
• reached peaked by the time of Guptas and Vakatakas
• kings became weak
• Feudal land lords declared independence
• some posts became hereditary
• stopped paying tributes to king
 FEUDALISM
• these feudal lords had conflict amongst themselves
• affected agri and trade
• led to degrowth of cities
• fragmentation of polity
• feudal lords can be called in different names:SAMANTHA
SARDAR,JAGIRDAR,ZAMINDAR,DESHMUK
 FEATURES OF FEUDALISM
üfeudal lords conferred upon themselves title
• like:RAJA, Maharaja
üexploitative tax system
• no measurement
• no fixed system, rate depends on on their will
üSub-infeudation
• grant administrative and collection duties to mini-lords
• they can further grants
• Tenants might not be knowing who the real owner
 IMPACT
• generally negative
• low levl of production
• only for consumption
• no exchange and no trade
• no growth of city /urbanisation
• no social mobility as material positin was not growing
 TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE
q GURJARA-PRATIHARAS: AVANTI(MP)
q PALAS: MUNGER(BH)
q RASHTRAKUTAS: MANYAKHETA/MALKHED(KA)
 TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE
750-900 AD
• Triangle battle for Kannauj
PALAS
• fortunes were changing
• Ultimately won by:PRATIHARAS

PRATIHARAS RASHTRAKUTAS
 WHY KANNAUJ ..?
• It was a status symbol
• boundary between all three dynasties
• Gave access to rich Gangetic valley
• increase income and production
• boost trade and commerce
• it was ruled by: weak rulers
• INDRAYUDHA, CHARAYUDHA, VAJRAYUDHA-AYUDHA DYNASTY
 FIRST PHASE OF THE STRUGGLE
• around 790 AD
• first VATSARAJA(780-800) of Pratiharas had defeated Indrayudha occupied
Kannauj
• Dharmapala(770-821) declared war on him
• Vatsaraja WON
• But DHRUVA(780-793) of Rashtrakutas defeated Vatsaraja and Dharmapala
• Rashtrakuta supremacy
• But had to come back to Manyakheta
• lost control
• Dharmapala occupied Kannauj
 SECOND PHASE
• Dharmapala had reinstated his protege CHAKRAYUDHA
• NAGABHATTA II(805-833) of Pratiharas defeated Dharmapala at
MUNGER(BH)
• Govinda III(793-814) of Rashtrakutas defeated Nagabhatta II
• Again it was too far away from the capital to control
• their power in KA was also waning by 9th century
• Pratiharas emerged victorious when NGABHATTA II occupied Kannauj
and made it capital
 GURJARA-PRATIHARAS
• Kajuraho Group of temples by CHANDELAS-their vassals
• founder : HARICHANDRA

qNAGABHATTA I (730–760 CE)

• resisted Arab invasion by JUNAID and TAMIN

qVATSARAJA (780-800)
• beginning of Tripartite struggle

qMIHIR BHOJA/BHOJA I (c.836−885 CE)

• Arab traveller SULEIMAN mention about his success-Refer himas :JUZR
• He says ,the king kept the dynasty free from robbers
• Another Arab traveller Al-Masudi, refer him as King BAURA
 GURJARA-PRATIHARAS
qMahendrapala (c. 885–910 CE)
• Court sanskrit poet: RAJASHEKAR
• wrote: Karpuramanjari
• got defeated by INDRA III of Rashhtrakutas

qRAJYAPALA (960–1018 CE)

• Raid of Mahmud Ghazni on Kannauj
• Rajyapala fled from battlefield.

qYASHPALA ,last ruler,

qBy 1090 CE, the Gahadhavalas conquered Kannauj.
 THE PALAS OF BENGAL
• Bengal and Bihar region
• Gopala (750 AD) was the founder
• Built monastery at : ODANTAPURI (BH)
• The Pala kings were the followers of Buddhism,
• especially Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism.
• They greatly promoted this religion by making monasteries (viharas)
and temples in eastern India.
• The Pala legacy is still reflected in Tibetan Buddhism.
 THE PALAS OF BENGAL
qDHARMAPALA
• founded VIKRAMASHILA monastery (BH)
• Buddhist scholar DIPANKARA (ATISTA) associated with this monastery
• He also founded the Somapuri monastery (BH)

qMAHIPALA I (977−1027 CE)

• got defeated by RAJENDRA CHOLA

qThe Hindu Sena dynasty, under Vijaysena, dethroned the Pala Empire in the
12th century,
qBengali language developed under their patronage
q its first literary work, the Charyapada(BY:SHABRAPA)
 THE RASHTRAKUTAS
• 753-975 AD
• founder DANTIDURGA
• He helped pallavas to capture Kanchi from Chalukyas

qKRISHNA I (756−774 CE)

• Kailashnatha Temple at Ellora
• Lord Shiva
• monolithic rock cut temple
• in Dravida style
 RASHTRAKUTAS
qAMOGHAVARSHA (814−878 CE)
• Built the capital Malkhed
• maintained frinedly realtions with neighbours
• Suleiman visited his court
• he was a scholar in Kannada and Sanskrit
• He wrote the Kavirajamarga – the earliest Kannada work on poetics
• the Prashnottara Ratnamalika in Sanskrit,
• called as ASHOKA ,of the south
• copmared with Chandragupta Vikramaditya for his letters patronage
 GENERAL FACTS
• Pratihars -known for Cavalry
• Palas-known for elphants
• Rashtrakutas - for forts

• RASHTRAPATI→provinces/Rashtra
• UPARIKA→Bhukti
• VISAYAPATI→Mandala/Vishaya/districts
• BHOJAPATI-Puttala/cluster of villages

• almost all the officials were paid by giving them grants of rent- free land
• it also led to the rise of hereditary revenue officers called
• Nad-gavundas or desa-gramakas
 THE IMPERIAL/ROYAL CHOLAS
• 850-1200 CE
• Capital : TANJORE
• coquered Sri Lanka, Maldieves, Java and Sumatra etc
• Founder Vijayalaya by overthrwoing pallavas

qPARANTAKA I (907−953 CE)

qFamous UTTARAMERUR inscription
• Battle of vellur defeated Pandyas and Sri Lanka kings
• got defeated by KRISHNA III in battle of TAKKOLAM
• Krishna III assumed the title of ‘Conqueror of Kanchi and Tanjai
 IMPERIAL CHOLAS
qArumolivarman/Rajaraja I (985−1014 CE)
• considered the greatest chola ruler
• invaded SRI LANKA,MALDIEVES
• He led a naval expedition against the Sailendra Empire (Malaya peninsula)

• In 1010 CE he constructed the Rajarajeshwara or Brihadesvara temple,

dedicated to Shiva at Thanjavur
• This temple is also called the Rajaraja temple as the Cholas were in the habit
of installing the images of kings and queens in the temples in addition to the
deity.
• title:ULAGALANDAPERUMAL
• Means:The king who measured the Earth
• for revenue assessment
 IMPERIAL CHOLAS
qRajendra I (1014−1044 CE)
• known as Pandita cholan
• son of Rajaraja
• Sri Lanka completely became part of chola empire-Defeating MAHINDA V
• defeated MAHIPALA I in 1019
• title:GANGAIKONDA CHOLA
• to commemorate : GANGAIKONDACHOLAPURAM and GANGAIKONDA
CHOLESHWERA TEMPLE or Rajeshwara temple
• later it became capital (near Kaveri river)
• led naval expeditio to Java and sumatra
 IMPERIAL CHOLAS
qKULOTTUNGA I(1070-1122 AD)
• KAMBAN, tamil poet, who wrote Tamil Ramayana in his court
• known for persecution of Vaishnavas
• Ramanujacharya had to go to KA,
• rerfuge under Vishuvardhana of Hoysalas
 CHOLA ADMINISTRATION
• Refered king as →KO,PERUMAL
• Venetian traveller Marco Polo, who visited Kerala in the 13th century writes that on the
death of the monarch, all his body guards burnt themselves in the funeral pyre

• MANDALAM→provinces
• KOTTAM/OLANADU→division of provinces
• NADU→districts
• PUGAS→guilds/shrenis
• NATTAR→ Assembly of the leading men of a Nadu or district.
• NAGARATTAR/Nagaram/SAMAYA→ assembly of the Mercantile groups/Merchants.

• supra-regional merchants association were there

• Ayyavole (The Five Hundred) which was established in the Aihole,Karnataka.
• Mangigramam-another prominent guild
 VILLAGE ADMINISTRATION
• famous for local-self government
• earliest examples of panchayat raj system
• village assemblies governed the villages
1.Ur:
• The general assembly of the local residents
• non-brahmadeya villages (or vellanvagai villages)
• to discuss matters

2.Sabha or Mahasabha:
• Exclusive assembly of Brahmans/gatherings of the adult male members in the
agraharas,
• means : rent free brahmadeya villages
• enjoyed a large measure of autonomy
 SOCIAL GROUPS DURING CHOLAS
• Paraiyar (untouchables)
• The Vellallas (farming groups)
• Idangai (left hand caste groupings): Consisted mainly artisanal and
trading groups.
• Valangai (right hand caste groupings): Consisted mainly of agricultural
groups
THE RAJPUTS
 WHAT IS THE MEANING OF RAJPUT...?
• Rajputana word came into prominence in 12th CE
• ‘Variuos lineage based clans’
• every clan traced their origin to common ancestor

qORIGIN :
1.many historians believe they were descendents of foreign invaders
• Huns, Kushanas, Sakas
• who intermixed with Indian society and settled
• Rajputs are also warrior class and so were foreign invaders
2.Others believe they were part of Vedic kshatriya classes
 FEATURES OF RAJPUTS
• Attachment to clan and family
• affection towards land
• honour
• warriors

• Link them with Surya(solar race), Chandra(lunar race) and Agni (fire)
lineage
• patronised Hinduism and Jainism
 THE CHAHAMANAS/CHAUHANS
• capital: Shakambari/Sambhar
• later:Ajmer
• 7 - 11 CENTURY
• feudatories of Pratiharas
• SIMHARAJA (944-971) was the founder

q AJAYARAJA II
• Captured UJJAIN from Paramaras
• built Ajmer(Ajayameru)

q PRITHVIRAJ III (1177−1192 CE)

• Prithiviraj Chauhan or Rai Pithora
• defeated Ghori in first battle of TARAIN 1191
• Ghori defeated him in second battle 1192
• GHORI placed his SON GOVINDA as vassal in Ajmer-
• LATER AIBAK CAPTURED AJMER FROM HARIRAJA
 THE CHANDELLAS OF BUNDELKHAND
• Feudatories of GURJARA-PRATIHARAS
• capital :KAJURAHO (M.P)
• later capital: MAHOBA(Mahotsava Nagar)
• fully developed NAGARA style of architecture

qNannuka (831-845) was the founder

qYASHOVARMAN (925-950)
• constructed LAKSHMANA temple at KAJURAHO

qDHANGA-DEVA (950-999)
• comissioned VISHWANATHA TEMPLE AT KAJURAHO
 THE CHANDELLAS
qVIDHYADHARA (1003-1035)
• Ghazni invaded his kingdom
• paid tribute to him
• commissioned KANDARIYA MAHADEVA temple at KAJURAHO
 THE PARAMARAS OF MALWA
• capital : DHAR (M.P)
• later capital :MANDAPA-DURGA(MANDU)MANDAV (M.P.)

qUPENDRA was the founder

• early 9th century
qSIYAKA II
• defeated Rashtrakuta ruler KHOTTIGA on the banks of Narmada
• invaded their capital MANYAKHETA
 THE PARAMARAS OF MALWA
qBHOJA (1010−1055 CE)
• their greatest king
• defeated the Chalukyas of Lata (GJ)
• Formed an alliance against the Kalyani Chalukya King Jayasimha II, with
Rajendra Chola
• Bhoja also defeated the Chahamanas of Shakambhari
• support the Hindu Shahi ruler Anandapala’s fight against the Ghaznavids.
• He established the Bhoj Shala, which was a centre for Sanskrit studies,
• temple of Sarasvati in present day Dhar
 THE CHALUKYAS OF GUJARAT/SOLANKI RAJPUTS
• not related to any Chalukays of Badami,Kalyana or Vengi.
• term they use was: ‘CHAULUKYA’
• many branches of this dyansty

qBHIMA I (1022-1064)
• Ghazni invaded Somnath temple 1025 during his time
• He built the Sun temple of Modhera.
• His wife Udaymati built the Rani-ki vav (Queen’s step well)

qBHIMA II (1177-1240)
• He successfully repelled the incursions of Muhammad Ghori (at the battle of Kayadara)
• In c.1195−97 CE, an army led by Aibak, Ghori’s deputy,invaded again, but Bhima II
defeated Aibak again
 THE TOMARAS
• ruled Haryana
• capital: DHILLIKA(DELHI)
• Anangapala Tomara who is widely believed as the ruler who
established Delhi
 THE GAHADAVALAS OF KANNAUJ
qCHANDRADEVA ( 1090 CE)
• Founding ruler of this dynasty
qGOVINDACHANDRA (1114−1154 CE)
• defeated Ghaznavids

qJAICHANDRA( 1170 − 1194 CE)

• Conflict with Prithviraj Chauhan
• , the city of Kannauj was attacked by Muhammad of Ghori.
• It is believed that Jaichandra was defeated in the Battle of CHANDAWAR (near AGRA) 1194 CE
and subsequently drowned in the Ganga.
• His kingdom was conquered by Delhi sultans
 KASHMIR
• RAJATARANGINI
• Means: ‘THE RIVER OF KINGS’
• historical chronicle of Early Kashmir TO 12th century
• by:KALHANA
• in SANSKRIT
• written in 12th CE(1148-1149)
• 7826 verses which are divided into 8 books
• called:TARANGAS(WAVES)
 SOURCES OF KALHANA
• used his predecessors chronicles
• his father was a minister in Harsha (1089-1101), information from
that court
• analysing royal charters,edicts,
• land grants records
• coins and inscriptions
 CONTENTS OF RAJATARANGINI
qPolitical:
• From first Hindu king GONANDA(2400 BCE) to JAYASIMHA(1149)
• ancient dynasties of ADITYA
• talks about KANISHKA

ØKarkota Dynasty
• FOUNDER:DURLABHAVARDHANA(598-634 AD)
• LALITADITYA ,was the most powerful ruler(724-60 AD)

ØUTPALA OR VARMAN DYNASTY

 CONTENTS OF RAJATARANGINI
• Talks about YASASKARA line of kings after Varman Dynasty

• Next ruler was DIDDA, in the same lineage(YASASKARA DYNASTY)

• she ruled from:980-1003 AD
• queen of :kshemagupta
• got help from her minister:NARAVAHANA
• SHE killed her own sons to ascend the throne
• a temple:DIDDASVAMIN(VISHNU) temple

ØHe also mentions:OLD women rulers:YASHOVATI(Gonanda) SUGANDHA

(Utpala)
 CONTENTS OF RAJATARANGINI
ØLohara dynasty was next
• 1003-1028 AD
• KSAMAPATI, nephew of DIDDA
• she made him king

• Then weak kings came

• feudalism emerged
 CONTENTS OF RAJATARANGINI
qSOCIETY:
• Harsha(11TH CENTURY)(LOHARA DYNASTY) ,intrdoduced general
dress of long coat for Kashmiris
 Zain-ul-Abidin
• 1420–1470 CE
• Shah Miri Dynasty
• called as AKBAR of Kashmir
• because benevolent, liberal, and an enlightened rule.
• He reversed all the negative and bigoted policies of Sikandar Shah
• brought back all the non-Muslims who had fled.
• He allowed the freedom to revert back to Hinduism to all those who were forcibly converted.
• abolished jaziya,
• prohibited cow slaughter.
• Sriya Bhatt was a minister of justice and court physician.
• Even Zainul’s first two queens were Hindus
• built Zaina Lanka, the artificial island in the Wular Lake
• patronage to Sanskrit and Persian scholars
• Mahabharat and Kalhana’s Rajatarangini were translated into Persian
 ADVENT OF ISLAM AND
CAPTURE OF SIND
q Brief history of Islam
q Conquest of Sind
q Ghaznavid empire
q Ghurid empire
 RISE AND SPREAD
• In Arabia
• 7th CE
• by a merchant: MUHAMMAD(570-632)
• He is from MECCA
• later known as :PROPHET MOHAMMAD
• belief in one God and its holy book:Quran
• Mohammad receieved message from Allah-613 AD
• so called:’MESSENGER’
• Died in:632 AD
 AFTER MUHAMMAD
• Task of providing leadership to Muslims
• passed to :CALIPHS(Islamic leaders)-Khalifa(Deputy)
• they were also called:RASHIDUN(Rightly Guided)

• Later times, Caliphs beame loose and weak

• so Indpendent Islamic empires emerged in many areas
 INVASION OF INDIA
• Attracted by the huge wealth
• as Arab(old) merchants used to have trade contacts
• started as early as 8th CE
• BY: Umayyad Caliphate
• 712 :First ever Land invasion fron North West
• Sind
• by :Muhammad Bin Qasim, general in Umayyad
• it was to punish the local ruler DAHIR(CHACHA DYNASTY) for not
taking action against the pirates who plundred Arab traders
• captured until Multan
 THE GHAZNAVIDS
• after the decline of Abbasid caliphate
• large number of Islamised Turks became powerful
• they assumed the title of :SULTAN
• capital:GHAZNI
• Ghaznavids took control
• founder:ALPTAGIN, a Turkish slave under Samanids(previous Iranian
rulers of the area)
• Later MAHMUD succeded(998-1030)
 MAHMUD OF GHAZNI INVASIONS OF INDIA
• 17 times
• when Rajput power was declining
• to accumulate wealth
• to spread Islam
• first:1000 AD
• in this he defeated the Hindu Shahi ruler: JAYAPALA
• in the battle of :WAIHIND (Pak)
• 1008 :Second Battle of WAIHIND
• he defeated ANANDAPALA
 GHAZNI INVASIONS
• 1018 AD
• sacked Kannauj by defeating Vidhyadhara of Chandellas
• 1025
• plundered Somanath temple of Shiva in GJ

• PATRONISED :
1. Al-Beruni→Kitab-ul-Hind
2. Firdausi→Shahanam
3. Utbi→Kitab-ul-Yamni
 THE GHURID DYNASTY
• Muhammad Ghori/Muizz ud-din-muhammad bin sam
• actual founder of Islamic empire in India
• Ghazni did not try to rule over the Sub-continent
• 1173-1206
• vassals of Ghaznavids
• their Central Asian goals were limited by :Khwarizmi empire
• so looked towards India
• unlike Ghazni he was interested in permanent rule over India
• because, he left a general in every area he conquered
 GHORI INVASIONS
• 7 times
• 1175: Conquered Multan
• 1178: Led campaign to Gujarat, but got defeated by:BHIMA II,
• In battle of :KAYADARA/KASAHRADA (RJ) near MT.Abu
• by 1186 :Captured Lahore,Sind, Punjab from Ghaznavids

• 1191 :First Battle of TARAIN-Prithviraj Chauhan

• nearly Killed Ghori and captured BHATINDA(Tabarhinda)
• 1192: Second Tarain battle-Ghori was successful
• he was allowed to rule over Ajmer with coins beraing name of Him and Ghori
• later executed
• 1194: Battle of CHANDAWAR -defeated JAYACHANDRA
• LEFT INDIAN IN THE HANDS OF HIS SLAVE/GENERAL: QUTUB UD DIN AIBAK and BHAKTHIYAR
KHALJI
• Ghori came back in 1205 to deal with revolt of KHOKAR IN SIND
 AIBAK AND BHAKTHIYAR KHALJI
• continued the conquests(1195-1202)
• Aibak got defeated by BHIMA II (SOLANKI)
• But later defeating him in the second battle captured Gujarat

ØBhakthiyar Khalji captured BH-1197 and Bengal in 1202

• He destroyed universities of :NALANDA and VIKRAMASHILA
• he became viceroy of BH and Bengal
 THE DELHI SULTANATE
q POLITICS
q ADMINISTRATION
q ECONOMY
q REFORMS
 POLITICS
• Advent of Ghazni and Ghori led to the establishment of new style of
governance in India
• 5 different dynasties are collectively called as:DELHI SULTANATE
• were of Turkish and Afghan origin
• The rule had an immense influence on Indian politics,
economy ,soceity and cultural life
 FIVE DYNASTIES
DYNASTY YEAR RULERS

SLAVE/ILBARI/ 1206-1290 AIBAK,ILTUMISH,

MAMELUK RAZIA, BALBAN

KHALJI 1290-1320 JALAUDDIN,

ALAUDDIN

TUGHLAQ 1320-1413 GIYASUDIDN,

MOHAMMAD BIN
GIYASUDDIN

SAYYIDS 1414-1451 KHIZR KHAN

LODIS 1451-1526 BAHLOL

SIKANDER
IBRAHIM
 ADMINISTRATION OF DELHI SULTANATE
• Machinery of administration was derived from Ghaznavid,Abbasid
and Seljukid empires
• influence of Iranian also
• blended with India traditions
• able to evolve new institutions and concepts -IQTA
• new basis for centralization of power
 SULTAN
• pivot of administration/central point
• commander-in-chief of the armed forces
• ultimate court of apeal in all cases
• Divine attributes
• To prove it: Balban assumed the title
• ‘ZILL-ALLAH’
• SHADOW OF GOD
• to further prove it he introduced some ceremonies
• SIJDA AND PABOS
• SIJDA : PROSTRATION ON THE GROUND
• PABOS :BENDING DOWN TO TOUCH ONE’S FEET

• Religion -exercised moral authority on the king

• considered representative of CALIPH(obtained mansur (letter of investiture) from the Caliph)
 CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION/MINISTRIES
• Sultan was assisted by number of ministers
• each under his pleasure
• could be removed anytime
 THE WAZIR
• WIZARAT
• finance and taxation
• expected one quality:AHL-I-QALAM i.e.,
• MAN OF LERANING
• from civilian class -not military experience
• in times by TUGHLAQS emerged as the Head of Civilian admin.
ØMUSHRIF-expenditure supervisor
ØMUSTAUFI-income
Øsometimes deputy wazir (NAIB) was also appointed
 DIWAN-i-ARZ
• military department
• head is alled :ARIZ-i-MUMALIK
• responsibilities :
• Recruit-Equip-Payment
• selected from warrior class with military experience
• properly organised by AK
• he introduced new concepts like:
• CHEHRA AND DAGH
• CHEHRA :DESCRIPTIVE ROLLS OF SOLDIERS
• DAGH: BRANDING OF HORSES QUALITY
• he also paid soldiers in cash (first sultan do so)
 DIWAN -i-INSHA
• correspondence
• formal letters and communication
• to governors and other rulers
• announce a major event
• written in grand manner using calligraphy
• Head :DABIR/DABIR-i-KHAS
 DIWAN-i-RISALAT
• Risalat means something associated with spirituality and religion
• no clear cut duties
• Under Aluddin market supervision
• under Firuz public grievances

ØBut as a religious department

Øheaded by :SADR/QAZI
Øgave grants to mosques and temples and Islamic and Hindu scholars
 COURT AND ROYAL HOUSEHOLD
• head :WAKIL-i-DAR
• he looked after
• payment to king’s personal staff
• education of princes

Ø OTHER OFFICERS WITHIN:

Ø AMIR HAJIB/BARBEK
• master of ceremonies
• marshalling nobles acc. to rank and precedence

Ø BARID-i-KHAS
• Head of intelligence/spy/BARIDS
• informing sultan
 KHARKHANAS DEPARTMENT
• ROYAL STORES
• fulfilling the needs of the royal family
• goods:Clothes, Food, Oil,Furniture
• procuring and storing
• manufactured also
• slaves were employed for manufacturing goods
• EACH KARKHNA was supervised by A NOBLE OF HIGH RANK
 DIWAN-i-AMIRAT
• department of public works
• building canals, roads etc
• from the time of Alauddin

ØNO separate dept. for foreign affairs

ØWAZIR looked after it
 PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION
• Very limited development of provinces (by mughals)
• now, some areas of the empire was divided into administrative tracts
• called as :IQTAS/WILAYAT
• they were headed by military commanders
• known as :WALIS/MUQTIS
• powers of these Walis varied
• lot of independence tendecies
• mainatin LAW AND ORDER
• collect taxes
• after meetin expenses should send the rest to Central/SULTAN
 PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION
• NAIB DIWAN/KHWAJA was in charge of revenue admin. at IQTA level
• most of Iqta officers appointed by the centre
• appeal could be made against the conduct of WALIS
• Walis could make land grants to scholars (IMLAK/INAM)
 LOCAL ADMINISTRATION
• village was the basic unit of admin.

• grouped into 84(CHAURASI) or 100(SADIS)

• group of villages also called as :PARAGANA

• Amils were in charge of revenue collection in villages

• he was assisted by number of non-government officials like

• CHAUDHURIS→ hereditary land holders

• KHUTS→zamindars
• MUQQADAMS→village headmen
• POTWARIS→village accountants
SHER SHAH ADMINISTRATION
 GOVERNMENT UNDER SHER SHAH
• SHIQ/SARKR→Faujdar
• law and order
• assited by MUNSIF
• assessing revenue

• PARAGANA→SHIQDAR
• Law and order
• assisted by AMILS/MUNSIF
• collected revenue
• PODDAR/KHAZANADAR-to keep the cllected taxes

• VILLAGES
• POTWARI-accountant
• not govt. official- no salary but some incentives

qAmils were changed every two years to avoid nexus

 GOVERNMENT UNDER SHER SHAH
• no developed provincial admin.
• At centre KING was supreme
• he re intriduced CHEHRA AND DAGH system
• even for army slaves also

qJUSTICE ADMIN.
• He says no distinction between men of his own tribe and others
• QAZIS were appointed to deliver justice
• Panchayat and caste bodies for Hindus
• shiqdars and zamindars also had few judicial powers
 OTHER NOTABLE MEASURES
• tempered despotism with benevolence and generosity
• records of Handicaps/disabled
• in towns and cities
• provided incentives and cash to them
• he maintain ‘LANGHAR KHANA’
• free kitchen
• to feed destitute and poor
• land grants for Brahmanas, Islamic scholars
• Merit bureacracy
• EX:HEMU -A officer-SHAHNA-rose the position of WAZIR under ADALI
• composite society was growing
MUGHAL STATE SYSTEM
 SULTHAN
• Believed in divine right of kingship
• not dependent on ULEMA
• paternal love towards subjects
• liberal absolutism
• king’s responsibility to maintain social stability
• He is at the centre of politics and society
• assisted by 4 ministries
 DIWAN
• head of finance
• also called :Wazir
• DIWAN-i-ALA
• sometimes appointed joint diwans
• checking accounts of other departments
• category of:AHL-i-KALAM
• Dahsala system carried out by this department
• divided the empire into 12 provinces
 MIR BAKSHI
• DIWAN-i-ARZ
• military dept. head
• recruitment
• equip
• branding of horses
• greater role here than Delhi sulthans
• head of intelligence also
• register of Mansabdars
 MIR SAMAN
• head of Royal household
• looked after Kharkhans
• purcahsed -stored -manufactured
• goods required by the royal family
• Each kharkhana was under :DAROGHA and an accountant
 JUDICIAL
• head: SADR
• leading Islamic scholar
• also head of :ULEMA
• chief advisor of the King on enforcing the Shariat law
• appointed Qazi’s allover the empire
• but King was the highest court of appeal
• another responsibility to grant lands and incentives to
• Scholars, weaker sections,women
• both Hindu and Muslims
• called as :MADADD-i-MASH/INAM
 PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT
• during Sultanate
• IQTAS-MUQTIS

• 1580
• Mughal empire was divided into ‘12 SUBAHS’
• Head:SUBAHDAR/SIPAHSALAR
• assist by:DIWAN, BAKSHI,SADR
• justice providers at Provinces were called :MIR ADL
• KOTWAL- town admin.
• MIR BAHR-superintendent of Rivers and Ports
• WAQIA-NAVIS-informers-to Mir BAKSHI
• ALL OFFICERS WERE ULTIMATELY RESPONSIBLE TO THE EMPEROR/KING AT TCENTRE
 DISTRICT AND LOCAL ADMINISTRATION
• SHIQ/SARKR→Faujdar
• law and order
• assited by AMALGUZAR
• assessing revenue
• PARAGANA→SHIQDAR
• Law and order
• assisted by AMILS/MUNSIF
• collected revenue
• A TREASURER -to keep the cllected taxes
• QANUNGO-to keep records and determine paragana and
village boundaries
 REFORMS OF ALUDDIN KHALJI
• LAND REVENUE REFORMS
• MARKET REFORMS

qOBJECTIVES BEHIND THESE REFORMS

1. Internal restructuring
2. Closer association of people with the government/state
3. Mongol invasion
 LAND REVENUE REFORMS
• To increase revenue
• KHALISA land was increased
• in fertile LAHORE TO PRAYAGRAJ/ALLAHABAD
• there should be only ONE LAND REVENUE/KHARAJ
• no extra cesses on peasants
• except grazing tax
• CHARAI
• should pay in cash
 LAND REVENUE REFORMS
• took action against middlemen/intermediaries
• zamindars/khuts/muqaddams/Rias/ranas
• he forced them to pay previously exmpted taxes
• like GHARI/HOUSING tax
• no commission for collecting taxes
 LAND REVENUE REFORMS
• MEASUREMENT was systematically applied
• to collect taxes large number of AMILS were appointed
• so direct payment to govt.
• without intermediaries
• accountants were appointed: MUSTARRIFS
• auditing of accounts were done
• by Naib wazir
 LAND REVENUE REFORMS
• to ensure efficiency of officials and collecters
• he increased their salary
• hoping to reduce corruption
• strict action was taken against erring officials
ØHe created base for Sher shah and Akbar to emulate him
Øin measurement standards
 MARKET REFORMS
• Military necessity
• to deal with Mongol invasion
• Systematic control of market
• i.e., PRICES
• prices were stable for considerable period of time
• historians consider it is one of the wonders
 MARKET REFORMS
• Est. THREE/3 markets

1. FOOD GRAINS
2. CLOTHES AND EXPENSIVE ITEMS LIKE SUGAR,DRY FRUITS
3. HORSES,CATTLE,SLAVES

• est. in DELHI
• there were detailed rules and regulations called: ZAWABIT
 1.FOOD GRAINS MARKET
• controlled entire supply chain
a) Production
b) Transportation
c) Distribution
d) Prices

ØProduction: LR system-no middle men-improved production-sell to bania/banjaras-take

home only for consumption
ØTransportation:Banjars registration-guarntee/surety-SHUHANA to oversee them
ØDistribution: Market merchants were asked to sell at fixed prices
• what if artificial scarcity.? inspite of all these
• ROYAL STORES : to stock up goods
• and rationing in times of flood and drought
• PRICE: everything is fixed -no alteartion by anyone -spy system
 2.CLOTHES AND OTHERS
• called as :SARAI-i-ADL
• Clothes brought from different parts of the empire and foreign lands
• must be first stored in Royal stores
• then distributed for merchants to be sold in Delhi market
• all importers and exporters were registered
• they should promise that they would bring the same quantities every year
• no manipulation in quantity
• Harsh punishments
• Nobles were askd to buy acc. to their income
• if over buying demand more-prices will increase
 3.HORSES,CATTLE AND SLAVES
• quality of horses and their prices were fixed
• foreign merchants were registered
• NEEDED for Army

Øthis system worked only in DELHI

Øno evidence to prove in other places of Sultanate
 REVENUE SYSTEM OF SHER SHAH

• most striking achievement

• based on measurement(ZABT)
• futher improved over Khalji
• divided land into 3 categories
• GOOD
• MIDDLE
• BAD
 SHER SHAH REVENUE SYSTEM
• average yield of the 3 was taken
• 1/3 of avg. was the state share
• could be paid in cash or kind
• every year measurement was done
• using local zamindars
• An extra cess as a safeguard against Famines
• amount payable by peasants was written down ON A ‘PATTA’-
informed of it
• no extra tax
• instructed soldiers not to march through fields-SOLICIOUS ATTITUDE
 LAND REVENUE SYSTEM OF MUGHALS
• called as:DAHSALA SYSTEM
• TEN YEAR SYSTEM
• 1579
• Evolution over Sher Shah and Alauddin
• work of :RAJA TODAR MAL AND SHAH MANSUR
• joint Diwans
• PROCESS STARTED in 1574
• with appointments of Amils(KARORIS) and surveyors
• to measure the land and collect data
• more land were brought under KHALISA
 LAND REVENUE SYSTEM OF MUGHALS
• DATA of last Ten years on
1. crops cultivated
2. area under cultivation
3. prices of crops

• average of all these were taken

• then 1/10 or 1/3 was fixed as revenue
• Therefore,rate was based on avg. prices,crops and cultivation level of
last 10 years
• NOT A TEN/10 YEAR SETTLEMENT
 MUGHALS REVENUE SYSTEM
• The land was also divided into four categories –
1. Polaj (cultivated everyyear),
2. Parauti (once in two years),
3. Chachar (once in three or four years)
4. Banjar (once in five or more years).

• Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.

 THE MANSABDARI SYSTEM
• A UNIQUE system divised by Mughals
• Mansab=RANK
• Awarded to an Individual
• it decided three things
1. HIS STATUS IN THE OFFICIAL HEIRARCHY
2. HIS SALARY
3. NUMBER OF SOLDIERS HE SHOULD MAINTAIN

• The holder can be given

• An administrative post or
• Military post or
• kept in attendence at the court

• THEREFORE, Mansabdari was a single service combining both civil and military responsibilities
 MANSABDARI SYSTEM
• Salary coul be given in cash or Jagir/Land
• In that Jagir should collect all taxes
• hence, called as JAGIRDAR SYSTEM

• RANKING NUMBERS:
• 10,20,100,200,500,1000,5000

• theoretically , a person should enter at lower levels

• and attain hgher ranking through merit
• But higher than 5000 ranking was reserved for nobles and royal prince
• EX:RAJA MAN SINGH was given 7000 ranking by Akbar
 MANSABDARI SYSTEM
• ZAT AND SAWAR RANKING
• introduced in 1595-96

• ZAT/MANSAB RANK:Indicated personal pay and status

• SAWAR RANK:Indicated actual number of horsemen he was expected to
maintain

• EX: ZAT of 4000 n SAWAR rank of 4000(EQUAL TO MANSAB RANK)

• or ZAT of 4000 n SAWAR rank of 2000(HALF OF THEIR MANSAB RANK)
• or ZAT OF 4000 n SAWAR rank of 1000(LESS THAN HALF OF THEIR MANSAB
RANK)
 AKBAR’S RELIGIOUS REFORMS
1. THE IBADAT KHANA DEBATES
2. DIN-I-ILAHI/TAUHID-I-ILAHI
3. SULHE KAL
 1.THE IBADAT KHANA DEBATES
• its a prayer hall
• at:FATEHPUR SIKRI
• in 1575
• a rectangular hall around the cell of sufi saint SHAIKH ABDULLAH NIYAZI SIRHINDI
• discussion on religion
• first open only to Isalm theologians and Sufis
• later opened to all other religion
• atheists also
• to ascertain the real truth behind religion
• to remove differences among them
• instead of debates
• they argued
• Closed in :1582
 2.DIN-I-ILAHI
• means;DIVINE FAITH
• its not a new religion
• it just an ethical society
• 1582
• expected members to follow some virtues like
1. LIBERALITY
2. LOATHING OF EVIL
3. OVERCOMING LUST
4. DWELLING ON GOD NAME
• Akbar as a teacher of this ethical sect
• give sumptuous feast on their BIRTHDAY, GIVE GIFTS TO OTHERS
• no scriptures, no sacred books,no preists
• Also called :TAUHID-I-ILAHI
• DIVINE MONOTHEISM
 3.SULH-E- KAL
• PEACE TO ALL
• duty of ruler to maintain equilibrium in the society
• so that members of one religion do not intrefere in others religion
duties
• ruler must not allow the dust of sectarian strife to raise
 ECONOMY UNDER DELHI SULTANS
• Turkish rule had far reaching impacts on society and economy

• created new economic forces superior to the early medieval times

 AGRICULTURE
• sources IBN BATTUTA ,travller,from MOROCCO
• He mentions Indians knew two types of crops season
• RABI
• KHARIF
• agri. products created base for industries at village level
 AGRICULTURE
• SULTANS were fond of Gardens
• FST said to have developed 1200 gardens in and around DELHI
• led to dev. of fruits cultivation
• in turn wine production
• Meerut and Aligarh were known for wine production
• Jodhpur was knwon for Pomegranate
 AGRICULTURE
• Promoted by sultans/govt. through incentives
• FST known for building canals
• TWO canals from:JAMUNA
• ONE from :SUTLEJ AND GHAGGAR

• promoted Grazing lands for cattle

• put tax on that service
• CHARAI -BASED ON NUMBER OF ANIMALS
 AGRICULTURE TAXES
• BW 1/3 to 1/2
• BHAGA/KHARAJ-land revenue
• BHOG-cess
• KAR-extra cess

• Alauddin increased area nder KHALISA

• revenue from these lands went directly to CG/IMPERIAL TREASURY

• LR fixed on the basis of measurement

NON-AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
 TEXTILES

Øcotton cloths had two types

ØKAMIN AND MAHIN
Økamin means low quality(coarse)(rough)
Ømahin means fine smooth quality
• GJ was famous for cotton
 TEXTILES
• MUSLIN was produced in Dacca , Bengal and Deogir(Devagiri)
• MUSLIN=cotton+silk

• THE SILK OF CAMBAY was one of the costly items controlled by Alauddin

• KASHMIR was famous woollen

• from sheeps
• SHAWL industry was thriving

vanother cloth was carpet weaving for palaces and nobles

vlot of demand for luxury cloths from Noble families
 TEXTILES

ØProduction of textiles improved by 6 times

Ødue to introduction of spinning wheel/CHARAKHA
Øearliest reference to it:14th CE
Ø1st CE IN china and 12th CE in Iran
 METALLURGY
• old tradition
• idols of copper and bronze for temples
• swords and daggers
• famous all over the Islamic world
• iron stirrups for horses
• coins production
 BUILDING INDUSTRY
• Sultans were major builders
• temple building activity was also flourishing In central and south india
• Kajuraho, Vijaynagar, Hoysalas
• demand for brick making
• stone cuuters/MASONS
• Amir Khusaru mentions Indian stone cutters were superior in skill
than entire world
• Timur took them to build Samarkhand
 PAPER MAKING
• A new industry came into being
• Chinese in 100 AD
• Iranians/Baghdad in 8 th CE
• Earliest paper manuscript in INDIA from GUJARAT
• in 1223-1224
• so spurt in book making
 TRADE
• India was the manufacturing hub
• sound currency system further promoted it
• GOLD=dinar ,SILVER=tanka, COPPER=dirham
• system of roads construction helped in movement of goods
 DOMESTIC TRADE

• Peasants sold crops to BANIA’S for cash

• they took goods to Markets in local areas
• BANJARA’S were specialised in long distance trade bw towns
• they also dealt in movement of Bulk commodities
 DOMESTIC TRADE
• rich traders financed Banjars
• know as :SARRAFS
• SAH’S
• MODI’S

• TANDAS/CARAVANS-protected by hired soldiers

 FOREIGN TRADE
• with Central Asia, Iran,Europe
• one is religious connection
• second,those empires provided security to traders
• Political stability in India and outiside
• IMPORTS: Horses mainly
• from ARABI AND IRAQI AND CENTRAL ASIAN HORSE
• wine, slaves, dry fruits
• silk from China
• EXPORTS:Rice, wheat ,spices , slves
• Principal centre of tade was :MULTAN
• AS A GATEWAY TO INDIA
• MEETING PLACE OF TRADERS FROM TWO WORLDS
 TOWN LIFE :MUGHALS
• process of growth of towns became faster in 16 and 17th centuries
• there were 120 bigcities in NORTH INDIA
• 3200 TOWNSHIPS(QASABAS) all over India
• means: kind of a rural town with market
• European travellers accounts describe Indian cities
• CORYAT, TAVERNIER,
 TOWN LIFE
• they played a huge role in social ,economic and cultural life of people

• 4 distinct type of towns/urban centers can be seen during Mughals

 TOWN LIFE

1. Administrative towns:
• Developed into towns due to large governing machinary
• production was secondary
• AGRA AND DELHI AND JAIPUR AND POONA

2.Manufacturing:
• commercial activities are more
• production of crafts and others
• PATNA AND AHMEDABAD
 TOWN LIFE
3. Pilgrim centres
• BANARAS, MATHURA, KANCHI,AJMER

4.Distinct product
• local commodity was famous
• particular skill
• PATAN-GJ-DYEING, BAYANA-RJ-INDIGO
 TOWN LIFE
• Kotwasl: town administrator
• check price, security etc

• ARTS AND CRAFTS:

• wide variety
• in urba and rural areas
• steady demnd for their products outside and inside India
• demand also for royal buildings
• 300,000 workers t build AGRA fort
• royal kharkhanas were providing employment
 TOWN LIFE
qCAPITALISM TENDENCIES :
• there was a class of big mercahants and traders
• who hired local artisans and craftsmen
• give them loans and specify product design and quantity
• povide them raw materials
• Called as :DADNI SYSTEM
• EX: KASI VIRANNA-COROMANDEL COAST-WEAVERS ARTISANS UNDER
HIS CONTROL
• Called :VIRANNA’S VILLAGES
• SO ARTISANS WERE BECOMING WAGE EARNERS
• but British .......
 MOHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ
EXPERIMENTS/REFORMS
1. SHIFTING OF CAPITAL
2. TOKEN CURRENCY
3. AGRICULURE REFORMS

ØControversial
Øwe will analyse through facts
 1.SHIFTING OF CAPITAL
• also called :Exodus to Deogiri(Daulatabad)
• it was pragmatic decision-after considerable thought
• carefully prepared for
qMOTIVES:
1. It was central to all parts of the empire
• streched in alll direction of Hindustan
2. So better control over all places
• hence wanted a second capital not complete transfer of power
3. Safe from Mongol invasion
4. As it is protected by hills and forts
5. pleasant climate too

Ø he was also governor of DECCAN , SO he knew the place better

Ø some suggested Malwa
 SHIFTING OF CAPITAL
• decision was taken in 1327
• Road was constructed
• trees were planted on both sides
• halting stations at every two miles
• food and drink facilities
• at each station a Sufi saint was stationed

ØFIRST to leave was King and his mother

Øroyal households,servants and treasury
Ølater summoned theologians and common people
ØTherefore, it was no mass exodus
Øprobably some pressure was there on people to move
Øreached people got lodging, incentives , etc
Ønew quarters were constructed for officials and people
 WHY IT FAILED ..?
• Journey was ordered in Hot summer months-intense heat
• people were not happy to leave Delhi

• 1334-1335 there was serious rebellion in South

• he was in Bidar ,marching to deal with revolts
• there was a plague outbreak
• most of his army perished
• rumoured that king was died
• More rulers, declared independence
• THEREFORE, THERE IS NO REASON NOW TO HAVE A SECOND CAPITAL
• ASKED PEOPLE TO GO BACK
 2.CURRENCY REFORMS
• TOKEN CURRENCY
• 1329-1330
• replacing GOLD AND SILVER
• With COPPER AND BRASS
• exchanging old coins for new

qMOTIVE/WHY :
• there was a worldwide shortage of silver
• coins becoming scarce
• new currencies would have promoted trade
• created demand for India currencies worldover for exchange.
 WHY IT FAILED ..?
• copper and brass was easily available
• common people started minting more coins
• overall supply/quantity increased the currencies lost value

• he cancelled his old orders

• now said go back to gold and silver
• with exchange

• now people started minting more to get silver and gold for fake currencies.
• huge pressure on treasury
 3.AGRARIAN REFORMS
• Taxation had been increased
• peasant rebellion
• agri. production came down
• famine and diseases

• so in 1337
• desingned a PLAN to increase production and raise income of
peasants
 WHAT PLAN..?
• To increase area under cultivation
• Replacing old crops with high income yielding crops

qHOW ..?
• Bring Banjar land under agri.
• Wheat instead of Barley
• Grapes and Dates instead of Sugarcane
 WHAT PREPARATIONS ..?
• New department
• DIWAN-i-AMIR-i-KOHI
• more than 100 officers were appointed to oversee
• agricutural loans called :SONDHAR/TACCAVI

qWHY FAILED ..?

• implementing persons were incompetent
• loans used for personal purposes
 MEDIEVAL SOCIETY
• Turks and Arabs brought the Purdah syatem
• Hindus were given the status of ZIMMIS-Protected people
• so they had to pay JAZIYA
• it was part of land tax
• Brahmanas were excluded to pay
• But Firuz Tughlaq Imposed on Brahmanas also
• Mughal times it was imposed and removed couple of times
• SATI was common
• stratified due to casteism
 RURAL SOCIETY
• people were grouped on the basis of caste ,land owners and office
holders
• cultivators were the largest section
• called as:Sthanik, Stalwahak, Mirasi
• cultivators further divided into two class
1. RIYAYATI
2. RAIYATI
 RURAL SOCIETY

q RIYAYATI q RAIYATI
• privileged • general category
• Resident owner cultivators • also as:MUZARIAN/PALTIS
• KHUD-KHAST • middle caste
• with help of family and hired • either owners of their land or
labourers • tenants in others land
• generally from higher castes • Tenants either in STATE LANDS or
ZAMINDARS LANDS(DHANI tenants)
• Brahamanas,Rajputs,Patils
• state tenants recieved incentives to
• part of village governance cultivate Banjar lands
 RURAL SOCIETY
• PAHI KASHT
• another category of cultivators
• means:outsiders
• came from neighbouring villages to cultivate surplus lands
• generally lower castes
• moving to improve their material position

qalso had SERVICES class

• Ironsmiths, carpenter,rope maker, watchmen, washermen
• called as: BALUTEDARS/ALUTEDARS
MONGOL INVASION OF
INDIA
 CHENGIZ KHAN
• 1221
• Chasing JALALUDDIN MANGBARANI(KHWARIZMI PRINCE)
• Came untill Indus
• Iltumish avoided helping showing statesmanship
• then Chengiz went back to Turkestan(kazakstan region) owing to
rebellion
 TAIR BAHADUR
• 1240
• commander of Herat, Ghazni and Afghanistan
• occupied LAHORE
• from Delhi sultans
• Lahore governor left the place
• no help was coming from Delhi following the death of Razia
• people provided stiff resistance and killed Tair Bahadur
• but Mongols wreacked havoc in vengeance
• enslaved many people of Lahore
• Delhi sultans later reoccupied when mongols retreated due to death of OGTAI
 BALBAN’S EFFORTS
• to safeguard India
• sent an envoy to HALAKU
• return embassy was sent by Halaku in 1260
• Balban gave a grand reception
• Halaku instructed his officials not to invade India

• real reason was Halaku busy occupying Iraq, syria and Egypt
 BALBAN’S EFFORTS
• then later after the death of Halaku-adopted a forward policy,
• due to uncertainities of future
• rebuilt the fort of Lahore 1270
• appointed his eldest son MUHAMMAD to guard the areas
• of Multan and Lahore with BEAS as defensive line
• but he later died in a fighting with mongols 1285

• The last Mongol attack under Balban's successors was in 1288 when Tamar
Khan ravaged the country from Lahore to Multan.
• Therefore, untill 1290 Mongols came until Punjab and Beas
• no serious advance towards Delhi-who were militarily prepared
 JALALUDDIN KHALJI EFFORTS
• 1292
• ABDULLAH and ULAGHU
• invaded Punjab
• Jalal himself went to fight
• agreement reached between the two
• some more Mongols embraced Islam and allowed to settle in Delhi
• The Sultan married one of his daughters to ULAGHU
 ALAUDDIN TIMES
• New Mongol forward policy came after 1297-98
• Mongol army under KADAR sent by DAWA KHAN (king)
• Crossed Beas and Sutlej
• Alauddin sent his brother ULUGH KHAN
• defeated the Mongols in Battle of Jaran-Manjur(near Lahore)
• This was the most convincing victory which an army of the Sultans of
Delhi had gained over the Mongols in a straight fight
• next year Zafar Khan, another commander of Delhi defeated Mongols
in sind
 ALAUDDIN TIMES
• 1299
• Qutlugh Khan, the son of the Mongol ruler, Dawa Khan
• invaded with intention of conquering Delhi
• BATTLE OF KILLI (outside Delhi)
• Zafar Khan got killed in intial battle
• Alauddin had large frontline force Mongols coudnot have broken it
• so they retreated.
 ALAUDDIN TIMES
• 1303
• Alauddin away in Chittor-Mongols invaded Delhi
• Alauddin came and protected SIRI

vfortified Delhi for the first time

venlarged army
vmarket reforms
• 1305 one more attack
• better prepared
• sent an army under Hindu noble-MALIK NAYAK
• DEFEATED THEM NEAR AMROHA(U.P)
 TUGHLAQ TIMES
• 1320,
• Dalucha Khan entered the Kashmir valley
• One more Branch came untill Meerut but defeated by GST

qMBT had the foresight

qhe knew as long as Mongols are there in Afganistan they would
continue to attack
qso raised 3,75,000 army to capture Kabul and persia
qbut never inavded for various reasons- Internal revolts and peasant
revolts
 SHER SHAH:SUR EMPIRE
• Sher Shah Sur
• 1540-1545
• defeated Humayun in battles of:
• CHAUSA-1539-BH
• KANNAUJ-1540-UP

• Ruled only for 5 years but contribution is huge

• Law and order
• roads
• trade and commerce
 ROADS
• restored road from INDUS TO BENGAL/SONARGAON
• AGRA TO BURHANPUR
• AGRA TO JODHPUR AND CHITTOR
• LAHORE TO MULTAN--which was the entry point for foreigners

• system of comminication improved

• help in trade and commerce
• military movement
 TRADE AND COMMERCE
• road system helped
• took other measures
• new coins of silver and copper
• silver: RUPIYA
• standard weights and measures
• taxation was simplified
• only two taxes by traders
1. At the place of entry
2. At the time of sale

• officres were strictly enforced this

• no other levy
• asked officres not to harass merchants on road
• do not touch goods eeven if they die
• officers shoould purchase goods from them at market price
THE BHAKTHI AND SUFI
MOVEMENT
 SUFI MOVEMENT
• means: PURITY in Arabic
• deep devotion
• communicating with the god through their ascetic practices(Mysticism)
• prayers ,
• fasting,
• revelation,
• penance
• pranayam(Holding breath)

• ecstatic love towards god and nearness to god

• and disregarding old and rigid beliefs in social and religious sphere
• started in 8th CE
• Spread by 10th CE
 SUFISM
• SAMA-musical gathering to achieve nearness to god

• AGAINST:
• display of wealth
• immorality
• social discrimination
• Therefore, for SERVICE AND LOVE OF HUMANITY
• The ideas of ruh (soul),
• qurbat (divine proximity),
• hulul (infusion of the divine spirit),
• Ishq (divine love),
• Fana (self-annihilation) are central to the theory of Sufism.
 ORGANISATION OF SUFIS
• organised into different orders or schools-on basis of their beliefs
• called:SILSILAHS
• Each silsilahs led by a mystic(who can communicate with god)
• kind of a teacher
• he had disciples
• TEACHER :PIR
• DISCIPLES:MURID
• LIVING PLACE:KHANQAH
qlinl bw teacher and murid is essential part of sufism
qthe pir appointed deputies called :WALIS -to carry out spiritual duties in a region
qHe also choose his successor: KHALIFA
 SUFI ORDERS
• 12 silsilahs
• Divided into two groups

1.BA-SHARA
• Belived in Shariat

2.BE-SHARA
• Not believed in shariat
• generally by wandering saints :QALANDARS
 SOME SUFI SCHOOLS

q CHISTHI SILSILAH q SUHRAWADI SILSILAH

• Ba-shara
• Ba-Shara
• Delhi,UP,RJ
• PJ AND SIND
• MUINUDDIN CHISTHI(1206)
• BAHAUDDIN ZAKARIYA
• moved to Ajmer
• quite opposite of chisthis
• FARIDUDDIN-GANJ-I-SHAKAR
• some of his verses in GURU GRANTH SAHEB • did not belive in povert life
• NIZAMUDDIN AULIYA • Normal ordinary life normal food and dress
Ø No politics • accepted state offices-politics interference
Ø simplicity,poverty,austere fasting,penance,ascetic • accepted gifts and donations
Ø religious tolerance • but chisthis lived on day to day alms seeking
Ø engaged with HINDU AND JAIN monks for
discussions
 SUFI SCHOOLS/ORDERS

q NAKSHABANDI q QADRI
• Orthodox • Sheikh Abdul Qadir
• Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi • completely liberal
• opposed shias and association • Wahdat al Wajud meaning
with Hindus “Unity of Existence” or “Unity of
• against liberal policies of Akbar Being”,
• against sama • means:God and his creation are
one and similar
• god and devotee is master and
slave, not of love. • dismissed orthodoxy
 THE BHAKTHI MOVEMENT
• PASSIONATE LOVE FOR GOD /DEEP DEVOTION
• mystic realisation of God within oneself
• ultimate union of the individual with god
• no middle men require
• traced back to Upanishads
• as personal gods-Trinity of gods-grew
• the cocept of personal devotion to them also grew
• GITA: advocated PRAPATTI
• complete surrender to god
 GENESIS
• origin in south India
• from the writings of saints
• NAYANARS
• Shaiva
• ALWARS
• Vishnu
• during Pallavas pandyas and cholas -around 5th CE onwards
• bacame a popular movement
• beacuse used:Popular languages
• from there spread to North India around 12th CE
 BHAKTHI PRINCIPLES
• love towards god
• ecstatic love through songs
• egalitarianism
• anyone can acheive nearness to god
• grace of god

qAGAINST:
• caste system
• untouchability
• rituals of Brahminism,Buddhism,jainism
• magic
• dicrimination of wowen-child marriages, no widow remarriage
 NORTH INDIA BHAKTHI MOVEMENT
• spread from south
• at the same time ISLAM influences
• The distinctive characteristics of Islam such as
A. Monotheism or belief in one God,
B. equality and brotherhood of man,
C. rejection of rituals and class divisions
• certainly influenced the Bhakti Movement.

• can be seen in teachings of RAMANANDA,KABIR,NANAK

 SCHOOLS OF BHAKTHI
SAGUNA BHAKTHI SAINTS
• god with attributes or form , AKIN TO HUMAN ONE
• Tulsidas, Mirabai,Surdas, Chaitanya
• idol worship
• varnashrama dharma and authority of vedas
• against ritual

NIRGUNA BHAKTHI SAINTS

• god have no attributes or form
• Kabir. Nanak, Raidas, Dadu Dayal
• no idol worship
• rejected varnashrama dharma
• against rituals
 BHAKTHI SAINTS TEACHINGS
qRAMANANDA
• 1360-1470
• Nirguna saint
• taught at Agra and Benaras
• worshipped Lord Rama
• against caste system
• admitted disciples from lower castes
• His follower was KABIR
 KABIR
• 1398-1518
• born to Brahmin family, in Beanars, grew up under Muslim weaver
• led a married householder life
• pantheism-
• means God is Everywhere
• Compose BIJAK’S(Doha’s)
• FORMLESS GOD-nirguna
• denounced rituals in Hinduism and Islam
• asceticism and book knowledge is not necessary for salvation and true knowledge
• his verses are in ADI GRANTH
• ONENESS OF ALL RELIGION-RAMA,AND ALLAH, MOSQUES AND TEMPLES ARE SAME
• FOLLOWERS : RAIDAS AND NANAK
 NANAK
• 1469-1539 (Lahore)
• He was a store keeper at Daulat Khan Lodhi court
• greater stress on the purity of character and conduct
• as the first condition in approaching god,
• also the need of a guru for guidance
• he was followed by a muslim disciple -
• BHAI MARDANA, with amusical instrument
• Rabab
• his followers were called as SIKHS
 DADU DAYAL
• Rajasthan
• 1544-1603
• born as a muslim, grew up with Hindu cotton trader
• illiterate
• his verses were collected by his disciples in a book, the Bani, in Hindi.
• His followers, Dadupanthis,
• expose their dead like the Parsis.
• followed Kabir teachings
• denounced caste system
 SAGUNA BHAKTHI SAINTS
qCHAITANYA
• 1436/1486-1533
• popularised Viashnavism in Bengal
• through KIRTANAS
• he spread the message that ragamarga
• or the path of spontaneous love was best for salvation

• Achintya Bheda Abheda philosophy

• ACHINTYA-inconceivable
• BHEDA-difference
• ABHEDA-non-difference
 SURDAS
• 1483-1563
• follower of Vallabhacharya
• popularised Krishna cult in U.P.
• author of SUR SAGARA(poems)
 TULSIDAS
• 1532-1623
• worshipped Rama
• composed RAMCHARITAMANAS in hindi
• Hanuman chalisa
• idol worship
 MIRABAI
• 1498–1569
• Hailing from the Sisodia dynasty of Chittor,
• devotee of Krishna
• popularised his cult in Rajasthan through her songs.
 BHAKTHI MOVEMENT IN MAHARASHTRA
• MAHARASHTRA DHARMA
• centred around the shrine of Vithoba or Vitthal,
• the residing deity of Pandharpur,
• as a manifestation of Krishna
• so called :Pandharpur Movement
• cultural revolution in MH
• led to development of Marathi literature,
• elevation in the status of women,
• breaking of caste barriers
 Classification of Bhakthi movement in MH
• Varakaris:
• The mild devotees of God Vitthala of Pandharpur,
• who are more emotional, theoretical, and abstract in their viewpoint.

• Dharakaris:
• The heroic followers of the cult of Ramadasa, the devotee of God
Rama,
• who are more rational, practical, and concrete in their thoughts.
 SAINTS OF MAHARASHTRA DHARMA
qJNANESHWAR/jnanadeva
• 13th Century
• founder of Maharashtra Dharma
• His work Jnanesvari (a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita)

qNAMADEVA-14th CE-preached love

qEKANATH-16th CE-composed ABHANGAS(poems)

qTUKARAM-17th CE- contemporary of SHIVAJI-preached Marathi nationalism-varkari

qRAMDAS-17th CE-combined Spirituality with Politics-shivaji got influeced by him also-

authored: DASABODHA, BOOK ON ALL ASPECTS OF LIFE
THE MARATHAS AND SHIVAJI
 EARLY MARATHAS
• held administrative posts in Ahmednagar and Bijapur Bahamani
families
• Maloji Bhonsle and Shahaji Bhonsle were commanders under Nizam
shahis and Adil shahis
• Shahaji son is Shivaji
• Inherited POONA jagir
• influenced by :DADAJI KONDADEO and Sufi saint PIR SHAIKH YACUB
and Bhakthi saint TUKARAM
• Shivaji united maratha sardars and established a kingdom and
became CHATRAPATHI(ruler)
 CONQUESTS OF SHIVAJI
• 1647-TORNA(MH) -FROM BIJAPUR
• 1656- Javli- from a Maratha chief named Chanda Rao More
• Battle of Pratapgarh (1659): Fought between Afzal Khan (represented Adil Shah of
Bijapur) and Shivaji, which Shivaji killed Afzal Khan
• Became a legend and hero after this victory
• 1663 CE, Shivaji carried out a daring night attack on the camp of Shaista Khan(Deccan
Governor of Mughals)
• 1665 Aurngazeb appointed Raja Jai Singh and Diler Khan
• Jai singh captured purandhar fort from Shivaji
• signed Treaty of Purandhar 1665
• surrendered forst and pledged loyalty to Mughals
• agreed to visit him Agra
• Re conquered lost forts
• crowned as KING at RAIGARH 1674
 SHIVAJI ADMINISTRATION
• ASHTAPRADAN
• a coucil of admin.
• directly responsible to Shivaji
1. Peshwa – Pant Pradhan, who looked after finance and general administration..
2. Sar-i-Naubat or Senapati – Military commander,
3. Amatya/Majumdar – Accountant General.
4. Waqenavis – Intelligence and police, posts, historical archives
5. Surnavis or Chitnis or Sachiv – General Secretary who also overlooked official
correspondence.
6. Sumant/Dabir – Master of ceremonies and Foreign Affairs.
7. Nyayadish – Justice.
8. Pandit Rao – Charities and ecclesiastical affairs.
 LOCAL ADMINISTRATION
• Prant -province-Subedar
• Tarfs-districts-Havaldar
• village level:KULKARNI(accountants) PATILS (law and order)
 REVENUE ADMINISTRATION
• based on measurement
• took action against middle men like Deshmukhs, Patils and kulkarnis
• rate 33 % to 40 %
• other incomes:
• CHAUTH: was one-fourth(25%) of the land revenue paid by
neighbours to the Marathas so as not be subjected to Maratha raids
• SARDESHMUKHI: additional 10% claiming Shivaji as the head of all
land holders.Hereditary claim over their lands.(Mughal lands)
THE VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE
 POLITICS
• 4 dynasties
• capital: Hampi
1. Sangama(1336–1485)-HAKKARAYA n BUKKARAYA ,DEVARAYA 1&2
2. Saluva (1485–1503 CE),
3. Tuluva (1503–1565 CE)-SRI KRISHNADEVARAYA
4. Aravidu(1565-1680s)
 FORIEGN TRAVELLERS
KING TRAVELLER COUNTRY
Deva Raya I (1406–1422) 1.NICOLO CONTI 1.ITALY
2.NIKITIN 2.RUSSIA
Deva Raya II (1425–46 ) ABDUR RAZZAK PERSIA
Krishna Deva Raya (1509–29) DOMINGO PAES PORTUGAL
BARBOSA
Achyuta Deva Raya (1529 –1542) FERNAO NUNIZ PORTUGAL
 ADMINISTRATION
• MANDALAM or rajyas -provinces-MANDALESVARA
• NADU-districts
• STHALAS-sub-districts
• GRAMA -villages-GAUDA/GOWDA

• Paid in cash or Land grant(AMARAM)

• NAYAKAS SYSTEM-local zamindars/palegars

• maintain army
• internal autonomy
 SRI KRISHNADEVARAYA WORKS
• SANSKRIT- Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam and Madalasa
charitham and Rasa manjari
• TELUGU-Amukthamalyadha

• court had :ASHTA-DIGGAJAS

 ASHTADIGGAJAS
1. Allasani Peddanna – the author of Manucharitram, he was also
known as Andhra Kavitapitamaha
2. Nandi Thimmana – the author of Parijathapaharanam
3. Madayagari Mallana
4. Dhurjati
5. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi
6. Pingali Surana
7. Ramaraja Bhushana
8. Tenali Ramakrishna
 Krishnadeva Raya‘s Conquests

• He conquered Sivasamudram in 1510 and Raichur in 1512A.D

• In 1523 A.D. he captured Orissa and Warangal
• His empire extended from the river Krishna in the north to River
Cauvery in the south; the Arabian Sea in the west to Bay of Bengal in
the east
 BAHAMANI SULTANS
• Hasan Gangu Bahmani was the founder of the Bahmani Kingdom.
• He was a Turkish officer of Devagiri.
• in 1347 A.D. he established the independent Bahmani kingdom.
• His kingdom stretched from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal,
included the whole of Deccan up to the river Krishna
• Capital: Gulbarga, LATER shifted to Bidar

qconstant conflict with Vijaynagar for Tungabhadra doab

 MUHAMMAD GAWAN
• He was a very wise scholar and an able administrator.
• He improved the administration, eliminated corruption
• encouraged public education
• Gawan Madarasa at BIDAR
 ADMINISTRATION
• Tarafs – The kingdom was divided into many provinces called Tarafs
• Tarafdar or Amir – Governor who controlled the Taraf.
 LATER DIVIDED INTO 5 KINGDOMS
• 1480 onwards
1. Bijapur-ADIL sahis
2. Ahmednagar-NIZAM sahis
3. Berar-IMAD sahis
4. Golconda-QUTUB sahis
5. Bidar-BARID sahis
 CULTURAL
CONTRIBUTION
• Golgumbuz-
Bijapur/vijaypura
• second largest dome
after st.peter’s basilica
• 17th CE-Md.Adil shah
• urdu language
• Sufism
 BATTLE OF TALIKOTE
• Battle of Rakkasa Tangadi
• 1565
• Aliya Ramaraya
• against 4 Bahamani sultans
• Bijapur,Golconda,Ahmednagar and Bidar
 AHOM KINGDOM
• Chaolung Sukapha -founder
• Brahmaputra Valley
• 1215-1826
• capital of Garhgaon and Jorhat
• province was annexed to British India in 1826 with the signing of the
Treaty of Yandaboo.
 battle of Saraighat
• 1671
• a naval engagement fought on the Brahmaputra River
• king Chakradwaj Singha
• general Lachit Borphukan.
• against Mughals sent Raja Ram Singh and Munnawar Khan
• Ahoms won

q the battle of Itakhuli in 1682.

• Dihingia Alun Borbarua(general) would defeat the Mughals
• This battle would permanently end Mughal presence in Assam and no further
campaigns