Lecture 3
Lecture 3
Lecture 3
2023
Orbital Mechanics
Last Week
• Basic parameters
• Classical orbital elements
• Motion of two bodies due to gravitational
attraction
• Orbit shapes
• Conservation of angular momentum and energy
• Circular orbit case
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https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2019/02/ESA_s_fleet_of_Solar_System_explorers
D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 3
D. Cilden-Guler
https://science.nasa.gov/planetary-science/ Orbital Mechanics 4
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15.10.2023
https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/missions/spacecraft/current/
https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465719/index.html
https://www.isro.gov.in/spacesciexp.html
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15.10.2023
• Find, track, and characterize NEOs that are 140 meters and larger in size
• –larger than a small football stadium–
• They pose a risk to Earth
• No known asteroid in that size will hit Earth for the next 100 years
Public webpage: https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/
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• The spacecraft’s
impact altered
Dimorphos’ orbit
around Didymos
• by 32 minutes
(shortening the 11
hour and 55-
minute orbit to 11
hours and 23
minutes)
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What to Learn
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Fig. 7 Differential area dA swept out by the relative Fig. 8 The true anomaly θ is the angle between the eccentricity
position vector r during time interval dt. vector e and the position vector r.
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Orbit Equation
" "$ "𝐫 "𝐫 "𝐫
𝐫 ⋅ 𝐫 = 𝑟 !, 𝐫 ⋅ 𝐫 = 2𝑟 =𝐫⋅ + ⋅𝐫 = 2𝐫 ⋅ , 𝐫 ⋅ 𝐫˙ = 𝑟𝑟˙
"# "# "# "# "#
"∥𝐫∥
𝐫˙ = 𝐯 and 𝑟 =∥ 𝐫 ∥ ⇒ 𝐫 ⋅ 𝐯 =∥ 𝐫 ∥ "#
Take the cross product of both sides of 𝐫̈ = − 𝜇/𝑟 ' 𝐫 with the specific angular momentum h:
𝜇
𝐫×𝐡 ¨
𝐫×𝐡 =−
𝑟'
" ˙ the left component can be written as 𝐫×𝐡 " ˙
Since "# (𝐫×𝐡)
˙ ¨
= 𝐫×𝐡 ˙ 𝐡,
+ 𝐫× ¨ ˙
= "# (𝐫×𝐡) ˙ 𝐡
− 𝐫×
˙ = 𝟎), so this reduces 𝐫×𝐡 "
As the angular momentum is constant (𝐡 ¨ = (𝐫×𝐡)
˙
"#
( ( ( ( 𝐫$̇*˙𝐫$ " 𝐫 ˙ $̇
$𝐫*𝐫 𝐫$̇*$𝐓˙ ( " 𝐫
𝐫×𝐡 = [𝐫×(𝐫×𝐫)]
˙ = [𝐫(𝐫 ⋅ 𝐫)
˙ − 𝐫(𝐫
˙ ⋅ 𝐫)] = 𝐫(𝑟𝑟) ˙ ! =
˙ − 𝐫𝑟 , = =− ⇒ 𝐫×𝐡 =−
$! $! $! $! $" "# $ $" $" $! "# $
BAC-CAB Rule
d 𝐫
˙
𝐫×𝐡 −𝜇 =𝟎
d𝑡 𝑟
C: Laplace Vector
First integral of the equation of motion 𝐫¨ = − 𝜇/𝑟 ' 𝐫
𝐫⋅𝐡
Taking the dot product with h: (𝐫×𝐡)
˙ ⋅𝐡−𝜇 =𝐂⋅𝐡
$
˙
Since 𝐫×𝐡 is perpendicular to both 𝐫˙ and 𝐡, it follows that (𝐫×𝐡)
˙ ⋅ 𝐡 = 0.
Since 𝐡 = 𝐫×𝐫˙ is perpendicular to both 𝐫 and 𝐫,˙ it is true that 𝐫 ⋅ 𝐡 = 0, 𝐂 ⋅ 𝐡 = 0 (i.e., 𝐂 is perpendicular to 𝐡, which is normal to
the orbital plane). The Laplace vector must lie in the orbital plane.
D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 13
13
𝐀 ⋅ (𝐁×𝐂) = (𝐀×𝐁) ⋅ 𝐂
Orbit Equation
𝐫 𝐫 ˙
𝐫×𝐡
The Laplace vector must lie in the orbital plane. Rearranging 𝐫×𝐡
˙ − 𝜇 = 𝐂: + 𝐞 = where 𝐞 = 𝐂/𝜇.
$ $ /
The dimensionless vector 𝐞 is called the eccentricity vector.
The line defined by the vector 𝐞 is commonly called the apse line.
𝐫⋅𝐫 𝐫⋅(𝐫×𝐡)
˙
Take the dot product of both sides with r: + 𝐫⋅e= , ˙
𝐫 ⋅ (𝐫×𝐡) ˙ ⋅ 𝐡 = 𝐡 ⋅ 𝐡 = ℎ! , 𝐫 ⋅ 𝐫 = 𝑟 !
= (𝐫×𝐫)
$ /
2" 2"
𝑟+𝐫⋅e= , 𝐫 ⋅ 𝐞 = 𝑟𝑒cos 𝜃, 𝑟 + 𝑟𝑒cos 𝜃 =
/ /
where 𝑒 is the eccentricity (the magnitude of the eccentricity vector e), and 𝜃 is the true anomaly (the angle between the
fixed vector 𝐞 and the variable position vector 𝐫). Final form of orbit equation:
ℎ& 1
𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒co s 𝜃
• Integration of the equation of relative motion 𝐫̈ = − 𝜇/𝑟 ' 𝐫 leads to six constants of integration. Those
constants are the three components of the angular momentum h and the three components of the
eccentricity vector e. However, h is perpendicular to e (𝐡 ⋅ 𝐞 = 0 condition meaning five independent
constants of integration).
• The sixth constant of motion will arise from the time.
D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 14
14
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ℎ: 1
Elliptical Orbits (0 < e < 1) 𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos𝜃
%" * %" * %" *
𝑟( = ,𝑟 = , 2𝑎 = 𝑟( + 𝑟- , 𝑎 =
) *+, - ) *., ) *.,"
1 − 𝑒&
𝑟=𝑎
1 + 𝑒cos 𝜃
𝐶𝐹 = 𝑎 − 𝐹𝑃 = 𝑎 − 𝑟/
𝑟( = 𝑎(1 − 𝑒)
1 − 𝑒&
𝑟0 = 𝑎
1 + 𝑒cos 𝛽
1 − 𝑒&
𝑎𝑒 = 𝑟0cos 180∘ − 𝛽 = −𝑟0cos 𝛽 = − 𝑎 cos 𝛽
1 + 𝑒cos 𝛽
𝑒 = −cos 𝛽
𝑟0 = 𝑎, 𝑏 & = 𝑟0& − (𝑎𝑒)& = 𝑎& − 𝑎&𝑒 &, 𝑏 = 𝑎 1 − 𝑒 &
1 − 𝑒& 𝑒 + cos 𝜃
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑒 + 𝑟cos 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑒 + 𝑎 cos 𝜃 = 𝑎
1 + 𝑒cos 𝜃 1 + 𝑒cos 𝜃
1 − 𝑒& 1 − 𝑒&
Fig. 8 Elliptical orbit. m1 is at the focus F. F′ is the 𝑦 = 𝑟sin 𝜃 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝑏 sin 𝜃
unoccupied empty focus. 1 + 𝑒cos 𝜃 1 + 𝑒cos 𝜃
2 ,+345 6 7 *.,"
= , = sin𝜃
- *+,345 6 8 *+,3456
D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 15
15
ℎ: 1
Elliptical Orbits (0 < e < 1) 𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos𝜃
𝑥& 𝑦& 1
+ = (𝑒 + cos𝜃)& + 1 − 𝑒 & sin&𝜃
𝑎& 𝑏 & (1 + 𝑒cos𝜃)&
1
= 𝑒 & + 2𝑒cos𝜃 + cos &𝜃 + sin&𝜃 − 𝑒 &sin&𝜃
(1 + 𝑒cos𝜃)&
1
= 𝑒 & + 2𝑒cos𝜃 + 1 − 𝑒 &sin&𝜃
(1 + 𝑒cos𝜃)&
1
= 𝑒 & 1 − sin&𝜃 + 2𝑒cos𝜃 + 1
(1 + 𝑒cos𝜃)&
1
= 𝑒 &cos &𝜃 + 2𝑒cos𝜃 + 1
(1 + 𝑒cos𝜃)&
1
= (1 + 𝑒cos𝜃)&
(1 + 𝑒cos𝜃)&
𝑥& 𝑦&
+ =1
𝑎& 𝑏 &
Cartesian coordinate formula for an ellipse centered at
Fig. 9 Cartesian coordinate description of the orbit.
the origin, with 𝑥 intercepts at ±𝑎 and 𝑦 intercepts at ±𝑏.
If 𝑎 = 𝑏, this is a circle (an ellipse with zero eccentricity)
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ℎ: 1
Elliptical Orbits (0 < e < 1) 𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos𝜃
* )"
𝜀=− 1 − 𝑒 & [Vis-Viva in terms of orbital constants]
& %"
ℎ& = 𝜇𝑎 1 − 𝑒 &
) 9" ) )
The specific energy of an elliptical orbit is negative: 𝜀 = − &- OR & − : = − &-
Independent of the eccentricity and depends only on the semimajor axis of the
ellipse.
The area of an ellipse: 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏
To find the period 𝑇 of the elliptical orbit, Kepler's second law, d𝐴/d𝑡 = ℎ/2:
%
Δ𝐴 = Δ𝑡, for one complete revolution, Δ𝐴 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏 and Δ𝑡 = 𝑇.
&
& '
&;-8 &; & &; %" * &; %
𝜋𝑎𝑏 = (ℎ/2)𝑇, or 𝑇 = %
= 1 − 𝑒 & = % )*.,"
%
𝑎 1 − 𝑒 & = )"
*.,"
2𝜋 '/&
Since all five ellipses have the same major axis, 𝑇= 𝑎
their periods and energies are identical. 𝜇
Like energy, the period of an elliptical orbit is independent of the eccentricity.
:# *., :$ .:#
= ,𝑒=
:$ *+, :$ +:#
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Example
18
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ℎ: 1
Parabolic Trajectories (e = 1) 𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos𝜃
ℎ& 1
𝑟=
𝜇 1 + co s 𝜃
9" )
The energy of the trajectory is zero, − =0
& :
2𝜇
𝑣=
𝑟
A spacecraft launched from the earth with a velocity 𝑣!"# (relative to the earth) will not coast to infinity (i.e., leave the solar system) because it will eventually succumb to
D. Cilden-Guler
the gravitational Orbital Mechanics
influence of the sun and, in fact, end up in the same orbit as the earth. 19
19
ℎ: 1
Parabolic Trajectories (e = 1) 𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos𝜃
Escape velocity
2𝜇
𝜈TUV = = 2𝜈V
𝑟
Second cosmic velocity
(escape velocity on Earth’s surface) :
1.11798404×10W m/s
Fig. 11 Parabola with focus at the origin of the Cartesian coordinate system.
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Example
21
ℎ: 1
Hyperbolic Trajectories (e > 1) 𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos𝜃
𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑒 & − 1, Δ = 𝑎 𝑒 & − 1
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ℎ: 1
Hyperbolic Trajectories (e > 1) 𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos𝜃
&
𝑥& 𝑦& 𝑒 + co s 𝜃 & 𝑒 & − 1si n 𝜃
− = −
𝑎& 𝑏 & 1 + 𝑒co s 𝜃 1 + 𝑒co s 𝜃
𝑒 & + 2𝑒co s 𝜃 + cos & 𝜃 − 𝑒 & − 1 1 − cos & 𝜃
=
Y1 + 𝑒co s 𝜃)&
1 + 2𝑒co s 𝜃 + 𝑒 & cos & 𝜃 Y1 + 𝑒co s 𝜃)&
= =
Y1 + 𝑒co s 𝜃)& Y1 + 𝑒co s 𝜃)&
𝑥 & 𝑦 &
− =1
𝑎& 𝑏 &"
) 9 ) )
𝜀 = > 0, − =
&- & : &-
)
The hyperbolic excess speed: 𝑣A =
-
9" ) "
9%
− = = 2𝜇/𝑟, 𝑣 & = 𝑣=53
, 𝑣=53 & + 𝑣&
A
& : &
𝜇 𝜇 &
𝑣A = 𝑒sin 𝜃A = 𝑒 −1
ℎ ℎ
Fig. 13 Plot in a Cartesian coordinate system with origin O
midway between the two foci.
& (a measure of the energy required for an interplanetary mission, a measure of the maximum energy a launch
The square of 𝑣$ is denoted 𝐶%, and is known as the characteristic energy, 𝐶% = 𝑣$
vehicle can impart
D. Cilden-Guler )launch vehicle
to a spacecraft of a given mass). To match a launch vehicle with a mission, 𝐶%Orbital > 𝐶%)
Mechanics . 23
mission
23
ℎ: 1
Hyperbolic Trajectories (e > 1) 𝑟=
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos𝜃
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𝐡
𝐰̇ =
ℎ
𝐫 = 𝑥b
𝐩 + 𝑦b𝐪
𝑥 = 𝑟cos 𝜃 𝑦 = 𝑟sin 𝜃
ℎ& 1
𝐫= (cos 𝜃b
𝐩 + sin 𝜃b
𝐪)
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos 𝜃
)
𝐯 = 𝐫˙ = 𝑥˙ 𝐩ˆ + 𝑦˙ 𝐪ˆ 𝐯 = [−sin𝜃𝐩ˆ + (𝑒 + cos𝜃)𝐪]
ˆ
%
Fig. 15 Perifocal frame Fig. 16 Position and velocity relative to the perifocal frame.
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