Ancient History and Art& Culture

 Stone Age (500,000BC-4000BC/1000BC)

 Chalcolithic Age (4000BC-1500BC)
 Bronze Age (3300BC-1200BC)
 IVC (3300BC-1300BC)
 Iron Age (1500BC-600BC)
 Early Vedic Period (1500BC-1000BC)
 Later Vedic Period (1000BC-600BC)
 Mahajanapadas, Buddhism &Jainism (600BC)
 Magadha Era (558BC-321BC)
 Mauryan Empire (321BC-185BC)
 Post Mauryan Empire (185BC-275AD)
 Gupta Period (275AD-550AD)
 Post-Gupta Period (550AD-606AD)
 Harshvardhan (606AD-647BC)
Art
Visual Art (Tangible) Performing Art Miscellaneous
 Architecture  Dance  Philosophy
 Sculpture  Music  Language
 Painting  Theater  Coins
 Pottery  Puppetry  Scripts
 Ancient Ports
 Culture (Way of Living)
Tangible Intangible
 Food  Belief system
 Clothes  Faith
 Household  Thought

 Culture breeds between a group of people.

 It is Dynamic and changes according to Time and Place.
 It is acquired.
 It is cumulative.
 It is the idea of the behavior of people.

Stone Age
Stone Age was named after the usage of stone tools which were majorly Quartzite and lime.
On the Basis of the quality of tools it is divided into 3 parts

Paleolithic Mesolithic Neolithic

 (500000BC-10000BC) (Ice Age) (10000BC-8000/6000BC) (8000BC-4000BC)
1. Holocene Epoch: 1. Holocene:
Lower Middle Upper  Temperature rose,  A geological epoch
(500,000BC- (100,000BC- (40,000BC-10,000BC) leading to increased characterized by a warmer
100,000BC) 40,000BC) 1. End of Ice Age. vegetation and climate, increased
1. Neanderthals: 2. Homo Sapiens: longevity. vegetation, and longer
1. Homo Erectus:  They were  They were Hunter- 2. Hunter-Gatherers: human longevity.
 First species Hunter- gatherers.  Early human societies 2. Neolithic Revolution:
to discover Gatherers.  Lived in relied on hunting  A significant shift in

fire. 2. Tools used by groups/communities. and gathering for human societies from
 Found in Neanderthals:  Developed refined sustenance. hunting and gathering to
Hathnora,  They used tools. 3. Domestication of Animals: settled farming and
Narmada smaller tools  Created bone tools,  The wild ancestors of agriculture.
Valley. such as Flakes, including those dogs were 3. Food Production:
 They were Blades, found at MGC- domesticated in  Earliest evidence of

Hunter- Pointers, and Muchchatla Adamgarh, Madhya agriculture in Mehargarh

Gatherers. Borers. Chinatmanu Gavi Pradesh, and Bagor, (Pakistan), cultivating
2. Hand Axe:  These tools (Kurnool, Andhra Rajasthan. wheat and barley.
were made Pradesh), Renigunta, 4. Clothing:  Lahurdev (Uttar Pradesh)
 Found by
Robert Bruce from materials Bhimbetka, Belan,  Clothes were made also shows early evidence
Foote in like and Bhagor (Son). from animal skin and of agriculture.
chalcedony,  Utilized Needle and tree bark.  Rice cultivation dates back
1863.
 Location: chert, and Burins for various 5. Burial Practices: to 9000BC-8000BC in
Palavaram, jasper. purposes.  Burials with goods Koldihawa and Mahagara
Madras. 3. Discovery of Fire: 3. First Evidence of Art: were practiced, (Uttar Pradesh), alongside
3. Chopper and  Occurred  Paintings found in reflecting a belief in hunting and gathering
Cleaver: around 50,000 various locations: reincarnation. practices.
 Locations: years ago.  Hunters (Red)  Examples: Sarainahar4. Polished Tools:
Bori, 4. Use of Handaxe:  Animals Rai 4 and Damdama  During the Neolithic
Maharashtra  The use of (Large) 3 in Uttar Pradesh. period, tools were refined
; Bhimbetka, Handaxe  Dancers 6. Pottery: and polished for better
Madhya declined (Green)  Pottery was found in efficiency.
Pradesh; during this  Stick-like Lahanganj, Gujarat. 5. Pottery:
Belan, Uttar period. figures. 7. Paintings:  Handmade Pottery, Red
Pradesh. 5. Locations of  These paintings were  Paintings depicted Pottery, Black Burnished,
Neanderthal sites: discovered in various aspects of and Mat-pressed pottery
 Navesa, Bhimbetka, life, including: were developed during
Maharashtra Lakhudiyar,  Grazing this time.
 Bhimbetka, Ratnagiri, and the activities  No paintings, but designs
Madhya Chota Nagpur  Geometrical of rice husk or nails were
Pradesh Plateau. patterns made on wet clay.
 Gonchi, inspired by 6. Invention of Wheel:
Damoh nature  The wheel was invented
 Sihora  Group hunting during this period, leading
 Potwar,  Women to advancements in
Pakistan making food transportation and
(Indus/Jhelum) (division of pottery, known as Wheel
 Belan, Uttar labor) Pottery.
Pradesh  Children 7. More Permanent Settlement:
 Taminhal, playing  With the advent of
Bagalko, and  Family life agriculture and permanent
Anawadi,  Religious settlements, humans
Karnataka beliefs started living in one place
 Chittor,  Caves with for longer periods.
Kurnool, and hints of
 Nalgonda, patriarchy. 8. Pit Dwelling Houses:
Andhra 8. Microliths:  Burzahom in Kashmir is an
Pradesh  Smaller tools, about example of pit dwelling
2.5 cm in size, made houses.
of wood or bone.  Archaeological findings in
Burzahom also reveal
burials with humans and
dogs.
9. Graves Inside Houses:
 Gufrakal in Kashmir is
known for graves being
present inside houses.
10. Koldihawa and Mahagara (Uttar
Pradesh):
 These sites also provide
evidence of early rice
cultivation and agricultural
practices.

Chalcolithic Age (4000 BC-1500/600BC) Pre- Harappan Setup

1. Agricultural Economy with a Barter System:
 The society transitioned to an agricultural economy, and the exchange of goods was conducted through a barter system.
2. Early Use of Metal Coins:
 The civilization was among the first to use metal coins, although not in a standardized form of currency.
3. Pottery and Village Economy:
 Pottery played a crucial role in the village economy.
4. Absence of Script:
 There was no script developed during this period.
5. Horse Evidence:
 The evidence of horse usage during this period is not clear.
6. Emergence of Religious Practices:
 Religious practices started, focusing on Mother Goddesses.
7. Ornamentation:
 People adorned themselves with ornaments.
8. Metallurgy and Smelting:
 The civilization had knowledge of metallurgy and smelting techniques.
9. House Setups:
 Houses were organized in a rectangular layout for chiefs and a circular one for regular people (such as Navdatoli).
10. Differentiation and Political Stratification:
 Society started showing signs of differentiation and political stratification.
11. Social Division:
 Society was divided based on various factors.
12. Important Sites:
 Ahar Banas Culture
 Malwa Culture
  Jorwe Culture
 Khetri
 Malang
 Ghatshila (Jharkhand)
 Daimabad
13. Pottery Styles:
 Pottery styles included Black and Red, Black on Red Pottery, and Ochre-Colored Pottery (OCP).
14. Painting Themes:
 Paintings depicted Geometrical patterns, Battle scenes, Men with arrows and spearheads, Community life, and the art of
tanning.
 The artists demonstrated aesthetic sense, using Green and Yellow colors.
15. Eran (MP) and Nevasa (MH) Cultures:
 These cultures were distinct and did not follow the Harappan culture.

Indus/Sarasvati Valley Civilization

 Early (3300 BC-2700BC) Mature (2700BC-1900 BC) Late(1900BC-1300BC)
Bigger Towns Decline or Dilution of Culture
Central Authority
Harappa, Mohenjo Daro,
Rakhigarhi(HR), Dholavira, Lothal(GJ)

IVC
Towns Seals Sculptures Woven Cloth Script
 Buildings  1st- Unicorn Seal  Bronze, Stone,  Undeciphered
 Roads were big and  Total-400 Terracotta  Bidirectional
small in grid but mostly
planning. Right to left
 There was no
temple or palace.
 Upper part of the
town was Citadel
which had the
assemblies,
granaries, and the
great bath.
 Lower Part was for
 residential houses
made of burnt brick
and unburnt stone.
 There were public
and private water
wells.
 Advanced drainage
system.

Sculptures
Seals Bronze Terracotta Stone Ornaments Pottery
1. Geometric 1. Artistic  Baked  Priest  Precious  Wheel
Shapes: Techniques and Clay King gemstone Made and
 2X2 Sculptures:  Pinchin  Made of s, Gold, hand
 Square  Lost wax g steatite Bones, made
 Triangle technique Metho  MJD steatite,  Paintings
 Rectangles (continuati d  Wearing lapis were of
 Circle on of  Mother a shawl lazuli geometric
 Cylinder culture, Goddes  Head (AFG), al patterns
2. Materials and J&K) s band  Worn by or flora
Precious Metals:  Dancing (Many and men and and fauna
 Steatite girl of places, amulet women  They were
  Soft Mohenjo crude  Male  Anklet unburnish
Precious Daro feature torso(Re only ed and
Metals (Nude girl s, lacks d) worn by burnished
3. Artistic Motifs wearing finenes  Harappa women.  Utilitarian,
and Symbols: ornaments s)  Socket  Beads luxury
 Animal ) on factory  Polychrom
Motifs  Tribhanga shoulder at e rare
 Imaginary posture , chanudar  Used with
Unicorn (neck, neck( mi o( works burial
 Half animal torso, ght be hop),  Uniformity
half man knee, used as lothal(onl  Perforated
4. Trade and Odisha a y site to potter( ser
Commerce: dance) puppet. have an ve liquor)
 Ship  Bull of artificial
(maritime Kalibangan brick
trade) 2. Cultural dockyard)
5. Nature Worship: Significance:
 Peepal tree  Agriculture
6. Amulets and seemed to
Seals: be
 Seals with important
holes
(amulets)
7. Supernatural
Elements:
 Magical
 powers
8. Mathematical
and Educational
Elements:
 Mathemati
cal signs
 Education
might have
been there
9. Animals:
 No cow or
horse but
bull
 Buffalo
 Tiger
 Rhinos
 Antelopes
10.Proto-Shiva:
 Pashupati
Seal
(prototype
of Shiva)
11.Monetary Usage:
 Seals were
not used as
coins
 Every civilization is a culture but every culture is not a civilization

Economy:
1. Agriculture
2. Manufacturing
3. Barter system
4. Trade (they were the first to use silver)
 Exported teak and cotton
 Imported gold, Lapis lazuli, gemstones from Iran and South
5. Proper use of cotton (called Sindhun)
6. Weight and measurement system
 Standard system (uniformity)
 Used materials like steatite and sandstone
 Cubical shapes
 Multiplication of 16 (binary system)
 Next weight is double the previous weight
Religion:
1. Pashupati Seal
2. Worship of both reproductive organs; yoni/phallus
3. Mother goddess
4. Pottery with burial
5. Worship of both male and female deities
6. Belief in magical powers

Decline of Indus Valley Civilization

Earthquake Flood Drought Aryan Invasion New Theories
 River channel shifted  Silt  2000 BC  Economy is  IVC was not replaced,
 Flood can’t be at all sites  Only applicable Monsoon different areas there was just a decline of
 Earthquakes don’t at MJD shifted to east are the same. some cities and
change river channels.  Silt is only in  Only Sarasvati  Dead bodies on continuation in some
the middle. is not there the street  Towns and trade declined
rest are.  War in Rigveda,  Religion and houses
Aryans fighting continued
on Ravi
river(dasyus,
Hariappa)
 This was from
1700BC and
aryans are not
older than
1500BC
 No signs of mass
burial, Aryan
migration may
have happened

Dimension Indus Valley Civilization Mesopotamia/Egypt

 River  Indus and tributaries  Tigris, Euphrates
 Extension  20 X  -
 King  X  YES
 Temple  X  YES
 Planning  Well planned  Haphazard growth
 Material  Burnt bricks  Lesser use of burnt bricks,
Sundried more
 Script  Undeciphered  Deciphered
 Chariot  Sinoli(2 wheels)  4 Wheel
 Coins  X  Yes
 Horse  Only some in Surkotda(GJ),  Yes
Lothal (Terracotta)
 Vedic Era(1500BC-600BC)
Source of Information
Literary Non-Literary
Indian Foreign Indian Foreign
 4 Vedas( Rig Veda,  Zend avesta(Iran)  Pottery (Painted  Inscriptions
Sam veda, Yajur grey ware with  Bahajkoi (Turkey,
Veda, Atharva black on it) 4BC)
Veda)  Geometrical  Movement from
Patterns Iran to India
 Mittani, Kassite,
Hittati
 Aryans are a speech group from Central Asia who moved to India and Europe from Iran
Early Vedic Age (1500BC-1000BC)
 Society- Tribal
Family (Griha) and leader was Grihapati  Kul (Kulapa)  Gram(Gramini) Clan  Tribe(jan) Rajan(Chief) and
his Wife was Mahishi
 Institution of marriage
No references of Child Marriage, Generally Monogamous but Polygamy, Polyandry existed. Widow Remarriage was
called Niyog (usually to husband’s brother) and there are no references of sati.
 Status of women was good
 No caste or Varna system, division was on color; Aryans and Dasyus
 No hierarchy
 Gotra (Cow Pen)
 Economy
-Pastoral (cow was protected by Raja)
- Agriculture of yava (Barley)
- No mandatory Taxation, Voluntary offering to Rajan
-Smelting
-Weaving
-Wealthy (Gomat) has a lot of Cows
-Ayas- Ore
-Barter; Nishika-Gold, Nishika Greeva-Gold on neck
-No proof of Iron
 Political System
I. Cow and Jana were protected by Rajan( Gopati)- Gavishti, Ganveshan, Goshu, Battles for jana( Divo dasa)
II. System seems hereditary
III. No standing army
IV. Tribal Assembly; Vidhat-Oldest, Sabha- Elite (women were a part), Samiti-group of people headed by raja,
Gana-Troops
V. Army; Purohit, Sanani ( commander-in Chief), Virajpati(head of territory), Gramani(head of gram level army)
VI. No judicial officer
 Religion
I. There is no idol worship
II. Nature is worshipped; yajana, sacrifice( vegetables, no animals) Fire(Agni), rain(Indra), Water(varun),
Storms(marut), air(pawan), Death(yam), Aditi(mother of many gods), Diti(Mother of daitya) Disease(rudra) ,
Usha and Savitri-gayatri mantra(deities of dawn)
III. Vishpala( woman horse warrior)Doctor- Ashwani Kumar, pusha(looking after cattle)
IV. Materialism>spiritualism

Dimension Early Vedic Period(1500BC- Later Vedic Period(1000BC-600BC)

1000BC)
Society (Varna System) No, but there was color- Yes, it was based on merit and there
based division into Aryans wasn’t rigidness
and Dasyus
Gotra Cow Pen Common Lineage system
Marriage Endogamy Exogamy( if sangotra happens,
Chandrayan Penance has to be done)
Sati/Child Marriage No Some references
Niyoga yes Allowed but criticized
Polyandry Yes Criticized
Education No Only Top 3 Varnas, Dvij was the teacher,
Upnayan sanskar
Economy Pastoral Economy Agricultural Economy; Rice(Vrihi,
Tandula, Sali) Wheat(Godhuna)
Tax System Not Mandatory(bali) Yes (Samgrihitri-treasurer)
Barter yes yes
Coins Nishka( might be coin) Krishanala, Shatmana (No
*No archaeological evidence of archaeological evidence)
 coins have been found before
600BC
Ore Ayas (copper ore) Krishnayas, Shyamanayasa mentioned
in Yajur Veda meaning Iron
Pottery Painted grey ware Painted grey ware
weaving - Proper, Done by women
Cow yes Importance declines, land becomes
superior
King System No Yes (hereditary)
Assembly Vidhat, Sabha, Samiti Characters changed, Richer class,
Princes and no women
War For cows and animals For land
Sacrifices For Praja/pashu To control praja;
Ashvamedha(Chakravarti),
Vajapeya(chariot race),
Rajasuya( supremacy of the king)
Judicial Officers No yes
Army No No
Idol Worship no References are there
God as creator No ( Rita and Dharma) Prajapati(Vishnu, Rudra)
Status of Agni, Indra Good Declined
Offering Cow, slaves land
sacrifices Not rigid, Simple(purohit) Complex (done by brahmana)
*kings did manual labor
 SHRUTI

Brahma in the ears of sages, compiled by Veda Vyasa Brahman(900BC) Aranyak(700BC) Upnishad(500BC)
Samhita 3. Explanatio 4. Meaning behind 5. Brahma,
Rigveda Yajurveda Samaveda Atharvaveda n of ritual Samhita Soul and
 It has 10 Mandals  Procedures  Veda of chants 1. Non- sacrifices forestKnowledg matter( Phi
 Mandal 1 and 10 of Sacrifices  Gandharva(m aryan e losophy of
were written in LVP.  Dhanurved( usic and Work, Vedas)
 2-7 were the earliest warfare)- dance)-Upved Magical 6. Ashram
 3- Gayatri Mantra by Upved Charms System
Vishwamitra to ward 7. Purusharth
 7-Dashrajanyudha of evil a(Dharma,
(Ravi) spirits Artha,
 8-Other gods were 2. Arthasast Kama,
mentioned ra(Bhrigu Moksha)
 9-Soma, God of sage)-
Plants Upved
 10-
Nadisukta(Praising
Rivers)Saraswati,
Ganga and Indus are
mentioned
Purushukta mentions
the 4-fold
varna( Adipurusha)
 Ayurveda is its upved
 Smriti
Vedanga Shatdarsan Puranas Itihas Upved Tantra Agama Upanga
a a a s s s
8. Shiksha(Phonetics) 14. 18 in total by Vedvaysa
9. Niryukta(Meaning) 15. 5 Themes
10. Jyotisha(Astronom 1. Sarga(creation)
y) 2. Pratisarga(Recreation)
11. Vyakaran(Grammar 3. Manvantaras(Rules of
) manu)
12. Chhand(Meter) 4. Vamsa(Genealogies of
13. Kal(Ceremonial gods and sages)
Aspect) 5. Vamsanucharita(Kings;Sur
s, Chandra)

Schools of Thought(On the basis of authority of Vedas)

Orthodox (Astika Philosophy)(Followers)
Samkhya
1. It was given by Sage Kapil in 700BC.
2. It said that the world has Prakriti (Matter) and Purusha(soul).
3. Consciousness and dualistic philosophy.
 4. Guna (Sata, Raja, Gama).
5. Self-knowledge is the mode of salvation.
6. There is no god and traces of materialism.
Yoga
1. It was given by Patanjali in 200 BC
2. God was responsible for evolution.
3. Physical exercise is needed for salvation
4. Yama, Niyam, Asana, pranayama, Pratihara, Dharana, Dhyan, Samadhi
Nyaya
1. It was given by Gautama, one of the Saptrishis in 200BC
2. Logical Thinking is the source of valid knowledge
3. Salvation
4. Perception
5. There are 6 senses(Yogaj Pratyaksha)
Vaisheshikha
1. Given by Kanada in 6th Century BC
2. Atomic theory; all things are made of atoms (Parmanu) except soul, mind and space and can’t be
divided further.
Mimansa
1. It was given by Jaimini in 4th BC- 2nd BC
2. It was a true orthodox philosophy.
3. Vedas were said to be eternal.
4. There is no god and salvation is achieved through Karma Kand.
Vedanta/ Uttar Mimansa
1. It is a compilation of the last part of Vedas which are Upanishads (108).
2. Compilation of Upanishads is called Brahmasutra given by Sage Badrayan.
 3. It has interpretations and commentary of Upanishads.
4. You have to do Bhakti for salvation.
i. Shankaracharya (8th CAD) gave the first commentary on Brahmasutra. He said that soul
and god are one. His philosophy was called Advaitavad which means non-dualism where
you need knowledge for salvation. (Dasnami Sampradaya)
ii. Ramanuja (11th-12th CAD) was a bhakti saint gave Vishishtha Advaita which said soul
depends on God but doesn’t become god (Qualified non-dualism) (Sri Sampradaya)
iii. Madhavacharaya(13th CAD) gave Dvaita meaning Dualism. Soul and God are distinctive.
(Brahma Sampradaya)
iv. Nimbarka (13th CAD) gave Dvaita Advaita. It was both dualism and non-dualism. (Hamsa
Sampradaya)
v. Vallabha(15th - 16th CAD) gave Suddha Advaita, Pure non-dualism which believed in
knowledge from God. (Pushti Marg Sampradaya)
vi. Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (15-16th CAD) gave Achintya. It said that the soul and God
have an unthinkable relationship Bheda Abheda Gaudidya Sampradaya.

Unorthodox(Nastika Philosophy)(Non-Followers)

Buddhism
1. Buddha(563BC-483BC) s/o Shuddhodan. His wife was Yashodhara and son was Rahul.
2. He believed in Shraman (labour for enlightenment).
3. Mahabhinishkrimand- leaving house, renunciation
4. Complete meditation
5. Madhyam Marg-Bodhi tree, Bodhgaya(Bihar) (enlightenment)
6. Sarnath Chaukhadi stupa- Buddha met 5 disciples
7. Dhamekh stupa was near where Buddha gave his first sermon(Dhammacakkapavatana)
8. Khushinagar- Mahaparinirvana (left his body)

Council Time Patronage Chairman Place Development

1st 483 BC Ajatashatru st
Mahakasyapa(1 Rajagriha Compilation of
disciple) Suttapitak(buddha’s sermons)
and Vinaypitak(rules of order)
2nd 383 BC Kalashoka Sabbakami Vaishali Division into schools
Sthaviravadin, Mahasanghika
3rd 250 BC Ashoka Mogaliputtissa Pataliputra Compilation of Abhidhamma
pitaka(Buddha’s philosophy)
and missionaries were sent
for propagation.
4th 1st CE Kanishka Vasumitra & Kashmir Division into Hinayana and
Ashvaghosha Mahayana
5th 1871 Jagarabhivamsa King Mindon Myanmar 729 stone slabs were
& engraved with the teachings
Narinabhidhaja of Buddha
6th 1954 Burmese govt Myanmar Preserve the Buddha’s
teachings and practices as
understood in the
 Theravada(Hinayana)tradition.
*Kanthaka-horse
Parivrajika-homeless wanderer
Language-pali (local)

Division in the 2nd council of Buddhism

Sthaviravadin( Buddha is human) School of elders Mahasanghika( Buddhahood)
1. Sarvastivadin; Vaibhashika(abhidhamma 1. Lokottarvadin(transdimensional world)
pitaka), Sautrantik(based on sutras and 2. Gavkaulika
rejection of the authority of abhidharma)- 3. Kaukutikka
constituents of phenomena were not wholly 4. Ekyav harika
momentary but existed forever in latent 5. Chaityika
form. 6. Bahushrutiya
2. Vibhajyavadin(distinction)(relative truth can 7. Aparshila
be broken down into parts and absolute 8. Prajndativada(mere concepts)
truth is indivisible)
3. Pudgalvadin(vatsiputra) Samitya.
Person=panchskantha
4. Mahishasaka (Dhama Gupatakas)
5. Theravada(hinayana)
th
4 Council of Buddhism
Mahayana Vajrayana
Deification of Buddhism
Mdhyamikshunyavada Yogachara/vigyanvad
 Nagarjuna Vasubandhu asanga
aryadeva
*Buddha was silent on God
4 Noble truths;
a) There is suffering in human life
b) Desire is the fundamental cause of suffering
c) Cessation of suffering
d) Path (8 fold) for liberation
*Adhipobhava- be your own light
The world is impermanent-momentariness. No soul theory (anatmavad, nairatmavad)
World is made of dharma (it is a metaphysical element)
Dimensions Hinayana Mahayana Vajrayana
 Buddha  Buddha is human  Buddha is god  Buddha is god
 Worship  Symbolic worship  Idol worship  More rituals
 Salvation  8-fold path  Bodhisatta and  Magical powers and
buddha’s help help of
 Language  Pali  Sanskrit  Sandhya Bhasha
 Uniqueness  Believes in original  Bhodisattas
teachings of buddha
 Flourished in  Sri Lanka, SA  Central Asia, East Asia  Tibet
countries
Zen Buddhism- flourished in
china
*Navayana-Neo-Buddhism (reinterpretation by BR Ambedkar)
Decline of Buddhism
 Language- Sanskrit
 Rituals
 Patronage
 Buddha (incarnation of Vishnu)
 Islamic Invasion
 Idol worship
 Corruption in buddhist sangha
 Division among buddhist

Jainism
1. ‘Jin’- Conqueror. It believed in God But not a creator God but a Perfect being.
2. Soul is in everything.
3. There are 7 Tatvas; Jiva(living being), Ajiva(non-living beings), Ashrava(influx), Bondage(bandha),
Samvara(stoppage), Nirjara(dissociation), Kaivalya(liberation).[Parshavnath]
4. Universal Law is that world can’t be ended.
5. Tirthankaras teach the practices to achieve Kaivalya.
6. 1st- Rishabhdev, 23rd Parashavnath,24th Mahavira.
7. Siddhas-Highest position (people who have achieved moksha).
8. Panchamahavrata(Satya, ahimsa, asteya, aprigraha, brahmacharya) ‘Brahmacharya’ was added by
Mahavira and Chaturthi was given by Parshavnath.
9. Triratna- Right knowledge, right faith and right conduct
10. Santhara/Samlekhna means fast until death.
11. Shravak- male householder, Shravika- female householder, Sadhu, Sadhvi
12. Anekantvada (metaphysics- how world is created and theory of manyness).
Syadvada(epistemology) source of knowledge, multiple realities and nothing is purely correct).
Saptabhanganaya(judgement).
13. In 297 BC Chandragupta Maurya moved to Shravanbelagola to become a monk

Division of Jainism(300BC)
Division of
Jainism

Karnataka Magadha
(Bhadrabahu) (Sthulabhadra)
1st council of Jainism was in Pataliputra
Anga was the compilation of teachings led by Sthulabhadra
Bhadrabahu Sthulabhadra
  Digambar (Sky clan)  Shwetambar(White clan)
 Nudity for men and white clothes for women  No nudity
 Women can’t achieve salvation  Women could achieve salvation
 Celibacy  No celibacy
Terapanth Gumanpantha Bispanth Totapantha Tarangpant Mool Murti Pooja/derawasi/mandir Sthanak Terapanthi
a a h Sangha margi vasi
16.
*sect was liberal and cult was rigid with new practices.
Basadis- jain temples
Ayagapata- votive tablet used for worship and donation.
Dimensions Buddhism Jainism
God silent Perfect being
Soul No Soul in everything
Rebirth yes Yes
Salvation yes Yes
Karma yes Yes
Varna system Criticized (merit based) No criticism
Extremism no Yes
Non-violence yes Yes(essence of Jainism)
Way of nirvana Eliminating desire Eliminate karmic matter
Rituals No no
Authority of veda no No
 Ajivika
1. It was given in 5th BC by Makhala Gosala.
2. It believed that everything is predetermined (Niyati)
3. It didn’t believe in Karma and God.
4. Salvation exists.
5. Hardship and Nudity are needed for penance.

Charvaka(Lokayat)
1. It was supposedly given by Charvaka who was the disciple of Brihaspati in 6th BC.
2. It was lokayat meaning philosophy of the masses.
3. It said that perception is the only proof. Soul, God, Karma, Heaven cant be perceived so they are not
recognized by charvaks.
4. It is purely materialistic.

Mahajanapadas
As per Agunttar Nikaya(4th of the5 Nikayas in Sutta Pitakas)
1. Vajji (republic)
2. Malla(republic)
3. Avanti
4. Assaka(south)
5. Kosala
 6. Vatsa
7. Magadha
8. Chedi

9. Kuru
10.Matsya
11.Panchala
12.Surasena
13.Kashi
14.Kamboja
15.Gandhara
16.Anga
Reasons for Magadha Victory
Geography Society Politics Economy
 Fertile Land  Population  Army  Better agriculture
 Natural Resources  Tolerance  Stable  Revenue
(Iron and Copper)  Buddhism, Jainism  Technological  trade
 Ganga, Son, Champa  Stable advancement
 Trade Route  Chariot with maces
 Good Rainfall  Powerful kings

Punch Marked Coins- Aahat Coins- Nigamsi merchant

Janpad- territorial divisions
Political Dynasties of Magadha Empire
1. Brihidhritha (18th Century BC- 7th Century BC)
 His son was Jarasandha, killed by Bhima (Mahabharata)
 Ripunjaya was a ruler here
2. Pradyota (648BC-558BC)
 Ruler of Avanti and Magadha
 Son of Pulika/Punika who is said to have killed Ripunjaya of Brihidhritha Dynasty at Rajagriha to make Pradyota the
king.
3. Haranyaka Dynasty (558BC-413BC)
 Bimbisara: founder of Haranyaka Dynasty. He was the son of Bhattiya. He was the contemporary follower of
Buddha and admirer of Mahavira. His Capital was Rajagriha/Girivraja which was surrounded by 5 hills. He was
known as Shreniya(First king to have a standing army). He had rivalry with Avanti king Pradyota but he later sent
his royal physician to Ujjain. He started matrimonial alliances to strengthen his political position. (Kosala Devi,
Chellana, Khema). The most notable quest was of Anga. He had an effective administrative system (Executive,
Military, Judicial). He built Velavan at Rajgriha( Nalanda, Bihar).
 Ajatasatru (492BC-460BC): He killed his father Bimbisara, Started the 1 st Buddhist Council and had a chariot with
maces.
 Udayabhadra/Udayin(460-444BC): He killed Ajatashatru and got killed by an Avanti ruler.
 Nagadasak: Last ruler
4. Shishunaga Dynasty (413BC-345BC)
 Shishunaga(413-395BC): He was the governor of Kasi; Avanti rulers were destroyed by him. He shifted capital
from Rajgriha to Vaishali.
  Kalasoka/Kakavarna(395BC-367BC): He was the son of Sisunaga. He shifted the capital to Pataliputra. 2 nd
Buddhist council in Vaishali.
 Nandivarman
 Mahanandin
5. Nanda Dynasty(345BC-321BC)
 Mahapadmananda: It was the first non-kshatriya dynasty. Lineage isn’t clear. First historical emperor of India.
Captured Kalinga (Hathigumpha inscription and a canal). He was called Kshtryantaka, Ekrat. He was called
Ugrasen(Buddhist text)
 Dhanananda: Alexander attack (NW disturbance). Oppressive tax regime. Nandopakramani(inventor of a
particular measuring Standard)

Mauryan Dynasty(321-185BC)
 Founded by Chandragupta Maurya son of Moora (Maurya Tribe).
 His origin is not clear. Some suggest that he was a shudra.
 Greek accounts mention him as Sandrokottos
 305 BC war with Seleucus Nikator I and defeated him (Afghanistan+Pakistan, Marriage with his daughter
 Seleucus Nicator helped him the war of Ipsus fought in 301BC
 Ambassador (Megasthanese)-Indica
 In 297 BC his left throne and went to Shravanbelagola with Jain monk Bhadrabahu. He practiced Santhara
 Bindusara(247BC-273BC): Amitraghat (Slayer of Enemies)- given by Patanjali in Mahabhashya.
 Deimchus(Greek ambassador in the court).
 He appointed Ashoka as the governor of Ujjain.
 He extended his empire till Mysore
 Ajivika philosophy was popular during his reign.
 Ashoka (268BC-232BC) son of Bindusara and Shubhadhrangi.
 Devampiya, Piyadasi
 Aided by Radhagupta to get the throne
 Had the entire Indian subcontinent except Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka
 Capital-Patliputra and Provincial capitals-Taxila&Ujjain
 Kalinga War in 261BC. Massacre mentioned in the 13th rock edict
 Mogaliputra Tissa- Mentor of Ashoka
  He was the patron of the 3rd Buddhist council in Pataliputra(250BC)
 Dharma Ashoka
 Buddhism: he sent his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism.
 Sources: Dipavamsha, Ashokavadana, Mahavamsha [Srilanka], Minor rock edicts and major rock edicts.
 Ranyashoka-only portrait sculpture.
 Dynosius was the Greek ambassador (built first herbal garden and hospital).

Features of Mauryan Empire

 Language-Prakrit, Greek, Aramaic
 Script- Brahmi, Kharosthi, Greek, Aramaic.
 Theme of the rock edicts- Ashoka’s personal beliefs, nothing about Mauryan Dynasty
 There was a ban on animal sacrifices. (Delhi topra pillar edict)
 Contemporary South Indian emperors (Cholas, Cheras, Pandya)
 Religious tolerance was practiced
 Kalinga War+ South Indian Empire, North Western Empire.
 In 1837 James Princep deciphered major rock edicts because he deciphered Brahmi and Kharoshthi.
 Minor rock edicts- Maski (Brahmagiri,Nettur, Gujjara, Udegolem, Bhabru Bhairat
Mauryan Administration
 Highly Centralised
Central Government
King 18 Tirthas: Mahamattya: Amatyas: Prince/Kumar-
 Council of Highest ranking officers High ranking Secretary Governor of
Ministers(mantri 20 Adhyakshas: officials (administrative province
parishad headed Sita-Agriculture Vyavarrika-Judiciary and judicial roles)
by mantri parishad Loha- to check behavior
adhyaksha) Iron(lohadhyaksha)
Nav-
Ship(navadhyaksha
)
Akara-Mine

 Departments
Yukta- Subordinate revenue officers
Rajuka- Boundary Fixing
Samharta-Chief of revenue department
Sannidhata- Treasurer
Sansthadhyaksha- Mint
Sitadhyaksha- agriculture
Samastadhyaksha- market
Pulisang- Public relations officer
Administration was controlling registration of birth, death and foreigners
 Local Administration
Pradeshika-Governor of a province
Sthanika- tax collectors under pradeshika
Purmukhya- town chief
Village was headed by gramika
Durgapalika-Fort
Antapals-frontier
Lipikaras-scribes
 Army
It was led by Senapati(Commander in chief)
It had 5 divisions; infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephant forces, navy and transport
The army’s salary was paid in cash
 Bandhangara(jail) and charaka(lock up), civil courts (dharmsathiya) criminal courts(kantakshadhona)
Espionage- well developed
 Economy
Agriculture SitalandSitatax(1/6th) = Bhaga
Punch marked coins with royal authenticity
Janpad Nivesha
Trade: Sopara(MH), Bharoach(GJ)
As per Arthshastra, for tax evasion, death penalty was given.
Rummandevi Pillar in Lumbini (tax was reduced from 1/6th to 1/8th
 Society
 Varna system
Status of Women Declined
Widow remarriage was criticized
Scope of Stridhan, as per Arthashastra, women had a right to divorce if there was a long abroad stay or any
physical constraint.
Men could divorce women if they couldn’t bear children or practiced adultery.
Polygamy
As per Megasthanese there was no slavery and society were divided into 7 parts:
a) Philosophers
b) Farmer
c) Soldier
d) Herdsman
e) Artisans
f) Judiciary
g) Councilors
According to Arthashastra there was slavery
If the slave bore son of the master they would be free
Saptanga Theory: 7 limbs of the state
a) Swami(king)
b) Amatya(minister/officers)
c) Janapada(territory)
d) Durg(fort)
e) Kosha (Revenue)
f) Army (Danda)
g) Allies(mitra)
 Palace
Kumrahar, patna
Chandragupta
Wood
Achameniad dynasty-persian(cyrus)
Pillars (burnt bricks)
 To promote Buddhism, structures were made called stupas which were mounds
 Purpose: propagation of religion, social welfare, Battles, Economy, info about admin, info about admin, rules and
regulations
 Lion- pride and leadership, horse(renunciation), bull(fertility, zodiac sign of buddha, agriculture), Elephant-Dream
of Maya, birth of Buddha, wisdom
 Sarnath Pillar- 4 lions, 24 spokes, wheel(first sermon of buddha, Dharmachakrapravartana-Ashadha Purnima in
July) Satyamev jayate was taken from Mundka Upnishad
 Caves with rock cut architecture were residential houses for Parivrajikas
 Worship places- chaityas
Stupa
 It is a mound
 Vedic age
 Similar examples in IVC, Dholavira
 3 parts
 Water Harvesting system
 Tumulus
 1st signatory panel
 Human remains are not found
 Sanchi Stupa- 3rd BC Ashoka, in MP Betwa, Double Medhi, Torans Burnt Bricks and stones(Shungas, Satvahanas)
 Jataka, ganas, Shalabhanjika, Non- buddhist ideal, Gajalaxmi, symbols of buddhism
 Buddhist idol( empty seat, smaller stupa, wheel, elephant)

Sanchi Stupa Complex-2 smaller stupas, saripattu prakarna, mogallna, great bowl

Post-Mauryan Age (185BC-375AD)

 Sangam Age
(Assemblies of Poets) Flourished under Patronage of Pandyas of Madurai (Muchchangam)

1st Sangam-Madurai 2nd Sangam-Kapadapuram 3rd Sangam-Madurai

 Work Didn’t survive  Only Tolakkapiyam written Ethutokkoi, Idylls
 Attended by Gods, Sages, by Tolakkapiyar survived
Agastya  Tamil grammar,
Psychology, society,
economy, Human Behavior,
Polity

Post Sangam Literature

Thirukkural 5 Epics
st
1 work on ethics Silappadikaram Manimekalai
Thiruvaluvar  Story of anklet  Composed by
and discusses Chithalai
Jainism- Chathanar(Sattanar)
Kannagi seeks  It’s a sequel to
revenge on Silappadikaram
Pandya  Buddhism
kingdom for
the death of
her husband
Kovalan
  Ilango Adigal
(brother of
Sengattuvam
Chera king)

Theme
Aham (Inner Core) Puram (Outer Core)
Abstract themes like Bravery war and others
love and other
relations

Time
Melakanakku (Sangam) Kilakanakku (Post-Sangam)
Narrative Didactic

Political Development
Dimensions Pandya Chola Chera
State Symbol Fish Tiger Bow and Arrow
Capital Madurai E. Uraiyur (Cotton and big Vanji
buildings)
Puhar (chief port town)
Important Kings Nidhunjelian I Ilara(ruler of Sri Lanka) Senagattuvam
Karaikala king (Makes
ports- Kaveripatnam)
 164 Km Embankment
Sri Lankan Slave
Important Ports Korkai Kaveripatnam Muzirris (Roman)
(As per Megasthanese,
Pandyan trade in pearls
was started by women)

Sangam Economy (As per Tolakkapiyam)

Kuranji Mallai Palai Marudam Neital
(Hilly) (Pastoral) (Arid) (Marshy) (Sea Coast)
Agriculture Blue Economy

In 46-47 AD, monsoon winds were discovered by Hippatus a Greek Sailor

 Agriculture- Rice
 Trade; Export of Ivory, Pearls and Spices and imports of Gold, Silver, Tin, Wine
 Roman Empire: Muzirris- temple of Augustus (1st roman emperor)
 Books- Periplus of Erythrean Sea, Pliny’s Natural Historia
Society
 Varna system (Kuti-clan based division
a) Arasar (ruling class)
b) Anthamam (Priest and policy making)
c) Vanigan (Business and traders)
d) Vellalar (Farmer, Land Holder)
 e) Kodaiseyer (Labourers)
 Status of women- good
Widow- bad
Tippaya dal- sati
Slavery
Religion
 Buddhism, Jainism, Hinduism
 Magical Practices
 Burial practice- Warrior (memorial stone) Nadukkul, Virukkul
 Cremation
 Megalithic Culture (2000BC-200AD)- Big stone Burial
Sangam Administration
 Hereditary, Monarchy
 5 Councils; Ministers(amaichar), Priests(anthanar), envoys(thuthar)military commander(senapathi), Spies(orrar)
 State income- custom duties and revenue, booty captured in wars
 Market places and roads were guarded.
Shunga Dynasty (185BC)
 Pushyamitra Shunga(185-151BC)- Founder as per Divyavdana
 Patronized Patanjali
 Followed Brahmanism and Persecuted Buddhist monks(no evidence)
 Vandalized stupas
  Countered the attack of Greeks and king Kharvela(Chedi)
 Agnimitra (149-141BC) (hero of Malvikagnimitra)- Kalidas
 Last- Devabhuti (eliminated by own minister Vasudev Kanav)
Satvahana (235BC-225AD)
 Simuka (promoted Buddhism and Jainism)
 Satkarni I, Dakshnapathapati
 Naneghat inscription, prepared by wife (Nayanika)
 Hala- Gatha (Saptashati), 700 verses on Love, Gunadhya Minister, Brihitkatha(love) in Paiscachi language
 Gautami Putra Satkarni- revived Satvahana, Nasik Inscription prepared by Gautami said that he destroyed
Shakas, Pallavas and Yavanas. He was titled Khatiyadapamanmada

North Western Dynasties

Indo-Greek
 Demetris Bactrian(190BC)- founder of independent kingdom although Apollodotus can be regarded as the first
proper king because his rule was not from Bactria.
 Menander 1/Milinda- Milindpanho-Pali (Discussion with Buddhist monk Nagasena on propagation of Buddhism)
 Impact- dynastic coins of gold(Bairat), yavanika- curtains of theater, 1 st to start military governorship, Gandhara
school of sculpture, Stupas(Helenistic)torans
Scythians (Shakas)
 Afghanistan, Punjab, Mathura, Upper Deccan, Western India (Chosthana 78 AD 130 AD- Rudradaman I
 1st CAD-4th CAD, western coins (satrapa)
  In 57 BC Ujjain king defeated Shakas and took the title - Vikramaditya
Parthians
 Founder- Gondopherenes-I (Inscription found in Takht-i-bahi 45CE)
 Entry of St Thomas (ally of Jesus)Promotion of Christianity
 Kerala 7.5 Churches
 Defeated by Kushanas
Kushanas
 5 Yueh Chi tribes-consolidated- Kujula Kedaphises I- founder
 Adopted epithet- Dharmathida/Sahadharmathida
 Vimakedhes II- shiva devotee. Claimed himself mahishwara on gold coins
 Kanishka (78 AD)- most famous
 Rabatak inscription Afghanistan
 Devputra title (wearing helmet in coins)
 Defeated by Pan Chao
 Starting of Shaka Samvat
 4th Buddhist Council (Vasumitra/ Ashvaghosha)
 Nagarjuna was supported
 Supported Gandhara and Mathura school of sculpture
 Last ruler of Kushana- Vasudeva II
 Kushana empire was completely Indianized by then
Q. Explain the influence of central Asian Dynasties on India
 Art Forms
Stupas Caves Sculptures
 Bigger  Chaitya  Gandhara
 Rounder  Udaigiri, Khandgiri cave, king  Mathura
 Slendor kharvela, haathi gumpha,  Amravati
 Greek Influence rani Gumpha
 Amravat, Nagarjun
Konda( AP) Bharut,
Sanchi(MP)

Sculpture
Dimensions Gandhara Mathura Amravati
Patronage Kushana Kushana Satvahana
External Influence Greek-Roman No No
Religion Buddhism B+J+H Buddhism
Material Green scist, Blue green Red spotted Sand stone White Marble
stone, stucco
Type Single Single Narrative Art
Hair Curly Straight
Beard Can be No
Spiritualism Sad Smiling
Dress Drapery Fine Lines
 Large Foreheads Yes
Protuberance Yes Yes
Halo Yes Yes
Long Years Yes Yes
Mudras Yes yes
Roman Features- Vine scrolls, trident, Anthropomorphic, garland
*Bhumi Sparsh Mudra-Calling the earth to witness enlightenment despite of Mara
Dhyan Mudra- Meditation
Dharmachakra Mudra-Sermon
Vitarka Mudra-teaching
Karna Mudra-Expelling negative energy
Uttarbodhi Mudra-Supreme wisdom charged with energy
Vajra Mudra-Protect Wisdom
Abhay Mudra-Fearlessness (Hand raised in front flat)
Varda Mudra-Granting wishes
Anjali Mudra-Namaskar

Mystic Triangle?
 Dimensions Satvahana (1BCE-3CE)
Administration  King Maharathi (Right to donate villages),
Mahasenapati (Military),
Mahatalavara(camps)
 Provinces Senapati
 District
 Gram

Economy  Agriculture
 Trade- ship motifs on coins of yajna Srisatkari
 Manufacturing
 Merchant ClassVillages Perfumes
(Gandhika)

Religion  Brahmanism
 Buddhism (Karle village, MH)

Rock Cut cave Architecture

Q. Rock Cut cave architecture is one of the most important sources of ancient history and art and culture. Discuss
 Bagh Cave- 4C-6C MP
 Bagh River Famous for mural paintingsclose resemblance with Ajanta 9 Buddhist caves
 Udaigiri: Sculpture of Varah Avatar Gupta Age
 Junagarh- Uparkot, dedicated to Buddhism located in Gujarat
 Karle: Carved from a living rock, wooden umbrella on top largest chaitya grah among all, lion pillar in front of
Chaitya, Patronage of Satvahana
 Kanheri Cave: 2nd Largest Chaitya Grah, podhi- water cisterns used for water harvesting. Gautamiputra Satkarni’s
name is mentioned here.
 Bhaja Cave- Royal women driving chariot
 Bedhse Cave- one of the oldest caves
 Pandavleni Cave/ Nasik: 25 caves for Hinayana Buddhism, No relation with Mahabharata, Gomai River, 2CE
 Badami Cave- Chalukya, Panel of 4-armed Brahma, one of the oldest. Tamil Nadu
 Sittanvassal- Mural, Pandya, Jainism, Samvasarna(preaching hall for tirthankaras)
 Elephanta- Gharapur of Shiva, village of caves, Shaivite caves, 20ft sculpture of shiva, maheshmurti, Sadashiv,
trimurti. Aghori(destructive), Mahayogi(meditation), Ardhanareshvar(unity of genders)
 Mandapeshwara(montperir) Brahmanical cave dedicated to Shiva, converted to Christian shrine by Portuguese
 Junnar ganesh leni cave
 Tairashmi(pandavleni)

Dimensions Ajanta (2nd BC-7AD) Ellora(6AD-11AD)

Patronage Vakataka Chalukya, Early Kachchura, Rashtrakuta
River Vaghora
Religion Buddhism Buddhism (Vajrayana), Jainism, Hinduism
Storey Double Triple
Rock Perpendicular Non-perpendicular
Courtyard No Yes
Art type Mural, Sculptures, Paintings: Sculptures, Paintings (Limited)
Jatakas, Dying Princess, Black Kailash Nath Temple- Krishna 1,
princess, flying apsara, Buddha Monolith, Dravidian, Architecture,
watching mother and child, Elephants
bodhisattvas, Dashavtara Temple (Dantidurga,
padampana(compassion) Founder of Rashtrakuta, Ravana shaking
Yajrapani(Power) mount kailash, indrsabha(jain site)
Manjushri (Wisdom) Buddha with Vyakhyan Mudra,
Reclining Buddha (anantashyana) Vishvakarma(carpenter)
RHS
Mahaparinirvana
Panel with celestial beings
 Gupta Empire(275AD-550AD)
Kings Information
Srigupta(275CE-280CE) Founder, took the title ‘Maharaja’
Ghatotkacha Took the title ‘Maharaja’
Chandragupta 1(319-335CE)  ‘Maharajadhiraja’
 Gold coins with queen, Kumara Devi (Lichchavi).
 Considered to be the founder of Gupta era.
 UP, Bengal and parts of Modern Bihar
Samudragupta(335-375CE)  Napoleon of India by VA Smith
 Prayag Parashasti (Harishena), Ashokan Pillar in
Allahabad Sanskrit (champu kavya meaning
prose+poetry),
 Kaviraja Coins
 King playing Vina, Slaying lion, Ashvamedha, Royal
Marriages, Garuda Pillar, Laxmi, etc.
 Evan Inscription MP, Betwa river
 Patron of great Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu,
Amarsimha-lexicographer
Chandragupta 2(376-415CE)  Titles: Vikramaditya, Samvikarana, Devagupta,
Devaraja, Devashri, Saka Conquerer
 Navratnas (Kalidas-Malvikagnimitra, Raghuvamsa,
Abhigyan Shakuntalam, Amarsimha-Amarkosh
Namalinganushasan, Varahamihir-astronomy,
panchsidhantikka,Brihitasamhita,Dhanvanta.)
 Fa Hein Fo-khow-ki, gold coin-dinar, silver-Rupaka
  Iron Pillar inscription in Delhi
 Udaigiri cave inscriptions refer to him as Digvijaya
Kumaragupta 1(415CE-455CE)  Founded Nalanda University(450CE),Restructured
by Pala, Mandsaur inscription/Dashapura
 Shakraditya, Mahendraditya
 Bilsad Inscription
 Damodar Copper plate inscription
Skandagupta(455-467CE)  Took title Vikramaditya after defeating
Toramana(Huna)
 Girnar-sudarshan lake was repaired by Parnadutta,
his gov)
 Bhitari inscription (Ghazipur, UP) (genealogy of
Guptas)
Vishnugupta(540AD-550AD) Last Ruler
 Gupta Administration
 King; Maharajadhiraja, Parambhatraka, paramdaivta, Chakravarti, Parmeswara
 Mahadandanayaka (Chief Justice)
 Mahapratihara (chief of palace guards)
 Pratihara (regulated ceremonies, gave permits
 Dutakas (task of implementing gifts)
 ArmySandhivigrahika/mahabaladhikrita (in charge of War and peace)
 Harishena Senapati ( Narapati,Ashvapati,Pulopati)
 Ranabhandadhikrita- in charge of store house
  Provinces (Desh/rashta/bhukti)- uparika
 Districts (Vishya); vishayapati, ayuktas
 Gram-gramikas
 Paid in cash

Gupta economy
 Agriculture
 Bhaga (1/6) Kshetra(cultivated land), Kila(uncultivated), Vishti-if tax not given forced labour
 Land measurement: Kulyapa, Adhavapa, Pronavapa, nivartana
 Trade- roman empire, till the attack of Hunas
 Ports-Tamralpti,cahul(WB)
 Merchant class-guilds, shrenis(head chosen among members)
 Rules for ethical business wages, salaries, shulka-tax
 Irrigation through tagada tank, ghatiyantra, araghatta, water wheel, repair od Sudarshan lake

Gupta society
 Ideal varna system was not practiced
 Jati system is prominent
 Vrata-Kshtriya- Families of Greek or scynthian origin
 Untouchability
 Status of women declines (inscription of bhanugupta about sati in eran)
 Status of shudra will improve, allowed to read puranas
  Antyajas- Untouchables
 Vegetarianism, non-alcoholic, evidences of robbery

Art and culture

Stupas Caves Temples Sculpture
 Dhamek Temples Roofs Platforms Uniqueness Sarnath School of art
 Chaukandi (bricks, 1st Sanchi Flat Low Porticos  Devoid of
octagonal 2 nd Parvat
Flat Upraised Pradikshna nakedness
tower,agered by path  Transparent
raja Govardhan s/o 3rd Dashavr Elongate Yes panchayatna cloth
Todarmal, d  Cream colored
Humayun Visited, 4th Ter Vaulted sandstone+
 ASI national 5th circular bronze
importance koteshwar
 Mixing of
Gandhara,
Mathura,
amravati
 Plasticity will
come-no
further change
 Halo, plain and
decorated eg-
sarnath,
sultanganj
  Golden age
End of Gupta empire
 Weak rulers
 Economic decline
 Huna attack, (yashdharman, aulikara of malwa) nandasaur inscription,Narsimha baladitya
 Rise of feudatories

Dimensions Mauryas Guptas

Administration Centralized Decentralized
Technology More advanced
Shudra Improved
Tax Harsh Liberal
Stupa Climax Declining
Temples No Yes
Sculptures Limited Perfection
Coins Punch marked silver Gold and silver
Institution of Trade Limited Shreni
Paintings No Yes
Religion Non-brahmanic Vaishnavism
Post-Gupta Period (550AD-606AD)

Harshvardhan Administration (606-647 AD)

 King was Parambhatraka, Commander-in-chief of army and the officer of war and peace.
 Provinces (Bhuktis) Districts (Visayas)Gram (lowest unit of administration) (top officials were paid in Jagir).
 Harsha believed in self-government of village communities.
  Head of cavalry-brihadasvavaru
 Council of ministers- mantri parishad
 Kumaramatyas-superior civil servants
 Banabhatta- harshacharita
 Feudal practice of giving grants and land to officers began with Harsha this is why not many coins were issued
 Mimankas were officers to dispense justice
 Shilabhadra was the chairman of Nalanda University
 Revenue was divided into 4 parts (king, scholars, officers, religion)
Society
 Jati system
 Untouchability
 Women of noble families received education
 Shaivites
 Condition of women declines
 Sati and no widow remarriage
 Vegetarianism
 Sacrifices of animals were restricted
 Robbery (Huan-Tsang)
 Religion
Literature
 Harsha wrote Priyadarshika, Ratnavali, Naganada (speculated to be actually written by Dhavaka)
Economy
 Sharp economic decline
 Lesser trade

Art and Culture

Architecture
Indus Valley Civilization Mauryas Post-Maurya Period Gupta Period
Town Planning Cave Palace Stupa Cave Stupas Cave Stupas Temples

Styles of Temples
Dimensions Nagara Dravidian
Gurbh Griha (Veranda surrounded by Yes Yes
pillars)
Wahan Yes Yes
Pradakshina Path Yes Yes
Sculptures Ganga, Yamuna Mithun, Yaksha, Dularpata,
yati(Mythical), Mala
Assembly Hall (mandap) Yes Yes
Antarala Yes Yes
Adisthana (basement) Yes Yes
Jagati (platform) Yes Yes
 Tower Shikhara Vimana
Top of tower Amalka Kalasha Octagonal loopla
Water Tank No Yes
Boundary Wall No Yes
Gateway No Yes (Gopuram)
Panchayatana Style yes yes

Hund- Bill of exchange

Types of Shikhara in Nagara

 Latina/Rekhaprasad Curvilinear
 Phanvisena- Broad Base, Reduced Height, Fixed slope
 Vallabhi-Vaulted Shape
Types of temples on the basis of Pradikshna Path
 Sandhara- with
 Nirandhra-Without
 Sarvotbhadra- Garbhogriha- All sides of 12 pillars
On the basis of design of the plane
 Triratha
 Pancharatha
 Saptaratha
  Navratha
Schools of nagara
 Odisha- kalinga School
Eastern Ganga Dynasty (Anantavarmana Chhodganga)
Deuls (Shikhar) (Rekha, Fidha, Khakra)
Mandapa- Jagmohan
Pillars avoided- Iron girders to support roof
Boundary wall and gate,
Konark Sun temple, Jagganath Temple, Puri, Lingraj Temple (Bhubaneshwar)[ Golden triangle of Odisha]
Khajuraho- Madhya Pradesh

Chandelal(Nannuka)
All Nagara Features
Sculptures (erotic sculptures, Daily Life sculptures, Dance class, Women using kohl, Helping women wearing clothes)
E.g.-Laxman Temple, Kandriya Mahadev, Chausatha Yogini, Adinatha Temple (Rishabh dev)
 Solanki- Maru Gurjana
Maru Gurjana- Somnath temple
Chalukya
Step tanks
Small temples
Mondhera sun temple

 Chalukya
Vesara (Karnataka school of architecture) Combination of Nagara Dravida, Ladkhan temple
 Chola(vijayal)
All features
Brihideshwar Temple Tanjore (4th raja raja- Granite)
Airaleshwar Temple
 Hoyasala
Dravidian features
Stellate plant ( star like structure)
Zig-zag pattern in the wall
Sandstairs
Halebid(dwarsamudram) Srigiri
Belur
Hoysala Temple at halebid
 Kaktiya
Might be the stellate influence
Dravidian
 Sandbox technology
Floating bricks
Ramappa Temple (high heels)
Saregama Flute
Temple of 1000 Pillars (Hanankonda)

 Vijaynagar Architecture
Inspiration from Chalukyas, Europeans, Indo-islamic arch
All dravdian features
Cetral mandap (kalyan mandap)
Secular building (lotus mahal)
Large window- European-better ventilation
Eg- Vijayvitthal temple (Krishnadevaraya)
56 musical pillars
Haizara ram
Virupaksha
 Mayaka Architecture
All Dravidian features
Parakram
Meenakshi Sundreshwara
Hall of 1000 pillars (985 exact)

Pallavas
Mahendravarman I- Mandapa- Cut in architecture (RCA)
Narsimhavarman I- Mahabalipuram Cut in/ Cut out, part of cave, Ratha temples, Pancharatha temple,
Mammallapuram

All will have different arches, No worshipping (incomplete)

No realtion with Mahabharata

Narsimhavarman II – Structural temples, outside cave, Shore temples, Mahabalipuram, Kailashnath(kanchipuram)

Nandivarmana- Size or shape of temple will decline

Famous site
Mahabalipuram/ Mamallapuram/ city of 7 pagodas (1984)
Ratha Temple
Rock Cut temple (Krishna cave, Mahishasur Mardini Temple)
Shore temple shiva ( twin towers, sculptures- Ananta shayana)
Bhagiratha Penance/ Arjuna Penance/ Descence of Ganga/ Relief Sculpture
Krishna Butter Ball (balancing rock)

Sculpture
IVC Mauryan Post-Mauryan Gupta Chola
 Stone Didarganj(Yakshini) Gandhara, Sarnath Natraja
 Terracotta Bihar Mathura, Tandav form of
Pillars Amravati shiva
Chalukya
Climax-chola
4 Hands
1. Drum- Sound creation
2. Fire-Destruction
3. Abhaymudra- fearlessness
4. Hand Pointing towards unraised leg- salvation
5. Right leg is killing dwarf- ego
6. Snake- kundalini power
7. One male one female earring- ardhnareshwar
8. Flowing Locks- Ganga
9. Nimbus- Lights, Time, Past, Present, Future

Unakoti Shiva
 Sculptures
Shiva (unakotishvara kalbhairava)
Artist is debated
Kalu Kumhar
Bronze sculpture

Various forms of Shiva

- Anugrah Murti -Peaceful aspect
- Ugramurti-ferocious
- Panchanna- 5 faces
- Thandav Murti- Natraja
- Dakshana Murti- Hridya, Vishnu, teaching
- Lingodbhav Murti- infinite form
- Bikshathana murti- Alms

Painting
Prehistoric Mural Miniature
 Ajanta Medieval
 Ellora Modern
 Bagh
 Sitanvassal
 Lepakshi(ap) Virbhadra Hanging pillar
 Avoidance of primary colors, black outline
 Aramalai Cave
 Badami, Image of asthalika, patikas- 8
directions
Modern
Compan Bazaar Raja Ravi Cubist Progrssive
y Market, Rafael A subject will be Absract,
Water european east, use broken analysed, Horse
color, background,gods of brush reassembled,balance
linear natural human strokes, bw black and
rythm figurine european white,horse-fluidity
impact, and motion- mf
mother hussain
inida, lady
with lion,
ravana
kidnapping
sita
 Medieval
Pala Apabhra Delhi Mughals North Southern
school msha Sultanat  3-quarter  Pahari:  Deccan:
of art school e angled Jammu Ahmadna
 8th-12th  Western  Battle trees, school- gar- tarif-
Centur  Jainism scenes rocks,etc northern e-hussain
y  Double  Group  Focus series, shahi,
 Easter chin  One shifted lotus Bijapur-
n  Fish person from god shaped gor
 Lonely shaped dominati to king eyes, konda,
 Buddis eyes ng  Court primary Hyderaba
hm  Big  Fair skin colors. d-priness
 Sinous  Illustrate  Flat Kangra with
lines d colours School- mates
manuscr  Babur- Southern  Tanjore-
ipt mughal series, glass and
 Nimatna family sensualitie would
ma, tree. s and board,
book on  Humayun understan krishna
cookery -Abdus ding in use of cut
Samod, colour glass,
Mir design. gemstone
Saiyyad s, use of
Ali gold.
 Akbar-  Mysore:
Tasveer Group
khana- painting,
departm one
ent of figure,
painting, zinc
illustrate paste,
manuscri mutted
pt, fore- colour
shortenin
g
techniqu
 e.
Tuninam
a,
Hamzan
Nama,
written
by
tughlsq,
illustrate
by akbar,
dasaman,
kesu,.
 Baseman
 Jehangir-
introduc
tion of
portrait,
natural
 painting
impact of
Europe,
decorate
d
margins,
ustad
masoor.
 Sahjahan
-
artificialn
ess,
heavy
use of
gold and
silver,
avoided
use of
charcoal
and
started
using
pencil