NAME : SHIKHAR SINGH

CLASS : XII B
SUBJECT : MATHEMATICS
TOPIC : SECTION A :RELATION AND
FUNCTIONS
SECTION B:LINEAR REGRESSION
SUBJECT TEACHER: PK MISHRA SIR

……………………………………… ………………………………………
INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER
ACKNOWLEGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks of
gratitude to my teacher Mr. PK Mishra Sir
who gave me the golden opportunity to work
on this wonderful project. I came to know
about so many new things while working on
the project. I am really thankful to him. I am
also thankful to my principals Mrs. Jyoti
Kashyap maám and Mrs. Shivani Singh maám
for always encouraging us to give our best in
everything. Their motivation helped a lot to
complete this project on time.

I would also like to thank my parents and

friends who helped me in finalizing

-SHIKHAR SINGH
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 INDEX

SNo TOPIC Page Teacher's

No Signature
1 Relation And function 3-8

2 Application of relation and function 9

3 Findings 10

4 Linear Regression 11-15

5 Application of Linear Regression 16-18

6 Findings 19

7 Bibliography 20

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SECTION-A : RELATION AND FUNCTION
Relation
The concept of relation is used in relating two objects or quantities with each other. Suppose two
sets are considered. The relationship between them will be established if there is a connection
between the elements of two or more non-empty sets.

Mathematically, “a relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of the cartesian product A × B

obtained by describing a relationship between the first element x and the second element y of the
ordered pairs in A × B”.

Types of Relation:
1. Empty Relation:
We can define void relation as a relation R in a set A, where no element of
set A is. related to any element of A. So, R = ɸ which is a subset of A × A.

2. Universal Relation:
If each element of A is related to every element of A, i.e. R = A × A, then the relation R in

set A is said to be universal relation.Both the empty relation and the universal relation are

sometimes called trivial relations.

A relation R in a set A is called-

Reflexive- if (a, a) ∈ R, for every a ∈ A,

Symmetric- if (a1, a2) ∈ R implies that (a2, a1) ∈ R , for all a1, a2∈ A,

Transitive- if (a1, a2) ∈ R and (a2, a3) ∈ R implies that (a1, a3) ∈ R for all a1, a2, a3 ∈ A.

3. Equivalence Relation:
A relation R in a set A is an equivalence relation if R is reflexive, symmetric and
transitive.

What are Functions?

A function is a relationship which explains that there should be only one output for each
input. It is a special kind of relation(a set of ordered pairs) which obeys a rule, i.e. every y-

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value should be connected to only one y-value. A function is defined as a relation between a set of
inputs having one output each. In simple words, a function is a relationship between inputs where each
input is related to exactly one output. Every function has a domain and codomain or range. A function is
generally denoted by f(x) where x is the input. The general representation of a function is y = f(x).

Types of Functions:
• One to one function:
A function f : X → Y is defined to be one-one (or injective), if the images of distinct elements of X
under f are distinct, i.e., for every x1 , x2 ∈ X, f(x1 ) = f(x2 ) implies x1 = x2.

• Many-one function:
A function f : A→B is said to be a many one function if different elements of the domain set A
have the same images in the codomain set B.

• Onto function:

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 A function f: X → Y is said to be onto (or surjective), if every element of Y is the image of some
element of X under f, i.e., for every y ∈ Y, there exists an element x in X such that f(x) = y.

• Into function:
Into function is a type of function where at least one element of the co-domain will not have
a pre-image in the domain. Suppose there are two sets, A (domain) and B (codomain). If at
least one element of set B is not associated with an element in set A then such a function will
be known as an into function.

Identity function:
An identity function is a function where each element in a set B gives the image of itself as
the same element i.e., g (b) = b ∀ b ∈ B. Thus, it is of the form g(x) = x and is denoted by "I".
It is called an identity function because the image of an element in the domain is identical to
the output in the range.

Constant function:
A constant function is a linear function whose range contains only one element irrespective
of the number of elements of the domain. Since the constant function is defined for all real
values of x

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Equal function:
Two functions are said to be equal if
i) domain of f = domain of g
ii) co-domain of f = codomain of g
iii) f(x) = g(x) for every x belonging to their common domain
If two functions f and g are equal then we write f=g

Even and odd function:

Even function - For a real-valued function f(x), when the output value of f(-x) is the same as
f(x), for all values of x in the domain of f, the function is said to be an even function

Odd function - For a real-valued function f(x), when the output value of f(-x) is the same as
the negative of f(x), for all values of x in the domain of f, the function is said to be an odd
function.

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Composition of Function:
The composition of functions f(x) and g(x) where g(x) is acting first is represented
by f(g(x)) or (f ∘ g)(x). It combines two or more functions to result in another
function. In the composition of functions, the output of one function that is inside
the parenthesis becomes the input of the outside function. i.e.,
• In f(g(x)), g(x) is the input of f(x).
• In g(f(x)), f(x) is the input of g(x).

Invertible Functions:
The inverse of a function f is denoted by f-1 and it exists only when f is both one-
one and onto function. Note that f-1 is NOT the reciprocal of f. The composition of
the function f and the reciprocal function f-1 gives the domain value of x.

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Terms Related to Relation and Function
Some of the commonly used terms associated with Relation and Function are
discussed below:

Domain

Domain of Relation or a function is the set of inputs for which the outputs are
obtained. For Example, in A = {-1, 0, 1, 2} and B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and set A is related
to set B as a2 = b, the set A is the domain of the relation.

Codomain

Codomain is the set of outputs or the image of the relation and function.
Codomain may contain exact or more number of elements than the output. For
Example, in A = {-1, 0, 1, 2} and B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and set A is related to set B as
a2 = b, set B is the codomain. In set B there is element 3 which is not a perfect
square hence it will not have a pre-image.

Range

Range is the set of all outputs which has a pre image. In range all elements are
related. Hence, it has has exact number of elements for which relation is defined.
Thus, Range is subset of codomain. For Example, in A = {-1, 0, 1, 2} and B = {0, 1, 2,
3, 4} and set A is related to set B as a2 = b, Range is {0, 1, 2, 4}.

Cartesian Product

Let’s assume A and B to be two non-empty sets, the sets of all ordered pairs (x, y)
where x ∈ A and y ∈ B is called a Cartesian product of the sets. A × B = {(x, y) | x ∈
A and y ∈ B}

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 APPLICATIONS OF RELATION
AND FUNCTION
1) Relationship between Age and Height
If you took a group of people at random, you would notice a relationship between their ages and
height. This is because people get taller with time and then remain at the same height for a while.

This is a relation because if you input a specific age and check all the people of that age, you would
get different heights.

However, if you were to take the height of a particular person over the years, the height would be a
function of age. This is because a person would have only one value of height at any point in life.

2) Temperature and Location

A location may have varying temperatures according to the time of the day and weather. This may
repeat itself over the years as long as the conditions are similar to those of the last time. That can be
said to be a relation.

However, the temperature can also be a function of time. At any one time, there can only be one
temperature reading for a location.

3) The Velocity of an Object in Free Fall

In physics, a free-fall object accelerates at 10m/s2 if you exclude the air resistance.

There can only be one particular speed at any point in time as the object falls to
the ground.

Therefore, speed, in this case, is a function of the number of seconds that the
object has been in free fall.

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 FINDINGS
Relation and function is very important concept or parts in algebra in
mathematics. They are used very widely in mathematics as well as in our day to
day life. Relation and function in real life gives us link between any two
entities. In our daily life, we come across many patterns and links that
characterize relations such as a relation between a father and a son, brother
and sister, etc.
There are many examples of applications involving relation and function such
as:
1. Take functions of time. If you plot distance as a function of time, you get a
graph, that shows the amount of distance you travel per unit time. The output
of the function is the distance, and it depends on the input, time, and at each
point their derivative shows you the speed!
2. Let's consider the whole rod. The temperature at each point on the rod is a
function, and that function itself is the input of the function that shows you the
temperature at each point in time as the rod evolves. The function of space is
not dependent on time, so we can't make predictions, and the function of time
only allows us to make predictions for one point, but when we combine them
we get a picture of how the whole rod evolves!
3. This function exhibits a cyclical behaviour, as the output of the function
describing the rabbits is the input of the function describing the foxes, and visa
versa. This is a common scenario in biology.
4. Function farming: depending on the amount of light, water, nutrients
given to crops (inputs) determines the yield of that crop (output). Ag-Tech is
a growing industry and is dependent on a functional approach to optimizing
yield.

5. Function Diet: depending on how much you eat and the types of food you
eat (inputs) may impact your BMI (output). Dieting is a functional approach
to health.

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SECTION-C: LINEAR REGRESSION
Linear Regression:

Linear regression strives to show the relationship between two variables by applying a linear
equation to observed data. One variable is supposed to be an independent variable, and the
other is to be a dependent variable. For example, the weight of the person is linearly related
to his height. Hence this shows a linear relationship between the height and weight of the
person. As the height is increased, the weight of the person also gets increased.

It is not necessary that here one variable is dependent on others, or one causes the other,
but there is some critical relationship between the two variables. In such cases, we use
a scatter plot to imply the strength of the relationship between the variables. If there is no
relation or linking between the variables, the scatter plot does not indicate any increasing or
decreasing pattern. For such cases, the linear regression design is not beneficial to the given
data.

Linear Regression Equation:

The measure of the extent of the relationship between two variables is shown by
the correlation coefficient. The range of this coefficient lies between -1 to +1. This
coefficient shows the strength of the association of the observed data for two variables.

A linear regression line equation is written in the form of:

Y = a + bX

where X is the independent variable and plotted along the x-axis

Y is the dependent variable and plotted along the y-axis

The slope of the line is b, and a is the intercept (the value of y when x = 0).

Linear Regression Formula

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Linear regression shows the linear relationship between two variables. The equation of
linear regression is similar to the slope formula what we have learned before in earlier
classes such as linear equations in two variables. It is given by;

Y= a + bX

Now, here we need to find the value of the slope of the line, b, plotted in scatter plot and
the intercept, a.

Least square regression line:

The most popular method to fit a regression line in the XY plot is the method of least-
squares. This process determines the best-fitting line for the noted data by reducing the
sum of the squares of the vertical deviations from each data point to the line. If a point rests
on the fitted line accurately, then its perpendicular deviation is 0. Because the variations are
first squared, then added, their positive and negative values will not be cancelled.

Properties of linear regression:

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For the regression line where the regression parameters b0 and b1 are defined, the
properties are given as:

• The line reduces the sum of squared differences between observed values and predicted values.
• The regression line passes through the mean of X and Y variable values
• The regression constant (b0) is equal to y-intercept the linear regression
• The regression coefficient (b1) is the slope of the regression line which is equal to the average
change in the dependent variable (Y) for a unit change in the independent variable (X).

Regression Coefficient:
Regression coefficients can be defined as estimates of some unknown parameters to describe the
relationship between a predictor variable and the corresponding response.

How to find Regression Coefficients:

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 Properties of linear regression:
Property 1 :

The regression coefficients remain unchanged due to a shift of origin but change due to a shift of scale.

This property states that if the original pair of variables is (x, y) and if they are changed to the pair (u,
v) where

Property 2 :

The two lines of regression intersect at the point

where x and y are the variables under consideration.

Property 3 :

The coefficient of correlation between two variables x and y in the simple geometric
mean of the two regression coefficients. The sign of the correlation coefficient would
be the common sign of the two regression coefficients.

This property says that if the two regression coefficients are denoted by b yx and
bxy then the coefficient of correlation is given by

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If both the regression coefficients are negative, r would be negative and if both are
positive, r would assume a positive value.

Property 4 :

The two lines of regression coincide i.e. become identical when r = –1 or 1 or in

other words, there is a perfect negative or positive correlation between the two
variables under discussion.

Property 5 :

The two lines of regression are perpendicular to each other when r = 0.

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 APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR
REGRESSION
1. Businesses often use linear regression to understand the relationship
between advertising spending and revenue.

For example, they might fit a simple linear regression model using advertising
spending as the predictor variable and revenue as the response variable. The
regression model would take the following form:

revenue = β0 + β1(ad spending)

The coefficient β0 would represent total expected revenue when ad spending is

zero.

The coefficient β1 would represent the average change in total revenue when
ad spending is increased by one unit (e.g. one dollar).

If β1 is negative, it would mean that more ad spending is associated with less

revenue.

If β1 is close to zero, it would mean that ad spending has little effect on

revenue.

And if β1 is positive, it would mean more ad spending is associated with more

revenue.

Depending on the value of β1, a company may decide to either decrease or

increase their ad spending.

2. Medical researchers often use linear regression to understand the

relationship between drug dosage and blood pressure of patients.

For example, researchers might administer various dosages of a certain drug to

patients and observe how their blood pressure responds. They might fit a
simple linear regression model using dosage as the predictor variable and
blood pressure as the response variable. The regression model would take the
following form:

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blood pressure = β0 + β1(dosage)

The coefficient β0 would represent the expected blood pressure when dosage
is zero.

The coefficient β1 would represent the average change in blood pressure

when dosage is increased by one unit.

If β1 is negative, it would mean that an increase in dosage is associated with a

decrease in blood pressure.

If β1 is close to zero, it would mean that an increase in dosage is associated

with no change in blood pressure.

If β1 is positive, it would mean that an increase in dosage is associated with an

increase in blood pressure.

Depending on the value of β1, researchers may decide to change the dosage
given to a patient.

3. Agricultural scientists often use linear regression to measure the effect of

fertilizer and water on crop yields.

For example, scientists might use different amounts of fertilizer and water on
different fields and see how it affects crop yield. They might fit a multiple
linear regression model using fertilizer and water as the predictor variables and
crop yield as the response variable. The regression model would take the
following form:

crop yield = β0 + β1(amount of fertilizer) + β2(amount of water)

The coefficient β0 would represent the expected crop yield with no fertilizer or
water.

The coefficient β1 would represent the average change in crop yield when
fertilizer is increased by one unit, assuming the amount of water remains
unchanged.

The coefficient β2 would represent the average change in crop yield when
water is increased by one unit, assuming the amount of fertilizer remains
unchanged.

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Depending on the values of β1 and β2, the scientists may change the amount of
fertilizer and water used to maximize the crop yield.

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 FINDINGS
Linear regression is an important tool for statistical analysis. Its broad
spectrum of uses includes relationship description, estimation, and
prognostication. The technique has many applications, but it also has
prerequisites and limitations that must always be considered in the
interpretation of findings
Linear regression is used in some of these cases:
1. A linear regression model that describes the relationship between
total miles driven and total paid for gas is a linear regression model
2. to study the relationship between the monthly e-commerce sales
and the online advertising costs.
3. to examine the relationship between the age and price for used
cars sold in the last year by a car dealership company.
4. Engineering: Simple linear regression can be used to understand
the relationship between different variables in engineering, such as
the relationship between a material's strength and its density.
5. Weather forecasting: Simple linear regression can be used to
predict future weather conditions such as temperature and
precipitation based on historical data and other relevant factors such
as atmospheric pressure and wind speed.
6. Medical research: Simple linear regression can be used to
understand the relationship between different variables in medical
research, such as the relationship between a person's weight and
their risk of developing a certain disease.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
WEBSITES
1. Wikipedia. In
2. Byjuns.com
3. topper.com

BOOKS
1. Understanding ISC Mathematics by Ml Agarwal

2. NCERT Mathematics Textbook for class 12(part2)

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