Advances in Engineering Software 174 (2022) 103337

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Advances in Engineering Software

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/advengsoft

An extensive review on quantum computers

Nandhini S a, *, Harpreet Singh b, Akash U N c
a
Department of Mathematics, School of Advanced Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore, India
b
School of Electronics Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore, India
c
School of Computer Science and Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Quantum Computing is a rapidly arising innovation that tackles the laws of quantum mechanics to take care of
Classical computers issues excessively complex for already available classical computers. The development of quantum computers is
Quantum computers the most remarkable achievement in the field and legacy of quantum computers. For instance, an already
Qubit
available classical computer can represent any number between 0 and 255 using just eight bits. However, a
Quantum gates
Quantum error correction
quantum computer can simultaneously represent all 256 numbers between 0 and 255 with just eight qubits. More
Quantum cryptography numbers could be represented by a few hundred entangled qubits than there are atoms in the universe. There are
many quantum computers available such as quantum circuit models, quantum Turing machine, adiabatic
quantum computer, one-way quantum computers, and various quantum cellular automata. D-wave quantum
computers have been available for more than eight years which use a process called quantum annealing to search
for solutions to a problem. IBM, Microsoft, Google, Intel, and NASA and various universities around the globe
have engaged themselves in the development of quantum computers and their applications. This paper presents
the fundamental ideas of quantum computing and portrays notable quantum applications for non-physicists. The
ongoing status of the improvements in quantum computers is likewise introduced.

1. Introduction behave and function in a quantum way, have defeated their counterparts
which follow a classical approach in terms of power. To concise the
As science and technology have developed around the years, chips, discussion till now, “a computer whose memory is exponentially larger
transistors and various other components have changed drastically in than its apparent physical size, a computer that can manipulate an
their shapes, sizes and complexity. Altogether, computers have also exponential set of inputs simultaneously – a whole new concept in
become compact and their performance and efficiency have also ach­ parallelism; a computer that computes in the twilight (space like) zone
ieved a great speed and quality, still their main job focuses over con­ of Hilbert Space (or possibly a higher space – Grassman Space & so on),
trolling and interpreting an encoding of binary bits into a helpful is a quantum computer” [1].
computational outcome. Moore’s law is the observation that the number This paper includes the study of various topics related with quantum
of transistors in a dense integrated circuit (IC) doubles about every two computing as well as quantum computers and technologies. This paper
years which means that the representing atoms for a bit of memory are has been ordered in such a manner that a reader gets to know regarding
also being decreased exponentially yearly. Contrary to classical physics quantum computing from the basics and then the paper covers vast and
and its rules, quantum mechanics is the master for future technology as proposed models for quantum computers. It also includes the future
matter obeys its rules. A lot more is pending to explore in the field of scope and developments of how much potential the field of quantum
quantum mechanics and so it has a lot more to offer rather than our computing holds and current developments have been discussed
current understanding for it to just pack as many bits to silicon or to just throughout.
proliferate the clock speed of microprocessors. Components and so The structure of the paper includes the following:
computers can also gain their reduced size in the near future as we
explore our quantum mechanics field. Studies by researchers and sci­ 1 Introduction
entists have shown that a computer whose components are meant to 2 A brief about nuclear shell model

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (N. S).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advengsoft.2022.103337
Received 6 August 2022; Received in revised form 10 September 2022; Accepted 19 October 2022
Available online 31 October 2022
0965-9978/© 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
N. S et al. Advances in Engineering Software 174 (2022) 103337

3 Bit and qubit We know that the sum of probabilities is always equal to 1, which
4 Quantum gates leads us to the normalization constraint:
5 Quantum computations
(| α |) ∧ 2 + (| β |) ∧ 2 = 1.
6 Quantum computers and technologies
a Superconducting quantum computing With respect to the mathematical function representing the qubit in
b Trapped ion quantum computer its superposition state,|0〉 can be represented as a vector that has its
c Nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computer zeroth element to be 1 and all other elements to be 0: [1, 0]. Similarly, |
d Quantum computing with defects 1〉 can be represented as a vector whose 1st element is 1 and all other
e Linear optical quantum computing elements are 0: [0, 1].
7 Quantum cryptography Hence, the function |ψ〉 can be represented as: |ψ〉 = α[1, 0] + β[0,
8 Quantum error correction 1] = [α, β].
9 Conclusion and future scope Taking note of the normalization constraint, we can conclude that
10 References (||ψ〉|)∧2 = 1 .

2. A brief about nuclear shell model 4. Quantum gates

The nuclear shell model is partly similar to the model of an atomic Quantum gates operate in a manner similar to logical gates in clas­
shell where a filled shell leads to greater stability. Protons or Neutrons/ sical computers and operations on quantum bits are done to change the
Nucleons when added to a nucleus, certain places or points are there state of these qubits to either remain in the same state or alter them to a
where binding energy is less of the next nucleon. The shell model’s different state.
historical context is the observation of magic numbers of nucleons which The most frequently used quantum gates include:
are firmly bound more closely than their higher number. Many shell
model codes are available for extensive calculations such as NuShellX. (i) NOT GATE: This gate is widely known as X-Pauli Gate, as this
Computation of this kind in a classical computer is convenient as only particular quantum gate transforms the existing state of the qubit
valence shells are taken into account and the inner cells are treated as to be rotated around the X-axis. As the name suggests, the NOT
frozen. This leads to the calculation of light nuclei only. For example, gate would convert a qubit from its initial state to its complement
NuShellX code can compute the matrix order of 1x108. Higher calcula­ state.
tions are not possible. A quantum computer only consumes O(poly(N))
|0〉 − > (NOT GATE) : |1〉
resources, while a classical computer has to use O(2N) resources. The
development in the field of quantum computers has made us capable of
|1〉 − > (NOT GATE) : |0〉
using quantum computers (rudimentary) with 100 qubits. To find the
eigenvalues and eigenstates of a molecule in chemistry, variational
quantum eigensolver (VQE) and the full quantum solver (FQE) are being
used. Nuclear physics has also taken the advantage of VQE to compute The matrix representation of the NOT Gate is:[[0, 1], [1, 0]]
the binding energy of the deuteron nucleus [2].
(ii) PHASE GATE: On passing a quantum bit to a phase gate, in
3. Bit and qubit general, the phase gate would transform the qubit into a state by
transforming it on a scalar factor of e∧(iθ). Phase gate would
The fundamental unit of information is a bit, and in classical com­ provide a selective phase when the input is |1〉.
puters, a binary digit is described by the values 0 or 1. While shifting or
switching from one of the two levels of a processed bit, in classical |0〉 − > (PHASE GATE) : |0〉
computer technology of low DC Voltage, two logic levels are required. In
the case of qubit, there are two possible outcomes. As the state of a bit |1〉 − > (PHASE GATE) : e ∧ (iθ) |1〉
can only be either “0” or “1”, coherent superpositions of both can be the
general state of a qubit. Quantum superposition states that any two or
more quantum states can be superposed and the resultant state will be
The PHASE GATE matrix is represented as [[1,0], [0, e∧(iθ)]].
valid. As it can be realized that there would be no disturbance during
measurement of a classical bit but on the other hand, while measuring
(iii) T GATE: A specific case of a phase gate is the T GATE, where the
and analyzing a qubit, it can eradicate its nature of coherence and
phase of the input quantum bit is altered by a factor of e∧(i*pi/4).
therefore, its state of superposition can be disturbed. In classical physics,
the state may be described for a system with h components using only h |0〉 − > (T GATE) : |0〉
bits, while in quantum physics, 2h complex numbers are required [3].
The two possible states of occurrence of a qubit include (i) The pure |1〉 − > (T GATE) : e ∧ (i ∗ pi / 4) |1〉
state, and (ii) The superposition state. The behavior of a qubit in its pure
state is exactly similar to that of a classical bit. When the qubit exists in
the state of superposition, it is more appropriate to represent its state of
occurrence in terms of a function. T GATE’s matrix representation is [[1,0], [0, e∧(i*pi/4)]].
Mathematical function representing qubit in superposition state [4]: [5 and 6].
|ψ〉 = α|0〉 + β|1〉, where ‘α and ‘β’ are the amplitudes of the
′

occurrence of the0 and 1 states respectively (α, β ∈ Complex numbers). (iv) HADAMARD GATE: The transformation of the qubit through the
Let ‘p’ be the probability of occurrence of the state ‘0’, thus making ‘1 Hadamard gate is as follows:
− p as the probability of occurrence of the state ‘1’ when the qubit is in
′
|0〉 − > (HADAMARD GATE) : (|0〉 + |1〉)/sqrt(2)
superposition. So,
Probability of occurrence of the state 0: p = (|α|)∧2 |1〉 − > (HADAMARD GATE) : (|0〉 − |1〉)/sqrt(2)
Probability of occurrence of the state 1: 1 − p = (|β|)∧2

2
N. S et al. Advances in Engineering Software 174 (2022) 103337

The matrix representation of HADAMARD GATE is: (1/sqrt(2))*[[1, connection between two leads of a superconducting wire and the
1], [1, − 1]]. superconducting quantum circuits use Josephson junction which is an
electrical element. Many qubit machines using this superconducting
(v) Y-PAULI GATE: The Y-PAULI gates are capable of rotating the technology have been produced by Google, IBM, Intel and Rigetti. Ma­
input qubit around the Y-axis. We have already seen above the chines in the 50-qubit range have been announced by IBM and Intel and
implementation of X-PAULI GATE which works as a NOT GATE. Google has announced for 70-qubit range but currently, machines are
The Z-PAULI GATE is again a special case of the PHASE GATE. available in the eight to twenty-two qubit range. Additionally, Fermilab
is concentrating on quantum networking, quantum computing and
The matrix representation of Y-PAULI GATE is: [[0, − i], [i, 0]]. quantum technologies for high energy physics. Fermilab is investigating
superconducting RF technology to build improved qubits and with the
(vi) CONTROLLED NOT GATE (CNOT GATE): Unlike all the previous usage of innovative cold instruments for data capture in quantum in­
gates mentioned, the CNOT gate takes two quantities as inputs formation systems. Research is being done in the area of quantum ma­
and results in two output values too. The following operation is chine learning, which has applications in the areas of astrophysical
performed by the controlled NOT gate [5,6]: picture processing and detector reconstruction [9].

Let ‘a , and ‘b’ be the two inputs, then if a = 0, then, the quantum bit b. Trapped ion quantum computer
′

‘b’ remains as it is, while if a = 1, then, the quantum bit ‘b’ outputs its
conjugate [7]. It is a suggested method for building a substantial quantum com­
The Truth Chart of the CNOT GATE can be given as: puter. With the use of electromagnetic fields, ions can be suspended in
a b b
′
free space. It is possible to transport quantum information across the
0 0 0 aggregate quantized movement of the particles (or ions) in a shared or
0 1 1 joint trap where interaction is due to Coulomb force and qubits in a
1 0 1
stable state are kept in each ion’s electronic state. Coupling is induced by
1 1 0
applying lasers between the qubit states. Moving particles to spatially
distinct particular areas in a variety of particle traps, fabricating huge
The following is CNOT GATE’s matrix representation: [[1, 0, 0, 0], entangled states through photonically associated Ion/particle chain
[0, 1, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 1], [0, 0, 1, 0]]. networks with remote entanglements, as well as combinations of these
two concepts. The trapped ion quantum computer architecture is thus
5. Quantum computations one of the most promising topologies for a versatile, universal quantum
computer.
As discussed earlier also, 2n states are possible in a memory of n bits. As can be explained through an example of a linear optics quantum
Classical computers involved bits cannot be in superposition, so one of computer, a proposed quantum computer. The states of qubits for
the values should have a hundred percent probability in the state and be computations can be controlled by the placement and use of phase
having value 1 which leads all other values to 0. A universal quantum shifters and beam splitters between the paths of photons [10].
computer is a computer which can run such circuits. It can be explained
that n qubits if utilized as a quantum circuit’s input as being allowed via c. Nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computer
the universal quantum gates as the choice can be any arbitrary quantum
circuit. Four classical values {1, 2, 3, 4} can be stored in two qubits Nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computer, or NMR quantum
simultaneously. If a function is f(x) = x + 3, a circuit can be designed to computer, is a proposed quantum computer that uses the spin states of
calculate it, due to the placement of qubits in superposition state, only molecular nuclei as qubits. The framework can be used as a variation of
one step is required to solve it and thus the output is {4, 5, 6, 7}, four nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy because the quantum states
possible outputs. So, there is a requirement of a quantum circuit which are investigated by nuclear magnetic resonances. It uses a group of
can manipulate over the probability amplitudes as the probability id 1/ systems rather than a single pure state, which sets it apart from other
2n whereas measurement result is one of the 2n possible outputs [8]. types of quantum computers. One significant strand of exploration is,
obviously, the endeavor to assemble bigger NMR quantum computers. In
6. Quantum computers and technologies spite of the fact that there are significant challenges in the approach to
building NMR devices sufficiently enormous to be truly fascinating by
a. Superconducting quantum computing their own doing, it is positively conceivable to gain huge headway past
the ongoing point as currently the record is seven qubit system and it is
Robust capability of representing information is required to achieve possible to achieve a ten qubit system in upcoming years. Due to the
a new-aged and advanced quantum computer. Every research organi­ reason for low state polarization it gets limited by spin polarization, with
zation is busy exploring the field of quantum computing to build the number of qubits, signal strength also reduces exponentially and the
advanced quantum computers but practically if we try to observe in low state polarization makes one ponder over whether NMR quantum
everyday life, quantum phenomena is difficult to observe and this makes computing is real or not. All this makes large systems impractical
physical implementation of quantum gates and qubits hard. For making completely. Optical pumping can be one solution but it also has its own
the quantum effects macroscopic, one way is to implement this by using issues [10,11].
superconductors where operating temperatures must be low. The use of
a quantum computer in superconducting electronic circuits is known as d. Quantum computing with defects
superconducting quantum computing. An electron pair that is linked
together at low temperatures is known as a Cooper pair. So, charge Additionally, defect-based quantum computing must be mentioned.
carriers in a superconductor are these pairs of electrons. Cooper pairs are A defect in diamond known as the nitrogen-vacancy (NV-1) center
bosons because their total spin is an integer and they can only occupy stands out among the possible outcomes in the solid state for its
one quantum energy level when they are cooled. This effect is known as robustness; at room temperature, its quantum state can be established,
a Bose-Einstein condensate. With the use of shadow evaporation tech­ controlled, and estimated with high accuracy. Following research over
nique, a thin layer of insulation is implemented which is a weak the previous two decades on how to implement qubits in a variety of
materials, including semiconductors, liquids, superconductors,

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N. S et al. Advances in Engineering Software 174 (2022) 103337

insulators, and ion-doped insulators, diamond nitrogen-vacancy (NV-1) between two groups (such as Alice and Bob) without a third party (Eve)
centers attracted attention. Diamond NV-1 is excellent when looking for finding out about it is QKD, and it is the most widely used and developed
deep cores that behave like the valuable gem for a variety of reasons. application of quantum cryptography. This is true even if Eve can
From a design perspective, it is currently very difficult to create and eavesdrop on all communication between Alice and Bob. Contradictions
produce items out of diamond. The discovery of a similar flaw in a host will become obvious if Eve takes an effort to examine the specifics of the
material with more advanced technology may lead to more advanced key that is being laid out, catching Alice and Bob’s attention. After it has
single- and multi qubit device implementations [12]. been laid out, the key is often used for encrypted communication via
standard methods. For instance, the key exchanged might be used for
e. Linear optical quantum computing symmetric cryptography (for example One-time pad). QKD is safe, but
there are certain issues with its practical application. There are re­
Linear optical quantum computing or LOQC uses photons as the strictions on the key generation rate as transmission distances increase.
carrier of information and to process quantum information by mainly Significant advancements have been made in this fashion thanks to
using linear optical elements like reciprocal mirror and waveplates, ongoing studies. Recently, the twin-field QKD protocol was put forth as a
photon detectors are also used to detect quantum information and so way to get around or past the limitations of lossy communication.
storing quantum data in quantum memory. Representation, encryption, Beyond key distribution, research on quantum cryptography focuses on
transmission and detection using photons can be easily achieved by quantum message authentication, entity authentication and quantum
superposition of quantum states. Information light operations using fingerprinting as well as public-key encryption and quantum digital
direct linear optical components (in this case, beam splitters, mirrors, signatures [16]. An example can be given as while using a mobile phone
and phase shifters) spare the photon measurements. For instance, to make a payment, the mobile device sends a secret key to the payment
coherent (classical) light is produced when a superposition of quantum terminals. Therefore, in order to prevent misuse, these secret keys must
states is applied as an input. In order to investigate the effects of ad­ be encrypted. Instead of using secret keys, we can employ quantum keys
ministrators and straight optical components, people frequently select a to send data from mobile devices to payment terminals. Millions of tiny
single photon source situation. A few measured changes can be used to particles found in light are used by quantum technology to transmit their
theorize multi-photon instances. A characteristic issue in involving encrypted keys. This process can stop hacking as well as identify
photons as data transporters is that photons scarcely connect or interact eavesdropping. Hackers have a hard time obtaining information if we
with one another. Since nonlinear operations are challenging to carry send signals using light. The only way to protect data is to make sure it
out, the complexity of operators might increase and the assets required goes directly from source to receiver [17,18].
to understand a particular computational function can therefore in­
crease, thus posing a problem for LOQC’s ability to scale. Carrying 8. Quantum error correction
nonlinear devices into the quantum network is one way to address this
problem. One operation that the Kerr effect can perform in LOQC is to In quantum computing, quantum data is protected from errors due to
make a single photon controlled-NOT [13,14]. decoherence and other quantum noise using quantum error correction
(QEC). According to theory, quantum error correction is necessary to
7. Quantum Cryptography provide fault-tolerant quantum computing, which can lessen the effects
of noise on quantum information that has been stored, as well as errors
Quantum cryptography is the study of using quantum mechanical in quantum gates, quantum preparation, and measurements. Traditional
concepts in cryptographic procedures. Quantum key distribution or QKD error correction employs overt repetition. The repetition code is the
the most widely used example of quantum cryptography, gives a solu­ simplest but most inefficient way. The idea is to store the information
tion to the main trade problem that is information theoretically secure. multiple times and take a larger vote in the event that these copies are
The benefit comes from the fact that the tasks which are practically later found to differ. For example, let’s say we copy a piece of infor­
impossible by classical communication, quantum cryptography allows mation in one state three times. Assume additionally that the three-bit
those smoothly also quantum state data encoding is not replicable state is corrupted by noisy error, resulting in one of the copied bits
practically. The chain of data science has cryptography as its strongest being equivalent to zero while the other two being identical to one. It is
link. In the past, governments and military were able to keep the data almost certain that the error is a single bit error and that the message
secret over the time period of 60 years due to quantum cryptography. being transmitted is three ones on the supposition that noisy errors are
Quantum no-cloning theorem and Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle uncharged and happen with a sufficiently low probability, p [19].
guarantee the security of communication. The no-cloning theorem, Although it is technically possible for a double-bit error to occur,
which has important ramifications for the study of quantum computing resulting in the sent message being equivalent to three zeros, this result
among other areas, argues that it is impossible to make an independent is much more ludicrous than the one previously discussed. In this
and identical duplicate of any given unknown quantum state. The pri­ paradigm, the physical information is represented by the three copied
mary tenet of the uncertainty principle is that it is impossible to deter­ bits, while the logical and sensible information is represented by a single
mine a particle’s position in the micro universe since it always exists in bit in a single state. The process of determining which logical state is
several locations with varying probabilities. An oblivious transfer (OT) stored in the physical state is known as decoding. The no-cloning the­
protocol is a type of cryptographic protocol where a sender sends one of orem makes it absurd to copy quantum data. This theorem seems to act
potentially many bits of information to a recipient while being unaware as a barrier to the development of a quantum error correcting theorem.
of which piece, if any, has been sent. A method for transferring quantum Nevertheless, it is conceivable to transfer the (logical) information of a
data or information from a sender in one location to a beneficiary some single qubit to a highly entangled state of several (physical) qubits [20].
distance away is known as quantum teleportation. Quantum teleporta­
tion only exchanges quantum data, as opposed to instant transportation, 9. Conclusion and future scope
which is typically portrayed in science fiction as a method of moving
actual objects from one location to another. It is not necessary for the In this paper, we began with the fundamentals before moving on to
sender to be aware of the precise quantum state being moved. Addi­ cover quantum computing and related technology. Through the use of
tionally, the beneficiary’s location may be unknown, but conventional cloud computing, businesses have already begun providing access to
data must still be transferred from the source to the receiver to complete quantum devices for use in academic and industrial research. Access to a
the teleportation [15]. single company’s array of quantum devices is made possible by cloud
The method of using quantum communication to lay out a shared key services. The IBM Quantum Qiskit cloud services are the most well-

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N. S et al. Advances in Engineering Software 174 (2022) 103337

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Data Availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.